Student-Athletes with IEPs: The Effects of High School Athletics on their Academic

Experience

by

Nicholas Castagna

Doctoral Chair: Dr. Perry Rettig

Committee: Dr. Mark Tavernier

Dr. Martha Cantrell

Approved:

Mark Tavernier
Dean, College of Education
Piedmont University
Demorest, Georgia
May, 2022
 Piedmont University

College of Education

Student-Athletes with IEPs: The Effects of High School Athletics on their Academic

Experience

Nicholas Castagna

A Dissertation submitted to the

College of Education

in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Education

Degree Awarded:

Spring Semester, 2022

 © 2022

Nicholas Castagna

All Rights Reserved

 ii

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to investigate the perspectives high school student-

athletes with IEPs and their stakeholders have regarding athletic participation and its

impact on the student-athletes’ academic experience. Research regarding this topic

generally deals with the perspectives of the adults involved, and not necessarily the

student-athletes (Hedlund et al., 2018; Starostka, 2014; Šukys et al., 2017; Zayas, 2018).

Furthermore, Forster (2015) stated that the voice of the high school student-athlete with a

disability needs to be heard as this population is underrepresented in this type of research.

A qualitative approach was used to investigate the perspectives student-athletes

with IEPs and their stakeholders have regarding the impact of high school sports on the

academic experience of the student-athlete. Specifically, a single case study with three

sub-cases approach was designed as it allowed me to investigate three student-athletes

with IEPs and their stakeholders (parent(s), teachers, and coach(es)) through semi-

structured in-depth individual and group interviews. I conducted a thematic analysis to

investigate the collected data. Additionally, I conducted two phases of coding for my data

analysis which resulted in the formation of four distinct themes that supported my

research questions: a development of interpersonal, emotional, and academic skills; a

building or enhancement of leadership skills; an overall enhancement and benefit to time

management skills; and, the implementation of quality and valuable accommodations that

can lead to success.

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Keywords: Student-athletes, Stakeholders, Academic skills, Leadership skills, Time

management skills, Supports or accommodations

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Table of Contents

Dedication .............................................................................................................. ix

Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................x

List of Figures ........................................................................................................ xi

List of Tables ........................................................................................................ xii

List of Appendices ............................................................................................... xiii

List of Abbreviations ........................................................................................... xiv

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION .............................................................................1

Background of the Problem .............................................................2

Purpose of the Study................................................................3

Research Questions .................................................................3

Overview of Methods ......................................................................3

Significance of Study ......................................................................5

Organization of the Dissertation ......................................................6

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................7

Special Education and Sports ..........................................................8

Impact of Athletics ..........................................................................9

Athletics Participation ...................................................................13

Advantages of Sports Participation .......................................13

Academic Advantages .....................................................13

Time Management Advantages .......................................15

Leadership Advantages ...................................................16

Healthy Lifestyle Advantages .........................................17

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Disadvantages of Sports Participation ...................................18

Academic Disadvantages ................................................19

Time Management Disadvantages ..................................20

Lifestyle Disadvantages ..................................................21

Perspectives on Athletics ...............................................................24

Administrative Perspectives ..................................................24

Coaches’ Perspectives ...........................................................26

Teacher Perspectives .............................................................28

Parent Perspectives ................................................................30

Conclusion .............................................................................31

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY .......................................................................32

Purpose of the Study..............................................................32

Research Questions ...............................................................33

Methodological Approach .............................................................33

Qualitative Paradigm: Constructivism ..................................34

Study Design .................................................................................35

Overview: Case Study Design ...............................................36

Potential Participants .............................................................39

Participant Criteria...........................................................41

Recruitment Procedures...................................................42

Data Collection Methods and Procedures .............................43

Semi-Structured Interviews .............................................43

Data Analysis Procedures ......................................................49

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Coding Procedures ..........................................................50

Cross-Case Analysis ........................................................53

Trustworthiness .....................................................................54

Rich Rigor .......................................................................55

Credibility ........................................................................56

Sincerity...........................................................................57

Ethical Considerations ...................................................................58

Researcher Role and Relationship .................................................60

CHAPTER IV: FINDINGS ...................................................................................62

Participant Narratives ....................................................................63

Mike: My Team is my Family ...............................................63

Research Question 1: Student Athlete’s Perspectives .....63

Research Question 2: Stakeholder’s Perspectives ...........66

Research Question 3: Resources and Supports ...............69

Ashley: Athletics are a Big Part of my Life ..........................71

Research Question 1: Student Athlete’s Perspectives .....71

Research Question 2: Stakeholder’s Perspectives ...........74

Research Question 3: Resources and Supports ...............78

Kate: Sports are What I Love to Do ......................................79

Research Question 1: Student Athlete’s Perspectives .....79

Research Question 2: Stakeholder’s Perspectives ...........82

Research Question 3: Resources and Supports ...............86

Cross-Case Analysis ......................................................................88

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Theme 1: Athletic Participation Allows for the Development of

Interpersonal, Emotional, and Academic Skills ............................88

Theme 1 Interpretations...................................................92

Theme 2: Athletic Participation Leads to the Building or

Enhancement of Leadership Skills ................................................93

Theme 2 Interpretations...................................................96

Theme 3: Athletic Participation Leads to the Development and

Refinement of Time Management Skills.......................................97

Theme 3 Interpretations.................................................101

Theme 4: Resources or Supports that Help Student-Athletes with

IEPs Succeed ...............................................................................101

Theme 4 Interpretations.................................................104

CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION .........................................106

Discussion of Findings ........................................................107

Athletic Participation Allows for the Development of

Interpersonal, Emotional, and Academic Skills ..........................107

Athletic Participation Leads to the Building or Enhancement of

Leadership Skills .........................................................................110

Athletic Participation Leads to the Development and Refinement

of Time Management Skills ........................................................111

Resources or Supports that Help Student-Athletes with IEPs

Succeed ........................................................................................112

Limitation and Delimitations .......................................................115

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Implications and Recommendations for Future Practice ............117

Implications and Recommendations for School Administration

.....................................................................................................118

Implications and Recommendations for Teachers and Coaches

.....................................................................................................118

Implications and Recommendations for Future Research ...119

Conclusion ...................................................................................120

References ............................................................................................................122

Appendices ...........................................................................................................134
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Dedication

This dissertation is dedicated to my family. To my wife, Ashton, I truly cannot

thank you enough for all of the encouragement and support you have given me

throughout this dissertation process. Without your constant words of affirmations and

your ability to push me even when I did not want to be pushed, I know I would not have

made it through this program. Thank you for always having my back and always telling

me what I need to hear, even if I did not want to hear it. To my daughters Avery and

Alyse, who were both born during the course of this dissertation, I hope to inspire you to

never give up, no matter the obstacles.

To my mom and dad, I appreciate the support and encouragement you have given

me through all of my schooling. Mom, thank you for laying the groundwork and showing

me that this process was possible, even if a few “plate dinners” were lost along the way.

Dad, thank you for always being there for me whether it was to give me a laugh or to tell

me to suck it up, the advice was always welcome and needed. Lastly, I dedicate this

research to the high school student-athlete. I hope you continue to embrace the challenges

and lessons that come through participation, and I hope you never lose sight of why you

play the game.

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Acknowledgements

I wish to thank the contributions and support I have received from my committee

members and cohort. First, I would like to extend my heartfelt appreciation to my

committee chair, Dr. Perry Rettig. Your constant support and composed demeanor always

helped to calm my nerves and give me the boost of encouragement that I needed to keep

moving forward.

I would also like to express my appreciation to my methodologist, Dr. Kate

Guthrie. Your constant ability to push me to strive for more was instrumental in

completing this process. Thank you for teaching me to be a better writer and to always

“cut out the fluff”.

To Dr. Martha Cantrell and Dr. Mark Tavernier, thank you for taking this journey

with me and serving on my committee. Dr. Cantrell, you were my first professor in this

program and helped jumpstart this entire journey. Dr. Tavernier, your peaceful demeanor

always made me feel supported throughout this process.

Lastly, to my Demorest Cohort – Courtney, Marianne, Shea, and Beth, I am very

grateful that we went through this journey together. I think back to our first day when I

made the decision to voluntarily switch from the Athens to the Demorest Cohort. It was

one of the best decisions I ever made. I will never forget your constant support and

encouragement throughout this entire process.

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List of Figures

Figure Page

3.1 Study Design ............................................................................................39

4.1 Theme 1: Athletic Participation Allows for the Development of Interpersonal,

Emotional, and Academic Skills ................................................................89

4.2 Theme 2: Athletic Participation Leads to the Building or Enhancement of

Leadership Skills........................................................................................93

4.3 Theme 3: Athletic Participation Leads to the Development or Refinement of

Time Management Skills ...........................................................................98

4.4 Theme 4: Resources of Supports that Help Student-Athletes with IEPs Succeed

..................................................................................................................102
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List of Tables

Table Page

3.1 Participants ...............................................................................................40

3.2 Data Collection Methods and Research Questions (RQ) Alignment.......43

3.3 Codes and Themes Resulting from Participant Interviews ......................52

4.1 Participants and Roles for Mike ...............................................................63

4.2 Participants and Roles for Ashley ............................................................71

4.3 Participants and Roles for Kate................................................................79

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List of Appendices

Appendix Page

A. Invitation/Recruitment Letter ...................................................................134

B. Parent/Guardian Consent Form ................................................................135

C. Child Assent Form ...................................................................................136

D. Adult Participation Consent Form ...........................................................137

E. Interview Guide (First Student Interview) ..............................................138

F. Interview Guide (Second Student Interview) ..........................................142

G. Interview Guide (Parent/Guardian) ..........................................................145

H. Group Interview Guide (Teachers) ..........................................................149

I. Interview Guide (Coaches) ......................................................................153

J. CITI Training Confirmation .....................................................................157

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List of Abbreviations

ACT – American College Testing

ADHD – Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

ASD – Autism Spectrum Disorder

CAQDAS – Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software

GPA – Grade Point Average

IDEA – Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

IEP – Individualized Education Plan

NCAA – National Collegiate Athletic Association

OHI – Other Health Impaired

SAT – Scholastic Aptitude Test

SLD – Specific Learning Disability

 1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The experience of participating in extracurricular activities during a student’s high

school career has become a commonplace endeavor since the inception of sports in

schools. Zayas (2018) noted that over 7.5 million students participate in high school

athletics every year. This overwhelming number of individuals participating in high

school athletics has led researchers to study the impact this participation has on an

individual’s academic experience (Silliker & Quirk, 1997; Snellman et al, 2015;

Starostka, 2014; Zayas, 2018). This impact is often studied by gathering various

perspectives from the individuals involved, such as the parents, teachers, and coaches

(Hedlund et al., 2018; Na, 2015; Rubie-Davies, 2010, Šukys et al., 2017).

When examining the impact of athletic participation on the academic experience,

one under-studied group is the student-athlete (Starostka, 2014; Zayas, 2018). According

to Zayas (2018), the idea of gaining the student’s perspectives regarding this impact is

worth further investigation. In this study, I expand upon this idea by delving into the

perspectives of student-athletes with IEPs (Individualized Education Plan). Furthermore,

Forster (2015) stated that the voice of the high school student-athlete with a disability

needs to be heard and allowed to enact change. In the following model, I will detail the

various aspects of my study. This will include a brief background of the problem and its

connection to the relevant literature, a description of the purpose of this study along with
 2

the relevant research questions guiding this study, and then a detailed explanation of the

various data collection and analysis procedures that were conducted in this study.

Background of the Problem

The perspectives of student-athletes regarding the impact high school sports

participation has on their academic experience is an under-researched topic, thus limiting

these particular individuals’ voices. Student-athletes’ with IEPs voices are even less

utilized when compared to their peers without disabilities (Braun & Braun, 2015). These

individuals, also referred to as students with a disability, are an under-studied population

when discussing the impact that participating in high school athletics has on their

academic experience. Briere and Siegle (2008) described that participation in athletics

provided the individuals involved with an overall positive experience. Those that

participated gained valuable skills that will benefit them in the future. However, the

relevant literature regarding athletic participation and student-athletes with IEPs revolved

around outsider’s perspectives with very little input from the directly involved

individuals, the student-athletes themselves (Forster, 2015). This study will seek to give a

voice to these individuals and the stakeholders involved in their lives to gain valuable

knowledge from these firsthand perspectives.

Gathering students’ perspectives regarding a given topic will give a person a

firsthand glimpse into how they feel the topic impacts them. These perspectives can

provide researchers with a distinct viewpoint into how athletic participation can affect

various aspects of a student-athlete’s life. By gaining perspectives regarding the impact

of athletics on the academic experience, we can gain valuable information about how
 3

instruction in the classroom can be changed or enhanced to help those individuals

succeed.

Purpose of the Study

This qualitative study will investigate the perspectives high school student-

athletes with IEPs and their stakeholders have regarding athletic participation and its

impact on the student-athletes’ academic experience. A single case study with three sub-

cases approach will be used to investigate these perspectives.

Research Questions

This study addressed the following research questions:

1. What are student-athletes’ with IEPs perspectives on how athletic participation

impacts their academic experience?

2. What are stakeholders’ perspectives on how athletic participation impacts student-

athletes’ with IEPs academic experience?

3. What types of resources or support are put in place to help student-athletes with

IEPs succeed?

Overview of Methods

A qualitative approach to research is commonly used in investigative studies and

is often focused on finding the meaning or understanding of a particular phenomenon

(Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Furthermore, qualitative researchers value

the depth of meaning and the individuals’ meaning-making processes (Leavy, 2017).

Overall, this type of research allows for understanding how individuals interpret their

unique experiences and what meanings they attribute to those experiences (Merriam &

Tisdell, 2016). Given that the focus of this study was to investigate the perspectives
 4

individuals have regarding the effects that high school athletic participation has on the

academic experience, a qualitative approach helps build upon the established literature

and delve into the reasons the individuals feel the way they do.

Case study research allows for the analysis of a bounded system (Merriam &

Tisdell, 2016). A case study approach focuses on exploring, investigating, or building a

depth of understanding about a bounded system. The case study research also allows for

gathering in-depth descriptions and meaning-making interactions with the individuals in

the system (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). For my research, I investigated the bounded

system of one high school to gain an in-depth understanding of the effects high school

athletic participation has on the academic experience of student-athletes with IEPs.

For my research, I chose to operate under a single case study, with three sub-

cases. Each sub-case represented a different student-athlete and the stakeholders

associated with that student-athlete. The data collection occurred in two phases. Phase

one consisted of individual interviews with each student-athlete. Phase two consisted of a

second round of individual interviews with each student-athlete in concurrence with

interviews with each student’s guardian(s), teacher(s), and coach(es). Each interview

lasted between 30 and 60 minutes, and overall, 15 interviews were conducted. Once all of

the data was collected and transcribed, I analyzed my data.

Data analysis is the process of taking all of the gathered data and interpreting it in

a manner that best lends itself to the presentation of its results (LeCompte, 2000). This

process occurs so that researchers can make sense of the collected data and generally

occurs in three steps: data condensation, data display, and conclusion drawing (Miles et

al., 2020). I utilized MAXQDA, a computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software, to

 5

store, organize, and house my data (Miles et al., 2020; VERBI Software, 2019). Once my

data analysis was complete, I searched for patterns using a thematic approach.

A thematic analysis approach is a method to analyze qualitative data that

emphasizes identifying, analyzing, and interpreting patterns of meaning of themes

(LeCompte, 2000). Through the data analysis and coding process, I was able to find

several themes that were prevalent in the data and supported my research questions.

Furthermore, I supported these themes with specific examples from my interviews and

my coding process. Lastly, I created a matrix of these themes, codes, and examples to

visually support my data analysis (LeCompte, 2000; Miles et al., 2020).

Significance of Study

A number of researchers have studied and investigated the impact high school

sports participation has on the student-athletes involved (Hedlund et al., 2018; Na, 2015;

Rubie-Davies, 2010; Silliker & Quirk, 1997; Snellman et al., 2015; Starostka, 2014;

Šukys et al., 2017; Zayas, 2018). Overall, these researchers felt sports participation had

many benefits, including a focus on academic achievement, development or learning of

life skills such as leadership and time management, and a general increase in the self-

esteem or self-image of the individuals involved. Furthermore, scholars noted that these

benefits could be even more important and impactful for those individuals with IEPs

(Braun & Braun, 2015; Sherlock-Shangraw, 2013; Vargas et al., 2019). Therefore, this

study sought to contribute to the existing body of literature on the effect of sports

participation on the academic experience of student-athletes. In addition, this study aimed

to add to the gap in literature on the impact high school sports have on student-athletes

with IEPs.
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Conducting this study and focusing on the impact that high school sports

participation has on the academic experience of a student-athlete with an IEP could

provide school administrators, teachers, and coaches with a wealth of knowledge about

meeting the needs of these individuals and providing them opportunities to learn and

grow. In particular, the findings from this study might offer suggestions for how to

advance or promote sports participation to these individuals. Additionally, findings from

this study may also provide teachers and coaches opportunities to help positively impact

the student-athletes under their care. Finally, by performing an investigating case study, I

hope this study may provide a jumping-off point for future research into the benefits of

high school athletic participation on student-athletes with IEPs.

Organization of the Dissertation

This dissertation is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 provides an introduction

of the research by describing the background of the problem, the purpose of the study,

and overview of the methods, and the significance of the study. Chapter 2 presents a

review of the related, relevant literature pertaining to high school sports and its impact on

the academic experience of the individuals involved. This literature review sets the

context of the problem and describes the findings from important researchers and

scholars in the field of athletics and academics. Next, Chapter 3 presents the research

design and methodology. It also includes samples of the collected data and analysis

displayed in an extract of my codebook. Lastly, Chapter 4 reports the data findings and

Chapter 5 concludes with implication and recommendations for future practice, school

administration, teachers and coaches, and future research.

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CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

Interscholastic sports have been a long-standing tradition in high schools since the

idea’s inception back in the early 1700s. High school sports participation has become a

rite of passage for those individuals who choose to participate. Those individuals in

school who choose to pursue sports participation are thus labeled student-athletes. The

term student-athlete was first coined in 1964 by the executive director of the NCAA

(National Collegiate Athletic Association) Walter Byers (Kirk & Kirk, 1993). While the

term was initially coined to prevent universities from paying their athletes, it has since

become used interchangeably with any individual who plays a sport at their respective

school. Kirk and Kirk (1993) explained that the way the two items are ordered, the

student term coming before the athlete term, is indicative of how these individuals were

viewed. They were viewed as students who were athletes and not athletes who were also

students.

High school sports play a prominent role in the lives of the young men and

women who choose to participate in them. For some, the reason for participation is

merely a means to fill in extra time or a desire for competition before they graduate from

high school. For others, participation in high school sports gives them an opportunity to

achieve greatness and affords them the opportunity to take their athletic talents to the

college or even professional level (Chu & Zhang, 2018). Regardless of the reason,
 8

participation in high school sports has a lasting impact on all those who choose to

participate.

Special Education and Sports

Student-athletes with an IEP, served through the special education program in

their respective schools, have long been an underrepresented population in high school

sports participation (Braun & Braun, 2015). Students with intellectual disabilities, such as

those with Down syndrome, are afforded sports opportunities through the Special

Olympics, but their participation on a high school team is often seen more as a special

case rather than a mainstay or active participant (Braun & Braun, 2015; Vargas et al.,

2012). However, those individuals with “hidden disabilities” such as Attention Deficit

Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), or Specific Learning

Disability (SLD) are fully active participants on their sports teams but are, at times,

discouraged about participation despite having the necessary skills to play their chosen

sport (Braun & Braun, 2015; Beyer et al., 2009).

SLD is a term used for a group of disorders brought about by difficulties in

acquiring and using listening, reasoning, reading, writing, and mathematical skills).

Students with SLD are characterized as having average intelligence, but they can have

difficulties in reading, writing, and mathematics (Braun & Braun, 2015). SLD is

described as a hidden disability because it is not readily apparent to the naked eye

(Vargas et al., 2012). Students with SLD often look and act like their non-disabled peers;

however, their mental acumen can be severely limited compared to those same peers

(Braun & Braun 2015).

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When it comes to student-athletes with SLD, they are at far more of a

disadvantage than their peers on their respective teams. A student-athlete with SLD may

have difficulty learning new information, understanding information, expressing their

thoughts correctly, or even following directions and routines (Braun & Braun, 2015;

Vargas et al., 2012). The frustration for these individuals lies in the fact that they are

often aware and cognizant of their difficulties and can become anxious or disheartened

about their sports situation (Braun & Braun, 2015). These particular student-athletes can

also be at a disadvantage as their disability may manifest in ways on the field that adults

can see as aloof, distracted, or defiant (Vargas et al., 2012). Therefore, it is necessary to

understand these struggles so that steps can be taken to ensure that these student-athletes

have a successful high school sports experience (Sherlock-Shangraw, 2013).

Impact of Athletics

Participating in a high school sport can have a lasting impact on student-athletes

on and off the field. Taking part in athletics during a student’s high school career, be they

labeled as regular or special-ed, can lead to the development of a variety of abilities such

as physical attributes, problem-solving skills, a heightened sense of self-esteem, social

competence, and academic achievement (Braun & Braun, 2015; Forneris et al., 2012;

Fredricks, 2012; Pavlidis & Gargalianos, 2014; Pearson et al., 2009; Schultz, 2017;

Silliker & Quirk, 1997; Vargas et al., 2012; Yeung, 2015). These various abilities can

help student-athletes to continually self-improve as they progress through high school

and beyond.

Participation in high school athletics, no matter the sport, requires some measure

of physical skill. This skill could involve physical prowess in sports such as football and
 10

wrestling. It could involve speed and stamina in sports such as cross country and track, or

it could involve hand-eye coordination and a quick reaction time in sports like baseball

and tennis. Regardless of the sport, high school sports demand physical dedication from

their athletes (Pavlidis & Gargalianos, 2014). Participation in high school sports can

allow new student-athletes to gain the necessary physical skills or traits through practice

and repetition or allow the experienced student-athletes to enhance or improve upon their

already learned skills or knowledge (Castedo et al., 2016). These skills, be they learned or

enhanced, can lead these individuals to embark on healthy practices and a healthy

lifestyle (Fredricks, 2012; Pavlidis & Gargalianos, 2014). Healthy practices, such as time

management, staying in shape, and healthy eating, will likely positively benefit the

individuals involved and may help develop positive lifestyle choices to benefit them in

the future.

Problem-solving skills are often associated with matters either in the classroom or

in the real world. However, these skills are just as crucial on the field of play (Fredericks

& Eccles, 2006). Athletes must be able to quickly analyze a developing situation on the

field of play and make a conscious decision about how to progress. While innate in some,

this ability needs to be practiced and developed over time. This can be a difficult task for

most student-athletes; however, for those with a disability, the ability to solve problems

instinctively does not necessarily come easy (Turnnidge et al., 2012; Vargas et al., 2015).

To ensure that the student-athletes are gaining the appropriate skills, it takes a

concentrated effort by themselves and their coaches (Beyer et al., 2009; Iachini et al.,

2010; Singh & Surujlal, 2010). With the proper training and motivation, a coach can help

the student-athletes heighten their problem-solving skills for the overall success of the
 11

team and the individual. Once these skills are learned and gained, they will continue to

benefit the individuals on the field, but they can also translate to the classroom

(Fredericks & Eccles, 2006).

Self-esteem is a crucial aspect to the formation of growth within a student-athlete

while they are in high school and beyond. Participation in high school sports is associated

with increased self-esteem levels in high school student-athletes (Ahmed et al., 2014). A

positive sense of self-worth is a crucial aspect for a student to succeed in high school and

life as well. However, being a student-athlete with SLD can be challenging to generate

the necessary mindset to have a positive self-esteem experience (Braun & Braun, 2015;

Kistner et al., 1987). Due to the potential increase of difficulty in participating in a high

school sport, student-athletes with an IEP must embrace their challenges and use them to

their advantage. A quality coach and a positive environment are two critical factors in

developing a sense of self-worth for these individuals (Sherlock-Shangraw, 2013). An

increased level of self-esteem and self-worth will allow student-athletes to experience a

more positive high school athletic involvement that can translate to other facets of their

lives as well. This positive energy can translate to success both in and out of the

classroom (Ahmed et al., 2014). The positive energy experienced by these individuals

can be absorbed by other individuals, thus creating an overall positive atmosphere in

everyone’s lives.

Throughout the high school years, individual student-athletes experience social

interactions on a daily basis. Participation in high school sports can lead to enhanced

social benefits as the interactions on the field of play vary from situation to situation and

allow for student-athletes to interact in myriad ways (Kamau et al., 2015; Yeung, 2015).
 12

This social interaction on the field differs from those in the classrooms or hallways and

allows these individuals to gain some much-needed confidence with their peers (Parker et

al., 2016; Pavlidis & Gargalianos, 2014). Not only do females and males both benefit

from the positive social interactions experienced through sports participation, those

individuals who have an IEP can also experience positive gains in their confidence and

their social interactions (Kistner et al., 1987; Vargas, 2019). Overall, the positive social

benefits of participation in high school far outweigh any negative repercussions.

Obtaining a quality education is one of the main focuses of attending high school.

Overall, the measure of academic success is based on a grading system, which

determines, to an extent, how well a student performed in high school. While a high

school education is more than just a grade, success and promotions are generally tied to

this grading system. Broh (2002) stated that participation in high school sports has a

positive relationship with high academic performance. Individuals who choose to play a

sport see increased grades compared to their non-sport-playing counterparts. The

opportunity to be successful also extends to those individual student-athletes who have an

IEP. Sherlock-Shangraw (2013) said that those individuals with hidden disabilities who

choose to participate in high school athletics often see a rise in their scores compared to

their special-ed peers who choose not to participate. According to Eccles et al. (2001), the

choice to participate in high school sports often leads to high educational outcomes.

These high educational outcomes stem from the idea that there is a positive connection

between physical activity and improved academic performance (Eccles et al., 2001).

Research shows that participation in high school sports has a positive academic benefit

for the individuals involved.

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Athletics Participation

High school sports play an influential role in the social, emotional, and physical

development of the young men and women who choose to participate. Participating in

athletics, during the teenage years, has both advantages and disadvantages that help to

foster a unique self-identity for each athlete (Ahmed et al., 2014; Fredricks & Eccles,

2006; Lumpkin & Favor, 2012). The positive or negative experiences encountered during

sports participation can have a lasting impact on the individual. A student-athlete can

choose to join a sport for myriad reasons, but regardless of those reasons, the lessons

learned while playing a sport will influence the individuals in ways that will be carried

with them through college and will stay with them for the remainder of their lives (Dohle

& Wansink, 2013; Hermens et al., 2017; Lumpkin & Favor, 2012; Pavlidis &

Gargalianos, 2014).

Advantages of Sports Participation

Student-athletes spend a significant amount of their time balancing their various

responsibilities such as school, athletic, family, and personal. One of the main causes of

this balancing act is the choice these individuals make to participate in high school sports.

However, research has shown that participating in high school sports, and thus

participating in this balancing act, has numerous benefits for the individuals who choose

this path (Fredricks, 2012; Knifsend & Graham, 2012; Silliker & Quirk, 1997).

Academic Advantages

One benefit of participating in high school sports is the positive impact it has on

academic achievement. Overall, sports participation positively affects a student’s

academics (Fredricks, 2012; Kniffin et al., 2015; Yeung, 2015). Schultz (2017) found
 14

that, on average, student-athletes performed better academically than their non-athlete

counterparts. Holloway (1999) discussed the general academic benefits of participating in

athletics, such as enhanced academic performance and the overall strengthening of a

student-athlete’s GPA. Along those lines, Silliker and Quirk (1997) wrote that

participation in high school sports could lead to academic improvement as on-field

learning can transfer to the classroom. The strategies used and learned on the field, such

as problem solving skills, the ability to learn from failure, and the benefit of practice and

repetition, can have a positive relationship with higher academic performance. It allows

student-athletes to use these skills in myriad ways to achieve academic success (Broh,

2002; Hastie et al., 2014).

While sports participation has a crucial impact on the individuals involved, the

general aspect of physical activity can be positively related to improved academic

performance (Knifsend & Graham, 2012). Physical fitness and playing a sport are known

to be positively correlated with higher test scores and overall academic achievement

(Holland & Andre, 1987; Knifsend & Graham, 2012). Overall, participation in sports and

physical activity leads to higher educational outcomes (Eccles et al., 2001).

This improved sense of academic performance and the educational outcomes that

come from high school sports participation also affect the individuals involved in many

ways. Overall, student-athletes perform better in their season of play then their off-

season, showing that sports participation directly impacts academic performance

(Lumpkin & Favor, 2012; Zaugg, 1998). Sports participation and physical activity

positively affect the females involved. Sports participation can lead to a higher GPA and

a high graduation rate as compared to their non-sport-playing female counterparts

 15

(Zaugg, 1998). When it comes to minorities, black athletes who are fully engaged in their

sports participation see an increase in their academic achievement compared to their non-

sport-playing peers, and Latino-Americans value the educational benefit that high school

sports can provide (Chen & Harklau, 2017; Harris et al., 2014; Kotok, 2017).

Lastly, individuals with hidden disabilities gain a great deal from high school

sports participation. There is no direct connection to increased academic performance

from the perspective of a grade, but the strategies taught and learned on the field of play

can positively impact the individuals in the classroom (Vargas et al., 2012; Vargas et al.,

2015). The strategies utilized by the coaches, such as breaking down instructions and

information into smaller parts and explaining the information in a context that is

understood, are approaches that student-athletes with IEPs can bring into the classroom to

help them succeed (Braun & Braun, 2015; Vargas et al., 2012).

Time Management Advantages

Participation in a high school sport can be challenging as student-athletes must

find a balance between their school, their sport, and their home/social lives. This balance

can lead to the creation or fine-tuning of time management skills. Participating in a sport

helps to enhance the time management skills of an individual as they are forced to make

conscious decisions regarding their time for them to be successful both in their classroom

and on the field of play (Pearson et al., 2009). Student-athletes do not have the luxury of

completing tasks when they want as they have to account for the time spent in the

classroom (upwards of eight hours) and their time practicing or playing their sport (two

hours per day at the least). The creation of time management skills can lead a student-

athlete to achieve success (Fredericks, 2012). Pearson et al. (2009) stated that those
 16

student-athletes who take advantage and build successful time management skills are

more likely to enroll in more challenging courses at their school and become more

successful in those classes than their non-sport-playing peers.

Student-athletes are not alone in their endeavor to create these time management

skills and achieve the necessary success. Whether sponsored by the sport or created on

their own, study halls or study groups are a notable way to ensure that the academic

challenges of being a student-athlete are met (Camiré et al., 2016; Lumpkin & Favor,

2012; Silliker & Quirk, 1997). By providing time in their schedule to focus on their

grades outside of school, these student-athletes make conscious decisions to be successful

in an academic setting. Study halls or study periods are essential for student-athletes with

an IEP to be successful (Braun & Braun, 2015). The emphasis on making time to study or

making a schedule for task completion is crucial to them being a successful student-

athlete.

Leadership Advantages

Leadership is a practical skill that encompasses the ability of an individual or a

group to lead others in a variety of ways. In this regard, participating in high school

sports has the potential to develop student-athletes into quality leaders. There are many

facets of leadership, and participating in sports can bring about opportunities for all of

them. Valois (2004) described sports participation as a way for individuals to experience

situations where the leadership potential is given in various aspects of play. A student-

athlete can be the captain of a team, the ultimate spot of leadership, or the leader of a

specific position, taking on a smaller yet still important role (Pavlidis & Gargalianos,
 17

2014). Regardless of the role, leadership potential is prevalent within high school sports

participation.

Leadership can also take on forms other than being a leader outright. For instance,

participating in sports and having the potential not only to lead but also follow helps to

create and garner social relationship skills (Tomczyk et al., 2018). This idea of

cooperation and teamwork is what makes sports genuinely beneficial for those

individuals with hidden disabilities. Often, these individuals lack grade-level social skills,

so by participating in sports and being involved in leadership situations, these individuals

can build upon their self-esteem and learn valuable social skills and coping mechanisms

(Braun & Braun, 2015; Neely & Holt, 2014). Overall the potential for leadership within

sports participation is what makes partaking in this endeavor all the more impactful.

Healthy Lifestyle Advantages

The idea of having a healthy lifestyle goes beyond just being physically fit but

includes being emotionally healthy as well. High school sports participation can help to

create an overall healthy lifestyle. Physical activity is inherently involved with sports

participation as each sport requires some measure of physical activity and thus impacts

each individual. Taliaferro (2010) discussed that physical activity positively impacted the

academics of the individuals involved and led to improved academic performance. Fox et

al. (2010) found that physical activity in females led to higher GPAs and that physically

active males overall achieved higher than their non-active peers. They also found that

healthier students had higher test scores than unhealthy ones. Those individual student-

athletes with an IEP also benefit from the physical activity of sports as it allows them the

to interact with others positively. Being physically active is a strong determining factor
 18

for academic success for individuals with a hidden disability (Kistner et al., 1987; Neely

& Holt, 2014). Lastly, Dohle and Wansink (2013) stated that participation in sports at a

young age is an excellent predictor of being physically active well past the age of 70.

An emotionally healthy lifestyle can be just as important as a physically healthy

one. One way to achieve an emotionally healthy lifestyle is to have positive self-esteem.

Self-esteem can be drastically affected, in a positive way, through high school sports

participation (Ahmed et al., 2014). While built on the field, this positive aspect of self-

esteem can carry over into the classroom and have positive benefits there as well

(Hermens et al., 2017). For student-athletes with an IEP, the social/emotional benefit of

sports participation is a critical one. The need or desire for positive self-esteem is often a

reason for joining a team in the first place (Braun & Braun, 2015). A positive sense of

self-worth and an overall healthy emotional well-being are two more reasons as to the

comprehensive benefits that high school sports participation provides.

Overall, the benefits of high school sports participation are numerous; however,

some feel that participating in high school sports has its disadvantages for the lives of the

student-athlete. The disadvantages of sports participation will be described below.

Disadvantages of Sports Participation

High school sports participation can have a lasting impact on the student-athletes

involved that will stay with these individuals far beyond the high school setting.

However, this impact is not always positive, and at times, can de disadvantageous for the

student-athletes involved. These disadvantages can range from negatively affecting an

individual’s academic performance, mis-management of an individual’s time, and even

can affect the physical and emotional lifestyle of the individual (Gard, 2017; Rees &
 19

Sabia, 2010; Williams et al., 2015). While the literature is positive for the most part, there

are times when sports participation can be detrimental to the academic experience of a

student-athlete.

Academic Disadvantages

One disadvantage of participating in high school sports is the impact that

participation has on the student-athlete’s academic success. Rees and Sabia (2010) found

little evidence to support that sports participation positively impacted individuals’

academics. Compared to their non-sport-playing peers, student-athletes scores were

similar with no discernable benefit for the student-athletes. Schultz (2017) points out that

student-athletes saw no difference in their scores during their season of play compared to

their off-season, meaning sports participation had no impact on their grades.

Student-athletes must constantly balance their time and energy between their

school and their sport. This balance is rarely evenly distributed, and more often than not,

the student-athletes will choose to focus their time on their sport than on their school

work (Castedo et al., 2016). The focus on sports rather than academics impedes the in-

class learning process and consequently affects the academic grades of the individuals

involved. Castedo et al. (2018) stated that student-athletes often struggled to maintain

their grades compared to their non-sport playing peers due to this balancing act.

Student-athletes with an IEP, or those with hidden disabilities, also may

experience academic disadvantages when it comes to high school sports participation.

These individuals are often at an academic disadvantage before sports participation is

brought into the picture. Braun and Braun (2015) stated that while sports participation

can be beneficial in some areas, it often negatively impacts the academics of those
 20

individuals with hidden disabilities. These individuals can have prior, documented

deficits in their academics, and when the distraction from sports becomes a prevalent

issue, their grades can further decline (Harvey et al., 2009; Neely & Holt, 2014).

Participation in high school sports can negatively affect the academic outcomes of the

individuals who choose to participate (Castedo et al., 2016; Schultz, 2017).

Time Management Disadvantages

Another disadvantage of high school sports participation is the impact the sport

has on an individual’s time. Gard (2017) described the daily routine of a student-athlete

as one that is very busy and full of responsibilities. Students must be in school around

eight hours a day; they must also attend their respective practice, training, or game after

completing the school day. These extracurricular activities can range anywhere from one

to six hours on top of the already busy school day. This means that in excess of 12 to 14

hours of a student-athlete’s day is spent at school and sporting events (Gard, 2017). With

the essential need to eat and sleep, student-athletes do not have much time to focus on

their school work. Pavlidis and Gargalianos (2014) stated that this long day often allows

for very little time for completing homework and studying for class. When a student gets

home and can work on schoolwork, the amount of time allowed before going to sleep is

very little (Silliker & Quirk, 1997). Depending on when a sporting event is, the student-

athletes may need to be taken out of school early, thus decreasing the time spent in the

classroom and learning. This reduced time allowed for studying and learning can have a

negative impact on the academics and classroom performance of the individuals involved

(Pavlidis & Gargalianos 2014; Silliker & Quirk, 1997).

 21

One-sport student-athletes face the time crunch described above only during their

season of play. During their off-season, they can be faced with a large amount of

downtime due to the lack of organized practices and games. If not managed correctly, this

downtime can lead to poor decisions made by the student-athletes (Cerkez et al., 2015;

Dever et al., 2012). Dever et al. (2012) found that student-athletes who do not manage

their time adequately can find themselves abusing alcohol. Cerkez et al. (2015) found that

those individuals with a significant amount of time on their hands are more likely to try

and continually smoke marijuana. Time management is an important skill for student-

athletes to have, and if it is not learned, the consequences can be dire.

Lastly, those individuals with a hidden disability are again at a disadvantage

regarding the time aspect of high school sports participation. Individuals with hidden

disabilities can have deficits in time management and require monitoring this deficit

through a learning goal (Braun & Braun, 2015). Given the fact that these individuals can

potentially already have issues with time management before they begin participating,

sports can exacerbate the problem and cause these individuals to fall farther behind not

only in their goals but in their studies as well (Braun & Braun, 2015; Reitman et al.,

2005). Overall, sports participation requires excellent time management skills to

accommodate all of the needed tasks; but if those skills are lacking, student-athletes will

find it challenging to be successful in both their academics and athletics (Schultz, 2017;

Pavlidis & Gargalianos, 2014).

Lifestyle Disadvantages

To the casual observer, participating in high school sports appears to require a

healthy lifestyle to maintain a certain level of physical fitness necessary to perform at a

 22

high level. However, participating in high school sports can result in a physically

unhealthy lifestyle (Okunade et al., 2009). The need for physically fit individuals is often

the case for almost all of the various sports in high school; however, some sports, such as

football or wrestling, prioritize the unhealthy practice of excessive weight gain or loss as

an athletic advantage over their opponents (Okunade et al., 2009; Williams et al., 2015).

These two sports represent opposite ends of the spectrum regarding a healthy physical

lifestyle for its participants. In the sport of football, the offensive and defensive lines are

filled with overweight individuals who pride themselves on using their weight to exert

their force on the other team. Unfortunately, the trend to get bigger and stronger follows

these athletes through college and into the professional leagues. Even after these

individuals have finished their playing careers, they can still be affected by their previous

lifestyle choices (Williams et al., 2015). In the sport of wrestling, athletes gain or lose

weight to compete in a specific weight class. This practice poses significant health

concerns as athletes are required to either binge eat food or starve themselves to gain a

competitive advantage (Okunade et al., 2009; Williams et al., 2015). It is important to

teach high school students healthy life choices, but participation in sports can, at times,

undermine these critical life lessons.

Another concern when it comes to the physically healthy lifestyle of a student-

athlete is that of the potential of receiving a concussion. A concussion is a brain injury

caused by a blow to the head or a sudden, violent shaking of the head or body (Williams

et al., 2015). A concussion is a serious injury for a regular student-athlete, but it has the

potential to be even more severe for a student-athlete with an IEP (Braun & Braun, 2015;

Williams et al., 2015). Concussions can impact individuals in many ways, from missing
 23

time in the classroom to causing physical harm that can take weeks or months to recover.

Those individuals with an IEP, depending on their disability, can face more severe

injuries that could take them out of the sport for the duration of the season or their

playing lives (Williams et al., 2015). Overall, a concussion is a severe injury and can

negatively impact any individual who receives one.

Lastly, participation in high school sports can harm the social and emotional

aspects of a student-athlete. For instance, peer pressure can be a prevalent concern within

individual sports, as success is often tied to a student’s emotional state (Tomczyk et al.,

2018). Student-athletes who are not successful in sports can feel estranged from their

school and have a decrease in self-esteem and self-worth. These individuals can

experience an unhealthy sense of performance pressure, whether from their team or their

school, that can negatively impact their emotional health (Hastie et al., 2014; Tomczyk et

al., 2018). The opposite of this scenario is also true, in that those individuals who

experience a large amount of success can also damage their social or emotional health.

Having an inflated self-worth or an overly positive self-image that is tied to high school

sports can take the focus away from the academic responsibilities and cause these

individuals to view themselves in a damaging light (Camiré et al., 2016).

Peer pressure can be a dangerous aspect of the social and emotional lives of

student-athletes. These individuals, through sports participation, may find it necessary to

do certain things to be accepted by their teammates and become a part of the team (Rees

& Sabia, 2010). Mays et al. (2010) found that students who participate in extracurricular

sports have a higher chance of underage alcohol use as well as a problem with continued

use later in life. Participation in high school sports can also harm the behavior of a
 24

student-athlete in the form of higher delinquency rates and the development of

unsportsmanlike attitudes (Gardner et al., 2011). Participation in high school athletics

may negatively influence the student-athletes not only while they are in school, but sports

may negatively impact their future as well.

Perspectives on Athletics

Perspectives are the attitudes toward or ways of regarding something that an

individual has to create a general sense of understanding. Perspectives of the same object

or idea can vary from person to person or from group to group. It is important to

incorporate the perspectives of high school athletic stakeholders so that an overall,

complete understanding can be ascertained as to its impact on the individuals involved.

Administrative Perspectives

The administrator of a school, be it the principal, assistant principal, or the athletic

director, has a profound influence over the day-to-day operations of their school. These

individuals have a decisive influence on what does or does not occur at their school. In

this respect, administrators have a vested interest in athletics’ impact on the students in

their school (George & Curtner-Smith, 2017; Zayas, 2018). Overall, administrators praise

the incorporation of high school sports in their schools. Their praise can be broken down

into three categories: impact on academics, development of skills, and community

benefits.

Overall, administrators view high school sports participation and its impact on

student-athletes’ academics as a positive relationship (George & Curtner-Smith, 2017;

Hedlund et al., 2018; Zayas, 2018). Administrators found that student-athletes, when

compared to their non-sport playing peers, performed better academically and had fewer
 25

discipline issues while in season (Zayas, 2018). They attributed this performance to a

sense of student-athletes having more to lose with their academics. Sports participation is

contingent upon good academic standing, and these individuals must ensure their grades

are in good standing if they want to be able to compete. Student-athletes could be more

focused and could better understand time management during the season compared to

their peers. Administrators felt that student-athletes were concerned with excellence, no

matter the season, and thus strove to perform better on the field and in the classroom

(George & Curtner-Smith, 2017).

The learning of various skills is an essential aspect of participating in high school

sports and attending high school. However, administrators believe that participating in

high school sports allows student-athletes to learn specific and worthwhile skills that

cannot necessarily be taught in a traditional classroom setting (George & Curtner-Smith,

2017; Hedlund et al., 2018; Zayas, 2018). Participation in a high school sport helps to

develop a sense of camaraderie. It gives student-athletes the opportunity to interact with

various individuals’ dynamics to achieve a common goal. This sense of camaraderie is

especially important for those individuals with an IEP (Sherlock-Shangraw, 2013).

Sherlock-Shangraw (2013) also stated that individuals with an IEP who participate in

sports gain an increased sense of self-esteem and benefit significantly from the

interactions within a team. These interactions allow the student-athletes, both with an IEP

and without, to learn to deal with the positives and negatives or sports participation, both

as individuals and teammates (Hedlund et al., 2018). Zayas (2018) discussed the presence

of failure in high school sports participation and how learning to overcome failure can

develop such skills as perseverance and the concept of adversity. George and Curtner-
 26

Smith (2017) stated that participation in sports allows individuals to gains skills that can

be utilized later in their lives when they enter the workforce and that these gained skills

will give them an advantage over their competition.

Lastly, administrators feel that participation in high school sports has an overall

benefit, not just to the individuals or the school but also to the community. Zayas (2018)

found that, high school sports impact the community greatly, especially in small towns.

These sporting events provide opportunities for people to come together to socialize with

each other while still supporting their local school. These events bring pride to the school,

and community members feel pride when their local school teams succeed. George and

Curtner-Smith (2017) stated that individuals participating in these sports benefit from this

sense of community not only because of the camaraderie within their team, but they feel

that they are a part of something bigger and thus have pride in what they do.

Coaches’ Perspectives

A coach of a high school sport offers a unique perspective regarding a student-

athlete as they have a direct impact and influence on the individual in an athletic setting.

Coaches often have a more intimate relationship with the student-athlete as the setting

within which they interact is more open to collaboration than a traditional classroom

(LaFountaine & Kamphoff, 2016). Šukys et al. (2017) found that an athletes’ sport-

confidence, the belief of certainty that individuals possess about their ability to be

successful in their sport, was directly related to the relationship they had with their coach.

The relationship with a coach is often the most influential for a student-athlete during

their high school years, and it is for this reason that their perspectives on high school

sports are essential.

 27

Coaches rarely directly impact their athletes’ grades in the classroom, but their

acts on the field can have a lasting impact for the student-athlete (Hedlund et al., 2018).

Coaches note that there is an educational benefit to participating in sports, and they do

their best to ensure that their athletes are academically successful (Iachini et al., 2010).

Some coaches choose to implement grade checks to keep up with their athletes’ academic

progress to ensure they stay current with their studies and remain eligible to participate in

their sport (LaFountaine & Kamphoff, 2016). These grade checks can be vital for those

individuals with an IEP. Beyer et al. (2009) stated that monitoring students with IEP’s

specifically allows coaches to gauge a sense of their progress with their academics and

allows them to see if interventions need to be put in place. Coaches also benefit from

knowing the specific accommodations and disabilities of those individuals in order to

coach them better and have an educated idea of what can and won’t work (Beyer et al.,

2009; Braun & Braun, 2015).

Other coaches will set both individual and team goals to help build team success.

These goals must be agreed upon by the individuals involved for buy-in and success to

occur. However, should an athlete have different ideas about a goal or be in disagreement

regarding a goal, adverse effects such as lower grades and poor performance in the

classroom and on the field can occur (Baltzell et al., 2014; Singh & Surujlal, 2010; Šukys

et al., 2017).

Aside from an academic impact, coaches also play a prominent role in the

emotional state of their student-athletes. The coach is the person in charge of the

extracurricular time that a student-athlete chooses to participate in. This is a great

responsibility and can be used for the betterment or the detriment of the student-athlete
 28

(Šukys et al., 2017). A coach can focus on player development and involve the athletes in

their coaching schemes, or the coach can have a winner-takes-all approach and be willing

to sacrifice student growth to get the win. Regardless of the coaches’ reasons or

philosophies of coaching, how these individuals choose to coach can mean the difference

between a student-athlete being successful in the classroom and on the field, or it could

lead to the deterioration of the student in all areas of school and personal life

(LaFountaine & Kamphoff, 2016). A coach’s perspective and influence over the impact

of athletics on student-athletes is an important dynamic in lives of young individuals.

Teacher Perspectives

Teachers have a unique perspective of student-athletes because they see them

daily in the classroom and directly control their academic progress. Teachers’

perspectives as to the overall effect of athletics on academics, while mixed, are generally

positive (Rubie-Davies, 2010; Starostka, 2014). The two main areas that teachers tend to

debate the impact of athletics are academic success and skills development.

Overall, research has shown that participation in high school sports has a

generally positive benefit to the academic development of the student-athlete. However,

teachers’ opinions of the benefits of athletics are mixed. Starostka (2014) noted that

teachers found that participation in high school sports positively benefited the students’

grades. It was found that, compared to their non-sport playing counterparts, student-

athletes were more successful in their overall marks, especially during the season. On the

other hand, Jones et al. (2012) found that while there may be a slight benefit to students-

athletes’ grades during the semester in which they were playing their sport, during the
 29

offseason, they found that the grades had a significant drop off compared to the non-sport

playing students.

Rubie-Davies (2010) noted that teachers had a considerable influence over their

student-athletes in terms of expectations. It was found that if teachers have high

expectations for their student-athletes, they would most always meet those expectations.

However, the reverse effect is also true; if teachers have low expectations for their

student-athletes, those individuals will also lower their standards to meet those

expectations.

Time management is a good indicator of the potential success that a student can

have during their time in high school. Zayas (2018) stated that participating in high

school sports helps teach student-athletes how to manage their time better to

accommodate all of their responsibilities. Time management is an important strategy to

have in high school, but if student-athletes do not handle their time effectively or are slow

to create a plan, they can quickly fall behind in their classroom and sports responsibilities

(Starostka, 2014). Teachers also found that it was imperative to help develop time

management skills for those student-athletes with an IEP as the need for these individuals

to stay on top of their grades and schedules was much more crucial than their non-IEP

peers (Sherlock-Shangraw, 2013; Reitman et al., 2005).

Jones et al. (2012) stated that to be a successful high school student-athlete, the

idea of time management is crucial. If it can be nurtured and created with the help of a

classroom teacher or a coach, the student will set themselves up for success. However,

neglecting to incorporate time management strategies will set the student up for failure

(Jones et al., 2012; Starostka, 2014). The schedule of an individual who chooses to
 30

participate in high school athletics is an excellent motivator for installing a quality time

management regimen. High school sports can be very beneficial for this time

management strategy, but there must be a common understanding from all parties

involved for the student-athletes to be successful (Rubie-Davies, 2010).

Parent Perspectives

The parents or guardians of a student-athlete play an influential role in the lives of

these individuals, and their viewpoints offer a unique perspective as to how high school

sports participation influences student-athletes. Overall, parents have a positive viewpoint

regarding sports participation, with the only concern being the aspect of time that

participating in a high school sport requires.

Parents or guardians have a direct influence on a student-athlete both in the

classroom and on the field. While they may not physically be with their child in these two

places, their influence on these individuals is very impactful. Generally, parents or

guardians have a positive perspective on high school sports participation and overall

believe that the benefits far outweigh the detriments (Na, 2015). They feel that sports

give student-athletes a sense of purpose and value integral to a growing adolescent and

that the lessons learned on the field in conjunction with the classroom will benefit their

student-athlete far into the future (Neely & Holt, 2014, Vargas et al., 2019). This

sentiment is also shared by those parents or guardians of student-athletes with an IEP

(Neely & Holt, 2014). These parents find sports participation to be a major benefit to

their children and support the choice to participate. Parents or guardians of students with

and without an IEP encourage their children to participate as they believe in the academic

benefits of sports participation (Hughes et al., 2016; Neely & Holt, 2014).
 31

However, parents and guardians do have some concerns regarding high school

athletic participation. Na (2015) stated that while parents believe that sports are overall

beneficial for a student-athlete, they do feel that the time needed to both succeed in

school and on the field can be a cause of concern. Parents feel that unless there is a

perfect marriage of encouragement from both the teacher and the coach, the influence of

the sport can begin to harm the academic responsibilities of a student-athlete (Vargas et

al., 2019). If the need arises, parents will hold athletic participation back from an

individual to ensure that the academics are held to the standard they deserve (Na, 2015).

Parents or guardians must feel a mutual sense of cooperation from all parties involved,

teacher, coach, and student, for them to feel comfortable with high school sports

participation (Neely & Holt, 2014; Vargas et al., 2019).

Conclusion

The administrators, coaches, and teachers all provide interesting viewpoints on

the overall effects of high school sports participation on a student-athlete. However,

obtaining their perspectives, while informational and relevant, bring to light a noticeable

gap in the relevant literature; the voice of the student-athlete. The perspectives of the

stakeholders are a second-hand source when considering the perspectives of the student-

athletes (Starostka, 2014). By interviewing and talking with the student-athletes

themselves, I would be able to gain their unique perspectives on the impact of sports

participation. These new perspectives can provide new qualitative information to fill in a

noticeable gap in the research.

 32

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

Throughout this study, I sought to investigate how sports participation affects the

academic experience of student-athletes with IEPs. This study used a single high school

that has a large part of the student body participate in extracurricular activities. As both a

teacher and a coach at this school, I wanted to see how sports impacted these individuals

and if there was something that teachers could be doing to help them succeed if help was

indeed required. This chapter provides an overview of the methods addressed throughout

this study. I will explain the purpose of my study and state the overarching research

questions that drove the research. The following sections outline my qualitative single

case study with three sub-cases approach and explain the use of semi-structured

interviews as the main data collection instrument.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this qualitative study was to investigate the perspectives high

school student-athletes with IEPs and their stakeholders have regarding athletic

participation and its impact on the student-athletes’ academic experience. A single case

study with three sub-cases approach was used to investigate these perspectives. The

primary data collection method was interviews. These interviews provided a greater

depth of understanding of the overall impact that participation in high school athletics has

on a student-athlete with an IEP. This study intends to provide beneficial information to

school leaders and teachers on maximizing the learning potential for these individuals.
 33

Research Questions

The research questions used in this study focus on the impact of participation in

high school athletics from the perspective of the student-athlete and the stakeholders

involved in their lives. The following research questions guided this study:

1. What are student-athletes’ with IEPs perspectives on how athletic participation

impacts their academic experience?

2. What are stakeholders’ perspectives on how athletic participation impacts student-

athletes’ with IEPs academic experience?

3. What types of resources or supports are put in place to help student-athletes with

IEPs succeed?

The preceding chapter will follow the organization of a case study design. I will begin

by describing the specific research approach I have chosen and explain my reasons for

doing so. Following that, I will discuss the overall study design, including the study’s

setting and the criteria and recruitment of its participants. I will detail my data collection

procedures and the procedures analyzing my data, describing the various trustworthiness

elements I have employed within this study. This will be followed by documenting any

ethical considerations this study may involve and then describing the role I will play in

this research.

Methodological Approach

This study used a qualitative approach to investigate the perspectives of high

school student-athletes with IEPs and their stakeholders regarding athletic participation

and its impact on their academic experience. Qualitative research is focused on finding

the meaning or understanding of a particular phenomenon (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam &

 34

Tisdell, 2016). Leavy (2017) further described qualitative research as an approach that

values “depth of meaning and people’s subjective experiences and their meaning-making

processes” (p. 124). Overall, a qualitative approach to research allows a researcher to

understand how individuals interpret their unique experiences and what meanings they

attribute to those experiences (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).

In this study, I sought to understand various individuals’ perspectives on how

athletic participation impacts the academic experience. Through interviews, I gained a

deeper understanding of what unique perspectives these individuals have regarding

athletic participation. I analyzed these perspectives and looked for common themes and

tried to discover an overall deeper understanding of why these student-athletes and their

stakeholders feel the way they do. For this reason, I have chosen to use a qualitative

approach. This particular method sought to find the deeper meaning behind high school

sports participation and how it affects the lives of the individuals who choose to

participate.

Qualitative Paradigm: Constructivism

A qualitative approach to research is a useful avenue for conducting research

when a researcher is interested in how individuals interpret and attribute meaning to their

lived experiences (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). However, to ground the research in a sense

of reality and provide it with a firm foundation to stand on, a study must work within a

specific paradigm or worldview (Leavy, 2017). A research study’s paradigm sets the

stage and lays the entire study’s foundation (Leavy, 2017). For my research study, I

operated under the constructivist paradigm. This particular paradigm examines how

people construct their own meanings through their daily interactions (Leavy, 2017).
 35

Merriam and Tisdell (2016) described this particular paradigm as one where reality is

socially constructed and that any single event could have multiple interpretations as

different individuals view a situation differently. Researchers who operate within this

paradigm look for the patterns of interaction established by the individuals being studied

and how they interpret and assign meaning to various events or situations (Leavy, 2017).

In this paradigm, it is a researcher’s job not to find any particular pieces of knowledge

but to construct it from various perspectives and ideas (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This

particular paradigm lends itself to exploring an individual’s thoughts and perspectives.

I chose the constructivist paradigm to be the foundation of my study because of its

nature of constructing meaning. Through interviews, I wanted to learn the various ways

that athletic participation impacts student-athletes’ academic experiences. I sought to gain

a deeper understanding of why these individuals, along with their stakeholders, felt the

way they do regarding this topic. I was looking to construct a deeper meaning of this

phenomenon to better educate administrators and various other stakeholders on the effect

of sports participation on these individuals. It was my hope that this deeper understanding

would lead to increased resources or supports to help these individuals succeed.

Study Design

This section will cover the various aspects that are incorporated into the design of

this study. The section begins with an explanation of the study design itself, a case study

design with three sub-cases. The section then delves into this study’s participants and

details who they are, the criteria used to select them, and how they were recruited for this

study. Following the participants section, I detail the various data collection methods and

data collection procedures utilized in this study. Lastly, I explain the data analysis
 36

procedures for the collected data and finish up with a discussion involving the various

trustworthiness elements I have incorporated into this study.

Overview: Case Study Design

This study’s design was a case study design with three sub-cases that employed

semi-structured, individual and group interviews as its primary data collection source.

This design and these interviews were used to investigate the perspectives of high school

student-athletes with IEPs and their stakeholder’s perspectives regarding athletic

participation and its impact on their academic experience. A case study approach allows

for the ability to gather in-depth descriptions and meaning-making interactions in a

singular, bounded system, as was the intention of this study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).

An essential characteristic or understanding of a qualitative research study is that

individuals construct their own realities through their own interactions in their daily and

social worlds (Leavy, 2017; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In this regard, researchers

employing a case study approach seek to explore, investigate, or build a depth of

understanding about a bounded or singular system within which activity occurs (Merriam

& Tisdell, 2016). This approach utilized one specific Georgia high school (the case) and

focused on three student-athletes with IEPs (the sub-cases) to seek a deeper

understanding of their perspectives regarding the impact of high school sports

participation on their academic experience.

A case study is similar to various qualitative research types, but it has defining

characteristics that are added, making it unique from other approaches (Merriam &

Tisdell, 2016). Some of the characteristics case studies share with other qualitative

research types are a general search for meaning and understanding, an inductive
 37

investigative strategy, and rich, descriptive analysis of its content. However, what sets a

case study approach apart from the other types of qualitative research is this type of

research takes place in what Merriam and Tisdell (2016) described as a bounded system,

one with limits and boundaries. It is this concept of a bounded system that will be

described below.

Merriam and Tisdell (2016) described a bounded system as one where research

and data collection are limited to one set of specific phenomena. This type of design is

best suited for situations where it is difficult or impossible to separate the research

variable from the context of the overall study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This means the

phenomenon in question, the case, and the research context are entirely ingrained and

dependent on one another. It is essentially the unit or analysis, not the general topic under

investigation, that characterizes the case study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).

One way to determine if the phenomenon of interest is worthy of a case study is to

decide if it is intrinsically bounded (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The best way to assess a

topic’s boundedness is to determine if there is a limit to the number of people or

participants involved. If this number is large or infinite, then there is not enough of a

boundary to qualify the phenomenon as a case; however, the phenomenon could qualify

if the number is small enough (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The essence of boundedness

and the limited nature of individuals involved in a case stems from the notion that it is the

unit of analysis that defines the case and study, and not its overall focus.

Data collection is an essential aspect of a case study design as it is through the

data that conclusions can be created. The data collection process can occur through

interviews, observations, or analysis of various documents or artifacts (Merriam &

 38

Tisdell, 2016). The extent to which data is collected and its relevance will depend entirely

on how the researcher goes about it. A haphazard, off-the-cuff collection process could

yield invalid or unsatisfactory results. A thorough and detailed collection process can

produce results that can provide a greater sense of understanding or meaning (Leavy,

2017; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).

The data analysis process of a case study design is entirely reliant on the success

of the data that was collected. One avenue of analyzing the data for this type of study is

known as thematic analysis. This approach involves identifying recurring themes or

patterns supported by the data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). It is important to note

interpretations will be solely those of the researcher and how he viewed or understood the

findings (Leavy, 2017; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).

For my research, I used a case study design to discover what meanings student-

athletes with IEPs and their stakeholders have regarding high school sports participation

and its impact on their academic experience. In Figure 3.1, you will see a visual

representation of my overall plan for this study. The data collection in this study occurred

in two phases, as shown in the preceding figure. Phase one consisted of individual

interviews with each student-athlete followed by an analysis of the findings. Phase two

consisted of a second round of individual interviews with each student-athlete in

concurrence with subsequent interviews with their guardian(s), teacher(s), and coach(es).

I analyzed these interviews and then organized my findings using a thematic analysis. In

constructing this study, I worded my research questions in a way that I could collect the

necessary data to delve into the constructed meanings of these individuals. I applied a
 39

thematic analysis approach to my findings and developed some strategies or ways in

which these individuals can be further supported within the chosen school.

Figure 3.1

Study Design

Potential Participants

This research took place at Flint River High School, a public high school (Grades

9-12) located in the southeastern United States. According to ed.gov, Flint River High

School has 1,427 students, 52.1% males, and 47.9% female. The school’s race/ethnicity

make-up is 67.1% white, 19.6% Black or African American, 5.1% Hispanic or Latino of
 40

any race, and 2.6% are Asian. The school has 10% of its population labeled as Students

with Disabilities (or fall under IDEA).

This school was chosen as my case for several reasons. The first reason is due to

the nature of the school and its relation to the other four schools in its county. Flint River

High School is ranked as the middle of the five high schools in its county based on

national statistics such as average SAT score, average ACT score, and math and reading

proficiency. Recruiting students from this school gave me an overall impression of the

county as a whole. A second reason for my interest in this school is that I, as the

researcher, taught at this school. I had done so for nine years and had developed a good

and positive relationship with the students, staff, and coaches. By building this

relationship, I felt that interviewing students from this school would allow them to open

up and feel more comfortable as opposed to a stranger coming in and performing the

interviews. A list of my student participants is provided in Table 3.1 below. Overall, Flint

River High School provided me with a great opportunity to delve into the effect that high

school sports participation has on student-athletes with an IEP.

Table 3.1

Participants

Pseudonym Grade Level Fall Sport Winter Sport Spring Sport

Mike Junior X X Track

Ashley Freshman Cross Country Swimming Lacrosse

Kate Sophomore X X Track

 41

Participant Criteria

The participants for this study met specific criteria to be chosen for participation.

They must have participated in a school-sponsored athletic sport for the current academic

calendar year in which the interviews took place. The season in which the recruits

participated in their sport had no bearing on this study, nor their level of high school

status (i.e., Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, or Senior). It was a requirement that these

participants will have participated in their sport in previous years, and that this is not their

first time being a student-athlete. There was no discrimination based on an individual’s

gender or race/ethnicity. Lastly, these individuals must have a documented, current IEP

on file. As long as these criteria were met, a student could be considered for this study.

I chose to study three sub-cases within the one case of Flint River High School. If,

after my recruitment process, I had more than three willing candidates, I would use the

following criteria to help narrow the pool to the required number. The first criterion for

consideration was eagerness. In any research, you want participants that are not only

willing but want to participate in the research. I would also look at the academic grades

of those interested. To achieve relevant findings, I want to choose a good mix of

academically talented individuals. If I only selected the top-performing ones, then I will

leave out those who may provide me with more depth regarding the supports or struggles

they experience. I would also look at the sports the individuals play. If possible, having

individuals who participated in sports in different seasons would provide me with a year-

long look at their experiences. It could potentially give me more in-depth and valid data.

My intention or goal with these further criteria was to ensure that I chose the three best

candidates to study.
 42

Recruitment Procedures

The recruitment process is a way to select those individuals who can provide me

with a rich depth of information. My first step in the recruitment process was to talk with

the head of the special education department at Flint River High School (my setting). In

talking with her, I obtained a list of all of the students at the school who had a current IEP

on file. Given that this was the pool of individuals from which I would be finding my

eventual participants, this was a crucial first step. Once I had this list, I sent out a mass

email to both the students and the parents, detailing my study and the individuals I would

need. This email served as my recruitment letter for this study. This message includes my

contact information for individuals to contact me with any questions or to inform me if

they would like to participate. Appendix A, Appendix B, Appendix C, and Appendix D

detail the recruitment letter/email and informed consent letters that I sent to these

individuals.

After a set time, detailed in the recruitment letter, I employed purposeful sampling

from the pool of individuals who had contacted me about their willingness to participate

in my study. Leavy (2017) described purposeful sampling as a way to seek out the best

cases for a study because they will usually produce the best data results. As a researcher,

I am looking to discover, understand, or gain insight into what it is my participants have

to say. Purposeful sampling will allow me to gain those participants who give me the best

opportunity to find this information (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In the participant criteria

section above, I detailed how I plan to employ purposeful sampling within my study.

Once I complete my purposeful sampling and find my three participants, I will obtain the
 43

proper parental consent and minor assent. Once consent and assent have been obtained, I

will begin the data collection process.

Data Collection Methods and Procedures

This research study employed semi-structured interviews as its primary method

for data collection. I conducted these interviews with student-athletes, their parents, their

teachers, and their coaches. I employed both group interviews and one-on-one interviews

with the individuals listed above. The choice to use interviews as the data collection

method provided in-depth insight into the effects of high school sports on a student-

athlete with an IEP. Table 3.2 is a visual representation of how each research question

aligned with the intended data collection method.

Table 3.2

Data Collection Methods and Research Questions (RQ) Alignment

Data Collection Method RQ1 RQ2 RQ3

Student Interviews X X

Stakeholder Interviews X X

Semi-Structured Interviews

The utilization of interviews as a data collection method is commonly used by

researchers when conducting qualitative research (Leavy, 2017). According to deMarrais

(2004), an interview is the action of a researcher and a participant engaging in a

conversation geared towards answering questions about a specific topic or questions

related to a research study. In choosing to utilize interviews in research, the researcher

assumes that the participants have unique and specific knowledge about the given topic,

and only through active asking and listening can that information be gained (deMarrais,
 44

2004). Interviews are best used when a study aims to find the meaning behind questions

rather than seeking to answer them (deMarrais, 2004).

An interview structure is an important aspect as it can determine the level of

success or depth that can be achieved in the interview process. Merriam and Tisdell

(2016) described three interview structures utilized in research: highly

structured/standardized, semi-structured, and unstructured/informal. Semi-structured

interviews are a healthy balance between highly structured and unstructured. These

interviews are guided by a pre-arranged list of questions, usually designed to gather

specific information. However, this type of structure allows for flexibility as questions do

not have to be asked in any specific order (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The use of semi-

structured interviews allows the interviewer to ask specific questions and gives them the

freedom to respond to a given situation and follow the lead that it produces (Leavy, 2017;

Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Overall, the semi-structured approach best serves my study by

allowing me to have a pre-determined list of questions to obtain my desired results and

give me the flexibility to follow different paths that arose through the interview process.

Student Interviews. In total, I conducted six student interviews. I started by

conducting individual interviews with each of the three student-athlete participants. After

these one-on-one interviews, I analyzed the relevant data, and upon completion of my

analysis, I conducted a second round of one-on-one interviews with each student-athlete.

Each interview had a designated time range to not take up too much time of the student-

athletes being interviewed and allow enough time to gather the appropriate information

being sought (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The first round of student interviews lasted

approximately 45 minutes and the second round lasted approximately 30 minutes.

 45

Field Test of Semi-Structured Group Student Interview. To conduct this field

test, I recruited two boys from the cross country team. The parents of both of these

student-athletes gave me permission to field test my group interview with them. These

boys are both seniors who have participated in multiple sports while attending their high

school. They do not have IEPs, which was part of my reason for choosing them. I knew

these boys would give me great answers through their participation, and thus good

feedback, but I also knew that I would not be interviewing them in the data collection for

my study. Before the interview, I explained the purpose of what I was doing, told them I

would be recording it only for myself, and we went about the interview. It lasted for

about 30 minutes. I asked all of the questions on my guide, plus a good number more

through the information they provided in the interview. The session was then transcribed

through a transcription program.

Overall, this was a great experience for me. This process helped me realize that

while I did have some strong questions that would help gather the answers to my research

questions, some needed to be re-worked to allow for a more in-depth and satisfactory

response. For instance, I realized that a few of my questions were essentially asking the

same thing, so I took the best parts and probes from them and molded them together. This

process also helped me realize two concepts, time management and leadership, that I had

not necessarily thought to ask about. Thus, I was able to add in some questions regarding

these two topics. Overall, this field test ultimately made my interview questions stronger.

It helped me to narrow down some questions as well as add some. By conducting this

field test, I am now more confident in my ability to conduct these formal interviews in

the future.
 46

Stakeholder interviews. Each student-athlete had three sets of stakeholders

(guardians, teachers, and coaches). Therefore, if we take Student A as an example, I will

interview Student A’s guardians as a group interview (unless it is a single-guardian

household, then it will be an individual interview), I will interview Student A’s teachers

as a group interview, and I will interview Student A’s coaches as a group interview

(unless only one sport is played at the school, then it will be an individual interview). I

will repeat this process for Student B and Student C. In total, I will be conducting nine

stakeholder interviews. The time limit I placed on these nine interviews is between 45

and 60 minutes per interview.

Field Test of Semi-Structured Group Stakeholder Interview. To conduct this

field test, I recruited three teacher-coaches from my school. All three currently taught

student-athletes and all three have either coached or currently coach at the school. All

three taught in the math department but taught different grade levels of math. Before the

interview, I explained the purpose of what I was doing, told them I would be recording it

only for myself, and we went about the interview. It lasted for about 30 minutes. I asked a

combination of teacher questions and coach questions. I wanted to test out a variety of

questions, and I felt this was a good opportunity to do so. The session was then

transcribed through a transcription program.

Much like the student interview field test, this process was enlightening and very

beneficial. As I asked both the teacher and coach questions, I realized that the way some

of the questions were worded disrupted the flow or did not necessarily belong. I would

not have realized this had I not conducted a field test. From the results, I was able to add

some new questions to my guide that deal with time management and leadership. These
 47

were concepts brought up by all of the teachers at one point or another. Overall, I feel this

field test strengthened both the teacher and the coach interview questions. I am much

more prepared for when I will be conducting these interviews in the future.

Procedures. The data collection process began with the first round of individual

interviews involving the three student-athletes that had been chosen for this study. After

the three individual interviews involving the students, the second round of individual

student interviews, and group stakeholder interviews followed. The first round of

individual student interviews, with their permission, were recorded to allow for ease of

future transcription. After this first round took place, I then transcribed the data and

released it back to the students as a member check. By engaging in these member checks,

I ensured that what the students intended to say is what I had written down. They were

allowed to add, change, or omit anything. If they choose to change their words or

thoughts, I allowed the change, but made note of the original wording for notation

purposes. These member checks were a way to instill a sense of validity within my study

(Meriam & Tisdell, 2016). It should be noted that none of the participants asked for

anything to be changed and all were fine with the interviews as transcribed.

Once I had received back all of the member checks, I conducted the second round

of one-on-one interviews with the student-athletes. I interviewed each student,

transcribed the data, and then allowed a second round of member checks for each student.

It should be noted that all of the participants were fine with the interviews as transcribed.

From the first round of individual student interviews to the second round of individual

student interviews, this process took place in the span of two to three months as I wanted
 48

to talk to the athletes at the beginning of their season and at the end to gain a complete

perspective of the impact of a sports season.

These student interviews were conducted in person. They were conducted in my

classroom, as I attended the school where the study was taking place. These interviews

were conducted both before and after school and the time in which they were conducted

was determined on an individual basis.

The process of interviewing the stakeholders was similar to the student-athlete

interviews. I interviewed the groups of stakeholders in varying order, all dependent on

the scheduling process with each group. The guardian interviews took place online. I

interviewed each group of guardians, transcribed their data, and allowed them a member

check of the transcription. It should be noted that all of the guardians accepted the

transcriptions as written. The teacher and coach interviews occurred in a group setting. I

conducted the interviews, transcribed the data, and then allowed the various teachers and

coaches to check the transcription for any discrepancies. It should be noted that all

transcriptions were accepted as written. These interviews were conducted in person. The

in person interviews occurred in my classroom. Once I finished the process with all of the

students and stakeholders, I began the data analysis portion of my research.

I have provided interview guides that detail the various questions and probes I

asked throughout my interviews. You can find these guides located in Appendix E

through Appendix I. These guides will show the general progression of questions I asked

the student-athletes and their stakeholders. It is important to note that the guide created

for the second round of one-on-one interviews with the student-athletes is merely a shell

of what it was. The majority of the questions asked in this setting were based on the
 49

answers from the first round of interviews. However, in this particular interview guide,

you can see some leading questions that were asked in this process.

Data Analysis Procedures

A qualitative data analysis approach involves taking all of the gathered data and

interpreting it in a way that best lends itself to the presentation of its results (LeCompte,

2000). This organization process occurs so that researchers can make sense of the

collected data. Miles et al. (2020) described this organization process as having three

steps: data condensation, data display, and conclusion drawing.

The analysis process in this study was done in a two-fold approach. Given that I

conducted a case study approach with three sub-cases, I first analyzed each case

separately. Miles et al. (2020) described this as a within-case analysis. After analyzing

each case, I then performed a cross-case analysis, looking to find meaning across all of

the cases. This entire process began once all my interviews had been recorded and

properly transcribed. The first step in the analysis process was to code or condense the

data. LeCompte (2000) describes this process as sifting through all of the information to

find the important parts. After the coding process, I then organized or displayed these

codes into different categories or themes. This process will vary from researcher to

researcher and is very subjective (LeCompte, 2000). Lastly, once I had created or found

the themes, I sought to make meaning of them, drew conclusions from them, and applied

them to my problem statement and research questions. Applying themes to the overall

research and generating a deeper meaning from the results is the overall process that

guided this research.

 50

A CAQDAS (Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software) is designed

to help with qualitative database management and assist with the analysis process (Miles

et al., 2020). The CAQDAS that I used to help me with my research analysis was

MAXQDA. I used this software both as a management tool, where my transcriptions and

interview data were stored and as a coding tool for my analysis process. This software

was beneficial in my data collection and data analysis process. It allowed me to keep

everything in one place and enabled me to stay organized throughout the research

process.

Coding Procedures

Coding data is a meaning-making process that allows a researcher to delve into

the why of their data and pull out the most important and salient points (Miles et al.,

2020). Codes are described as labels that assign symbolic meaning to the data or

information compiled during a study (Miles et al., 2020). LeCompte (2000) described

coding, especially coding transcriptions of interviews, as an integral part of the

qualitative data analysis process. The process of coding data usually occurs in two cycles.

Cycle one codes are assigned to initial data units while second cycle codes work with the

first cycle codes and attempt to describe a deeper meaning (Miles et al., 2020).

Following, I will describe how I navigated through the two cycles of coding and what

type of codes I was looking for in each cycle.

First Cycle Coding. Miles et al. (2020) described four elemental methods that

serve as the foundation for first cycle codes. These methods are descriptive codes, in vivo

codes, process codes, and concept codes. For this research, I focused on descriptive codes

and in vivo codes. Descriptive codes assign labels to sentences or passages of qualitative
 51

data (Miles et al., 2020). These labels often result in one word or a short phrase, but they

describe a piece of the data in question. I used these codes to describe the various

perspectives my participants shared regarding my topic. In Vivo codes use words or short

phrases from the participant’s own language as a way to code the data (Miles et al.,

2020). These codes are of great use when a study prioritizes a participant’s voice, as was

my intention in my study. Within these two foundation codes, I also employed another

type of code called emotion codes. These codes label the emotions or feelings recalled or

experienced by the participants in the study (Miles et al., 2020). These codes help provide

insight into a participant’s perspectives about a given topic, which I was looking to do in

my study. Once I completed the first cycle coding process, I transitioned into second

cycle coding.

Second Cycle Coding. Second cycle coding, or pattern coding, is a way to

summarize the first cycle codes into categories or themes (Miles et al., 2020). This type

of coding allows the researcher to condense the large amount and various types of first

cycle codes into more manageable, smaller categories or themes. The condensing into

themes or patterns allowed me to make sense of the data and see if any ideas of topics

continue to occur in the various interviews I conducted. Given that I have three sub-cases

in my research, these patterns or themes helped my cross-case analysis. It allowed me to

bridge the gap between the different sub-cases and allowed the themes to permeate

through the entire study, rather than just one individual and their stakeholders. Once I had

gone through the first cycle coding and then condensed the codes into more manageable

patterns through second cycle coding, I incorporated thematic analysis to make sense of

my data.
 52

As a results of my first and second cycle coding, I was able to identify several

themes from my data. My themes arrived from placing my first cycle codes into

categories and then looking for similarities within those categories. Table 3.3 describes

this process from first cycle codes, to categories, to themes.

Table 3.3

Codes and Themes Resulting from Participant Interviews

Second Cycle First Cycle

Theme Participant Quote
Code/Categories Code
Athletic Positives of Benefit of “Typically, those kids who were
Participation Athletics playing a not high performing, they
Allows for sport performed higher as they were
the involved in athletics.”
Development IEP and Sports Sports an “And that’s the thing, track, or
of Social, enhancement any sport for that matter, it helps
Emotional, for an IEP kid a kid that has an IEP, it enhances
and them to kind of tune in to maybe
Academic some deficiencies they may have
Skills and develop them.”
Stakeholder Higher “I just expect more for them
Impact expectations because they should have a
for student- stronger work ethic. They should
athletes be more competitive, they should
want to do better than everyone
else.”
Athletic Leadership Seeing self as “I am a leader. Most of the girls
Participation a leader have never really played and I felt
Leads to the like I was a really good helper for
Building of them to like explain the game.”
Enhancement Student- “I found that student-athletes tend
of athletes as to be leaders in the classroom
Leadership leaders because they’re more alpha.”
Skills Sports “Anything you do when you’re in
enhances a group, large or small, where
leadership you’re trying to cooperate
potential together with someone to
accomplish a goal, it’s definitely
going to benefit them and build
up leadership.”
Athletic Time Time “I think it teaches them to
Participation Management management problem solve and, you know,
 53

leads to the depends on come up with ways to manage

Development the individual their time whereas a lot of kids
and who do not play a sport, don’t get
Refinement that extra practice.”
of Time Better time “So I feel like the ones who don’t
Management management have the time management skills
Skills in-season already in place are kind of using,
having things after school and
extracurricular, as kind of like
forceful time management…”
Sports “…he might be talking about it
enhance time but I really do feel like it’s made,
management it’s impacted him in that way to
be aware of time and schedule
that he needs…”
Resources of Accommodations Classroom “I think the small chunks, the
Supports that accommodati modified work she has, definitely
Help ons helps out especially when she
Student- doesn’t have to cram everything
Athletes with in, and then she is able to
IEPs Succeed memorize a little bit better”
Athletic “I don’t need any support on the
accommodati athletic field. As long as I can see
ons the play run through once or
twice, I’ll know it”
Use of study “…if they had like a study hall
hall that would be really good for
student-athletes to be able to get a
lot of their work done during
school so they didn’t have to
stress about it.”

Cross-Case Analysis

This research was unique in the way it employed the case study approach. The

case of the study was the overall setting, Flint River High School. The sub-cases were the

three individual student-athletes with IEPs and their stakeholders. The cross-case analysis

approach in this study took place between the three individual student-athletes.

According to Miles et al. (2020), using a cross-case approach allows for an increase in

generalizability between the respective cases. This will allow for a chance to see how the
 54

cases view the phenomenon in question and find the similarities or differences they share

in its regard. It is important to note that the generalizability in question is regarding the

case, and the results cannot necessarily be applied to anything outside of the case being

studied (Miles et al., 2020).

Analyzing a study with a cross-case analysis approach first requires a researcher

to analyze one case at a time. A researcher must study this one case in-depth and gather

all of the possible data, codes, and themes it can. Upon completing one case, the

researcher must move on to the next case and study it as intently as the first. This process

will continue in this fashion until all individual cases or sub-cases have been thematically

analyzed, and only then can a cross-case analysis approach take place (Miles et al., 2020).

The use of thematic analysis is a way to analyze qualitative data that emphasizes

identifying, analyzing, and interpreting patterns of meaning of themes (LeCompte, 2000).

I looked for themes in each case, and then, after all of the cases had been analyzed, they

were examined to see whether individual patterns can match each new case. If patterns or

themes were present across multiple cases or sub-cases, this theme could stand as a

possible result and reason to describe the phenomenon being studied (Miles et al., 2020).

This method of exploring each case individually, and then analyzing the cases together is

an efficient way to discover the deeper meaning behind the study’s overall topic.

Trustworthiness

In qualitative research, trustworthiness is used to establish a sense of quality,

rigor, and credibility to the research (Leavy, 2017). The researcher must persuade their

audience that what they are doing is, in fact, valid and worthy of a study. Tracy (2010)

described eight criteria for establishing quality and trustworthiness in qualitative

 55

research. These eight criteria include a worthy topic, rich rigor, sincerity, credibility,

resonance, significant contribution, ethical, and meaningful coherence. A robust

qualitative study will incorporate or address facets of all eight of the criteria mentioned

above. These concepts allow the research to show their potential readers that every aspect

of the research was detailed and performed thoroughly and that the research itself is

reliable (Leavy, 2017). Trustworthiness in qualitative research allows the researcher to

show that their study is worthy of research and that the results can be trusted to be of

sound quality and societal relevance. I aimed to emphasize the ideas of rich rigor,

credibility, and sincerity in this study as described in further detail below.

Rich Rigor

In qualitative research, rich rigor is described as having a complexity of

descriptions and explanations regarding the research and its practices (Tracy, 2010).

Researchers can demonstrate rigor in their research through attention to detail, a thorough

explanation of the methodological processes, and precise evaluation of the collected data

(Tracy, 2010). The amount of time spent in the field and the use of appropriate

procedures are ways that a researcher can demonstrate a topic is both worthy of

exploration and rich and full of rigor.

Tracy (2010) stated that “rigorous analysis is marked by transparency regarding

the process of sorting, choosing, and organizing the data” (p. 841). Through this

description, I plan to attend to the idea of a rich and rigorous study. The best way to

provide a thorough explanation of my methodological processes is to be extremely

comprehensive in my descriptions. I will be detailed in how I plan to conduct my study,

being careful to be descriptive regarding my different strategies. I will also be transparent

 56

in describing and explaining my various data analysis procedures so that any results and

findings can be deemed worthy due to the analysis’s complexity and thoroughness.

Credibility

In research, credibility refers to the trustworthiness and plausibility of the research

findings (Tracy, 2010). Qualitative credibility deals with, among other aspects, thick

description, triangulation, and member checks. Thick description refers to the research of

a study and how that research is portrayed having a sense of depth and one of showing

rather than telling (Tracy, 2010). The idea of depth can also be used in the data gathering

as the more time spent in the field, the more opportunity for observation. Triangulation

refers to the idea that if two or more data sources arrive at the same conclusion, then that

conclusion can be considered credible (Tracy, 2010). The idea behind member checks is

to allow the research participants the opportunity to elaborate on what they have already

said and allow them a chance to clean up any discrepancies (Tracy, 2010). These aspects

of credibility are ways in which research can bring about aspects of trustworthiness into

their research.

As mentioned above, the best way to attend to the notion of credibility in my

research was to provide a thick description of my research and findings, include

triangulation and its ability to lend credibility to a study, and incorporate member checks

to the individuals I interviewed. I incorporated the idea of a thick description based on the

number of interviews I conducted. By gathering the data from these interviews, I had a

large pool of information from which to draw. I let the data talk for itself instead of

having to base the results off of a limited data set. This large pool allowed my findings to

have a better sense of credibility as various findings can be supported by multiple

 57

individuals (Tracy, 2010). By incorporating interviews from students, their guardians,

their teachers, and their coaches, I had a wide net to analyze my findings. Incorporating

the stakeholders’ perspectives allowed me to determine how each group feels about the

given topic. The more groups that feel a certain way, the more credible that particular

finding will be, thus bring a sense of credibility to its conclusion (Tracy, 2010).

As for member checks, the idea behind member checks is to allow the research

participants a chance to make sure their voice is heard (Tracy, 2010). By conducting

member checks, they will allow an individual to be open and honest with their feelings.

These checks can also provide the participants with a chance to re-enforce or re-iterate

anything that they had previously stated (Tracy, 2010). Overall, these member checks

provided a sense of depth and credibility to the research.

Sincerity

Sincerity is a concept a researcher must incorporate in their study to appear

genuine and gain their readers’ overall trust. The idea of being sincere is to be open in all

facets of research (Tracy, 2010). Tracy (2010) described two ways to achieve sincerity

within research: self-reflexivity and transparency. Self-reflexivity involves the researcher

assessing their thoughts and biases related to the topic they are studying. Researchers

who employ self-reflexivity can pay attention to their impact on the data collection

project and take steps to ensure no biases affect the data (Tracy, 2010). Transparency

deals with a researcher being open and honest in every facet of their research (Tracy,

2010). Whether it is the step-by-step process for how the research was conducted or a

detailed explanation of how the data was coded, transparency provides an extra level of

sincerity within one’s research.

 58

As the researcher, I plan to take full advantage of the transparency aspect of

sincerity within my research. First, I made it well known that I was a student-athlete; I

believed that athletics benefit students, and why I chose this specific school as my place

of research. I also provided a step-by-step analysis of how I conducted my research and

gave a detailed explanation of how I coded my data and generated my themes. This show

of authenticity or genuineness will show my readers why I embarked on this research and

be honest and clear about my methods and intentions.

Ethical Considerations

Two important factors that lend a sense of legitimacy to the ethical validity of a

study revolve around the ideas of confidentiality and anonymity. Miles et al. (2020)

described confidentiality as an agreement with a participant as to what can and will be

done with the data collected from them and anonymity as creating a lack of identifiers

and changing of information so that the participants are no longer recognizable in

connection with their collected data. I intend to work within confidentiality constraints by

having the participants read and sign letters of consent. These letters will describe the

study’s intention and how the collected data will be displayed or portrayed. As for

anonymity, in my data analysis writings, I will use pseudonyms for each participant so

that their given names will not be displayed. When working with adolescent participants,

their age and maturity level can prove a challenge when keeping discussions or

conversations confidential. However, to plan for this, I reminded them of their signing of

the confidentiality statement and asked them to keep everything said in their interview

confidential.
 59

Researchers, to gain their participants’ trust, must be upfront and honest regarding

the potential risks or benefits of their research (Leavy, 2017; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).

Allowing a participant to understand the risks and benefits will allow them to be

thoroughly educated about the study. It will bring about a more informed understanding

of their involvement in the study (Miles et al., 2020). There are two ways that I intend to

inform the participants about the potential risk and or benefits associated with my study:

an initial explanation of the study and a letter of consent. First, I will have a conversation

with each participant, both explaining the nature of the study and stating the risks and

benefits so that they may hear them in person. This will also allow them to ask any

relevant questions they may have. The letter of consent will detail the potential risks or

benefits so that the participants will be informed in writing. These avenues will ensure

that the participants know what is involved and expected of them by participating in this

study.

The data collected during a study is an important aspect of the overall research

and should be treated with respect to keeping its essence pure and untarnished (Leavy,

2017; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Miles et al., 2020). This data, whether collected or

analyzed, must be kept in a safe and secure location to maintain its confidentiality (Miles

et al., 2020). Starting with the letter of consent and continuing until the final stage of

analysis, I plan to keep all of the documents and records involved in password-protected

folders and on password-protected devices. I used multiple storage devices, such as a

personal computer, a flash drive, and cloud-based storage. Each of these devices are

password-protected and secure. Any printed documents were put in a file cabinet that was

locked at all times.

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Researcher Role and Relationship

One important characteristic of all qualitative research forms is that “the

researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis” (Merriam & Tisdell,

2016, p. 16). This means that the researcher has an overall and complete emphasis on

collecting the data, analyzing the data, and the subsequent submission of the findings.

Due to this nature, a researcher must be cognizant of any shortcomings or biases that may

impact the overall research (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). These subjectivities are important

for a researcher to address as it will bring to light the ways the data collection and

analysis could be potentially shaped (Preissle, 2012). Subjectivities are an inherent part of

qualitative research. Peshkin (1994) described subjectivities as coming from three aspects

of self: the state of an individual’s being, an individual’s history, and an individual’s

biography. These three aspects are a potential cause of subjectivity and bias and are best

addressed in a study to provide a transparent researcher and analysis process.

As the primary instrument of this study, I addressed who I was in relation to this

study as it provided a sense of transparency and allows the readers to gain an

understanding regarding the relationship(s) I had with the participants of this study and

the experiences or interests that I possessed concerning this topic.

Flint River High School is not only the setting for this study; it is also the high

school where I was employed. I had chosen this setting as I had a positive relationship

with the staff and students at this school. I hoped that these relationships would allow this

study’s participants to be more open during the interview process. It is important to note

that I did know some of the student participants involved in this study and that I did have

both a professional and/or personal relationship will the majority of the teachers and
 61

coaches in this study. These subjectivities were present in my research and I did my best

to ensure that any biases I possessed would have as limited an impact on the study as

possible.

It was also important to note that I had a personal relationship with the topic of

study. When I was in high school, I was a student-athlete. I had a very positive

relationship with my sports and academics, and I felt that being a student-athlete was a

very beneficial and worthwhile practice. I shared some of the same experiences that the

student-athletes I am interviewing went through or may still go through. Aside from

being a teacher, I was also a coach at Flint River High School. I had biases regarding how

I felt student-athletes should conduct themselves and their relationship regarding their

academics and athletics. These biases stemmed from my nine years and three sports

worth of coaching at the high school level. Overall, bringing these biases and

subjectivities to light would hopefully provide a sense of transparency to show the

readers that I was up-front, honest, and as objective as I could be in conducting this

study.
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CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS

The purpose of this study was to investigate the perspectives high school student-

athletes with IEPs and their stakeholders have regarding athletic participation and its

impact on the student-athletes’ academic experience. By conducting semi-structured in-

depth individual and group interviews, I investigated the impact of athletics on these

individuals. This study aimed to gain a deeper understanding of the overall impact sports

participation has on the academic experience of student-athletes with IEPs. This chapter

provides support of the overarching themes and subthemes based on the findings. Using

quality evidence, I provide a detailed explanation and description of my thematic data

analysis by theme pertaining to my research questions.

The research questions that guided this study were as follows:

1. What are student-athletes’ with IEPs perspectives on how athletic participation

impacts their academic experience?

2. What are stakeholders’ perspectives on how athletic participation impacts student-

athletes’ with IEPs academic experience?

3. What types of resources or supports are put in place to help student-athletes with

IEPs succeed?

This chapter is organized by first detailing each individual case. Each case

consists of an individual student-athlete and their respective stakeholders. Then, I provide

 63

details of the cross-case analysis and describe the overarching themes that were

discovered.

Participant Narratives

The following section includes three distinct narratives detailing three student-

athletes and their respective stakeholders; parent, teachers, and coach(es). These

individuals were chosen as they offered unique perspectives as to how participating in

high school sports effects the academic experience of a student-athlete with an IEP. Their

perspectives and those of their stakeholders are detailed below.

Mike: My Team is my Family

Mike is a Junior at Flint River High School. He participates in the sport of track

during the spring semester and is qualified for special education services under the Other

Health Impaired (OHI) designation. The individuals interviewed to provide information

about Mike’s participation in athletics and its effect on his academic experience are

described in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1

Participants and Roles for Mike

The Student The Parent The Teachers The Coach

Mike Amanda Jessica Jared
Sydney
Tony

Research Question 1: Student Athlete’s Perspectives

Mike, at the time of this study, was competing in his second track season. During

his time at Flint River High School, Mike was always interested in participating in sports,

but due to his physical limitations and disabilities stemming from his early childhood, he
 64

could never find the right sport. Many of the sports required tryouts, and for someone

who was new and fresh, he was unlikely to make the team. However, “track is one of

those few sports that you don’t have to try out for” (Mike, Student Interview 1). Mike

also stated that unlike other sports at his school, track was one where you were welcomed

to join the team even if it was your first year participating. Aside from the physical nature

of sports participation, Mike’s main driving force behind choosing track as his sport of

choice was “the family aspect that the team brings” (Mike, Student Interview 1). This

family aspect and wanting to be a part of something bigger than himself was why Mike

chose to participate in track and why he will continue his participation into his Senior

year.

Academic progress has always been a struggle for Mike. While he has never

failed a class, his grades are typically in the below-average to average range. By his

admission, Mike will tell you that his academics are not his strong suit and that he does

not always try his hardest when it comes to his classes. However, when comparing his

grades from in-season to out-of-season, there is a marked difference. When discussing his

academics, Mike stated that he “overall did better in the fall” (Student Interview 2). It

should be noted; at Flint River High School, track is a Spring sport. So, for Mike, the Fall

would be his off-season. Mike went on to say that he felt the off-season was overall

easier than the Spring. One of the main reasons for his improved grades in the off-season

stem from the lessened structure of his schedule allowing him more time to get his

schoolwork completed. Overall, according to Mike, his grades were not horrible during

his season of play, but there was a distinct difference between the two semesters.
 65

The concept of leadership is a quality that can be innate in some but can be

learned or built in others. Overall, participation in sports gives the student-athletes

involved the chance to experience various leadership opportunities throughout its scope.

When asked if Mike considers himself a leader, he responded humbly by stating, “I feel

like I have the experience to lead, and I will take on the title of a leader, but I’m not ready

for that title just yet” (Student Interview 1). So while Mike does feel that he can be and is

a leader in some regards, he is not fully ready for all the responsibility that it entails. It is

interesting to note, that in our second interview Mike stated that his leadership skills had

increased as the season wore on and that he was able to step up in certain scenarios and

take on more responsibility.

In both interviews with Mike, I asked him the same question; what is the most

challenging aspect of being a student-athlete? In both interviews, his answer dealt with

the concept of time management. By his admission, time management was a concept that

Mike struggled with throughout the school year. Interestingly enough, while Mike stated

his grades were better in his off-season, he had better time management skills during his

season of play. He said that “the overall structure of my schedule during track kept me

more organized and on top of my work” (Student Interview 2). I found it interesting that

while he had more structure and organization during his season of play, his grades were

lower. He explained that overall it was a time crunch to get everything done during his

season, and it often required extra motivation to make sure everything was completed and

turned in on time.
 66

Research Question 2: Stakeholder’s Perspectives

The second research question deals with the stakeholders’ perspectives of the

impact of athletic participation on the academic experience. As described in Table 4.1

above, for this study, I interviewed Mike’s mother, three of his teachers (English, history,

and math), and his throwing coach for track. Their perspectives follow below.

Parent. Mike’s mother has eight children, some of them biological and others

adopted, like Mike. Some of her children had IEPs like Mike, while others were

considered gifted, so she provided me quality information on not just Mike but her

overall perspectives on this topic. Regarding Mike’s academics, Amanda stated that she

could definitely see a difference in that “the idea of sports, it just really brings him to life

… but it’s really easy for him to have his grades slip as well” (Parent Interview). While

she is happy with the mental and physical changes that occur from Mike playing sports,

she realizes that while Mike is in-season, sports do negatively impact his overall grades.

When asked about the concept of leadership in sports, Amanda not only said that

track participation enhanced his leadership skills, but “it’s given him a place where he

feels like he really has something to offer” (Parent Interview). Not only has she seen a

marked improvement in Mike’s willingness to take charge and lead some of his younger

teammates, but she has also seen an improvement in his overall confidence. There are

many types of leaders, both in life and on a sports team, and Mike’s participation in track

is helping him to gain valuable life skills in a small and contained environment.

The concept of time management and building these skills through sports

participation brought a smile to Amanda’s face when I asked about Mike having these

skills. She opted to call them “emerging” as they were not quite there, but they were
 67

improving. She did say, “I do believe that he is better at [time management] with track,

in-season” (Amanda, Parent Interview). She also commented that he is more mindful of

his schedule and that participating in track causes Mike to be more aware of his time and

more aware of what needs to be done and when it needs to be done. Overall, participation

in sports is helping Mike to build and enhance his time management skills.

Teachers. The three teachers of Mike that were interviewed for this study were

his English teacher Sydney, his history teacher Tony, and his math teacher Jessica. This

was Sydney’s third year teaching Mike as she was the resource English teacher for Flint

River High School. This was Tony’s first year with Mike, but he has taught U.S. history

for over a decade. Lastly, Jessica had taught Mike previously in his tenth-grade math

support class, so she was very familiar with him.

Regarding Mike’s academics, all of his teachers agree that he struggles during his

season of play. When asked if sports participation affects his grades, Jessica replied,

“Yeah, I think it does” (Teacher Interview). While his teachers agreed that his grades are

not overall fantastic, they do see a difference if they compare the grades from his Fall

semester to his Spring semester. They all made mention that he would score better overall

during his off-season and they attributed this change to his schedule. They felt that with

the extra amount of time not dedicated to a sport, he is able to focus more on his

academics and perform better overall.

When asked about the concept of leadership among student-athletes, the teachers

felt that “kids that play sports would take on leadership roles” (Tony, Teacher Interview).

Overall, his teachers agreed that those individuals who are student-athletes tend to be the

leaders in the classroom. They felt this stemmed from the idea that these individuals are
 68

used to working in teams and used to taking charge, so it would naturally overflow into

the classroom. Interestingly though, they were also all in agreement that Mike was not a

leader in the classroom. They said that while he participates in the classroom, they would

classify him more as a follower than a leader.

When asked what the biggest challenge is of being a student-athlete, all three

teachers replied with some form of time management. Overall the teachers found that

student-athletes do a better job of managing their time than their non-sport playing peers;

however, much like with Mike, they also tend to do better with these skills while they are

in season. Jessica stated that “the structure and the constant deadline of keeping a very

tight schedule, helps them to stay more organized” (Teacher Interview). They also agreed

that while Mike did not have the best time management skills, they did see an

improvement while he was in-season compared to his off-season.

Coach. Mike’s coach, Jared, has coached Mike for both of his track seasons and

taught Mike in one of his elective classes for two years. Jared has been a coach of track

for a total of 23 years. His expertise spans different schools and different grade levels, so

his insight into the impact of sports on a student-athlete with an IEP comes from an

extensive collection of knowledge. When I asked Jared about his knowledge of Mike’s

grades, he was unsure of how Mike was progressing in his classes. He said that he will do

informal grade checks periodically and will always work with the teachers if a student-

athlete needs help in an academic area. Jared stated that his coaching duties allow him to

be the “bridge between the athletics and the academics” (Coach Interview). I took this to

mean that he considers himself the in-between person and that it is his job to make sure
 69

that the athletics and the academics are working in harmony and that neither area is

taking away from the other.

Jared was emphatic when discussing the concept of athletics and leadership:

“without a doubt, sports are definitely going to benefit the athlete and build up leadership

skills” (Coach Interview). He went on to say that there are many different forms of

leadership and that being a leader does not always mean that you are the person in

charge. He believes that Mike benefits from this type of leadership role. Mike is not an

overall leader on the team, but he does exhibit leadership skills in small instances and is

given opportunities to lead that he will sometimes use to his advantage. Overall, through

sports participation, Mike is able to both gain confidence and build his leadership skills.

When asked about the concept of time management, Jared stated that as a coach,

“we don’t go to a lot of depth with that” (Coach Interview). He explained that he does not

want to step on the teacher’s toes, so it is not a concept that he gets involved with

regarding his student-athletes. When asked his opinion on time management skills of

those with an IEP compared to those without, he said it would depend on the individual.

Overall, he feels that sports are an enhancement for a special needs student because it

gets them involved and helps build their confidence and various other interpersonal skills.

Research Question 3: Resources and Supports

In interviewing all of the participants involved with Mike, I learned that several

accommodations or supports are either utilized or can be utilized to help Mike succeed

both in and out of the classroom. When I asked Mike about the supports that he found

helpful, he mentioned learning or testing in a small group setting and extended time on

assignments or assessments as two of the main ones he uses. Mike felt that he was able to
 70

learn better when he was in a smaller group and that he was able to get extra help from

the teacher. Mike’s teachers also agreed that a small group setting for learning or testing

was beneficial for Mike as it allowed him additional support from a teacher or to feel less

stressed when taking an assessment.

When it came to extra time, there was an interesting difference between Mike and

his teachers. Mike stated that extra time on tests and projects helped him to feel less

stressed and rushed. He said that when it came to extra time on projects, he would “use it

to my advantage when I absolutely have to” (Mike, Student Interview 1). His teachers,

however, stated that while he does have an accommodation for extended time on tests

(not projects), he never used it and would often rush through a test to finish it. However,

his teachers did state that he would be more successful in class if he would slow down

and use the extra time given to him.

His teachers provided me with a few other supports that they found would help

Mike to succeed. However, the interesting aspect of these supports is that they were not

mentioned by Mike and provide an insight into the different thoughts between student

and teacher. Jessica mentioned that preferential seating, not necessarily in the front but

close to the teacher, is a useful support as it helps to keep Mike focused and on task. At

the same time, Sydney said that his ability to have assessments read aloud to him, while

not used by Mike, would help him slow down during assessments and potentially offer

him the chance to earn higher scores (Teacher Interview 1). When asked about supports,

Mike’s mother merely mentioned that they provide any necessary help at home, though

nothing specific was mentioned, and his coach stated that he would allow Mike to miss

practice if he needed to stay with a teacher and make-up missing assignments or to get
 71

caught up on missing work. Overall, whether the supports mentioned above are currently

utilized or not, they are designed to help Mike succeed in and out of the classroom.

Ashley: Athletics are a Big Part of my Life

Ashley is a Freshman at Flint River High School. She participates in the sports of

cross country in the Fall semester, swimming spanning parts of both the Fall and the

Spring semester, and lacrosse during the Spring semester. She is qualified for special

education services under the Specific Learning Disability (SLD) designation. The

individuals interviewed to provide information about her participation in athletics and its

effect on her academic experience are described in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2

Participants and Roles for Ashley

The Student The Parent The Teachers The Coaches

Ashley Julie Maggie Emily
Madison Kristen

Research Question 1: Student-Athlete’s Perspectives

At the time of this study, Ashley was competing in her second cross country and

lacrosse season and her first swimming season. Ashley took advantage of a Flint River

policy where eighth-graders can participate in high school sports if their middle school

does not offer the sport, which resulted in her second year of cross country and lacrosse

as a freshman. Ashely began playing sports later in her life due to a non-cancerous brain

tumor. When asked about the tumor, Ashley said, “the surgery was when I was in sixth

grade…they removed all of the tumor” (Student Interview 1). She admitted that looking

back, she now realizes how serious the situation was, but that she did not think anything

of it at the time. Ashely went on to say that “after my surgery, I wanted to start playing a
 72

sport, and I chose lacrosse” (Student Interview). Now that she was finally able to

participate in sports fully, she jumped at the opportunity to start lacrosse in seventh grade,

cross country in eighth grade, and swimming in ninth grade. Overall, the physical nature

of playing sports draws her to compete at the high school level and motivates her to play

into her college years.

Ashley is very aware that she must maintain good grades to move on to the next

grade in school and to continue to participate in high school athletics. She will tell you

that her grades are generally in the mid to high C range, though she would be extremely

happy if she could get her average in the B range. Ashley’s schedule is different in that

she is always playing a sport. So rather than discuss if her off-season was different than

her in-season, we talked about which sport allowed for the most academic success. When

asked about the different seasons, Ashley replied with “cross country was a lot easier to

get stuff done than lacrosse. Swim was in the middle and lacrosse was definitely the

hardest” (Student Interview 1). Ashely explained that cross country and swimming were

easier because she “felt less stressed and had more time to focus on schoolwork” (Student

Interview 2). Her grades were fairly consistent during the cross country and swimming

seasons, but there was a slight decline in her academics during the lacrosse season,

mainly due to her packed schedule and a greater level of stress. Overall, her academics

were average, but the season that required the most time resulted in the lowest grades.

The concept of leadership in high school is one that can manifest in different

ways. Leadership on the field and leadership in the classroom are two different ideas and

do not necessarily translate to one another. When I talked to Ashley about this concept,

she gave me two very different answers. For one, in our first interview, when I asked her
 73

if she was a leader, she responded by saying, “I’m definitely not a leader in any of my

classes” (Student Interview 1). However, when we talked about leadership roles in our

second interview, which occurred after the season, she said, “while I was hesitant to call

myself a leader at the beginning of the lacrosse season, now I would say that I am one of

the leaders on the team” (Student Interview 2). While the confidence to be a leader in the

classroom has not necessarily matured, participating in a sport has helped grow and

enhance her leadership skills. So that at the time of our second interview, Ashley feels

that she is a leader on the team and relishes the opportunity to help those younger than

her learn and grow in the sport.

In every interview I conducted, I asked each participant what the most

challenging aspect of being a student-athlete was. When I posed this questions to Ashley,

her answer dealt with time management in both of her interviews. By her admission,

Ashley said she often did pretty well with time management. She described a system

where she “keeps track of all my work on post-it notes, and I write down what’s due,

what I have to do, and I put it on my door because I always close my door” (Student

Interview 1). She says that this system has been refined and is working well for her

during high school. During our second interview, I asked how the system worked during

her most challenging season, and she said it was still working well. She stated that “the

post-its work better for me in the Spring because I am much busier, and they help to keep

me on track” (Student Interview 2). She also stated that her overall time management was

better during this busier time because everything was organized and kept on a consistent

schedule. While it was a more stressful time, she could stay on top of her work and get

everything turned in on time.

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Research Question 2: Stakeholder’s Perspectives

The second research question deals with the stakeholders’ perspectives of the

impact of athletic participation on the academic experience. As described in Table 4.2,

for this study, I interviewed Ashley’s mother, two of her teachers (math and science), and

her coaches for swimming and lacrosse. You can find their perspectives below.

Parent. Ashley’s mother has two adopted children, one with a gifted

classification (her son) and one with a special education classification (Ashley). Given

that Julie was also a student-athlete when she was in high school, she provided me with a

unique perspective regarding this topic. When we discussed the academic progress of

Ashley, Julie said that “last quarter she was passing everything, and then this quarter her

grades were really slipping” (Parent Interview). The last quarter referred to the Fall

season, where cross country was taking place, and the current quarter was during the

lacrosse season. Much like her daughter, Julie noticed and felt that the grades for Ashely

were worse during lacrosse and better during cross country. She said that the decrease in

grades is not worth taking her daughter out of the sport, but she did notice the difference.

Julie’s perspective regarding the concept of leadership in her daughter had two

viewpoints. When asked about Ashley being a leader in the classroom, her mother stated,

“in the general sense of the word, I don’t think Ashley is a leader” (Julie, Parent

Interview). She said that Ashley was too shy to speak up and is often a people pleaser,

and not one to go against the grain. However, when the conversation turned towards the

field of play, Julie said that “as far as leading, Ashley is leading her team” (Parent

Interview). Much like her daughter, Julie felt that the classroom leadership skills were not
 75

necessarily present, but the athletics leadership skills continued to grow and become

enhanced through her sports participation.

Much like leadership, the concept of time management has two distinct

viewpoints according to Julie. She stated that “when it comes to sports, there is no

question, her time management is right on target” (Parent Interview). But when I inquired

further about Ashley’s time management when it came to school, Amanda described it as

“a little bit of a struggle” (Parent Interview). Overall, Ashley is staying on top of her

tasks, but her grades and assignments can sometimes suffer due to her loaded schedule.

Julie felt that participating in sports overall helped her daughter build on and enhance her

time management skills.

Teachers. The two teachers of Ashley’s that were interviewed for this study were

her math teacher Maggie and her science teacher Madison. This was the first year

teaching and working with Ashley for both of them.

When I asked Ashley’s teachers about her academics, both teachers agreed that

she struggles with her grades year-round but is more focused during her Spring semester,

where Ashley participates in lacrosse. Madison said that Ashley “struggles to understand

a lot of things, but she excels in group work and works well with a team” (Teacher

Interview). Maggie followed this by saying that “while she is performing average, she is

a really hard worker” (Teacher Interview). So overall, while Ashley’s grades are not the

best, there are some areas where we can see success, and the work ethic helps carry her

during her most challenging of seasons.

When I asked Madison and Maggie about the concept of leadership among

student-athletes, Madison responded by saying that “being a student-athlete definitely

 76

builds the leadership trait within an individual” (Teacher Interview). When I pressed

further to ask if sports participation is affecting Ashley’s leadership potential, Maggie

said that Ashley “is a quiet leader in the classroom. She is not going to be the one to

answer questions, but she works hard and puts in a lot of effort” (Teacher Interview). It

was clear that both teachers felt that being a student-athlete allowed for the potential to

gain leadership traits and that Ashley, while not overall a leader, was making strides in

that category.

When I mentioned time management to Ashley’s teachers, Maggie immediately

stated that sports participation is wonderful for developing time management. She said

that “I see it in the classroom as soon as they start the activity, bam the work goes up. I

can see it automatically, especially in special Ed” (Maggie, Teacher Interview). Madison

also agreed that a student-athlete’s time management skills were enhanced during the

season of play. In the case of Ashley, while they saw quality aspects of time management

throughout the year, they really saw her shine with this concept during her lacrosse

season. When Ashley was her most busy, her teachers felt that her time management

skills were the greatest.

Coach. The two coaches of Ashley interviewed for this study were Emily, her

swimming coach, and Kristen, her lacrosse coach. This was Emily’s first year with

Ashley, but she has been coaching for many years, and this was Kristen’s second year

coaching Ashley in lacrosse. When I asked these two coaches about their knowledge of

Ashley’s grades, both knew that her grades were in the average range. Kristen said that

“for lacrosse, we do grade checks, and we encourage our girls that they are a student

first” (Coach Interview). Emily agreed, stating that she emphasized grades with Ashley
 77

and all of her athletes. I took this to mean that while these coaches do not overly focus on

their athlete’s grades, they make sure they stay on track and do their best to keep them

accountable.

Emily and Kristen agreed that sports participation could help enhance and build

the quality of leadership within an individual. Emily described leadership in sports as

“one where there are different styles of leadership. There are those who are in charge, and

then there are those behind the scenes that still lead” (Coach Interview). Kristen agreed

with this sentiment and said that Ashley was not the kind of leader that would take charge

and tell people what to do, but that “Ashley is a leader on the field in how she carries

herself and with the work ethic she brings to the sport” (Coach Interview). Both coaches

felt that Ashley, through her sports participation, was building and developing her

leadership skills and potential, and they both can’t wait to see her progress into the next

season.

The concept of time management was brought up many times in my interview

with Emily and Kristen. Emily believes that “while it depends on the character of the

individual, sports often forces individuals to learn time management skills” (Coach

Interview). Kristen felt the same way: “playing sports helps with the time management

and the real world time management skills of a player” (Coach Interview). She also said

that she believed Ashley had good time management skills due to her always being on

time and always having what she needed to play. Overall, both coaches felt that

participation in sports could enhance the time management skills of a student-athlete.

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Research Question 3: Resources and Supports

When I interviewed all of the participants involved with Ashley, I learned that

there are several accommodations or general supports that either can be utilized or

already are utilized that are designed to help Ashley succeed. When I asked Ashley about

the supports that she found helpful, she mentioned learning or testing in a small group

environment and extended time on her assessments as two of the main accommodations

she utilizes (Student Interview 1). Ashley said that the small group setting, especially on

tests, helps her feel less stressed and allows her to take her tests with fewer distractions.

Ashley’s teachers also agreed, and they felt that Ashley benefitted from the small group

testing and the small group instruction because they were better able to make sure she

was successful when they had her in a small group instruction setting.

Both Ashley and her teachers agreed that having extended time on her tests was

an important accommodation for Ashley to achieve success in the classroom. Ashley

said, “extended time on tests lets me slow down and take my time. I feel less stress

knowing that I have extra time if I need it” (Student Interview 1). Maggie, her math

teacher, agreed with this sentiment and said that “the extended time on tests allows

Ashley to really slow down and go over each question step by step. It gives her the

opportunity to take her time” (Teacher Interview). Madison agreed with this and

mentioned that she almost always uses her extended time when it comes to her tests.

Her teachers provided me with some extra supports that Ashley has in her IEP but

does not necessarily utilize to her advantage. Maggie mentioned that due to Ashley’s

cognitive functions being slightly hindered from her brain surgery, she feels that Ashley

would be more successful on her tests if she utilized her read-aloud accommodation.
 79

“Being able to hear someone else say the words, and not having to read them herself, I

think that would truly benefit her on her tests” (Maggie, Teacher Interview). Madison

also mentioned that encouraging Ashley to self-advocate for herself would also be a good

strategy to help her succeed. She said that “I feel Ashley would be more successful if she

would ask more questions” (Madison, Teacher Interview). While self-advocacy is not an

accommodation, but more of a goal, the sentiment is still important. Overall, whether

used by Ashley or not, the supports are designed to help Ashley succeed both in and out

of the classroom.

Kate: Sports are What I Love to Do

Kate is a Sophomore at Flint River High School. She participates in the sport of

track during the Spring semester. She is qualified for special education services under the

Other Health Impaired (OHI) designation. The individuals interviewed to provide

information about her participation in athletics and its effect on her academic experience

are described in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3

Participants and Roles for Kate

The Student The Parent The Teachers The Coach

Kate Megan Jessica Nate
Kristen
Matt

Research Question 1: Student-Athlete’s Perspectives

Kate, at the time of this study, was competing in her second track season. When I

asked her about the term student-athlete, Kate said, “I would consider myself an athletic

student rather than a student-athlete. I have always played sports since I was five”
 80

(Student Interview 1). I found this statement interesting and I pressed Kate further as to

what she meant. She said that a student-athlete was one that focused more on the

academics rather than the athletics. Sports were something to do in their free time. But an

athletic student was someone who prided themselves on their athletic abilities rather than

their academic skills. This type of person understands that academics are important, but

their focus is mainly on their athletics (Kate, Student Interview 1). Kate loves to compete

in athletics and has participated in many sports, including cheerleading, swimming,

ballet, and gymnastics. She even told me that she would be trying out for the school

softball team next year. When I asked her why the sport of softball, her response was,

“because my family did it and it’s a new sport, so a new experience for me” (Kate,

Student Interview 2). She truly loves to participate in athletic events and provided me

with a unique perspective on sports’ effect on the academic experience.

Kate will tell you that she is doing well in her classes as she maintains a B

average. However, when she compares her grades during her off-season to during her

season, there is a distinct difference in both her scores and her mindset. Kate says, “I do

better during the Fall because I don’t have track taking up all of my time” (Student

Interview 1). Kate admitted that her grades are higher during her off-season mainly

because she is less stressed and has more time with which to work on and study for

school. Interestingly though, her mindset towards her grades is different. Kate says, “I

focus more on my grades during the track season. My grades are lower, but I try harder”

(Student Interview 2). When I asked her to explain, she said that the extra time in the off-

season makes it easier to do her schoolwork, but she does not really focus on it. But,
 81

when it comes to track season, she has to make time for her academics and works hard to

stay on top of her grades.

Sports participation provides an excellent opportunity for individuals to work on

and enhance their leadership skills. When I asked Kate about her role as a leader, she said

that she was a leader “mainly on the track. And if I would count out of school, I would

say out of school, too” (Student Interview 1). She said that because this was not her first

year on the track team, the younger athletes looked up to her and looked for her guidance

on how they should be acting and performing. She also said because she is the oldest in

her family, her siblings look up to her and she is relied on by her parents to help out

around the house. I asked her if playing a sport has helped enhance her leadership skills,

and she said that “playing sports gives me the chance to lead and learn how to lead”

(Student Interview 2). Overall, through her sports participation, Kate has learned how to

be a better leader.

Like many of the participants before her, Kate told me that one of the most

challenging aspects of being a student-athlete was dealing with time management. She

did say that while keeping on top of things can be difficult, participating in track helps

teach her how to manage everything. Kate said that “I feel like I am more organized and

on top of stuff in the Spring because track is there” (Student Interview 2). Even though

her schedule is full and she is busier during the track season, her time management skills

are better. The constant schedule of having the day planned out helps Kate to stay on top

of her work. She said that the extra time in the Fall does not necessarily mean she fills it

with school work and that “at times, I feel like I am lazier during the Fall because there is
 82

less to do” (Student Interview 1). Overall, sports are helping to develop Kate’s time

management skills.

Research Question 2: Stakeholder’s Perspectives

The second research question deals with the stakeholders’ perspectives of the

impact of athletic participation on the academic experience. As described in Table 4.3,

for this study, I interviewed Kate’s mother, three of her teachers (history, math, and math

support), and her track coach. You can find their perspectives below.

Parent. Kate’s mother, Megan, has eight children, seven of them being boys and

Kate being the only girl. Megan was a student-athlete throughout high school and

college, so her perspectives on this topic were intriguing and unique. I asked Megan how

Kate was doing with her academics, and she said that overall, “Kate does well in school. I

don’t really see too much of a difference between the Fall and Spring semester” (Parent

Interview). Megan said that her daughter is more aware of her grades during the Spring

semester when track occurs because there is more of an excuse to let them slip. However,

Kate will come to Megan and let her know if she feels overwhelmed and needs to take a

break. Megan also mentioned that they have and are willing to get a tutor to help Kate if

the situation ever arises. Megan feels that sports are good for Kate, and any detriments

experienced because of athletics are negligible.

When Megan and I talked about the concept of leadership, I could tell that she

was very proud of her daughter. First off, Megan said that “athletic participation

definitely enhances the leadership potential of an individual” (Parent Interview). She sees

this enhancement in her daughter and stated that she often views Kate leading her peers

out on the track, whether during practice or a meet. She also said that Kate is a leader at
 83

home and helps out with her younger siblings. Megan said, “Kate has always been a

leader, but since she began playing sports for Flint River, I have definitely noticed a

change in her leadership skills for the better” (Parent Interview). Overall, by Kate

running on the track team, she gains valuable lessons in being a leader.

When I asked Megan about the time management skills of her daughter, she said

that generally, they were pretty good compared to her peers and siblings. Megan said that

“Kate definitely has more time in the Fall when she’s not in track. She is able to help out

more around the house” (Parent Interview). However, when it came to the Spring season

when track was in full swing, “Kate better manages her time in Spring because it is more

of a packed schedule” (Parent Interview). So, much like her daughter, Megan also feels

that even though things are busier during the track season, Kate shows that she can cope

with the stress of the tight schedule and ultimately have better time management skills

during it. Overall, through participation in sports, Kate learns valuable time management

strategies to succeed in her daily life.

Teachers. Kate’s three teachers interviewed for this study were her history

teacher, Kristen, her math teacher Matt, and her math support teacher Jessica. This was

Matt’s second year with Kate, as he taught her Algebra 1 the previous school year. This is

the first year that both Kristen and Jessica have taught or worked with Kate.

When I asked Kate’s teachers about her academic performance in their classes,

they all said that she was an average student, and her scores ranged from the high C’s to

the low B’s. Kristen said that “she is a good student. I never have had an issue with her,

and she is pretty much always fantastic” (Teacher Interview). I inquired further and asked

her teachers if they noticed a difference in her grades from when she was in-season
 84

compared to when she was in her off-season. Both Kristen and Jessica agreed that her

grades were definitely better, but Matt, her math teacher, said that “I wouldn’t say they

were like a lot better, because I remember her having some issues last semester” (Teacher

Interview). So, all the teachers agree that the grades are better during the off-season; the

only difference is the degree to which the grades are higher. Overall, Kate performs well,

and while track can impact her grades in the Spring, she still maintains passing scores.

When asked about the concept of leadership among student-athletes, Kate’s

teachers felt that “student-athletes tend to be leaders in the classroom because they’re

more alpha” (Jessica, Teacher Interview). Overall, all of her teachers felt that

participating in a sport was a great way to build or enhance the leadership qualities of an

individual. And even though Kate participated in a sport, when asked if her teachers

considered her a leader, they responded by saying no. Matt said that “she is more on the

shy end in class and does not overly volunteer or lead in the classroom” (Teacher

Interview). So while participation in athletics can lead to the building or enhancing of

leadership skills, these skills do not translate for Kate into the classroom.

All of Kate’s teachers agreed that time management skills were crucial for

student-athletes to have to be successful in the classroom. They all agree that

participating in a sport requires time management skills, but it truly depends on the

individual student as to how successful they can be. Kristen said that “those with good

time management skills, sports helps to enhance those skills and makes them focus even

more” (Teacher Interview). Along with that point, Jessica said, “those students who

struggle with time management, and especially those with IEPs, can often be hindered by

sports as they are not quite mature enough to balance the two” (Teacher Interview). So
 85

while Kate’s teachers believed that sports could help build time management skills if

properly utilized, sports can also further hinder a student-athlete if they already struggle

with the concept.

Coach. This is Nate’s first year at Flint River High School, and thus his first year

coaching Kate in track. However, by his admission, “I consider myself a track guru.

Track is a way of life for me, and I have been involved with it since I was eight years

old” (Nate, Coach Interview). He has coached and participated in track at all levels, even

extending into the college and professional circuits. His knowledge was very beneficial to

this study. When I asked Nate about his knowledge of Kate’s grades he was unsure how

she was progressing in her classes. He said that he has spent this year trying to build up

the program and has failed at the aspect of checking in on a student-athlete’s grades.

However, he did say that participation in high school athletics “by far has a positive

effect on the academics of a student-athlete” (Nate, Coach Interview). So while he may

not know the exact grades of Kate, he felt very strongly that the academics of an

individual benefit from sports participation.

When I asked Nate what being a student-athlete meant to him, one of his

responses was, “I have a person that’s a leader, has leadership abilities” (Coach

Interview). He felt very strongly that being a student-athlete allows an individual to build

or gain valuable leadership skills. Nate prides himself on putting his athletes in positions

to be leaders. He feels that it gives his athletes a new outlook. This may involve allowing

different people to lead warm-ups or various workouts or drills, but he makes sure if a

student-athlete wants to be a leader, they are given an opportunity to do so. When I asked

if Kate was a leader, he said that while she was not considered one at the beginning of the
 86

season, she has definitely stepped up and gained some quality leadership skills. He says

she has grown and continues to grow, and he cannot wait to see her in a leadership role

next season.

Another response in Nate’s definition of a student-athlete included “a person that

knows and is experienced with time management” (Coach Interview). He said that to

have a student-athlete is to have someone who can manage their time accurately and

succeed in both the classroom and on the field of play. Nate feels that sports participation

enhances the time management skills of an individual because “they have so much to do,

and so much to keep track of. Playing a sport forces an athlete to manage their time”

(Coach Interview). I asked him if he felt that students were better with their time

management skills in the off-season or during their season, and he said it carries over.

Having time management skills is habitual, and if students create the proper habits during

the season, it will carry over to their off-season.

Research Questions 3: Resources and Supports

In interviewing all of the participants for Kate, I learned that several

accommodations or supports are either utilized or can be utilized to help Kate succeed

both in and out of the classroom. When I asked Kate about the supports that she found

helpful, she mentioned learning or testing in a small group setting, extended time on

assessments, and read-aloud on assessments as three of the main ones she uses (Student

Interview 1). Kate felt that learning or testing in a small group allowed fewer distractions

to hinder her learning or thinking. She felt that when she was in a bigger classroom with

more students, she got distracted easily, and this caused her grades to suffer. She also

preferred the more one-on-one attention she received when she was in a smaller group
 87

instead of being in the bigger classroom with more students trying to gain the teacher’s

attention.

Extended time on assessments was a support that was mentioned by Kate, her

teachers, and her mother as very beneficial for Kate. “The extra time allows Kate to feel

less anxious and stressed when she is taking a test. It really helps to lessen her anxiety”

(Megan, Parent Interview). Her teachers also agreed and said that she almost always uses

her extended time on her tests. They made sure to point out that it was used not because

she did not understand the material but because she liked to take her time and recheck all

of her answers to make sure they were correct. Kate also mentioned that she likes the

extra time because it takes a little bit of the pressure off taking the test and allows her to

relax and focus.

One last accommodation that both Kate and her teachers mentioned as beneficial

was having assessments read aloud to her. Kate said that she likes when tests are read to

her because “when someone reads it, and it’s like you are really listening to them. I have

to focus more, and it helps me understand it more” (Student Interview 2). Kristen says

that Kate often asks if she can use the read-aloud function, even for class assignments.

“Kate just feels comfortable with either a person or the computer reading the material to

her. I am sure she is being over-served, but if it helps, it helps” (Kristen, Teacher

Interview). When Kristen mentions Kate being over-served, she is referencing the goals

in Kate’s IEP and that the extent to which Kate uses the read-aloud is not as stated, but

she is not going to tell a student no if something is helping them learn. Overall, all parties

agree that allowing Kate to have the material read aloud allows her the opportunity to

focus more and ultimately be more successful.

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Cross-Case Analysis

During my second coding phase, I began to identify specific patterns or repeated

codes. Throughout my data, I identified four major themes that support my research

questions: Theme 1 deals with the development of interpersonal, emotional, and

academic skills. Theme 2 involves the building or enhancement of leadership skills.

Theme 3 deals with an overall enhancement and benefit to time management skills.

Lastly, theme 4 contains the implementation of quality and valuable accommodations that

can lead to success. I discuss theme 1 first, as the development of these skills impact all

areas of the student-athletes in this study. Themes 2 and 3 are more specific benefits of

athletic participation, and I felt they paired well after discussing the above skill

development. Lastly, I close with theme 4. This theme deals with resources or supports

that help student-athletes with IEPs succeed. This particular theme permeates throughout

the other three, and I felt it was a fitting way to conclude the effect that sports

participation has on the academic experience.

Theme 1: Athletic Participation Allows for the Development of Interpersonal,

Emotional, and Academic Skills

Participants in this study overwhelmingly agreed that participating in a high

school sport has an overall positive effect on the individuals involved. This positive effect

extends to many important aspects of the student-athlete, including a development of

their interpersonal, emotional, and academic skills. These positive benefits create an

overall more optimistic individual set up to succeed both in and out of school.
 89

Figure 4.1

Theme 1: Athletic Participation Allows for the Development of Interpersonal, Emotional,

and Academic Skills

Through my interviews, I found that participating in high school sports greatly

benefited the development of the interpersonal skills of the student-athletes involved in

this study. Overall, participation in a high school sport allowed these students to feel

connected to their school and experience a sense of camaraderie and accountability with

their teammates that outpaced merely sitting in a classroom. Kate’s mother, Megan,

summed up the benefits of sports by saying, “I think it builds up her self-esteem and

confidence as a person” (Parent Interview). Mike’s mother, Amanda, also mentioned that

when Mike is participating in sports, he seems more alive and sports participation “just

really brings him to life” (Parent Interview). The overall benefit explained by these two

mothers shows that sports go beyond just the physical aspects of the game. I found the

sense of school connectedness and ability to work with others allowed these student-

athletes to experience something positive and worthwhile in a school setting. It allowed

these individuals an opportunity to work with peers, in a controlled environment, where

they are able to experience success and defeat, as well as positive and negative
 90

relationships with others, all in a manner that can help them to build and enhance their

own interpersonal skills.

Mental health and wellness is an important aspect for any individual, let alone a

student-athlete. According to the individuals in this study, participating in high school

sports gives the student-athletes involved a chance to improve their mental health and

allow them to experience success. When asked if there should be a difference in the

experience of success between a student with an IEP and one without, Nate, Kate’s

coach, stated, “it shouldn’t be a difference at all. It should be all the same. It should look

like the same thing” (Coach Interview). Emily, Ashley’s coach expanded on this idea

stating “students with IEPs often need the success experienced from sports more.

Sometimes, it is the only success these kids get to experience” (Coach Interview). To me,

I found these statements impactful, as they present an idea that was not often brought up.

The success that these individuals are a part of can often have a profound effect on their

overall high school experience. If these students struggle in school, sometimes they may

need that added positivity and success gained from sports to keep them going. This kind

of thought process can certainly add to their mental health and emotional wellbeing.

When asked about the overall academic success of a student-athlete, all three

groups of teachers were emphatic in their proclamation that students who participated in

athletics often outscored or performed better than their non-sport-playing counterparts.

Madison said that she feels “like all kids should be involved in some sort of sport and

those that are, often see a higher academic performance and an overall growth in the

classroom” (Teacher Interview). During the same interview, her counterpart Maggie also

agreed with that sentiment. They both felt that participating in high school sports greatly
 91

benefited an individual’s academic performance. They both agreed that the educational

benefits of participating in sports far outweighed any negatives that may exist.

When interviewing Jared, Mike’s coach, he further narrowed his praise of

athletics when he explained the benefit for student-athletes with an IEP.

Participating in sports is definitely an enhancement for a special ed kid, especially

when involving their academics. It gives them something to strive for and

something to attain. They need the academics to play, and they don’t want to lose

that ability to play. So they are willing to put in the work in the classroom to play

on the field. (Coach Interview)

Now this particular quote can be used for any athlete who is participating in a sport, as

passing scores are a requirement to play, but I found it interesting that Jared chose to

make this statement regarding those student-athletes with an IEP. I took this to mean that

the lure of playing a sport at the high school level is more of an enticement to keep the

grades up for a student with an IEP compared to one without. These individuals need

something to keep their interest in academics and playing a sport seems to be what keeps

that interest intact. Even when talking to the students themselves, all three felt that

participating in a high school sport helps them succeed academically and gave them a

reason to keep their grades up. Coach check-ins and the team’s support were cited as

benefitting a student’s desire to be successful academically to continue sports

participation.

When speaking with Jessica during her teacher interview, she brought up the

academic aspect of a student-athlete is essential because the overall governing body of

athletics for the state puts academic restrictions on sports participation. Jessica said that
 92

“sports participation keeps the kids accountable, especially with their grades” (Teacher

Interview). Jessica and Kristen both agreed that the threat of disqualification from

playing due to grades is important as it requires them to be successful. Again, the threat

of not being able to play seems to keep the student-athletes more concerned with their

academics, thus proving the effectiveness of the governing body’s rule. These student-

athletes seem to want to play badly enough, that they are willing to make sure they stay

on top of their academics and continue to be successful in the classroom.

One notion that I found interesting about academic success was the differing

perspectives between the student-athletes and the stakeholders. Most of the stakeholders

agreed that student-athletes earn higher grades during their season of play compared to

their off-season. The students were often at odds with this sentiment, but the parents,

coaches, and teachers all felt that the added pressures of sports and the constant schedule

that must be kept benefitted the students rather than hurt them. Most students felt that

their off-season was easier because they had more time to do their work, but the other

participants felt that the overall structure of the in-season kept the students honest and

required them to stay on top of their grades so that they could participate in their sport.

Theme 1 Interpretations

Every participant in this study, from the student-athletes to their parent, teachers,

and coach(es), expressed their opinion that sports participation had an overall positive

effect on the interpersonal, emotional, and academic well-being of the student-athletes

with IEPs in this study. Based on these conclusions, I will make the argument that these

benefits can extend to all the student-athletes with IEPs who attend Flint River High

School. For one, sports participation gives the individuals involved a chance to work with
 93

other individuals who share a common interest outside of the school setting. This

participation can allow the student to build crucial interpersonal skills while involving

themselves in something they enjoy. I also found that these students were more motivated

to succeed when they experienced positives from playing a sport. The stakeholders can

take advantage of these benefits and look to promote athletic participation at Flint River

High School. This could lead to an overall more engaged student body regrading athletics

and create a lasting positive culture from the development of their interpersonal,

emotional, and academic skills.

Theme 2: Athletic Participation Leads to the Building or Enhancement of

Leadership Skills

The concept of leadership can be defined in many ways. It is a quality that can be

innate in some individuals but must be learned or strengthened in others. Overall, the

participants in this study believed that participating in a high school sport built upon or

enhanced the leadership skills of the student-athletes involved.

Figure 4.2

Theme 2: Athletic Participation Leads to the Building or Enhancement of Leadership

Skills
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A constant theme that emerged during my interviews was that leadership is

developed and enhanced through participation in high school athletics. When I asked

Jared, Mike’s coach, about the concept of leadership building through sports, he replied

with the following:

Leadership? Yes, without a doubt. Anything you do when you’re in a group, large

or small, where you’re trying to cooperate together with someone to accomplish a

goal, it’s going to yes, it’s definitely going to benefit them and build up

leadership. (Coach Interview)

Kate’s coach, Nate, expanded on this point and said, “sports participation enhances the

leadership potential in that individual through the ability to work with a variety of

individuals” (Coach Interview). It is clear that both of these coaches believe in the

leadership building that comes from participation in a sport. The opportunity for students

to work with their peers, all of whom have different strengths, weaknesses, and attitudes,

can help to develop leadership skills.

However, being put in a position where leadership skills can be learned does not

guarantee that they will be gained. Nate reiterated this point when he said, “a lot of

people aren’t leaders, they’re going to be followers, but if you put them in a position to

be a leader, then that’s going to create a whole new outlook on things” (Coach

Interview). Emily, Ashley’s coach, agreed with this sentiment, stating, “I think that for

some students, it does build the quality. Especially when they are really into their sport,

and they want to become better at it” (Coach Interview). The coaches made it clear that

not all student-athletes are leaders, and there is nothing wrong with that sentiment. It

appears that there needs to be a want or desire from the student-athlete to learn or build
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those skills. And if that student-athlete has that desire, sports participation can provide

them with various opportunities to develop those skills.

When asked, most of the teachers in this study agreed that the individuals who

take up leadership roles or act as leaders in their classroom are student-athletes. Tony,

Mike’s teacher, said, “I would notice that a lot of kids that probably play sports that

would take leadership roles. Just because they’re more confident in themselves” (Teacher

Interview). This confidence was a sentiment that was shared by many of the teachers.

Playing a sport allows the student to feel a part of something bigger than just themselves.

When they are involved in a team, they gain a sense of confidence in themselves that

translates into the classroom. Sydney agreed with this sentiment stating, “student-athletes

gain a sense of self-assurance through their sports participation. This allows them to feel

confident in themselves and more likely to take on a leadership role” (Teacher Interview).

It is clear that students are given a chance to be a leader on the field of play, but the fact

that the leadership skills can translate into the classroom speaks volumes about the

importance of those skills. Given that a student-athlete spends more time in a classroom

than on the field, the significant impact of the sport on the leadership skills of an

individual cannot be understated.

The impact of a leader in the classroom is another important aspect that cannot be

ignored. Emily described a student-athlete as such:

A student-athlete is somebody who, for me, is like a leader on and off the field.

Like in the classroom actively looking to do the right thing and be a help and not

just be a distraction. A student-athlete is someone who plays a sport and is

actively engaged in their sport as well as their classroom. (Coach Interview)

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Being a leader is something that can be seen and felt by others. Students in a classroom

can know and recognize who the leaders are. Jared emphasized the possibility of multiple

leaders by saying, “being a leader is not about being the chief. There are different types

of leaders” (Coach Interview). Kristen also shared this sentiment stating “there are all

different types of leaders. There are the vocal ones in charge, but there are also the ones

who are silent but lead by example. Both are effective in what they do, but both are

perceived differently” (Teacher Interview). The participants all agreed, being a leader

does not mean they are the ones in charge. Amanda talked about her son leading his small

group of throwers through warm-ups, Megan discussed her daughter stepping up at home

and helping out with her younger brothers and sisters, and Julie talked about her daughter

being the captain of her team. All of these instances are just different iterations or styles

of being a leader. These instances come about from each of these individuals being

involved in sports and being presented with the opportunity to learn leadership roles.

Theme 2 Interpretations

The three student-athletes involved in this study agree and mention gaining or

building up their leadership skills from the start of the season to the finish. Mike

specifically noted that his leadership skills had increased as the track season wore on.

Overall, participation in a high school sport allows student-athletes the opportunity to

build or enhance their leadership skills. While it may be assumed that this is true for any

student-athlete, this study deals with those that have IEPs. Given that every participant in

this study emphatically agreed that students involved in high school athletics are

introduced to quality leadership skills, Flint River High School could encourage more of

their students with IEPs to participate in high school athletics. These individuals could
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take on more active roles not only in their classroom, but they could take these leadership

lessons outside of the walls and incorporate them into the various facets of their lives.

The leadership skills learned through sports might also influence the way Flint River

incorporates leadership development in their classrooms. If leading drills or warmups

during the practice of a sport can help build those skills on the field, then incorporating

student-led lessons or content in the classroom may also help to build those skills.

Participation in a high school sport positively influences the leadership qualities of the

student-athletes involved, both with and without an IEP.

Theme 3: Athletic Participation Leads to the Development and Refinement of Time

Management Skills

The participants in this study overwhelmingly agreed that the most challenging

aspect of participating in a high school sport deals with time management. For student-

athletes to be successful both on and off the field, they must possess time management

skills. Fortunately, according to the individuals in this study, athletic participation can

lead to the development or refinement of time management skills of the individuals

involved.
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Figure 4.3

Theme 3: Athletic Participation Leads to the Development or Refinement of Time

Management Skills

Time management is a skill that, to most people, you either have, or you don’t.

You are either good at managing your time and daily tasks, or struggling to keep up with

everything. But, for student-athletes, participating in a high school sport allows them to

either build the time management skills they currently do not possess or refine or enhance

those already in their repertoire. Both Mike’s mother and his teachers agree that he did

not have the best time management skills before playing sports. However, once he started

participating in track, “his skills are getting better. I do believe he is better at it because of

track. He is more mindful of his schedule and will actually put something in his calendar”

(Amanda, Parent Interview). In this one instance, track has taken a student with little to

no time management skills and helped him develop them. It is not as if sports are a

magical cure for this skill; it is more about what sports do to an individual’s schedule that

requires time management to exist.

A typical school day with no extracurricular activities naturally comes with its

own stressors but allows for free time for play or work. When individuals decide to
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participate in a sport, they voluntarily give up that free time and fill it with work. The

same stressors as a non-student-athlete exist, but now there is the added pressure of a

sport and the lessened time to get everything done. It is for this reason that Jessica says,

“I would say that from, like, in general, my student-athletes do a better job of managing

their time” (Teacher Interview). This is a sentiment shared by many of the teachers in this

study, including Sydney:

I would agree with that. I mean, I think that extra, you know it’s playing a sport or

extracurricular activities, it helps to build a foundation overall. And so I tend to

see that they, those kids, you know, tend to manage their time better all year. It

starts with their season, but those built skills can also transfer into their offseason

as well. They just have this opportunity that non-sport-playing kids don’t.

(Teacher Interview)

Those individuals who have less time to complete schoolwork are forced to better

manage their time than the non-student-athletes who are not necessarily given the

opportunity to enhance those skills.

It must be noted that the building or enhancing of these skills is often dependent

on the particular student. Many individuals said that the degree to which the time

management skills are learned depends on the motivation of the student-athlete. Kristen

said that if a student does not have any time management skills to begin with, they will

often go one of two ways. They will either embrace the need for time management and

thrive with it, or they will fight the need and ultimately struggle to keep up with both

their sport and their grades (Teacher Interview). Matt agreed and said, “I think that those

that have good time management increase their time management skills, but those that
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don’t can really suffer” (Teacher Interview). First and foremost, students have to be

willing to use and embrace their time management skills. Sports can provide an excellent

avenue for learning and building these skills, but if individuals are hesitant to embrace

them, they will fall to the wayside.

The willingness to embrace time management skills can be especially true for

those individuals with an IEP. Jessica stated, “I think the kids who have IEPs generally

have a deficit linked towards time management skills. And so I think sports can

potentially compound their problems with time management” (Teacher Interview).

Student-athletes with an IEP often face more demanding challenges when competing in

sports than their peers who do not have an IEP. They have deficits that can play into their

ability to compete in their sports and the classroom successfully. I found that it requires a

village aspect, as the stakeholders must all be involved to help these individuals succeed.

This does not mean the village needs to hold the student’s hands and show them each step

along the way. It means that through encouraging these students to keep up with their

skills and to use sport as an enhancement and not a crutch, time management can go a

long way to their success.

Overall, the impact of sports on the skills of time management is a positive one.

Tony said that playing in a sport allows for the “real-world experience of time

management” (Teacher Interview), and Kristen said that “sports, aside from time

management, can also teach kids how to prioritize their time and their assignments.

Sometimes, you won’t be able to get everything done, and you have to determine what is

more important in those instances” (Teacher Interview). The individuals participating in

these sports have the opportunity to learn skills that can positively benefit them in the
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future. The ability to stay on top of tasks and determine how and when tasks should be

completed is a learned skill. If practiced through participation in sports, it can have far-

reaching positive consequences for the individuals involved.

Theme 3 Interpretations

All of the individuals in this study, both the student-athletes and their

stakeholders, agree that participating in a high school sport allows the student-athletes the

opportunity to build on and enhance their time management skills. According to Kristen,

“having things after school and playing a sport is kind of like forceful time management.

It makes you learn those skills. You don’t have a choice” (Teacher Interview). Students

that participate in a sport add to the pressures of the school and home responsibilities they

already have. This participation allows them to keep a consistent schedule and learn to

use their time wisely. It stands to reason that Flint River High School would want more

of their students to learn these time management skills. By encouraging their student

population to become involved in sports, they are creating the chance to have more well-

rounded individuals who can gain skills that can benefit them in the future. The real-

world aspects of time management are often a struggle for those individuals who never

had to manage their time through extracurricular activities. However, those that

participate in a sport may gain these valuable skills and can continue to use them. Sports

participation could be an excellent way to gain and enhance the time management skills

of the student-athletes involved.

Theme 4: Resources or Supports that Help Student-Athletes with IEPs Succeed

Within an IEP, a specific section dictates various accommodations or supports

that are put in place to help the student succeed in the classroom. These accommodations
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can range from very specific and catering only to that child, or they can be general and

shared by many students with an IEP. Regardless of the support, it is designed to level the

playing field for the student and give them a chance to experience success. In this section,

I will detail three main accommodations; extended time, small group pullout, and

assessment read aloud, that are mentioned in my interviews and discuss why they may

benefit more than just the students in this study.

Figure 4.4

Theme 4: Resources or Supports that Help Student-Athletes with IEPs Succeed

The first accommodation that all three student-athletes mentioned dealt with

extended time. This mainly focused on extended time with assessments, though some

individuals were allowed extended time on various projects or assignments. Kate

described extended time as a way “to not feel stress when I am taking a test. It gives me

more time to think and lets me feel less stressed because there is less pressure” (Student

Interview 2). Mike and Ashley also shared this sentiment regarding stress. All three

students enjoyed having the extra time because it gave them a chance to take a deep
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breath and relax while taking the test. The lessened stress levels allowed these students to

experience higher levels of success than they might not typically have had without the

extended time. Madison, Ashley’s teacher, said that “the tests are still the same as those

who do not get extended time. It just gives those kids who need it some extra breathing

time” (Teacher Interview). I feel that extended time on a test seems like a crucial

accommodation for a student-athlete with an IEP. These individuals are already pushed to

their limit with their classes and sports and should be given the same chance of success as

everyone. Having extra time on assessment affords these individuals that opportunity for

success.

The second accommodation mentioned by all the students involved was being

pulled out of the regular classroom and either tested or taught in a small group setting.

The ability to be tested or taught in a smaller group takes away some of the distractions

that are present in a regular classroom setting. Julie, Ashley’s mom, said, “I know Ashley

likes being pulled out for tests. She tells me it really helps to lessen the distractions, and

she is able to focus more” (Parent Interview). Tony said that when students get pulled

out, “everyone always thinks that they get extra help in that smaller room. When in

reality, the students that stay behind are getting the same benefit, just less distractions”

(Teacher Interview). Fewer distractions are a key piece when it comes to small group

pullout for testing. It also helps to lower the stress level of the students involved, as

Ashley described hating to worry if she is the last one to turn in a test and hates when the

whole class is watching her (Student Interview 2). Small group pullout is also beneficial

for lessons. If a class is split in half, more students can get their questions answered by

the teacher, and more help can be given. Overall, if a student has the accommodation of
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small group pullout, it not only benefits them, but it can also benefit the others in the

classroom. If more students can benefit from small accommodations, it should be

considered for more student-athletes with IEPs attending Flint River High School.

Lastly, a third accommodation revealed by all parties was notes or assessments

read to the students. Mike’s teachers said that they wish he used this accommodation

more as it would cause him to slow down during his tests and take his time (Teacher

Interview). Kate mentioned that having this accommodation was helpful because

“someone reads it and it’s like you really listening to them” (Student Interview 1). A test

that is read aloud forces students to focus on what is being said, whether they are using

headphones or utilizing the teacher reading it to them. They cannot necessarily skip

ahead, so they have to keep their focus on the current question. Given the success of this

accommodation with the three students in this study, Flint River High School might do

well to examine how this accommodation could be better implemented.

Theme 4 Interpretations

Overall, accommodations are put in place to help individuals have the opportunity

to achieve success. The accommodations in an IEP are required to be followed, but they

do not guarantee a student will be successful. In this study, I discovered three

accommodations to be extremely beneficial to the student-athletes involved. Those

accommodations are extended time, small group pullout, and assessment read aloud.

Each of these supports and their impact on the individuals in this study may serve as a

foundation for future success for student-athletes with IEPs at Flint River High School.

The first two accommodations are very general, and if not already applied, can be given

to any student-athlete with an IEP. Given the success of these supports with the three
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students involved with this study, Flint River might consider these supports as they could

positively impact all those involved and may serve as a way to increase athletic

participation for all students with IEPs. As I mentioned above, I realize that assessment

read aloud is a very specific accommodation and may only be implemented for those

individuals who qualify for it. However, if the benefits that these three student-athletes

share can be extended to the school as a whole, it may be worth looking into how this

support can be implemented on a larger scale. Overall, accommodations or supports are

designed to level the playing field and give those individuals with an IEP a chance to

achieve success. If the accommodations can help the student-athletes with IEPs in this

study succeed, then it is worth examining the greater impact these supports could have on

the IEP student body of Flint River High School.

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CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The number of opportunities to participate in high school athletics is continually

on the rise (Zayas, 2018). More sports are being created and approved to appeal to a

broader audience. This push to sanction more sports aims to get more students involved

in high school athletics and allow more students the chance to participate. However, a

student population lacking in this increase of sports participation is that of the student-

athlete with an IEP (Forster, 2015). These individuals’ voices are underrepresented when

discussing participation in high school sports and the effect those sports have on their

academic experience. With this ever-increasing number of student-athletes, and

potentially student-athletes with an IEP, it is crucial to know and understand the various

impacts that high school athletic participation has on these individuals (Braun & Braun,

2015; Vargas et al., 2012).

This study investigated the perspectives high school student-athletes with IEPs

and their stakeholders have regarding athletic participation and its impact on the student-

athletes’ academic experience. This study utilized semi-structured, in-depth individual

and group interviews with three subcases through a qualitative single case study

approach. In addition, this study addressed the following research questions:

1. What are student-athletes’ with IEPs perspectives on how athletic participation

impacts their academic experience?

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2. What are stakeholders’ perspectives on how athletic participation impacts student-

athletes’ with IEPs academic experience?

3. What types of resources or supports are put in place to help student-athletes with

IEPs succeed?

Throughout this chapter, I will first summarize my findings and discuss the connections

to the literature. I will also explain the specific limitations and delimitations of my study.

Additionally, I will provide recommendations for future studies and the implications of

my research. Lastly, I will outline my contributions to the literature and overall

reflections.

Discussion of Findings

In this study, high school student-athletes, along with the various stakeholders

involved in their lives (parent(s), teacher(s), and coach(es)), discussed and described the

impact that athletic participation has on the academic experience of the student-athlete

with an IEP. Throughout this research process, I identified four major themes that support

my research questions: a development of interpersonal, emotional, and academic skills; a

building or enhancement of leadership skills; an overall enhancement and benefit to time

management skills; and, the implementation of quality and valuable accommodations that

can lead to success.

Athletic Participation Allows for the Development of Interpersonal, Emotional, and

Academic Skills

Participants in this study agreed that participating in high school athletics

significantly benefited the interpersonal skills of the student-athletes involved. Both the

student-athletes and the stakeholders involved in this study felt that the lessons learned
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and the interactions experienced on the field of play coupled with the classroom

experiences were far more beneficial than what would have been gained from only being

in the classroom. The participants explained through sports participation, they were able

to develop a greater sense of connectedness to their school, and through this, they noticed

a building of their self-esteem. Kamau et al. (2013) described the sense of school

connectedness through sports participation as an essential byproduct. It gives the student-

athletes involved a sense of pride in what they do and allows them the opportunity to

experience success in various ways.

Connecting to the school also brings about the opportunity to build the

individuals' self-esteem. Ahmed et al. (2014) and Braun and Braun (2015) found that

sports participation can have a lasting, positive impact on student-athletes' self-esteem.

An increased level of self-esteem coupled with a sense of connection to their school

through athletic participation can lead to an overall more well-rounded individual who

has the chance to grow and experience success far more significantly than a non-sport

playing counterpart.

The emotional well-being of a student-athlete, especially one with an IEP, is a

crucial aspect. When I discussed this topic with the coaches in this study, they all replied

that success was the most significant factor in determining the emotional well-being of a

student-athlete with an IEP. This success does not stop with just wins and losses, but it

continues into various aspects of play throughout practices and games. Ahmed et al.

(2014) and Hermens et al. (2017) described the idea that success through sports and a

positive emotional well-being of a student-athlete are tied to aspects of self-esteem.

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Having a positive sense of self-esteem can lead to having an emotionally healthy mindset.

For a student-athlete with an IEP, this idea of positive emotional self-worth is crucial.

Braun and Braun (2015) stated that small successes experienced through sports

could have more of a lasting, positive impact on the emotional self-worth and self-esteem

of an individual with an IEP compared to one without. The added positivity and success

that student-athletes with an IEP can experience on the field can often outweigh

shortcomings or negative aspects faced in the classroom and lead to a more well-rounded,

emotionally healthy individual.

The overwhelming sentiment from the participants in this study was that

participation in high school athletics positively affects the academics of the student-

athletes involved. Most of the stakeholders felt that the students who participated in

sports often outscored or outperformed their non-sport-playing peers when their

summative scores were compared. However, the student-athletes felt they paid attention

more and were more aware of the material in their classes, despite their grades not

necessarily mirroring their perspectives. The sentiment of sports participation being a

positive benefit for academics is supported in the literature as well. Kniffin et al. (2015)

and Yeung (2015) found that sports participation positively affects the academics of the

student-athletes involved. Problem-solving skills, the benefit of practice and repetition,

and the ability to learn from failure are all aspects experienced on the field of play that

can translate to an academic setting. These strategies are beneficial for those individuals

with an IEP. Learning these strategies on the field and utilizing them in the classroom

gives these individuals a more significant chance of success academically (Braun &

Braun, 2015; Vargas et al., 2012; Vargas et al., 2015).

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Athletic Participation Leads to the Building or Enhancement of Leadership Skills

The concept of leadership was a theme prevalent in several interviews with the

participants in this study. Each group of participants described the impact of sports

participation on leadership skills in different ways. First, the teachers and coaches

acknowledged the overall benefits of leadership for student-athletes. Camiré et al., (2016)

helped to expand on these perspectives by discussing the overall benefits that sports

participation can have on the student-athlete, with leadership being one of those benefits.

Participating in a high school sports affords the student-athlete a greater potential to

develop leadership skills compared to their non-sport-playing peers.

Next, the parents discussed different leadership roles their children possess. Na

(2015) expanded on this idea by detailing the benefits of sports participation from the

perspective of the parents. Parents felt that, overall, sports participation was beneficial to

their children and had positive viewpoints when discussing the leadership benefits that

come about from participating in sports.

Finally, the student-athletes discussed how their leadership skills have increased

due to their involvement in high school sports. They felt that through participating in

sports, they were able feel more confident in themselves, and that confidence led to the

want or desire to take on more responsibility and leadership roles both on the field and in

the classroom.

Overall, sports participation has a dramatic and positive impact on the leadership

skills of the student-athletes involved. Pavlidis and Gargalianos (2014) described sports

participation as a way for individuals to experience various situations where leadership

potential can be achieved through various aspects of play. For example, they can be the
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leader of the entire team, a specific skill group, or lead by example. Regardless, sports

participation gives these individuals opportunities to experience leadership roles.

It is also important to note that the leadership roles experienced on the field of

play can also translate to the classroom. Many of the stakeholders in this study, especially

those who work at Flint River High School, felt that the leaders in their classroom were,

more often than not, student-athletes. This translation to the classroom greatly benefits

those student-athletes who have an IEP. So often individuals with an IEP can be quiet in

the classroom and lack a sense of confidence. However, by participating in sports and

being involved in leadership situations, these individuals can build upon their self-esteem

and use their strategies learned on the field to help them succeed in the classroom (Braun

& Braun, 2015; Neely & Holt, 2014). Overall, the leadership potential gained from sports

participation can have a lasting positive impact on the student-athletes involved.

Athletic Participation Leads to the Development and Refinement of Time Management

Skills

Participants in this study agreed that participation in high school sports gives the

student-athletes involved the chance to either develop their time management skills or

enhance those they already possess. However, the participants also agreed that a want or

desire to utilize and apply time management skills is entirely based on the individual’s

willingness to embrace those skills. Pearson et al. (2009) described this by stating sports

participation presents the opportunity to learn or build upon time management skills. The

individuals involved must be willing and motivated to succeed with these skills. If a

student-athlete is motivated to utilize their time management skills properly, sports

participation is all but guaranteed to enhance those skills. Still, if a student-athlete does
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not want or desire to use the skills, they will ultimately struggle to keep up with their

sport and school (Fredericks, 2012; Pearson et al., 2009). Those individuals who take

advantage and embrace the need for time management with sports participation will excel

and succeed both on the field and in the classroom. Those learned skills will have a more

significant impact and put them on the path to success.

For those student-athletes with an IEP, time management can often be a struggle

without adding a sport. The teachers in this study mentioned that most students with an

IEP often have a deficit linked to time management skills. This deficit can become

compounded when the time commitment of a sport is introduced. Braun and Braun

(2015) described time management as one of the biggest challenges a student-athlete with

an IEP will face. However, there are ways to ensure individuals do not become buried by

these struggles and succeed despite their deficits. Such strategies as study halls or teacher

check-ins for student-athletes with an IEP are steps that can be taken to ensure the

opportunity for success. Ultimately, motivation is a critical factor in determining success.

Still, if time management skills are emphasized and taught through sports participation,

the individuals involved stand a great chance of learning those skills and moving on to

achieve success both on the field and in the classroom.

Resources or Supports that Help Student-Athletes with IEPs Succeed

When asked about supports or accommodations put in place to help the student-

athletes of this study succeed, three main supports were mentioned: extended time, small

group pullout, and assessment read-aloud. All three supports can have a dramatic impact

on the success of the student-athlete involved, and all are worth further investigation to
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understand how that positive impact can be utilized to help those outside of this study

succeed.

The first accommodation that almost everybody mentioned was the idea of

extended time. This particular support mainly focused on extended time with the student's

assessments. When I asked, the driving force behind this accommodation was to help

alleviate the stress that can be experienced due to testing. By allowing the students extra

time, they could take a breath, take their time, and focus on the material they know rather

than stress and rush their way through an assessment. Harvey et al. (2009) and Sherlock-

Shangraw (2013) discussed the idea that extended time on assessments is put in place so

that those individuals who work more slowly than others can be given the same

opportunity to succeed as their peers. This benefit does not provide them with extra time

to remember the material; it is put in place to level the playing field and give these

individuals the same chance of success. Reitman et al. (2005) further described the

benefit of extended time as benefit to those individuals who struggle with distraction

issues. Allowing for extended time will not lessen the opportunities to become distracted

during a test, but it will help to counteract the time lost due to distraction. Overall,

extended time on assessments is put in place to help level the playing field for all

individuals. Student-athletes with IEPs do not necessarily know the material any less,

they just require a little more time to process what is being taught and answer their

questions in a successful manner. This particular support was acknowledged as one that

has a significant positive impact on the students who require the accommodation and it is

worth considering offering this support to more student-athletes with an IEP.

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A second support or resource brought up throughout the study was the idea of

being pulled out of the regular classroom and either tested or taught in a small group

setting. As the participants described, the purpose of this was to help remove some of the

distractions that are prevalent in a regular classroom setting. Reitman et al. (2005) found

this support to be extremely beneficial to those students who struggle with being easily

distracted. By taking a small group of students and putting them in another room, there

are inherently less distractions in the new setting. The purpose is merely to create a

smaller, quieter environment to help decrease stress and increase success. Braun and

Braun (2015) described the benefits of small group pullout as serving all children, not

merely those with an IEP. If several students are taken out to test in another room, then

the classroom they left now has fewer students and is thus quieter, with potentially less

distractions. Detractors of this support generally focus on the notion that those who are

leaving the room, are doing so to receive more help or are given more notes for the test.

However, the students who are pulled out are not given any way to distinguish the test

they are taking from those left behind in the classroom (Braun & Braun, 2015; Sherlock-

Shangraw, 2013). This support is specifically designed to lessen the distractions and

potentially lessen the stress that is often associated with a test. By doing this, all

students, those pulled-out and those left in the classroom, are given an increased chance

to experience success.

The third and final support described through the conducted interviews was

having notes or assessments read aloud to the students. This particular support is a very

specific accommodation that can only be utilized for students with specific disabilities,

generally dealing with processing skills. However, for those student-athletes who are
 115

given this support, the participants in this study highly recommended its use. This support

is put in place both as a benefit to those students with processing difficulties as well as a

way for students to slow down and pay attention to what is being asked (Braun & Braun,

2015; Sherlock-Shangraw, 2013). The ability to both read and listen to a question or

passage provides two separate ways of comprehension and helps to activate multiple

parts of the brain at the same time (Braun & Braun, 2015; Reitman et al., 2005). The

student-athletes in this study mentioned that having assessments read aloud requires the

student to focus on the words, and it gives them another avenue with which to understand

the questions. Therefore, if a student-athlete has this accommodation, it is highly

beneficial and worth utilizing to help the student achieve success.

Overall, the three main accommodations mentioned in this study (extended time,

small group pullout, and test read-aloud) all serve as a way to help the student-athletes

involved in this study achieve success. All of these supports are designed to provide

added support where learning gaps may occur. To that end, if these supports are used

appropriately, and utilized to their fullest extent, a student-athlete with an IEP stands a

higher chance of achieving success.

Limitations and Delimitations

When conducting a study, a researcher will make decisions based on necessity

and strategy that will impact all phases of the research process. These decisions are

known as limitations and delimitations. Bloomberg and Volpe (2019) described

limitations as "the characteristics of design or methodology that impacted or influenced

the interpretation of the findings from your research" (p.207). These limitations influence

the study but are not controlled by the researcher. Regardless, they impact the overall
 116

research process. Delimitations are described as the "characteristics that define and

clarify the conceptual boundaries of your study" (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2019, p.207). The

delimitations of a study are the choices made by the researcher to limit their study. In the

proceeding paragraphs, I will explain both the limitations: transferability and

discrepancies with the student-athlete participants, and the delimitations: sample size and

time, that had an overall impact on this study.

This study's limitations, the factors that I did not have control over in the research

process, dealt with transferability issues, and the various discrepancies regarding the

student-athlete participants. Transferability is the idea that the results of a qualitative

research study can be generalized to other contexts or settings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).

This particular study dealt with the perspectives of three student-athletes with IEPs and

their stakeholders regarding the impact of athletics on their academic experience. These

three individuals, their teachers, and their coaches all learn or work in the same school,

Flint River High School. The results of this study were specific to only this school. These

individuals' perspectives were based on their experiences in Flint River High School. I

planned to address this limitation to establish that this study's results are meant for

potential improvement in this school.

The various discrepancies between the three student-athletes are also a limitation

that was imposed on this particular study. The student-athletes in this study differed in

various categories, including age, race, gender, years of experience, and the sport(s) they

play. These factors may have influenced how these individuals viewed the impact of

athletics on their educational experience. Varying perspectives can be beneficial in

research; however, in this particular study, these perspectives proved challenging to find
 117

similarities in the analysis process. The best way to address this limitation was to be

honest about it from the beginning. In the selection process I purposely attempted to find

similar participants, but I embraced the differences in the analysis process.

The two main delimitations in this study dealt with sample size and time. For this

study, I chose to use only three student-athletes. Given that I also interviewed these

individuals' stakeholders (guardians, teachers, and coaches) I felt that this number offered

me an excellent field from which to pull my information. Also, given that there were only

three student-athletes, I interviewed in a one-on-one setting. If I had more student-

athletes in my study, this would have severely limited my ability to conduct one-on-one

interviews with each one. The ability to conduct one-on-one interviews with each

student-athlete brought about a deeper understanding of their perspectives regarding the

topic.

The issue of time in this study directly correlates to the previously stated

delimitation of sample size. I chose the number of participants that I did due to the

amount of time each aspect of the process took. I conducted a total of 15 one-on-one and

group interviews. Each interview was transcribed and analyzed separately. Then, I

compared each interview analysis with the other interviews in their category (student-

athletes, guardians, teachers, and coaches). It would not be feasible to have many

participants in this study from a timing perspective. Therefore, limiting the number of

interviews due to time constraints helped deliver the results of this study promptly.

Implications and Recommendations for Future Practice

This study provided a detailed account of the perspectives individuals attending or

involved with Flint River High School have regarding athletic participation and its effect
 118

on the academic experience. Based on conversations with my participants and findings

from the literature, I have a number of recommendations regarding this effect for school

administration, teachers, and coaches.

Implications and Recommendations for School Administration

School Administration can positively affect the academic experience of student-

athletes with IEPs through the following:

1. The administration at Flint River High School could promote participation in

school athletics to students with IEPs. As it stands, less than 15% (19 of 128) of

students with an IEP participate in a high school sport. The benefits that sports

have on these individuals could be experienced and shared with a larger number

of students.

2. The administration could include more sports at their school to appeal to a

broader range of individuals. As it stands, the school participates in about half of

the sports allowed by the state governing body. Increasing the number of sports

could provide more opportunities for individuals to find something they love and

experience the benefits of high school sports.

Implications and Recommendations for Teachers and Coaches

Teachers and coaches can positively affect the academic experience of student-

athletes with IEPs through the following:

1. Teachers could be more aware and open to learning about their students. During

my interviews, I learned that some teachers did not know their students played

sports. If teachers take a more active role in learning about their students, they
 119

may find more engaging or supportive ways to help their student-athletes with

IEPs succeed.

2. Teachers and coaches could collaborate to help their student-athletes achieve

success. By working together, they could understand the different needs of their

student-athletes and develop collaborative ways to help them succeed.

Implications and Recommendations for Future Research

Further studies are needed on the impact of athletics on the academic experience

of student-athletes with IEPs. The results could lend themselves to a broad application in

other schools or areas with further research or subsequent studies. I recommend the

following for future research:

1. This study could be replicated. Through replication, the study could provide rich,

thick data for future research in the field of athletics and academics and could

give greater validity to the findings of this study.

2. A similar study could be conducted involving more students. This study

incorporated three student-athletes, along with their stakeholders. Incorporating

more student-athletes and stakeholder perspectives would bring a sense of weight

and power to the results of the findings.

3. A similar study could be conducted involving multiple schools. This study

focused on one particular school. Incorporating other schools within the county or

state would provide a more extensive range of information to determine the most

valid impacts of high school athletics on student-athletes' with IEPs academic

experience.
 120

Conclusion

Qualitative inquiry focuses on finding the meaning or understanding of a

particular phenomenon (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Furthermore,

qualitative researchers seek to understand how individuals interpret their unique

experiences and their meanings to those experiences (Leavy, 2017; Merriam & Tisdell,

2016). Based on the results of this study, I was able to investigate and learn how the

participants in my research viewed the impact that athletic participation had on the

academic experience of the student-athletes with IEPs involved. I was able to gain a

newfound understanding of the participant’s viewpoints and explore the various benefits

and skills that came with athletic participation.

Throughout my research, I identified four major themes supporting my research

questions. For research question one, the student-athletes felt that athletic participation

helped develop interpersonal, emotional, and academic skills, helped build or enhance

leadership skills, and helped benefit and enhance time management skills. For research

question two, the parents, teachers, and coaches felt that athletic participation helped

develop interpersonal, emotional, and academic skills, helped build or enhance leadership

skills, and helped benefit and enhance time management skills. Lastly, for research

question three, the student-athletes, their parents, teachers, and coaches all discussed the

implementation of quality and valuable accommodations that can lead to success for the

student-athletes in the classroom. These accommodations include extended time on

assessments, learning or testing in a small group setting, and having assessments or

passages read aloud.

 121

As evidenced by the 15 interviews conducted for this research study, student-

athletes with IEPs, parents, teachers, and coaches all feel that participation in high school

athletics has an overall positive effect on the academic experience of the student-athletes

involved. These effects benefit the individuals involved in myriad ways, as detailed by

the four themes that were discovered in this study, and the extent of these benefits can

last long past the high school career. Given the nature of high school athletics and its

ever-widening range of available sports to participate in, I am hopeful that more student-

athletes with IEPs will consider participation. Our students with IEPs deserve the best

opportunity to succeed, and athletic participation is one avenue that can lead to success.
 122

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 134

Appendix A

Invitation/Recruitment Letter

Dear Participant,

My name is Nick Castagna, and I am completing research as a degree requirement at

Piedmont College. I am writing to you because I am conducting an interview study
involving student-athletes with IEPs and the stakeholders involved in their lives.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the perspectives high school student-athletes
with IEPs and their stakeholders have regarding athletic participation and its impact on
the student-athlete’s academic experience. It is my hope that information from this
research will contribute to a better understanding of various practices that will help
student-athletes to remain or become successful in the classroom.

Should you choose to participate, your participation is completely voluntary and you are
free to change your mind and stop your participation at any time. Your identity will be
kept strictly confidential. It must be noted that there is neither a reward for participating,
nor a consequence for not participating.

Your participation would mean that I would set up a series of interviews with the student-
athlete, their guardians, their teachers, and their coaches. These interviews will last 30-60
minutes each. I would work around your schedule. The interviews can be held in my
classroom, your home, or online.

For further information regarding this research, please contact me at (404) 610-8399, at
[email protected], or contact my supervising professor, Dr. Perry
Rettig at [email protected].

I will follow up in 1-2 weeks with a phone call or email to see if you are interested in
learning more (unless, of course, I hear from you first). Thank you.

Sincerely,

Nick Castagna
 135

Appendix B

Parent/Guardian Consent Form

Dear Parents or Guardians,

My name is Nick Castagna, and I am a graduate student at Piedmont College. I am

sending this letter to explain why I would like for your child to participate in my project.
The purpose of this study is to investigate the perspectives high school student-athletes
with IEPs and their stakeholders have regarding athletic participation and its impact on
the student-athlete’s academic experience.

With your permission, I will interview your child (ward) twice; both of which will be in a
one-on-one setting. Your child’s participation in this study is completely voluntary and
will not affect his/her grades in any way. Your child may quit this study at any time by
simply informing me they no longer wish to participate.

The study will be conducted during the Spring 2021 school semester. There are no know
risks involved in this study, and your child (ward) will not receive any compensation for
his/her participation. To protect your child’s (ward’s) confidentiality, your child’s
(ward’s) name will not appear in the study and a pseudonym will be used. The transcripts
of the interviews will be maintained by me, Nick Castagna (student researcher), and will
not be available to anyone else.

If you have any questions, of if you would like to receive a final copy of this report,
please contact me at (404) 610-8399 or a [email protected].

This letter will serve as a consent form for your child’s participation. If you have any
questions about this study, please contact Dr. Perry Rettig, the faculty sponsor of this
project at [email protected]. If you have any questions about your child’s (ward’s)
rights as a participant, you may contact the Piedmont College IRB Chair, Dr. Cynthia
Vance at [email protected] or at (706) 778-8500 ext. 1241.

Please have your child return this form to me at your earliest convenience. Thank you for
your consideration.

Nick Castagna

Statement of Consent

Child’s Name

Signature of Parent/Legal Guardian Date

 136

Appendix C

Child Assent Form

Dear Student,

My name is Nick Castagna. I am a graduate student at Piedmont College. I am asking

you to participate in a study to investigate the perspectives high school student-athletes
with IEPs and their stakeholders have regarding athletic participation and its impact on
the student-athlete’s academic experience. It is my hope that information from this
research will contribute to a better understanding of various practices that will help
student-athletes to remain or become successful in the classroom.

I am asking you to participate in two interviews. Both interviews will occur in a one-on-
one setting, with the second interview being a follow-up to the first. These interviews
will last between 30 and 45 minutes. Your parents or legal guardians have already given
permission for you to participate in this study, but you have the right to choose to
participate. You may quit this study at any time by simply writing or informing me you
wish to stop or no longer want to participate. Your participation in this study will not
affect your grades in any way. There are no known risks involved in this study, and you
will receive no compensation for your participation. To protect your confidentiality, the
interview recording and transcription will not be shared with anyone outside of this study
and you will not be identified in any way.

If you have any question about this study, please talk with me at (404) 610-8399
([email protected]) or with my supervising professor, Dr. Perry Rettig
([email protected]). If you have any questions about your rights as a participant, you
may contact the Piedmont College IRB Chair, Dr. Cynthia Vance ([email protected]
or (706) 778-8500, ext. 1241).

Please return this form to me at your earliest convenience. Thank you for your
consideration.

Nick Castagna

Agreement

I agree to participate in this research project and I have received a copy of this form.

Student’s Name (Please Print) Date

Student’s Signature Date

 137

Appendix D

Adult Participant Consent Form

Dear Participant,

My name is Nick Castagna, and I am completing research as a degree requirement at

Piedmont College. I am asking you to participate in an interview (group or one-on-one)
being conducted with stakeholders involved in the life of a particular student. The
purpose of this study is to investigate the perspectives high school student-athletes with
IEPs and their stakeholders have regarding athletic participation and its impact on the
student-athlete’s academic experience. It is my hope that information from this research
will contribute to a better understanding of various practices that will help student-
athletes to remain or become successful in the classroom.

Your responses to the interviews are anonymous. Your name will not be collected or
appear anywhere on the transcription, and complete privacy is guaranteed.

Participation is completely voluntary, and you may withdraw at any time. There is neither
a reward for participating, nor a consequence for not participating.

For further information regarding this research, please contact me at (404) 610-8399, at
[email protected], or contact my supervising professor, Dr. Perry
Rettig at [email protected].

If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, you may contact Dr.
Cynthia Vance, Piedmont College IRB Chair at (706) 778-8500 Ext 1241
([email protected]).

This project has been approved by the Piedmont College IRB (# 2101007).

There are two copies of this letter. After signing them, keep one copy for your records,
and return the other one. Thank you in advance for your cooperation and support.

Please indicate your agreement to participate by signing below.

I am 18 years or older and have read and understood this consent form and agree to
participate.

Signature: _______________________________________________________________

Name (please print): _______________________________________________________

 138

Appendix E

Interview Guide (First Student Interview)

Introduction:

First, I want to thank you for volunteering to talk with me today. As I mentioned before, I
am a graduate student at Piedmont College conducting research to complete my doctoral
dissertation. This interview will take about 45 minutes.

I would like your permission to audio record this interview so I may accurately document
your responses. If at any point in time you wish to discontinue the use of the recorder or
the interview itself, please let me know. All of your responses are confidential and will be
used to develop a better understanding of what it means to be a student-athlete with an
IEP.

I will be creating a transcript of this interview. Once completed, I will share the transcript
with you for you to look over. You’ll be free to add or omit anything you’d like. I might
also take down a few notes during the interview. Sometimes I’ll think of a questions to
ask you, but don’t want to interrupt you. My notes will help me remember what I was
planning to bring up.

I would like to obtain your written consent to participate in this study. You and I will
both sign the consent form and date each copy, certifying that we agree to continue with
this interview. You will receive one copy for your records and I will keep the other.

And just a reminder, your participation in this interview is completely voluntary. If at any
time you would like to stop the interview, take a break, return to a previous question, or
withdraw your participation, please let me know.

Do you have any questions or concerns before we begin?

Now, take some time to read over and sign the Consent Form. Let me know if you have
any questions.

Remember to start the recorder.

Purpose of the Study:

The purpose of this study is to investigate the perspectives high school student-athletes
with IEPs and their stakeholders have regarding athletic participation and its impact on
the student-athlete’s academic experience.
 139

Research Questions:
1. What are student athletes’ perspectives on how athletic participation influences
their academic experience?
2. What are stakeholders’ perspectives on how athletic participation influences
student athlete academic experience?
3. What types of resources or supports are put in place to help student-athletes
succeed?

Rationale: How will this

Question (and its Probes) help
Question & Probes Assoc RQ
support your inquiry? What
purpose does it serve?
Warm Up
Tell me a little about yourself Gathers initial background
 Grade/Sport participation information and serves as a
 Hobbies in/out of school warm-up question

Think about the season you play Gather insights into the potential
your sport as compared to the off- for a difference between in-season
season, is there a particular time and off-season.
that is easier than the other?
 What makes you feel this
way?
 What sort of challenges
present themselves when
comparing the in-season to
What are
the off-season?
student-
 (if a dual or tri sport
athletes’
athlete) Is there a specific
perspectives
sport season that is more or
on how
less challenging?
athletic
participation Informs the researcher if the
Do you find that your stance
influences student-athlete cares more about
towards your academic’s changes
their grades during a certain time. It
based on if you are during your
academic can also establish a thought
season of play or in the off-season?
experience? process regarding which activity
 Do you have more time for is placed with more importance in
grades during one time or their eyes. Also trying to establish
the other? the differences between in-season
 Do you care more about and off-season to determine if
grades during one time or playing a sport has an effect on
the other? them.
 Do you do better academic
wise during the season or in
the off-season?
 140

 Are you more of a student-

athlete of an athletic
student?
 (f a small variety of sports
are represented) How do
your feelings compare to
your friends who
participate in other sports?

Think about your time I want to see how these students

management skills, do you find utilize the strategy of time
your life is more or less structured management. It can play an
during your season of play important role in their success,
compared to your off-season? and I want to know their thoughts.
 Why do you think this is?
 How do you find a balance
between all your activities
(school, sports, work,
friends, etc.) during your
season? Off season?

In some scenarios, student-athletes I want to explore the concept of

are looked upon to be leaders not student-athletes as leaders. I want
only in their sport, but in their to see how they view themselves,
classroom as well. Do you agree and others, and what being a
with this statement? student-athlete means to them.
 Do you see yourself as a
leader?
 Who do you view, student
wise, as a leader, either in
your class or on your team?
 Do you get a sense of pride
being a student-athlete?
Looking for a general sense of
In your view, what is the most
what makes being a student-
difficult aspect of being a high
athlete challenging.
school student-athlete?
 What makes you feel this
way?
Trying to determine if there is any
Are there any supports, from a What types
outside help for these individuals.
classroom perspective, that are put of resources
Also looking to see if that help
in place to ensure that you are or supports
occurs during only certain times
succeeding in your academics? are put in
of the year and by certain
 These supports could place to help
individuals.
include accommodations student-
 141

(testing or classroom) or athletes

extra teacher supports. succeed?
 Is there a difference in-
season as opposed to off-
season?
 Are there any supports not
offered that you feel would
benefit you?

Are there any supports, from an Trying to determine if there is any

athletic perspective, that are put in outside help for these individuals.
place to ensure that you are Also looking to see if that help
succeeding in your academics? occurs during only certain times
 Does your team have a of the year and by certain
grade policy? individuals.
 Is it a team policy or an
individual one?
 (if a small variety of sports
are represented) Do you
know if other sports have
similar policies?
 Is there a difference in-
season as opposed to off-
season?
 Are there any supports not
offered that you feel would
benefit you?
Closing
What are your final thoughts on the
Attempt to give the participants
topic?
one last chance to add any
 Do you have anything to
information that may be relevant.
add?
 142

Appendix F

Interview Guide (Second Student Interview)

Introduction:

First, I want to thank you for volunteering to talk with me today. As I mentioned before, I
am a graduate student at Piedmont College conducting research to complete my doctoral
dissertation. This interview will take about 45 minutes.

I would like your permission to audio record this interview so I may accurately document
your responses. If at any point in time you wish to discontinue the use of the recorder or
the interview itself, please let me know. All of your responses are confidential and will be
used to develop a better understanding of what it means to be a student-athlete with an
IEP.

I will be creating a transcript of this interview. Once completed, I will share the transcript
with you for you to look over. You’ll be free to add or omit anything you’d like. I might
also take down a few notes during the interview. Sometimes I’ll think of a questions to
ask you, but don’t want to interrupt you. My notes will help me remember what I was
planning to bring up.

I would like to obtain your written consent to participate in this study. You and I will
both sign the consent form and date each copy, certifying that we agree to continue with
this interview. You will receive one copy for your records and I will keep the other.

And just a reminder, your participation in this interview is completely voluntary. If at any
time you would like to stop the interview, take a break, return to a previous question, or
withdraw your participation, please let me know.

Do you have any questions or concerns before we begin?

Remember to start the recorder.

Purpose of the Study:

The purpose of this study is to investigate the perspectives high school student-athletes
with IEPs and their stakeholders have regarding athletic participation and its impact on
the student-athlete’s academic experience.

Research Questions:
1. What are student athletes’ perspectives on how athletic participation influences
their academic experience?
2. What are stakeholders’ perspectives on how athletic participation influences
student athlete academic experience?
3. What types of resources or supports are put in place to help student-athletes
succeed?
 143

Rationale: How will this

Question (and its Probes) help
Question & Probes Assoc RQ
support your inquiry? What
purpose does it serve?
Warm Up
Since we last met, has anything
new or noteworthy occurred in
Gathers initial background
your life regarding school or your
information and serves as a
athletic participation?
warm-up question
 This could involve starting
a new sport or updates on
grades in their classes.
Last time we met, you mentioned I am looking to see if they still
you felt ___ regarding the feel the same way they did about
differences between the season you the effects of athletic participation
play a sport and the off season? or is their mindset has changed.
Can you tell me a little more about
why you answered that way?
 What has transpired that
may make you feel this
way?
 If the feeling has changed,
why? I am looking to see if these still
feel the same way they do about
What are
In our group interview, you their grades, or if something has
student-
mentioned that your stance towards happened to make them change
athletes’
grades ___. Do you have anything their mind.
perspectives
more to share about this
on how
perspective?
athletic
 Has your stance changed at
participation
all? If so, why?
influences
their
When we last met, we talked about I am looking for some more
academic
the concept of time management. information on how they view the
experience?
Do you still feel that this concept importance of time management
_____? and if it is a factor in their lives.
 How do you maintain the
balance between all of your
responsibilities?

The concept of leadership is one I am looking for some more

that was brought up during our information on how they view the
group interview. Do you still see importance of leadership and if it
yourself as ____? is a factor in their lives.
 What makes you feel this
way?
 144

 Can you give me another

example of what you just
described?

Do you still feel that ____ is the I am looking for a bit of closure
most difficult aspect of being a and to see if they still feel the
high school student-athlete? same way as during our group
 If so, why? interview or if they want to
 If not, what has changed? expand on, or change their
original answer.
When we were last together, you
talked about the various supports
that are used in the classroom to
help you succeed. Do you have I am looking to see if they can
anything to add regarding this acknowledge the supports that are
topic? there for them in the classroom,
 Do you feel that the or if they even recognize them. I
supports put in place or also want to see if they are used,
more helpful or harmful? and if not, what they would use.
What types
 Do you use the supports?
of resources
 Are there any other
or supports
supports that you wish you
are put in
had?
place to help
I am looking to see if there is any
student-
In our group interview, we talked realization as to the supports
athletes
about ways that your sport and provided them (if any) from their
succeed?
coach help support you in school. sport or coach. I am also looking
Do you still feel this way or has to see if they wish certain
your view changed? supports were added.
 Are there any supports that
you wish you were
available from your sport or
coach?
 Are there any supports you
would want to take away?
Closing
What are your final thoughts on the
Attempt to give the participants
topic?
one last chance to add any
 Do you have anything to
information that may be relevant.
add?
 145

Appendix G

Interview Guide (Parent/Guardian)

Introduction:

First, I want to thank you for volunteering to talk with me today. As I mentioned before, I
am a graduate student at Piedmont College conducting research to complete my doctoral
dissertation. This interview will take about 45 minutes.

I would like your permission to audio record this interview so I may accurately document
your responses. If at any point in time you wish to discontinue the use of the recorder or
the interview itself, please let me know. All of your responses are confidential and will be
used to develop a better understanding of what it means to be a student-athlete with an
IEP.

I will be creating a transcript of this interview. Once completed, I will share the transcript
with you for you to look over. You’ll be free to add or omit anything you’d like. I might
also take down a few notes during the interview. Sometimes I’ll think of a questions to
ask you, but don’t want to interrupt you. My notes will help me remember what I was
planning to bring up.

I would like to obtain your written consent to participate in this study. You and I will
both sign the consent form and date each copy, certifying that we agree to continue with
this interview. You will receive one copy for your records and I will keep the other.

And just a reminder, your participation in this interview is completely voluntary. If at any
time you would like to stop the interview, take a break, return to a previous question, or
withdraw your participation, please let me know.

Do you have any questions or concerns before we begin?

Now, take some time to read over and sign the Consent Form. Let me know if you have
any questions.

Remember to start the recorder.

Purpose of the Study:

The purpose of this study is to investigate the perspectives high school student-athletes
with IEPs and their stakeholders have regarding athletic participation and its impact on
the student-athlete’s academic experience.
 146

Research Questions:
1. What are student athletes’ perspectives on how athletic participation influences
their academic experience?
2. What are stakeholders’ perspectives on how athletic participation influences
student athlete academic experience?
3. What types of resources or supports are put in place to help student-athletes
succeed?

Rationale: How will this

Question (and its Probes) help
Question & Probes Assoc RQ
support your inquiry? What
purpose does it serve?
Warm Up
Tell me a little about your child
 What was he/she like when Gathers initial background
he/she was little? information and serves as a warm-
 What is their involvement up question
and history in their sport?

What are your feelings regarding Establish a general basis for how
your student(s) playing sports on a these individuals view individuals
high school team? participating in high school sports.
 Pride/concern?
 What makes you feel that
way?

Do you encourage high school Looking to see if sport

sport participation or do you What are
participation is voluntary or if it is
require it? stakeholders
forced upon the individuals by
perspectives
 Why did you choose this their parents.
on how
route?
athletic
 Why do you feel this way?
participation
 Did you play a high school influences
sport when you were that student-
age? athlete
academic
Think about your student during These individuals see the
experience?
the season and during the off- participants on a daily basis. I am
season, do you notice any looking to establish is there is a
differences in their grades or distinctive difference in the
behavior? athletes during their season and
 Why do you think that is? out of their season.
 Does it depend on the sport
or even the time of year?
 147

What academic limitations do you Trying to establish is the parents

enforce before sport participation put athletics over academics.
can occur? Looking to determine what kind
 How did you agree upon of value athletics or academics
these limitations? has.
 Do you ever waver, and if
so why?

What type of supports do you Trying to establish various

provide at home to help ensure support given to these individuals
your student-athletes’ success? from a home aspect as compared
 How did you come about to to what may be found given to
these supports? them at school.
 Trial and error/what
worked for you
 Are there any supports you
wish were incorporated,
from either the teachers or
the coaches?

Think about the aspect of time

management, do you stress this Time management is an important
concept to your child and if so, and interesting topic to cover and
how do you help them maintain I want to know the perspectives of
this? the guardians.
 Do you let them miss
athletics for academic
purposes?
 How do you ensure your
child makes up work from
missing school due to a
game, practice, or family
obligation?
Much like time management, I
Think about the concept of
want to explore the concept of
leadership, do you think this is an
leadership in student-athletes. I
important quality for your child to
want to get their guardian’s
have?
perspectives on this topic.
 Do you believe that athletic
participation enhances or
harms leadership potential?
Looking for a general sense of
In your view, what is the most
what they believe makes being a
difficult aspect of being a high
student-athlete challenging.
school student athlete?
 148

 What makes you feel this

way?

What types
The question about support at
of resources
home directly ties into this
or supports
question. However, due to the
are put in
nature of the order of my
place to help
questions, it is better suited being
student-
asked earlier and with the other
athletes
questions from research question 2.
succeed?
Closing
What are your final thoughts on Attempt to give the participants
the topic? one last chance to add any
 Do you have anything to information that may be relevant.
add?
 149

Appendix H

Group Interview Guide (Teachers)

Introduction:

First, I want to thank you for volunteering to talk with me today. As I mentioned before, I
am a graduate student at Piedmont College conducting research to complete my doctoral
dissertation. This interview will take about 45 minutes.

I would like your permission to audio record this interview so I may accurately document
your responses. If at any point in time you wish to discontinue the use of the recorder or
the interview itself, please let me know. All of your responses are confidential and will be
used to develop a better understanding of what it means to be a student-athlete with an
IEP.

I will be creating a transcript of this interview. Once completed, I will share the transcript
with you for you to look over. You’ll be free to add or omit anything you’d like. I might
also take down a few notes during the interview. Sometimes I’ll think of a questions to
ask you, but don’t want to interrupt you. My notes will help me remember what I was
planning to bring up.

I would like to obtain your written consent to participate in this study. You and I will
both sign the consent form and date each copy, certifying that we agree to continue with
this interview. You will receive one copy for your records and I will keep the other.

And just a reminder, your participation in this interview is completely voluntary. If at any
time you would like to stop the interview, take a break, return to a previous question, or
withdraw your participation, please let me know.

Do you have any questions or concerns before we begin?

Now, take some time to read over and sign the Consent Form. Let me know if you have
any questions.

Remember to start the recorder.

Purpose of the Study:

The purpose of this study is to investigate the perspectives high school student-athletes
with IEPs and their stakeholders have regarding athletic participation and its impact on
the student-athlete’s academic experience.
 150

Research Questions:
1. What are student athletes’ perspectives on how athletic participation influences
their academic experience?
2. What are stakeholders’ perspectives on how athletic participation influences
student athlete academic experience?
3. What types of resources or supports are put in place to help student-athletes
succeed?

Rationale: How will this

Question (and its Probes) help
Question & Probes Assoc RQ
support your inquiry? What
purpose does it serve?
Warm Up
Tell me a little about your student?
Gathers initial background
 What is their general
information and serves as a
behavior in your classroom?
warm-up question
 How do they interact with
other students?
What are your feelings regarding Establish a general basis for
your student(s) playing sports on a how these individuals view
high school team? students participating in high
 Pride/concern? school sports. Also looking to
 What makes you feel that determine if there are any
way? potential biases.
 Do you enjoy teaching
student-athletes or do you
find it more of a challenge?
What are
 Do you
stakeholders
consciously/subconsciously
perspectives
treat student-athletes
on how
differently than non-student-
athletic
athletes?
participation
 Do you hold a specific group influences
to a higher standard? student-
These individuals see the
athlete
Think about your student during the participants on a daily basis. I
academic
season and during the off-season, do am looking to establish if there
experience?
you notice any differences in their is a distinctive difference in the
grades or behavior? athletes during their season and
 Why do you think that is? out of their season.
 Does it depend on the student
or the sport or even the time
of year?

Think about the aspect of time The aspect of time management

management. Does participation in a is an important concept and I
 151

sport have a positive, negative, or feel it is necessary to get the

neutral effect on time management? teachers opinions regarding this
 Is there a difference in-season topic.
as compared to out of season?
 Is there a difference between
student-athletes and non-
student-athletes?

Think about leaders in your The concept of student-athletes

classroom. Do they tend to be being leaders is an interesting
student-athletes, non-student- concept and I would like to
athletes, or a mix? delve into it further to gather the
 Why do you feel (group teacher’s thoughts.
mentioned) are leaders
compared to the other
groups?
 Do you think being a student-
athlete has a direct effect on
this?
 (if student-athletes are not the
leaders) How do you think
student-athletes could better
become leaders?

Think about your student compared

to those without an IEP, do you I am looking for some general
notice any glaring differences or information about how these
similarities? teachers view students with
 Do students in your IEPs compared to those who do
classroom know who has an not have one. I am trying to
IEP and who does not? determine if there are any
noticeable differences in the two
 Does sports participation
groups.
impact them more, less, or
the same as those without
IEPs?
 How do you feel the IEP
impacts them in both the
classroom and on the field?

In your view, what is the most

difficult aspect of being a high
Looking for a general sense of
school student athlete?
what they believe makes being a
 What makes you feel this student-athlete challenging.
way?
 152

What types
What kind of supports do you
of resources
provide to help student-athletes I want to determine the various
or supports
succeed in your classroom? supports used by teachers in the
are put in
 Are these mandated by an classroom and see if there are
place to help
IEP or are they something any added beyond what is
student-
you have found beneficial for mandated in the IEP.
athletes
the student?
succeed?
Closing Attempt to give the participants
What are your final thoughts on the one last chance to add any
topic? information that may be
 Do you have anything to add? relevant.
 153

Appendix I

Interview Guide (Coaches)

Introduction:

First, I want to thank you for volunteering to talk with me today. As I mentioned before, I
am a graduate student at Piedmont College conducting research to complete my doctoral
dissertation. This interview will take about 45 minutes.

I would like your permission to audio record this interview so I may accurately document
your responses. If at any point in time you wish to discontinue the use of the recorder or
the interview itself, please let me know. All of your responses are confidential and will be
used to develop a better understanding of what it means to be a student-athlete with an
IEP.

I will be creating a transcript of this interview. Once completed, I will share the transcript
with you for you to look over. You’ll be free to add or omit anything you’d like. I might
also take down a few notes during the interview. Sometimes I’ll think of a questions to
ask you, but don’t want to interrupt you. My notes will help me remember what I was
planning to bring up.

I would like to obtain your written consent to participate in this study. You and I will
both sign the consent form and date each copy, certifying that we agree to continue with
this interview. You will receive one copy for your records and I will keep the other.

And just a reminder, your participation in this interview is completely voluntary. If at any
time you would like to stop the interview, take a break, return to a previous question, or
withdraw your participation, please let me know.

Do you have any questions or concerns before we begin?

Now, take some time to read over and sign the Consent Form. Let me know if you have
any questions.

Remember to start the recorder.

Purpose of the Study:

The purpose of this study is to investigate the perspectives high school student-athletes
with IEPs and their stakeholders have regarding athletic participation and its impact on
the student-athlete’s academic experience.
 154

Research Questions:
1. What are student athletes’ perspectives on how athletic participation influences
their academic experience?
2. What are stakeholders’ perspectives on how athletic participation influences
student athlete academic experience?
3. What types of resources or supports are put in place to help student-athletes
succeed?

Rationale: How will this

Question (and its Probes) help
Question & Probes Assoc RQ
support your inquiry? What
purpose does it serve?
Warm Up
Tell me a little about your athlete?
 How long have you Gathers initial background
coached them? information and serves as a warm-
 What is their skill level at up question
their position?

When you hear the term “student- Trying to establish how a coach
athlete”, what does that mean to approaches academics. Which
you? aspect do they value more?
 Should the student aspect
come first or the athletic
one?
 What makes you feel this
way?
What are
How do you feel participation in stakeholders
high school athletics affects a perspectives Establishing a connection between
student’s academic experience? on how playing sports and its impact on
athletic academics. Also looking to see I
 What makes you say this?
participation the coach is tuned in on the
 Does it positively affect
influences academic aspect of the individual.
some aspects and
student-
negatively affect others?
athlete
 (if student plays multiple academic
sports) Does it change experience?
based on the sport of time
of year?
Attempting to establish any
What role do you play in the academic supports the coach of a
academic life of a student-athlete? sport may provide an individual
 Grade checks/study on their team.
halls/one-on-one meetings?
 Discussions with teachers?
 155

 Do you make your players

sign a contract? What does
it entail?
 Do you keep tabs on a
student’s grades? Both in-
season and out or just in?
 Do you have a good
relationship with their
teachers?

In your opinion, who should be Looking to establish a sense of

responsible for ensuring that responsibility that a coach may
student-athletes have a successful have regarding academics.
educational experience?
 Student, teacher, coach,
guardian?
 One more than the other?
All the same?
 What makes you say this?

Think about the aspect of time

management, do you stress this The concept of time management
concept to your athletes and if so, is an important aspect to explore
how do you help them maintain and I want to make sure to get the
this? coaches perspectives regarding
this topic.
 Do you let them miss
athletics for academic
purposes?
 How do you ensure a
student makes up work
form missing school due to
a game or practice?
The idea of leadership is also a
Thank about the concept of
concept that I want to explore,
leadership, do you think this is an
much the same was as time
important quality that your
management.
student-athletes need to have?
 Do you give your athletes
opportunities to become a
leader?
 Do you believe that athletic
participation enhances or
harms leadership potential?
I am looking for some general
Think about your student-athlete information about how these
compared to those without an IEP,
 156

do you notice any glaring coaches view athletes with IEPs

differences or similarities? compared to those who do not
 Do students on your team have one. I am trying to determine
know who has an IEP and if there are any noticeable
who does not? differences in the two groups.
 Does sports participation
impact them more, less, or
the same as those without
IEPs?
 How do you feel the IEP
impacts them in both the
classroom and on the field?

In your view, what is the most Looking for a general sense of

difficult aspect of being a high what they believe makes being a
school student athlete? student-athlete challenging.
 What makes you feel this
way?
What types
of resources
The questions regarding the role of or supports
a coach in the life of their athlete are put in
will help to answer this research place to help
question. student-
athletes
succeed?
Closing
What are your final thoughts on Attempt to give the participants
the topic? one last chance to add any
 Do you have anything to information that may be relevant.
add?
 157

Appendix J

CITI Training Confirmation

158
 ProQuest Number: 29069225

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