Hardware

(Chapter 3)
Types of Memory & Storage
Memory and storage devices can be split up into three distinct groups:

1. Primary memory
2. Secondary storage
3. Off-line storage

1) Primary memory:
Primary memory is directly accessible by the CPU.
It is internal to the computer.
It has faster access speed.
It stores boot up instructions and can hold data whilst being processed.
It has both volatile and non-volatile.
Examples: RAM and ROM.

Primary memory consists of random access memory (RAM) and read only memory (ROM):

a) RAM:
i) The features of random access memory (RAM) are:

It is volatile/temporary memory (the contents of the memory are lost when the power to
the RAM is turned off).
It is used to store instructions, programs, data and parts of the operating system that
are currently in use.
Data can be written to or read from RAM and the contents of the memory can be changed.
RAM is much faster to write to or read from than other types of memory.
RAM normally has a larger capacity than ROM.

Buffers use RAM since they need to be a fast memory and the data only needs to be held temporarily.

ii) Why does RAM get slower and its solution:

*Note: RAM never runs out of memory*

As the RAM becomes full, it becomes slower since the processor has to continually access the
hard disk drive to overwrite old data on RAM with new data.
By increasing the RAM size, the number of times this access operation is carried out is
reduced, resolving this issue and making the computer run faster.

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iii) There are currently two types of RAM technology:

1. Dynamic ram (DRAM)

2. Static RAM (SRAM).

1) Dynamic RAM (DRAM):

Each dynamic RAM (DRAM) chip consists of millions of tiny transistors and capacitors.
The function of capacitor is to hold the bits of information (0 or 1).
The transistor acts like a switch as it allows the chip control circuitry to read the capacitor
or change the capacitor’s value.
This type of RAM needs to be constantly refreshed (that is, the capacitor needs to be
recharged every 15 microseconds).
Otherwise the capacitor’s charge would leak away very quickly, leaving every capacitor
with the value 0.

i) Advantages:

1. DRAMs are much less expensive to manufacture than SRAM.

2. They consume less power than SRAM.
3. They have a higher storage capacity than SRAM.

ii) Use:

1. DRAM is the most common type of RAM used in computers except for high speed areas.

2) Static RAM (SRAM):

It makes use of flip flops which hold each bit of memory.
It does not need to be constantly refreshed.

i) Advantages:

1. It is much faster than DRAM when it comes to data access as typical access time for SRAM
is 25 nanoseconds and for DRAM is 60 nanoseconds.

ii) Use:

1. SRAM is the most used technology in areas where absolute speed is essential.
2. For example, the processor’s memory cache is the high speed portion of the memory.

By keeping most of the data and instructions in SRAM, the computer avoids having to access the
slower DRAM.

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Summary of differences between DRAM and SRAM:

b) ROM:
i) The features of read only memory (ROM) are:

It is non-volatile/permanent memory (the contents of the memory remain even when the
power to the ROM is turned off).
It is used to store the start-up instructions when the computer is first switched on (e.g. BIOS
(basic input/output system).
The data of a ROM chip can only be read and not written to; the contents of the memory
cannot be changed.
ROM normally has a smaller capacity than RAM.

ii) Applications of ROM and RAM:

Q1. A remote-controlled toy car has a circuitry which contains both RAM and ROM chips. The
remote control is a hand-held device.

The function of:

1) ROM:

It stores the factory settings such as remote control frequencies.

It stores the ‘start-up’ routines when the toy car is first switched on.
It stores the set routines (e.g. how the buttons on the hand-held device control turning left,
acceleration, stopping, and so on).

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2) RAM:

It stores routines that the user may wish to program.

It stores new instructions given by the user.
It stores the data/instructions received from the remote control unit.

Summary of differences between RAM and ROM:

Types of ROM:
i) Programmable ROM (PROM):

PROM can be set once.

A PROM is made up of a matrix of fuses.
They are often used in mobile phones and in RFID tags.

ii) Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM):

EPROM can be overwritten multiple times.

A EPROM use floating gate transistors and capacitors.
EPROM needs to be removed from device.
EPROM can be programmed and erased using UV light.
EPROM must be entirely erased before rewriting.
They are used in applications which are under development, such as the programming of new
games consoles.

iii) Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM):

EEPROM can be overwritten multiple times.

EEPROM can be erased in situ.
EEPROM can be erased using voltage // is flash storage.
EEPROM does not have to be entirely erased before rewriting.

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Exam Style questions:
Q1. Explain three ways that RAM is different to ROM. (3)

RAM is volatile whereas ROM is non-volatile.

RAM is temporary whereas ROM is permanent.
RAM normally has a larger capacity than ROM.
RAM can be edited while ROM cannot be edited.

Q2. Describe two differences between Read Only Memory (ROM) and Random Access Memory
(RAM). (4)

ROM is permanent whereas RAM is temporary.

ROM is read only memory while RAM can have read and write operations.
ROM holds instructions for boot up whereas RAM holds files and instructions currently in use.

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Embedded System:
An embedded system is used to perform a dedicated function.
It has a microprocessor/microcontroller within a larger system that performs one specific task.
These functions include domestic appliances, cars, security systems, lighting system or
vending machines.
An embedded system is different to a general purpose computer that is used to perform
many different functions, e.g. a personal computer (PC) or a laptop.
The embedded system is built into/integrated into the device and this enables operations to
be controlled in a more efficient way.
The devices such as cookers, refrigerators and central heating systems can now all be
activated by a web-enabled device (such as a mobile phone, computer or tablet).

Microcontroller:

This has a CPU in addition to some RAM and ROM and other peripherals all embedded onto
one single chip and together they can carry out a specific task.

Microprocessor:

It is an integrated/embedded circuit which only has a CPU on a one single chip.

It does not have RAM, ROM or other peripherals – these need to be added.

The following diagram summarizes how Embedded Systems work in general:

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Working of Embedded Systems:
When an embedded system is installed in a device, either an operator can input data manually
(e.g., select a temperature from a keypad or turn a dial on an oven control panel) or the data
will come from an automatic source, such as a sensor.
This sensor input will be analogue or digital in nature (e.g. inputs such as oxygen levels or
fuel pressure in a car’s engine management system).
The output will then carry out the function of the embedded system by sending signals to
the components that are being controlled (e.g. increase the power to the heating elements
in an oven or reduce fuel levels in the engine).
The embedded system is dedicated to a specific set of tasks therefore engineers can optimize their
designs to reduce the physical size and cost of the devices.
Programming of Embedded Systems:
The embedded systems are either programmable or non-programmable depending on the device
in which they are used.
The non-programmable devices need to be replaced if they require a software upgrade.
The programmable devices allow upgrading by two methods:
1. Connecting the device to a computer and allowing the download of updates to the
software (e.g. this is used to update the maps on a GPS system used in a vehicle).
2. Automatic updates via a Wi-Fi, satellite or cellular (mobile phone network) link (e.g. many
modern cars allow updates to engine management systems and other components via
satellite link).
Controlling of Embedded Systems:
The embedded systems can be controlled remotely using a smartphone or computer due to
their internet connectivity.
The central heating system can be set to switch on or off while the user is away from home
and the set top box can be instructed remotely to record a television programme.

General Purpose Computers & Embedded Systems:

The personal computer (PC) and laptop is not an example of an embedded system.
An embedded system is used to perform a dedicated function/one specific task.
The computers/laptops are multi-functional that is they can carry out many different tasks
which can be varied by using different software and so they cannot be classified as embedded
systems.

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Benefits & Drawbacks of Embedded Systems:
Benefits of Embedded Systems:
1. They are small in size and therefore easy to fit into devices.
2. They are relatively low cost to make.
3. They are usually dedicated to one task allowing simple interfaces and often no requirement
for an operating system.
4. They consume very little power.
5. They can be controlled remotely using a mobile phone.
6. They have a very fast reaction to changing input as they operate in real time and are feedback
orientated.
7. The mass production of embedded systems bring reliability.
Drawbacks of Embedded Systems:
1. It can be difficult to upgrade some devices to the latest technology.
2. The troubleshooting faults in the device becomes a specialist task.
3. The interface can appear to be more simple (e.g. a single knob) but in reality it can be more
confusing (e.g. changing the time on a cooker clock can require several steps).
4. They are always susceptible to cyber hacking & viruses as they are accessed over the internet.
5. The devices are often just thrown away rather than being repaired which is very wasteful due
to difficulty in upgrading and finding faults.
6. It can lead to an increase in the ‘throw away’ society if devices are discarded after they have
become out-of-date.

Applications of Embedded Systems:

The range of applications are vast, ranging from a single microcontroller (e.g. in an MP3 player) to a
complex array of multiple units (e.g. in a medical imaging system).

1) Cars:
The modern cars have many parts that rely on embedded systems to function correctly. The
following components are some of the many that are controlled in this way:
1. GPS system
2. Lane detection system
3. Airbags
4. In-car entertainment system
5. Fuel injection system
6. ABS braking
7. Vehicle security
8. Traction control
9. Exhaust emission

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Lane Detection System:
This system monitors the lines on either side of the lane. If the car gets too close to one line,
the system automatically moves the car away from the line.
Why the lane detection system is an example of an Embedded System:
The lane detection system is built into/integrated into the car.
The lane detection system only performs one task.
The lane detection system is not easily changed/updated by the car owner.

2) Set-top Box:
It uses an embedded system to allow recording and playback of television programmes.
This can be operated remotely by the user when not at home using an internet-enabled
device or by using the interface panel when at home.
The embedded system will look after many of the functions involving inputs from a number
of sources such as a Solid State Device (SSD) or a satellite signal.
The SSD stores or retrieves television programmes.
The satellite signal will decode the incoming signal.
The following diagram shows the Embedded System found in a set-top box:

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3) Security Systems:
The security code is set in RAM and the alarm is activated or deactivated using the keypad.
The data from the sensors is sent to the controller which checks against values stored on the
SSD (these settings are on SSD rather than RAM in case the sensitivity needs to be adjusted).
An output can be a signal to flash lights, sound an alarm or send a message to the user via
their mobile phone.
The user can also interface with the system remotely if necessary.

The following diagram shows the Embedded Systems used in many security devices:

4) Lighting Systems:
The embedded systems are used in modern sophisticated lighting systems. We will consider the
lighting system used in a large office.
The system needs to control the lighting according to:
1. The time of the day or day of the week:
The time of the day or day of the week is important data in an office environment since energy
is saved if the system switches to low lighting levels when unoccupied.

2. Whether the room is occupied or empty:

If there is movement in the office then correct lighting levels be automatically restored.

3. The brightness of the natural light:

On a very bright sunny day, the system could automatically dim the lights, only increasing the
light output if natural light levels fall below a set value.

An embedded system can automatically control the lighting using a number of inputs (such as light
sensors) and key data stored in memory.
There are many internal and external lighting systems that could be controlled by embedded
system such as fountain light display or a light show on a building to celebrate a special
occasion.
They are also used to trigger emergency lighting.
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Lighting Bulbs:
Some lighting systems use Bluetooth light bulbs.
This allows the embedded system to control each bulb independently.
Many of the bulbs available today use LEDs and many come in a number of colors to change
the mood.

5) Vending Systems:
The vending machines usually use microcontrollers to control a number of functions that are
associated with them.
The following diagram shows the Embedded Systems used in a vending machine:

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 The embedded system is in the form of a microcontroller.
The inputs to this system come from the keypad (item selection) and from sensors (used to
count the coins inserted by the customer, the temperature inside the machine and a ‘tilt
sensor’ for security purposes).
The outputs are:
1) The actuators to operate the motors, which control the helixes (coil) to give the customers
their selected items.
2) The signals to operate the cooling system if the temperature is too high.
3) The item description and any change due is shown on an LCD display panel.
4) The data sent back to the vending machine company so that they can remotely check sales
activity including the instructions to refill the machine without having to visit each machine.
All of this is controlled by an embedded system which makes the whole operation automatic but
also gives immediate sales analysis which would otherwise be very time consuming.

6) Washing Machines:
Many large electrical goods used domestically such as refrigerators, washing machines,
microwave ovens, and so on (called white goods) are controlled by embedded systems.
They all come with a keypad or dials that are used to select the temperature, wash cycle or
cooking duration.
This data forms the input to the embedded system, which then carries out the required task
without any further human intervention.
These devices can also be operated remotely using an internet-enabled smartphone or
computer.
Meaning of an Embedded System using the washing machine as an example:
An embedded system in washing machine only controls the programs for the washing cycle.
It is part of the washing machine but does not perform any other function within it.
The washing machine’s embedded system makes use of both Random Access Memory (RAM)
and Read Only Memory (ROM).
Purpose of RAM within the washing machine’s Embedded System:
1. It stores the choices/wash program the user has entered.
2. It stores the data read from the sensors.
3. It stores the time left in the program
Purpose of ROM within the washing machine’s Embedded System:
1. It stores the start-up instructions for the washing cycles.

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Exam Style Questions:
Question 1:

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Answer:

Question 2:

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Answer:

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2) Secondary Storage Devices:
Secondary memory is not directly accessible by CPU.
It can be internal or external to the computer.
It has a slower access speed.
It stores files and software etc.
It is non-volatile only.
Example: HDD and SSD.

Secondary memory consists of hard disk drives (HDD) and solid-state drives (SSD):

a) Hard disk drives (HDD):

Hard disk drive (HDD) is the most common method used to store data on a computer.

i) Data storage:

The data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surfaces of the disks (platters).
The data is stored on the surface in sectors and tracks.
A sector on any track will contain a fixed number of bytes.

ii) Working:

The data is stored on the surface in sectors and tracks.

It has a number of platters which can spin at about 7000 times a second.
A number of read–write heads can access all of the surfaces in the disk drive.
Normally each platter will have two surfaces which can be used to store the data.
These read–write heads can move very quickly, and typically they can move from the centre
of the disk to the edge of the disk (and back again) 50 times a second.

iii) Advantages:

1. HDD is cheaper for larger amounts of storage space.

2. It has greater longevity for read and write functions.

iv) Disadvantages:

1. Hard disk drives have very slow data access when compared to, for example, RAM.
2. The effect of latency becomes very significant due to large number of read-write heads
movements.
Latency is defined as the time it takes for a specific block of data on a data track to rotate
around to the read–write head. It can be noticed by messages such as ‘not responding’.

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b) Solid state drives (SSD):
Solid state drive (SDD) uses semiconductor chips, not magnetic media, to store data.
It has no moving parts and all data is retrieved at the same rate.

i) Data storage:

The most common type of solid-state storage devices store data by controlling the
movement of electrons within NAND chips.
The data is stored as 0s and 1s in millions of tiny transistors within the chip.
This effectively produces a non-volatile rewritable memory.

ii) Two types of technologies used mostly in solid-state drives:

1) Electronically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM) technology:

It uses NOR chips rather than NAND.

i) Advantages:

1. This makes them faster in operation.

2. EEPROM allows data to be read or erased in single bytes at a time.
This makes EEPROM technology more useful in certain applications where data needs to be
accessed or erased in byte-sized chunks

ii) Disadvantages:

1. Devices using EEPROM are considerably more expensive than those that use NAND
technology.

2) Flash/NAND technology:

It uses NAND chips.

i) Advantages:

1. Devices using NAND are cheaper than those that use EEPROM technology.

ii) Disadvantages:

1. The use of NAND only allows blocks of data to be read or erased.

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Main benefits of using SSD rather than HDD:
1. It has no moving parts hence no latency issue.
2. They are more reliable (no moving parts to go wrong).
3. They are considerably lighter (which makes them suitable for laptops).
4. They don’t have to ‘get up to speed’ before they work properly.
5. They have a lower power consumption.
6. They run much cooler than HDDs.
7. They are very thin as they have no moving parts.
8. The data access is considerably faster than HDD.

Main drawbacks of using SSD rather than HDD:

1. The main drawback of SSD is the questionable longevity of the technology.
2. It has a maximum life of 21,900 GB only.

Therefore, SSD technology is not used in servers where a huge number of write operations take
place every day.

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Exam Style questions:
Q1. Describe the differences between primary and secondary storage. (4)
Primary storage is RAM and ROM whereas secondary storage is HDD and SSD.
Primary storage is directly accessible by CPU whereas secondary storage is not directly
accessible by CPU.
Primary storage is internal to computer while secondary storage can be internal or external
to the computer.
Primary storage stores boot up instructions and can hold data whilst being processed while
secondary stores files/software.
Primary has faster access speed while secondary has a slower access speed.
Primary has both volatile and non-volatile whereas secondary is non-volatile only.

Q2. Explain why a model car uses a solid state drive rather than another type of secondary
storage. (2)
A solid state drive has no moving parts.
A solid state drive has faster random access.
A solid state drive has a quick start up/shut down time (reduced latency).
A solid state drive is very small.
A solid state drive is very light.
A solid state drive consumes very little power.
A solid state drive does not generate a lot of heat (therefore safer in this application).

Q3. Solid state drives (SSD) are replacing hard disc drives (HDD) in some computers.
i) Give three reasons why this is happening. (3)

SSD don’t need to "get up to speed" to work properly/no latency.

They have lower power consumption/more energy efficient.
They run cooler than HDD.
They run quieter than HDD.
The data access is faster.
They occupy less physical space/more compact.
They are lighter, so more suitable for a portable computer/laptop.
They have no moving parts so more reliable/durable in a portable computer/laptop.

ii) Explain why many web servers still use hard disc drive (HDD) technology instead of solid-
state drive (SSD) technology. (2)

HDD is cheaper for larger amounts of storage space.

HDD has greater longevity for read and write functions.
It is expensive to change the technology/HDD is a more trusted technology.

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Q4. A law company wants to purchase a new file server.
The company can purchase a server with either solid state storage or magnetic storage. After
discussion, it decides to purchase a file server with magnetic storage.
Explain why the company chose magnetic storage rather than solid state storage. (4)

Greater longevity; likely to be a lot of read/write functions each day.

Read/write speed is sufficient; even though it is slower than solid-state.
Cheaper per unit of data stored; better value for the company to purchase so the law company
can afford to buy a server with greater storage capacity.
Trusted technology; it has been traditionally used for many years.

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3) Off-line storage:
It is non-volatile storage.
It is removable from a computer/device and not internal to the computer.
It is not directly accessed by the CPU.
It is used to store files as a backup.

i) Examples of off-line storage include:

1. CD/DVD/DVD-RAM (optical storage systems).

2. Blu-ray disks (optical storage systems).
3. USB flash memory/memory sticks/SD-XD cards (solid state storage systems).
4. Removable/external hard disk drives (magnetic storage systems).

ii) For CD, DVD, DVD-RAM and Blu-ray disks:

The smaller the pit size and track width, the greater the storage capacity.
The shorter the wavelength of laser light, the greater the storage capacity of the medium.

1) CD:
It is an optical storage device.
It uses a thin layer of metal alloy or light-sensitive organic dye to store the data.
It uses a single, spiral track which runs from the centre of the disk to the edge.

i) Data storage:

The data is stored on the surface using pits and lands on the spiral track.
CDs can be designated R (write once only) or RW (can be written to or read from many times).

ii) Laser:

A red laser is used to read and write the data.

CDs use lasers with a wavelength of 780 nanometers.

iii) Describe how the data is read from a Compact Disc (CD):

A red laser is used to read the data which shines onto surface of the disk.
Disc is rotated at a constant speed to be read.
CD uses a single, spiral track and data is represented on the surface using pits and lands
which represent binary values.
Pits and lands reflect light back differently and so binary value is determined from the
reflection.

iv) Storage capacity:

CD has a storage capacity of 700-800 MB only.

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v) Uses:

1. It is commonly used to store music albums.

2. It is used to store computer files.

2) DVD (digital video disc):

It is an optical storage device.
It uses a thin layer of metal alloy or light-sensitive organic dye to store the data.
It uses a single, spiral track which runs from the centre of the disk to the edge.

i) Data storage:

The data is stored on the surface using pits and lands on the spiral track.
DVDs can be designated R (write once only) or RW (can be written to or read from many
times).

ii) Laser:

A red laser is used to read and write the data.

DVDs use lasers with a wavelength of 650 nanometers.

iii) Structure:

It uses dual-layering which considerably increases the storage capacity.

This means that there are two individual recording layers.
Two layers of a standard DVD are joined together with a transparent (polycarbonate)
spacer, and a very thin reflector is also sandwiched between the two layers.

However, the use of two sandwiched layers can cause birefringence which means light is refracted
into two separate beams causing reading errors.

iv) Describe how the data is read from a DVD disk:

A red laser is used to read the data which shines onto surface of the disk.
Disc is rotated at a constant speed to be read.
DVD uses a single, spiral track and data is represented on the surface using pits and lands
which represent binary values.
The reading and writing of the second layer is done by the red laser focusing at a fraction
of a millimeter difference compared to the first layer.
Pits and lands reflect light back differently and so binary value is determined from the
reflection.

v) Storage capacity:

Single layered DVD has a storage capacity of 4.7 GB.

Dual layered DVD has a storage capacity of 9.4 GB.

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vi) Uses:

1. It is used to store movies and games.

2. It is used to store software programs.

When the software is supplied using DVDs, the disk is usually in a read-only format.

Differences between CD and DVD:

Both have almost similar structures and working but the only difference is that DVD has
greater data storage and high quality audio and video formats.
The clarity, when comparison with a CD is almost six times higher.
The picture quality is far better than a CD.
Most DVDs have Dolby Digital or DTS thus greater clarity of sound.
The format of a DVD can be changed according to the type of view needed.

3) DVD-RAM:
It is an optical storage device.
It is a full-duplex data transmission method.
It uses a very different technology compared to CDs and DVDs.

i) Structure:

Instead of a single, spiral track, they use a number of concentric tracks.

ii) Advantage:

The use of concentric tracks allows simultaneous read and write operations to take place.
They allow numerous read and write operations (up to 100 000 times) and have great
longevity (over 30 years) which makes them ideal for archiving.

iii) Storage capacity:

A single-sided DVD-RAM disc has a storage capacity of 1.46 GB.

A double-sided DVD-RAM disc has a storage capacity of 2.8 GB.

4) Blu-ray disks:
It is an optical storage device.
Blu-ray uses only one layer hence the disks don’t suffer from birefringence.
Blu-ray disks automatically come with a secure encryption system which helps to prevent
piracy and copyright infringement.

i) Data storage:

The data is stored on the surface using pits and lands on the spiral track.

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ii) Laser:

A blue laser is used to read and write the data.

Blu-ray use lasers with a wavelength of 405 nanometers.

iii) Storage capacity:

The use of shorter wavelength means that the pits and lands are much smaller.
Consequently, Blu-ray can store up to five times more data than normal DVD.
Blu-ray has a storage capacity of 20-25 GB.

iv) Uses:

1. Blu-ray discs can hold and play back large quantities of high-definition video and audio.
2. It can also store large quantities of high quality photos, data and other digital content.
3. It is used to store games for play station.
4. It is used to store high-definition movies.

Differences between DVD and Blu-ray:

DVD uses a red laser whereas Blu-ray uses a blue laser.
DVD has a smaller storage capacity whereas Blu-ray has a larger storage capacity.
DVD has two layers of polycarbonate while Blu-ray disks have a single layer of
polycarbonate.
DVD has a slower transfer rate of approximately 10 mbps while Blu-ray has a faster transfer
rate of approximately 36 mbps.

The main differences between CDs, DVDs and Blu-ray are summarized in the
table below:

Wavelength of Track pitch (distance

Disk type Laser color Disk construction
laser light between tracks)

single 1.2 mm
CD red 780 nm 1.60 μm
polycarbonate layer
two 0.6 mm
DVD red 650 nm 0.74 μm
polycarbonate layers
single 1.1 mm
Blu-ray blue 405 nm 0.30 μm
polycarbonate layer

All these optical storage media are used as back-up systems (for photos, music and multimedia files).
This also means that CDs and DVDs can be used to transfer files between computers. Manufacturers
often supply their software using CDs and DVDs. The most common use of DVD and Blu-ray is the
supply of movies or games. The memory capacity of CDs isn’t big enough to store most movies.

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The future of optical media:
CD and DVD are becoming obsolete and many computers now come with USB connectors
only and no DVD or CD drive.
USB flash memory/memory sticks have now become the main method of transferring files
between devices.
To store music, people are now using hard disk drive systems, computer/tablet, mobile
phones and portable music players (e.g. iPod).
Other means are streaming music online or using the cloud to store their music files.
To watch movies, people are now streaming them online and using smart TVs instead of DVD
or Blu-ray players.

5) USB flash memories:

Memory sticks/flash memories (also known as pen drives) use solid-state technology.

i) Connection:
They usually connect to a computer through the USB port.

ii) Advantages:
1. Their main advantage is that they are very small.
2. They are lightweight devices which make them suitable as a method for transferring files
between computers.
3. They have a lower power consumption.
4. They run much cooler.

iii) Uses:

1. They are used for transferring files between computers.

2. They are used as small back-up devices for music or photo files etc.
3. Complex or expensive software, such as an Expert System, often uses memory sticks as a
dongle.
The dongle contains additional files which are needed to run the software. Without this
dongle, the software won’t work properly. It therefore prevents illegal or unauthorized use of
the software, and also prevents copying of the software since, without the dongle, it is useless.

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6) SD/XD cards:
SD/XD cards use solid-state technology.
The technology is essentially the same as memory sticks.
Digital cameras and phones use XD (eXtreme Digital) or SD (Secure Digital) cards for
storage.

i) Connection:
These memory cards allow photos to be transferred from camera to computer via the USB
port.
Many printers and computers also have card slots allowing the device to read the memory
card directly.

ii) Construction:
Each memory card is made up of NAND chips and has no moving parts.

General precautions for using USB flash memory/memory sticks/SD-XD cards

(solid-state memories):
If they are removed from a device before being made safe, data on the memory card or stick
can be corrupted.
In extreme cases, the memory card or stick becomes totally unusable.
It is essential to wait for the message: ‘it is now safe to remove your device’ if plugged into a
computer.
With mobile phones or digital cameras, it is usually advisable to switch them off before
removal of the card.

7) Removable hard disk drives:

They are essentially HDD but can be connected to the computer using one of the USB ports.
In this way, they can be used as a back-up device or as another way of transferring files
between computers.
They are removable/portable.

26
Exam Style questions:
Q1.

27
Answer:

28
Q2.

Answer:

29
Q3.

Answer:

30
Q4.

Answer:

Q5.

31
Answer:

32
Input & Output Devices
Input devices:
An input device is any hardware device that sends data to a computer, allowing you to
interact with and control it.
The input devices included in our syllabus are:
1. microphones
2. screens
3. sensors

1) Microphones:

Microphones

A microphone, colloquially named mic is a device that converts sound into an electrical
signal.
These are used to input sound into a computer for purposes such as:

1. Doing a ‘voice over’ in a presentation.

2. Part of a speech recognition system.
3. Part of a voice recognition system.
4. Enabling a disabled person to communicate with computer.

i) Connection:

They are either built into the computer or external devices connected through USB
port/wireless connectivity.

33
ii) Working:

When a microphone picks up sound, the sound waves hit a diaphragm.

This causes the diaphragm to vibrate producing an electric signal.
This signal goes to a sound card and is converted into digital values and stored in the
computer.

iii) Advantages:

1. It is faster to provide voice as input using microphone than to type text using keyboard.
2. Sound waves can be manipulated in real time.
3. It can help in improving safety and security of drivers and riders when used with voice
activation systems e.g. switching on radio, keeping phone in speaker mode etc.
4. They are inexpensive in general.
5. Most of the microphones tolerate extreme high sound pressure levels.
6. It does not require power supply except few.

iv) Disadvantages:

1. Sound files require large memory for storage for further processing and use.
2. Voice recognition software is not as accurate as manual typing. For example, it cannot
distinguish between "there" and "their".
3. Sound signals are required to be amplified for proper reconstruction. Hence amplifiers
are needed.
4. It has reduced performance at high frequencies.

v) Uses:

1. It is used in live and recorded audio engineering.

2. It is used in sound and music recording.
3. It is used in radio and television broadcasting.
4. It is used in computers for recording voice.
5. It is used in speech recognition.

34
a) Voice recognition:

If the microphone is being used in a VOICE RECOGNITION system, the user’s voice is
detected and then converted into digital.
A few words spoken produce a digital wave pattern.
A software compares this wave pattern to wave patterns stored in memory to see if they
match.

i) Use:

1. This technology can be used in security systems (e.g. a user may be asked to say their name
and if the user’s voice is identified then he/she is given access).

b) Speech Recognition:

It is a different and more complex technology.

It uses a microphone to input words spoken by a user.
The spoken words are recognized and shown on a screen, input into a word processor
or used in other application.

i) Example:

Sound wave Digital value

1. Suppose a person says any word; the sound card in the computer will convert the sound
wave into a digital form.
2. The software takes the digital image and breaks it up into phonemes (these are the
smallest elements that make up a language).
3. These phonemes are compared with words found in the built-in dictionary.
4. That word would then be suggested by the software in whatever application is being run.

ii) Why complex?

It is a complex technology since computer is unable to differentiate between similar

sounding words (e.g. their and there) due to different dialects and accents of human beings.

iii) Use:

1. This technology can be used in phones for giving commands such as “open camera”.
2. This technology can be used in cars for giving commands such as “switch on GPS”.

35
2) Screens:

ai) Liquid Crystal Display/Diode (LCD):

LCD/LED

It is a flat panel display that uses the light modulating properties of liquid crystals.
The screen is made up of liquid crystal diodes.
These tiny diodes are grouped together in blocks of red, green and blue pixels (those
systems that use groups of four include a yellow diode and it makes the colors more vivid).
The screen uses layers of different types of liquids.

i) Describe how an LCD screen operates to display data.

The display of a LCD screen is made up of pixels that are arranged together as a matrix.
Each pixel has three filters red, blue and green.
The different shades of color are achieved by mixing red, blue and green.
The screen is backlit using some form of technology such as CCFL or LED.
The light is shone through the liquid crystals and they can be made to turn solid or
transparent (on or off) by changing their shape.

ii) Backlighting of LCD:

LCD doesn’t emit any light, some form of back-lit technology needs to be used.
Modern LCD monitors are back lit using light emitting diode (LED) technology which gives
the image better contrast and brightness.
When LEDs are used, a matrix of tiny LEDs is used behind the LCD screen.
Before the use of LEDs, LCD monitors used a cold cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL) as the
backlighting method.
Essentially, CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen which supplies the
light source.

36
aii) Light Emitting Diode (LED):
It is a flat panel display that uses an array of light-emitting diodes as pixels.

i) Advantages of using LEDs compared with older CCFL technology:

1. LEDs reach their maximum brightness almost immediately (there is no need to ‘warm up’
before reaching full efficiency).
2. LEDs give a whiter light which sharpens the image and make the colors appear more
vivid; CCFL had a slightly yellowish tint.
3. LEDs produce a brighter light which improves the colour definition.
4. The monitors using LED technology are much thinner than monitors using CCFL technology.
5. LEDs last almost indefinitely which makes the technology more reliable and means a more
consistent product.
6. LEDs consume very little power which means they produce less heat as well as using less
energy.

aiii) Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED):

Future LED technology is making use of organic light emitting diodes (OLEDS).

These use organic materials (made up of carbon compounds) to create semi-conductors

which are very flexible.
Organic films are sandwiched between charged metallic cathode and a glass anode.
When an electric field is supplied to the electrodes, they give off light.
This means that no form of backlighting is required.
It also removes the need to use LCD technology, since OLED is a self-contained system.

i) Advantages of using OLED compared with existing LEDs and LCDs include:

1. The plastic, organic layers of an OLED are thinner, lighter and more flexible than the crystal
structures used in LEDs or LCDs.
2. The light-emitting layers of an OLED are lighter and these layers can be made from plastic
rather than the glass used in LED and LCD screens.
3. OLEDs give a brighter light than LEDs.
4. OLEDs do not require backlighting like LCD screens as they generate their own light.
5. They use much less power than LCD screens as no backlighting is required (this is very
useful in battery-operated devices such as mobile phones).
6. OLEDs are essentially plastics and so they can be made into large, thin sheets (this means
they could be used on large advertising boards in airports, subways, and so on).
7. OLEDs have a very large field of view, about 170 degrees, which makes them ideal for use
in television sets and for advertising screens.

37
aiv) Uses of these technologies:
They are used in:
1. television screens
2. computer monitors
3. portable systems with touchscreens
4. smartphones
5. tablets
6. handheld game consoles

38
Exam Style Questions:
Q1. Modern LCD monitors and television use LED back-lit technology.
Give two advantages of using this new technology compared to the older cold cathode
fluorescent lamp (CCFL) method. (2)

LED’s do not need to warm up and reach maximum brightness immediately.

LED gives a whiter tint which makes colors appear more vivid.
LED provides a higher resolution display.
LED allows for much thinner monitors with lighter weights.
LED is a more reliable technology and longer lasting.
LED uses much less power and it is more efficient.

Q2. Modern Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) monitors use Light-Emitting Diode (LED) backlit
technology.

Give four benefits of using LED technology. (4)

It reaches maximum brightness quickly.

The colors are vivid and brighter.
It provides with a good colour definition.
It allows for screens to be made thinner.
It is more reliable as LED's are long lasting.
It consumes very little power/energy.

39
b) Touchscreens:

Touchscreens

It is now a very common form of input.

It allows users to interact with devices just by touching the screen.

There are 3 types of touch screens technologies:

1. Capacitive
2. Infra-red
3. Resistive

i) Use:

1. Touchscreens are used in mobile phones, tablets etc.

2. They are used in laptop displays.
3. They are used in cash registers and information kiosks.

It is an easy and fast method to input data into a system. Icons are used for application selection.

40
1) Capacitive:
i) Working:

An electrostatic field is created across the screen as current flows out from all 4 corners
of the screen.
Sensors are located around the screen which is used to read the electrostatic field.
When finger touches screen, the electrostatic charge is transferred to the user’s finger
and the current changes.
Coordinates of touch are calculated by an onboard microprocessor.

ii) Advantages:

1. It is a medium cost technology.

2. The screen visibility is good even in strong sunlight.
3. The screen is very durable; it takes a major impact to break the glass.
4. It allows multi-touch capability.

iii) Disadvantages:

1. It cannot be used when wearing gloves as it allows only the use of bare fingers for input.

Q1. Why gloves cannot be used in capacitive technology?

The gloves are not conductive.

They block current from finger and hence stop electrostatic field being changed.

Q2. How to use capacitive technology with gloves?

1. Use a conductive stylus as they allow charge to be disturbed/changed.

2. Use capacitive gloves as they allow charge to disturbed/changed.

41
2) Infra-red:
i) Working:

Infrared rays are sent across screen from the edges.

It has sensors around edges.
Infrared rays form an invisible grid across the screen.
Infrared ray is broken by a finger blocking a beam.
Calculation is made on where beam is broken to locate the ‘touch’.

a) Heat-sensitive infra-red system:

It uses glass as the screen material and needs a warm object (e.g. fingers) to carry out an
input operation.

b) Optical infra-red system:

It uses glass as the screen material and uses an array (group) of sensors in the form of
a gird; the point of contact is based on which grid coordinate is touched.

ii) Advantages:

1. The screen is very durable; it takes a major impact to break the glass.
2. It allows multi-touch capability.
3. Optical system allows use of bare fingers, gloved fingers or stylus for input.

iii) Disadvantages:

1. It is an expensive technology.
2. It is sensitive to dust or dirt.
3. Heat-sensitive system only allows use of bare fingers for input.

42
3) Resistive:
i) Working:

It uses an upper layer of polyester (type of plastic) and a bottom layer of glass that
transmit electric currents.
When the top polyester layer is touched, the top and bottom layer complete a circuit.
As a result, the electric current changes and signals are sent out.
They are interpreted by a microprocessor and calculations determine the coordinates of
the touch.

ii) Advantages:

1. It is an inexpensive technology.
2. It allows use of bare fingers, gloved fingers or stylus for input.

iii) Disadvantages:

1. The screen visibility is poor in strong sunlight.

2. It does not allow multi-touch capability.
3. The screen is vulnerable to scratches and wears out through time.

iv) A table that compares capacitive and resistive technologies:

43
3) Sensors:
It is a device that detects or measures a physical property (e.g. temperature) and records,
indicates, or otherwise responds to it.
A system can be developed using sensors, converters, a feedback cycle and a control
system.

i) Analogue Data:

It is a continuous data.
It is non-discrete.
Example: data such as a sound wave.

ii) Digital Data:

It is discrete data that has only two values.

Example: binary data 1’s and 0’s.

iii) ADC and DAC:

ADC is analogue-to-digital converter and DAC is digital-to-analogue converter.

Q1. Why is there a need for ADC and DAC?

Computers cannot make any sense of physical quantities.

The data needs to be converted into a digital format so that the computer can understand.
This is usually achieved by an analog to digital converter.
This device converts physical values into discrete digital values.
When the computer is used to control devices such as a motor or a valve, it is necessary
to use a digital to analog converter since these devices need analogue data to operate
in many cases.

iv) Examples of sensors:

1) temperature sensor 4) infra-red/motion sensor 7) gas sensor

2) moisture sensor 5) pressure sensor 8) pH sensor

3) light sensor 6) acoustic/sound sensor 9) magnetic field sensor

44
v) Sensors along with their applications:

Application Sensor

Controlling street lights Light

Monitoring a river for pollution Gas, pH, temperature, light

Controlling traffic lights Pressure, magnetic field

Sensor Application

1. Control a central heating/cooling system

1. Temperature 2. Control/monitor a chemical process
3. Control/monitor the temperature in a greenhouse
1. Control/monitor the moisture levels in soil in a greenhouse
2. Moisture/humidity 2. Control/monitor the humidity levels in the air in a greenhouse
3. Monitor dampness levels in an industrial application

1. Switch street lightning on at night and off during the day

3. Light 2. Monitor/control light levels in a greenhouse
3. Automatically switch on a car’s headlights when it gets dark

1. Turn on the windscreen wipers on a car automatically

4. Infra-red/motion 2. Detect intruders in a burglar alarm system
3. Count people entering/leaving a building

1. Detect intruders in a burglar alarm system

5. Pressure 2. Weigh things (e.g. check the weight of a vehicle)
3. Monitor/control a process where gas pressure is important

1. Pick up noise levels (e.g. footsteps) in a burglar alarm system

6. Acoustic/sound
2. Detect the noise of liquids dripping in a pipe

1. Monitor pollution levels in a river or in the air

7. Gas (e.g. O2 or CO2) 2. Measure O2 and CO2 levels in a greenhouse
3. Check for CO2 leaks in a power station

1. Monitor/control acidity/alkalinity levels in the soil in a greenhouse

8. pH
2. Pollution/environmental monitoring in rivers

1. Any application where detection of changes in a magnetic field is

9. Magnetic field required (e.g. in cell phones, CD players, etc.)
2. Used in anti-lock braking systems in motor vehicles

45
vi) Uses:

Sensors are used in both monitoring and control applications:

a) Examples of monitoring include:

1. monitoring a patient in a hospital for vital signs such as heart rate, temperature, etc.
2. monitoring of intruders in a burglar alarm system.
3. checking the temperature levels in a car engine.
4. monitoring pollution levels in a river.

b) Examples of control include:

1. turning street lights on at night and turning them off again during daylight.
2. regulating the temperature in a central heating/air conditioning system.
3. changing the traffic lights at a road junction.
4. operating anti-lock brakes on a car when necessary.
5. regulating the environment in a greenhouse.

vii) Remember:

The topic “sensors” from input and output devices is the most frequently asked topic in
computer science exams since the highest number of questions ever asked are from
sensors.
A question from sensor is almost in every paper, every year. It is asked for 4 to 7 marks.
The answer of each question related to sensor is very similar and consists of statements and
keywords in a sequence. Just memorizing the standard procedures stated below and
writing them in exams will earn you complete marks.
However, situation would be changed. The examiner can give you any scenario and ask about
functioning of any sensor accordingly.
The procedures stated below will always be the same; you only need to make slight
changes in answer according to question statement.
8 complete questions of sensors (worth 5-6 marks) that have been asked in recent years are
given below with their answers so that you can realize the pattern of answering and how to
make changes in your answer according to question statement.

46
a) Standard working procedure of sensors in monitoring application:

1. Sensor sends a signal to the microprocessor.

2. Analogue signals are converted from analogue to digital using ADC (analogue to digital
converter).
3. The microprocessor compares the data received to a pre-set/pre-determined/stored
value.
4. If the value is outside the acceptable range, a signal is sent by the microprocessor to
display a warning message on a monitor or activate an alarm.
5. If the value is within an acceptable range, no action is taken.
6. The process is a continuous loop.

b) Standard working procedure of sensors in controlling application:

1. Sensor sends a signal to the microprocessor.

2. The signals are converted from analogue to digital using ADC (analogue to digital
converter).
3. The microprocessor compares the data received to a pre-set/pre-determined/stored
value.
4. If the value is outside the acceptable range, a signal is sent by the microprocessor to
actuator, control valves, motors etc. to cause an action to occur.
5. If the value is within an acceptable range, no action is taken.
6. The process is a continuous loop.

47
Exam Style Questions:
Q1. Identify two sensors that the security system could use to detect intruders.
Describe how each sensor could be used in the security system.

1) Infrared sensor:

It receives infrared rays/heat.

It sends data to microprocessor.
1. It can be placed in the corner of a room.
2. It is used to detect heat of an intruder.

2) Pressure sensor:

It receives current if circuit is created and stops receiving current if circuit is broken.
It sends data to microprocessor.
1. It can be placed on a window or a door.
2. It is used to detect a change in pressure.

Q2. Identify four sensors that could be used in the washing machine.
State what each sensor could be used for.

1) Temperature sensor:

1. It could be used to monitor the temperature of the water.

2) Pressure sensor:

1. It could be used to monitor the level of the water in the washing machine.

3) Motion sensor:

1. It could be used to monitor whether the drum is still in motion.

4) pH sensor:

1. It could be used to monitor the level of detergent present in the water.

Q3. Identify four sensors that could be used in a farm that grows fruit.
State what each sensor could be used for.

1) Temperature sensor:

1. It could be used to measure the temperature of the environment.

2. It can alert when it is too hot/too cold for the fruit to grow.

2) Light sensor:

1. It could be used to measure the brightness of the environment.

2. It can alert when the fruit has too little/too much light.

48
3) Moisture sensor:

1. It could be used to measure the water content of the soil.

2. It can alert when the soil is too dry or too wet.

4) pH sensor:

1. It could be used to measure how acidic/alkaline the soil is.

2. It can alert when there is something polluting the soil.

Sensors Working-related Questions:

Q1. A security light is controlled by sensors and a microprocessor.
Describe how the sensors and microprocessor interact to switch on the security light when an
intruder is detected. [6]

An infrared/motion/pressure sensor is used.

When sensor detects movement, it continuously sends signal to the microprocessor.
The analogue signals are converted from analogue to digital using ADC.
The microprocessor compares the data received to a pre-set/pre-determined/stored value.
If the value is outside the acceptable range, a signal is sent by the microprocessor to switch
on the light and keep it on for a period of 30 seconds.
If the value is within an acceptable range, no action is taken.
The process is a continuous loop.

Q2. A cold store is kept at a constant low temperature using a sensor, a microprocessor and a
cooling unit.
Explain how the sensor and the microprocessor will maintain a constant low temperature. [6]

A temperature sensor is used.

The sensor sends a signal to the microprocessor.
The analogue signals are converted from analogue to digital using ADC.
The microprocessor compares the data received to a pre-set/pre-determined/stored value.
If the temperature value is too high or low, a signal is sent by the microprocessor to turn on
or off the cooling unit.
An actuator is used to turn the cooling unit on or off.
If the temperature matches the stored value, no action is taken.
The process is a continuous loop.

49
Q3. A factory uses a security system to control a security light. The system uses a sensor and
a microprocessor.
Explain how the security system makes use of the sensor and the microprocessor to control
the security light. [6]

An infrared/motion sensor is used.

The sensor sends a signal to the microprocessor.
The analogue signals are converted from analogue to digital using ADC.
The microprocessor compares the data received to a pre-set/pre-determined/stored value.
If the value is outside the acceptable range, a signal is sent by the microprocessor to turn the
security light on and wait for a suitable period.
If no motion is detected, lights are turned off.
If the value is within an acceptable range, no action is taken.
The process is a continuous loop.

Q4. A system uses pH sensors and a microprocessor to help monitor pollution in a river. The
pH of the water should be between 6 and 8. The system outputs and alert if the pH of the
water is not in this range.
Explain how the system uses the pH sensors and the microprocessor to help monitor the
pollution. [5]

The sensor sends a signal to the microprocessor.

The analogue signals are converted from analogue to digital using ADC.
The microprocessor compares the data received to a pre-set/pre-determined/stored value.
If the reading is > 8 or < 6, a signal is sent by the microprocessor to display a warning message
on a monitor or activate an alarm.
If the value is within an acceptable range, no action is taken.
The process is a continuous loop.

Q5. An elevator (lift) has a maximum weight limit of 2400 kg. The weight carried is monitored
by a sensor and a microprocessor.
Describe how the sensor and the microprocessor are used to make sure the maximum weight
limit is not exceeded. [6]

A pressure sensor is used.

The sensor sends a signal to the microprocessor.
The analogue signals are converted from analogue to digital using ADC.
The microprocessor compares the data received to a pre-set/pre-determined/stored value.
If the value is > 2400 kg, a signal is sent by the microprocessor to display a warning message
to passengers and signal sent to actuator for stopping the lift from operating.
If the value is <= 2400 kg, no action is taken.
The process is a continuous loop.

50
Q6. An office has an automated lighting system. When movement is detected in the office the
lights are switched on. If movement is not detected for a period of 2 minutes the lights are
switched off. The system uses a sensor and a microprocessor.
Describe how the automated lighting system uses a sensor and a microprocessor. [6]

A motion sensor is used.

The sensor sends a signal to the microprocessor.
The analogue signals are converted from analogue to digital using ADC.
The microprocessor compares the data received to a pre-set/pre-determined/stored value.
If the value is outside the acceptable range, a signal is sent by the microprocessor to actuator
for switching lights on.
A timer is set for 2 minutes and every time a movement is detected, the timer is reset.
If the value is within an acceptable range, no action is taken.
The process is a continuous loop.

Q7. A sensor and a microprocessor are used to monitor the pH of the cleaning products. The
system records each reading that is taken. If the reading is greater than 7 a waning message
is displayed on a monitor.
Explain how the sensor and microprocessor are used in the system. [6]

The sensor sends a signal to the microprocessor.

The analogue signals are converted from analogue to digital using ADC.
The microprocessor compares the data received to a pre-set/pre-determined/stored value of
7.
If the value is > 7, a signal is sent by the microprocessor to display a warning message on a
monitor or activate an alarm.
If the value is within an acceptable range, no action is taken.
The process is a continuous loop.

Q8. A business wants to use a biometric security system to control entry to the office. The
system will use a biometric device and a microprocessor.
Explain how the biometric security system will make use of the biometric device and the
microprocessor to control entry to the office. [6]

A fingerprint scanner can be used. User will place their finger on touchscreen device so their
finger gets scanned.
The sensor in the fingerprint scanner will take readings of user.
The readings are converted from analogue to digital using ADC.
The readings are sent to the microprocessor.
The readings are compared to stored values.
If readings match, user can enter.
If readings do not match, then user is declined entry and alarm may sound to alert the
security.
51
Output devices:
An output device is any hardware device that provides data in different forms, some
of which include audio, visual and hard copy media.
The devices are usually used for display, projection or for physical reproduction.
The output devices included in our syllabus are:
1. inkjet printers
2. laser printers
3. 3D printers
4. loudspeakers

1) Inkjet printers:

Inkjet Printers

i) They consist of:

A print head which consists of nozzles that spray droplets of ink on to the paper to form
characters.
An ink cartridge or cartridges.
A stepper motor and belt which moves the print head assembly across the page from side
to side.
A paper feed which automatically feeds the printer with pages as they are required.

It has small ink cartridge and small paper tray.

52
ii) Working:

It uses rollers which move the paper through the printer.

The nozzles spray ink onto the paper.
A print head moves across the paper to distribute the ink.
Different color inks are mixed to create required colors.

iii) The droplets of ink are propelled onto paper using either thermal bubble or piezoelectric
technology:

1) Thermal bubble:

Tiny resistors create localized heat which makes the ink vaporize.
Ink forms a tiny bubble and as it expands some of the ink is ejected from print head onto
the paper.
Then the bubble collapses and a small vacuum is created which allows fresh ink to be drawn
into print head.

2) Piezoelectric:

A crystal is located at the back of the ink reservoir for each nozzle.
The crystal is given a tiny electrical charge which makes it vibrate.
This vibration forces droplets of ink to be ejected onto paper through the nozzle.

iv) Advantages:

1. It prints out high quality photos/pages.

2. It is more reliable.

v) Disadvantages:

1. It is expensive as cost per page is high.

2. It is slower compared to laser printer.

vi) Application:

1. It is used for production of one-off photographs of very good quality.

2. It is used when only a few pages of good quality, color printing are needed.
3. It is used when small quantities of documents are to be printed.

53
vii) Sequence of events during printing:

Stage in
Description of what happens
process

1 The data from the document is sent to a printer driver.

The printer driver ensures that the data is in a format that the chosen printer can
2
understand.

A check is made by the printer driver to ensure that the chosen printer is available
3
to print (e.g. is it busy, is it off line, is it out of ink, and so on).

The data is then sent to the printer and it is stored in a temporary memory known
4
as a printer buffer.

A sheet of paper is then fed into the main body of the printer; a sensor detects
5 whether paper is available in the paper feed tray – if it is out of paper (or the paper
is jammed) then an error message is sent back to the computer.

As the sheet of paper is fed through the printer, the print head moves from side to
6 side across the paper printing the text or image; the four ink colors are sprayed in
their exact amounts to produce the desired final color.

At the end of each full pass of the print head, the paper is advanced very slightly to
7 allow the next line to be printed; this continues until the whole page has been
printed.

If there is more data in the printer buffer, then the whole process from stage 5 is
8
repeated until the buffer is finally empty.

Once the printer buffer is empty, the printer sends an interrupt to the processor in
9 the computer; this is a request for more data to be sent to the printer; the whole
process continues until the whole of the document has been printed.

54
2) Laser printers:

Laser Printers

It has large toner cartridge and large paper tray.

i) Working:

It makes uses of the properties of static electricity.

Dry powder ink called toner is used.
A laser beam removes positive charges in certain areas.
It then uses positive and negative charged rotating drums.
The paper then goes through a fuser which makes the ink permanent.
Then a discharge lamp removes all electric charges from drum making it ready to print
further pages, if any.
It does not have any moving head.

ii) Advantages:

1. It has a very high printing speed.

2. It produces a very high quality output.

iii) Disadvantages:

1. It is expensive to buy.

iv) Application:

1. It is used for producing a large number (e.g. 2000) of high quality flyers, leaflets,
magazines and posters for advertising.
2. It is used when large quantities of documents are to be printed.

55
v) Sequence of events during printing:

Stage in
Description of what happens
process

1 The data from the document is sent to a printer driver.

The printer driver ensures that the data is in a format that the chosen printer can
2
understand.

A check is made by the printer driver to ensure that the chosen printer is available
3
to print (e.g. is it busy, is it off line, is it out of ink, and so on).

The data is then sent to the printer and it is stored in a temporary memory known
4
as a printer buffer.

The start of the printing process involves a printing drum being given a positive
charge; as this drum rotates, a laser beam is scanned across it removing the positive
5
charge in certain areas; this leaves negatively charged areas which exactly match the
text/images of the page to be printed.

The drum is then coated with positively charged TONER (powdered ink); since the
6
toner is positively charged, it only sticks to the negatively charged parts of the drum.

7 A negatively charged sheet of paper is then rolled over the drum.

The toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to produce an exact copy of the
8
page sent to the printer.

To prevent the paper sticking to the drum, the electric charge on the paper is
9
removed after one rotation of the drum.

The paper finally goes through a fuser which is a set of heated rollers; the heat
10
melts the ink so that it fixes permanently to the paper.

At the very end, a discharge lamp removes all the electric charge from the drum
11
making it ready to print the next page.

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5
3) 3D printers:

3D Printers

They are primarily used in computer-aided design (CAD) applications.

They can produce working 3-dimensional solid objects.

i) Working:

The solid object is built up layer by layer using materials such as powdered resin,
powdered metal, plastic, paper or ceramic powder.
They use additive manufacturing.
Additive manufacturing is a process that adds successive layers of material to create an
object (e.g. building up the object layer by layer).

ii) The more traditional method is:

Subtractive manufacturing.
It involves removing sections or portions of a material by machining or cutting it away
to make it into any shape we want, for making the object.
Similarly, CNC machining removes metal to form an object; hence it uses subtractive
manufacturing method.

iii) An example to show the difference between additive and subtractive manufacturing:

If we have to make a statue using 3D printing, additive method would involve building it
up layer by layer using powdered stone until the final object is formed.
The subtractive method would involve carving the statue out of solid stone (e.g.
removing the stone not required) until the final item is produced.

*Be very clear that additive manufacturing (building up layer by layer) is called 3D printing.
Subtractive manufacturing is not 3D printing or any method of 3D printing*

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iv) There are two technologies of 3D printing:

1) Direct 3D printing:

It uses inkjet technology.

A print head can move from left to right as in a normal printer.
A print head can also move up and down to build up the layers of an object.

2) Binder 3D printing:

It is similar to direct 3D printing.

However, this method uses two passes for each of the layers.
The first pass sprays dry powder.
The second pass sprays a binder (type of glue) to form a solid layer.

However, the newer technologies are using lasers and UV light.

v) The following are the steps involved in 3D printing:

A design is made using computer-aided design (CAD) software.

The finalized drawing is imported into some special software that prepares it in a format
which is understood by the 3D printer.

The 3D printer is set up to allow the solid object to be made.

The solid object is built up layer by layer (often only 0.1 mm thick); this can take several
hours, depending on the thickness of the layers, the material used and the size of the final
object.

The object is removed from the printer and is then prepared; for example, some use a
jelly-like support which needs to be washed away by immersion in water, some require the
removal of excess plastic powder and others require the cutting away of unused material; in
many cases, the object has to be left to ‘cure’ for a few hours.

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vi) Uses of 3D printing:

1. A physical model can be made from a blueprint.

2. It is used to make prosthetic limbs that exactly fit the recipient.
3. It is used to make items that allow precision reconstructive surgery.
4. It is used in aerospace; wings and other parts are made due to precision and lightweight.
5. It is used for making suspension parts for a vintage car that are no longer in production.

4) Loudspeakers:

Loudspeakers

i) Working:

A sound is produced from a computer by passing the digital data through a digital-to-
analogue converter (DAC).
DAC translates the digital output into analogue voltages.
It is then passed through an amplifier so the sound emerges from a loudspeaker.
The sound is produced by voltage differences vibrating a cone in the speaker housing
at different frequencies and amplitudes:

ii) The sampling rate:

The rate at which the DAC can translate the digital output into analogue voltages is
known as sampling rate.
The standard sampling rate is 44 100 samples per second.

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Q1. A CD is being produced to contain a number of music tracks. Each piece of music is
sampled 44 100 times a second. Each sample is 16 bits. The music is in stereo. Find out how
many bytes are sampled per second.

*Since the music is in stereo, we will multiply the values with 2*

1. The sampling rate x 16 bits x 2 (stereo) = 44 100 x 16 x 2 = 1 411 200 bits per second.
2. 1 411 200 bits / 8 = 176 400 bytes per second sampling.

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