MTH 301 METRIC SPACE TOPOLOGY

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COURSE CODE: MTH 301

COURSE TITLE: Metric Space Topology

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MTH 301 MODULE 2

Course Code MTH 301

Course Title Metric Space Topology

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

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MTH 301 METRIC SPACE TOPOLOGY

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos

Abuja Office:
NOUN Building
No. 5, Dar es Sallam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II
Abuja

e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

Published by:
National Open University of Nigeria 2008

First Printed 2008

ISBN:

All Rights Reserved

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MTH 301 MODULE 2

CONTENTS
PAGES

Unit 1 Topological Spaces; Definitions and Examples

Unit 2 Metric Spaces – Definitions and Examples
Unit 3 Open Sphere and Closed set Interior, Exterior,
Limit Pointed Closure of a Set
Unit 4 Dense Subset and Separable Spaces, Baire Category
Unit 5 Continuous Functions and Homeomorphisms
Unit 6 Convergence in Metric Spaces
Unit 7 Connectedness and Compactness

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MTH 301 METRIC SPACE TOPOLOGY

MODULE 1

Unit 1 Topological Spaces

Unit 2 Metric Spaces
Unit 3 Open Set and Closed Set. Interior, Exterior, Frontier,
Limit Point and Closure of a Set
Unit 4 Dense Subset and Separable Spaces, Baire category

UNIT 1 TOPOLOGICAL SPACES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Topological Spaces
3.1.1 Definitions
3.1.2 Real Number System
3.1.3 Absolute Value Concept
3.1.4 R π Dimensional Euclidean Space
3.1.5 Dome Theorems
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The aim of this course is two-fold

(i) To give the students a good expositism of metric space topology

(ii) To develop fundamental notions of topological spaces

In Topological spaces motion of open sets is fundamental. Although this

course is metric space topology, however, it is better to start this course
on a more general note, so that we could particurlarise these notions in a
metric spaces.

We shall topological spaces in a general setting. We shall also give

examples of topological spaces.

We shall consider the real Value Concepts, norms and state useful
theorems on those concepts.

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MTH 301 MODULE 2

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this study you should be able to:

• define topological spaces

• give examples of topological
• solve some questions on topological spaces.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Topological Spaces

3.1.1 Definition

A topological space (X, τ) is a non-empty set X of points together with a

family τ of subsets. (which we shall call open) possessing the following
properties:

(i) X ε τ, φ ε τ

(ii) A1 ε τ, A2 ε τ imply A1 ∩ A2ε τ

U
(iii) Given A α ε τ, then Aα ε τ.
α

The family τ is called a topology for the bet X.

Remark: The properties in this definition as we shall see in unit 2

are all satisfied by open sets in a metric space (X, d) where d is a metric
of X. In fact we can associate a topological spaces (X, τ) where τ is the
family of open sets in (X, d). A topological space which is associated in
this manner to some metric space is called metricable and the metric d is
to be a metric for the topological space.

Examples

(i) Let X be any set. Let τ = { X , φ } then τ is a topology on X.

τ is called indiscrete topology.

(ii) Let X be any set Define τ = {P(X) = 2X} = collection of all subset
of X. τ is a topology on X called the discrete topology, and (X,
τ) is the discrete topological space.

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MTH 301 METRIC SPACE TOPOLOGY

(iii) Let ℜ - set of real numbers. A set G C ℜ is open if the each

X ε G τ r >o such that B(x,r) = { y /1y − ℜ1 < r} CG

Let τ be set of all such open sets in ℜ . τ is a topology on ℜ

called the usual topology on ℜ .

Exercise

Show that the examples i, ii, and iii are topological spaces by verifying
properties. (i), (ii) and (iii) in definition (3.1.1).

3.1.2 Real Number System

A system ( (ℜ, +, •) is an ordered field if the following axioms are

satisfied.

I. Axiom of Addition.
Given , x, y and ≠ ε 1ℜ

(i) x + y = y + x (commutative law)

(ii) R + (y + z) = (x + y + z) (associative law of addition)
(iii) τ 0 ε ℜ such that
x+0=x
(iv) ∀ xε ℜ ∃ − x such that
x + (- x) = 0

II. Axiom of Multiplication

(i) x. y = y. x
(ii) x. (y. z) = (x.y).z
(iii) ℑ 1 ε ℜ such that x.1 = 1.x = x
∀ x ≠ 0 ℑ x such that
-1
(iv)
x.x-1 = 1
(v) x.(y+z) = x.y + x.z

III Order Axiom

(i) If x ≤ y and y ≤ z ⇒ x ≤ z
(ii) If x ≤ y and y ≤ x ⇒ x = y
(iii) If x, y ε ℜ, them either x ≤ y or y ≤ x
⇒ xε ℜ only one of the following holds
x>0, x = 0, ℜ <0.
(iv) if x ≤ y then
X + z ≤ y + z.

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MTH 301 MODULE 2

(v) x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 then
x y ≥ 0.

3.1.3 Absolute Value Concept

Let x ε ℜ then the absolute value of x is demote by x and defined as:

x x ≥0
x =∫
− x x ≤0

This can be written as

x if x<0
0 if x=0
-x if x<0.

If x, y ε ℜ, the distance between them is demoted by

x−y

The following property is satisfied.

If x, y ε ℜ then
x#y ≤ x + y
We call this property the triangular inequality

3.1.4 ℜn Dimensional Euclidean Space

Definition: The Euclidean space ℜn consist of n-topples of real

numbers i.e
ℜn = {(x1, x2,…………xn)}
Such that
xi ε ℜ, 1 ≤ i ≤ n
ℜ is the cartesian product of ℜ .
n

Such that
ℜn = ℜ x ℜ x…………x ℜ (n times)

Therefore, x ε ℜn can be represented as

x= (x1, x2, x3, ……………….xn).

We shall can x a point or a vector in ℜn .

Example: Let x ε ℜn then

x = (x1, x2)

For any x, y ε ℜn where

x = (x1, x2,……………x2), y = (y1, y………….yn)

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MTH 301 METRIC SPACE TOPOLOGY

We define addition as

x+y = (x1 +y1, x2 + y2, x3 + y3 +………………..xn + yn)

We can also define sealar multiplication as follows:

Let α ε Κ where Κ is sealar field.

Then for x ε ℜn , α x = α ( x1 , x2 ............xn )

= (α x1 , α x2 ............α xn )

The following statements are obvious.

(i) ( (ℜn , +, ) is a vector space of dimension n.

(ii) We can enumerate the basis vector as

l1 = (1, 0 0 ………)
(l 2 = (0 1 0..............)
en = (0 0 0 ……1)

Therefore for x ε ℜn , x = ( x1 , x2 ..........xn )

n
And x = ∑xε
i =1
i i

Definition: The length or norm of a vector x ε ℜn is defined as the

1
 n  2

number: x =  ∑ x 2i 
 i =1 
For example let n = 2

Then
x = ( x 2i + x 2i )
1
2

Other ways of defining norm are

x 1 = max { x1 3 x 2 ,............ xn } .

With the above definition of norms, we define the distance as follows:

Let x1 y ε ℜn , then the distance between x and y is defined as

1
 n 
2

x − y =  ∑ ( xi − yi ) 2 
 i =1 

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MTH 301 MODULE 2

This is the metric define by

(∑ (x − yi ) 2 )
1
2
d(x, y) = i

Hence
d (x, y) = x − y

We can view . as a function such that

. : ℜn → [ 0 ν ∞ ] ..

We can also define the inner product on ℜn x ℜn and denote ν as 〈°ι °〉

n
by 〈 x , y 〉 = ∑ xi yi
i =1

Now
n
〈 x , x 〉 = ∑ xi 2 = x
2

i =1

3.1.4 Some Theorems

Theorems 1: For a vector x ε ℜn

(i) x ≥0
(ii) x = 0 iff x = 0
(iii) α x = α x , α ε ℜ.
(iv) x + y ≤ x + y (D – inequality)

Theorems 2: For a vector x ε ℜn

(i) d(x, y) ≥ 0
(ii) d(x, y) = > iff x = y.
(iii) d(x, y) = d(y, x) (symmetric property)
(iv) d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y) ∀ x, y, z ε ℜn (D – inequality)

Theorems 3: For x ε ℜn .

(i) 〈 x, x〉 ≥ 0
(ii) 〈 x , x 〉 = 0 iff x = 0
(iii) 〈 x, y〉 = 〈 y, x〉
(iv) 〈 x , y1 + y 2 〉 = 〈 x , y1 〉 + 〈 x , y2 〉
(v) 〈 x,α y〉 = α 〈 x, y〉 .
(vi) 〈 x, y〉 ≤ x y (Cauchy and wartz inequality)

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MTH 301 METRIC SPACE TOPOLOGY

4.0 CONCLUSION

The materials developed so far as well as the three theorems stated are
sufficient background to allow us go into the details of our course. We
shall be making use of them as we go on in this course.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit we have been introduced to concepts of Topological spaces,

the real numbers system the absolute value concept the ℜn dimensional
Euclidean space and some theorems on ℜn . The real space ℜ and the
product space ℜn are good examples of Metric spaces and these spaces
carry the usual topological structure.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

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MTH 301 MODULE 2

UNIT 2 METRIC SPACES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Metric Space
3.1.1 Definition
3.1.2 Examples
3.1.3 Pseudo metrics
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References /Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The real number system has two types of properties, namely the
algebraic property which deals with addition, multiplication, etc.

The property which deals with the notion of distance between two
numbers and with the concepts of a limited.

The second property is called topological property ins paces in which

the notion of distance is defined. You will recall that in unit 1 we
defined concept of topology in general and distance function on ℜn .

Theorem 2 in unit 1 is particularly very instructive in this regard.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

As the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• define and give examples of metric space

• distinguish between a metric and pseudometric
• answer questions at the end of the unit.

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MTH 301 METRIC SPACE TOPOLOGY

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Metric Spaces

You will recall in unit 1 that given x, y ε ℜn we can define the distance
between the two vectors as follows:
1
 n 
2

x − y =  ∑ ( xi − yi ) 2  …………………………………….(1)
 i =1 

If Let we x − y = d ( x , y ) then
d(x, y) = (∑ (x i − yi ) 2 ) ………………………………………..(2)

From theorem (2) it is very important to note that

(i) d (x, y) ≥ 0
(ii) d (x, y) = 0 iff x = y
(iii) d (x, y) = d (y, x)
(iv) d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + (z, y)

The above properties can be verified to be true of equation (2) on the

bans of the above. We have the following definitions.

3.1.1 Definition

A metric space 〈 x , d 〉 is a non-empty sit x of elements together with a

real-valued function d defined on X x X such that for all x, y –z ε X.

(i) d(x, y) ≥ 0
(ii) d(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y
(iii) d(x, y) = d(y, x) (symmetric property)
(iv) d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y) D- inequality

The function d is called a metric.

3.1.2 Examples

(1) The first examples that is very obvious is the metric space of ℜ -
set of real number with
D(x, y) = x − y

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MTH 301 MODULE 2

(2) Let ℜn be n-dimensional Euclidean space whose points are n

tuples.

x = (x1, x2…………..xn) of real numbers and

d(x, y) = [(x1-y1)2 +…………..+ (xn-yn)2]½

Remark: We need to emphasis that a metric space is not the set X of

its points. It is the pair (X, d), consists of the set of its point together
with metric d.

For example we can define another metric d* (x, y) = ‫׀‬x1-y1‫ ׀‬+……..+

xn − yn which is another metric on ℜn .

If we have two metric spaces 〈 x , d 〉 and 〈 y , d ∗ 〉 . We can form a new

metric space called the Cartesian product X x Y whose set points is the
set X x Y = {〈 x , y 〉 : xε X , yε Y } and whose metric τ is given by
τ (x1,y1), (x2, y2) = [d(x1, x2)2 + d(y1, y2)2]½

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1

Verify that τ 〈( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y2 )〉 =  d ( x1 , x2 ) 2 + d • ( y1 , y 2  is a metric defined

2

on ℜ1 x ℜ2 .

3.1.3 Pseudometics

A pair (X, d) is called a pseudometric space if d satisfies all the

conditions of a metric except that d (x, y) = 0 need not imply x = y.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Show that d (x, y) = 0 is an equivalence relation, and if under this a

relation, then d (x, y) depends only on the equivalence classes of x and y
and defines a metric on X*.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit we have studied metric spaces and consider some examples
of metric spaces. The structure of metric spaces make it easier to
construct space set on the space of ℜ N , this we shall see in the
subsequent unit.

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MTH 301 METRIC SPACE TOPOLOGY

5.0 SUMMARY

Recalled that a metric space is a set X together with a distant function d

defined as X such that (X, d) form a pair and satisfies the following
properties.

(i) d(x, y) ≥ 0
(ii) d(x, y) = 0 iff x = y
(iii) d(x, y) = d(y, x)
(iv) d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y) – D – inequality

A metric becomes a pseudometrics if in property (ii) d (x, y) = 0 need

not imply x = y.

The exercises in this units are designed to reveal more properties of the
metric spaces.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

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MTH 301 MODULE 2

UNIT 3 OPEN SET AND CLOSED SET, INTERIOR,

EXTERIOR, FRONTIER, LIMIT POINT AND
CLOSURE OF A SET.

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Open Set and Closed Set
3.2 Interior, Frontier, Limit Point and Closure of a Set
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References /Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The simplest types of set encountered on the real lines are intervals. It is
sometimes important to distinguish between intervals which include
their endpoints and intervals which do not.

Suppose α < b, the open interval (α, b) is defined to be the set.

(α, b) = {x/ α < x < b}.

The closed interval [α, b] is the set [α, b] = {x/ α ≤ b}. Half open
interval (α, b) and (α, b) are similarly defined, using the inequalities,

(i) α < x ≤ b and

(ii) α ≤ x < b, respectively.

Infinite intervals are defined as follows:

(iii) (α, + ∞ ) = {x|α<x}

(iv) (α, + ∞ ) = {x| α ≤ x}
(v) (- ∞ ,α) = {x| x < α}
(vi) (- ∞ ,α) = {x| x ≤ α}

The real line is sometimes refer to as open interval (- ∞ ,α).

A single point is also considered α “degemerate” closed interval.

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MTH 301 METRIC SPACE TOPOLOGY

In this unit we shall find that α number of the properties of the set of
real numbers apply immediately to set in a metric spaces. Throughout
the present unit are sets mentioned are subsets of a given metric space
(X, d).

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of the unit, you should be able to:

• open set, closed interior and exterior point, a limit points and
closure of a set
• characterised them by their properties
• answer questions on the above concepts.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Open Set and Closed Set

Definition (1): Let x ε ℜ be a fixed point, and ε > 0 , then

Β (x, ε ) = { yε ℜ : d ( x , y ) < ε } is called an open ball or ε - disk or ε -
n

neighbourhood.

For example in ℜ , for x ε ℜ ,

x- ε <y<x+ ε is defined as {y : |x-y|< ε }.

In open set we can write Β (x, ε ) = { yε = x − y < ε} .

We now have the following definition

Definition (2): (Open set): A set AC n is said to be open if about

each point x ε A, ℑ ε 0, such that B (x, 0) CA.

Examples

1. Consider the interval (0,1),

(0,1) is open in . To set this let
x ε (0,1), choose
(x- ε , x + ε ) C (0,1).
(0,1) C 2 but not open in 2 since there does not exist set (0,1)
such that B (x, ε ) C (0,1) there (0,1) is not an open set in 2 .

2. The interval [0,1] is not open in since B(0, 1

n ) and B (1, 1
n )
are balls not entirely in [0, 1].

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MTH 301 MODULE 2

Theorems (3,1): Let x ε n

, then the set B(x, ε ), is open.

Proof: Let y ε B(x, ε ), we need to find ε1 such that B(y, ε1 ) C

B(x, ε ).
Since y ε B(x, ε ) then
d(x, y) < ε .
⇒ ε − d ( x , y ) > 0. Take ε 1 such that ε 1 = ε − d ( x , y ) ,
Let z ← B ( y , ε1 ) ⇒
d(z, y) < ε1

d(x, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y, z) <

d(x, y) + ε1
< d(x, y) + ε - d(x, y) = ε .
Therefore
Z ← B ( x , ε ).

n n
Remarks (1): In , the empty set and are open set. Prove!

Theorem (3.1):

(i) In n , the union of arbitrary collection of open set is open.

(ii) The finite intersection of collection of open set is open.

Proof: Let {Gi } iε I be arbitrary collection of open set.

U
Let G = Gi
iε I
Let x<G ⇒ x ε Gi0 for some
(i). since Gi is open for every
ℑ ε > 0, ∋ B ( x , ε ) C Gi
C Ui Gi = G

k
1
(ii) Let G = I Gi
i =1
If x G then x ε Gi ∀ i ε I.
1

∴ For each i ℑ ε i > 0 ℑ

B (x, ε ) C Gi
Define ε = num { ε i )
1° ≤ 1° ≤ Κ
Then B (x, ε ) C B (x, ε i )
∀ c 'ε (1, 2,…………… κ ).

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MTH 301 METRIC SPACE TOPOLOGY

And so
B (x, ε ) ε Gi .

Remark 2: Arbitrary intersection of open set is not open. Prove!

Definitions (3) Closed Set

A set is closed if its compliment is open.

For example
Bc = { n − B} ,
{x} = n is closed in n since it contains compliment which is open in
1

The set defined as

(1) {(x, y) | x2 + y2 = 1} is a closed set in 2
. It is illustrated as

Fig. (1)

(2) The set [0, 1] ≤ 1

is a closed set.

(3) The set Φ n

are both open and closed

I
Theorem (3.3): Let F= Fi be arbitrary intersection of closed set,
iε 1
then

(i) F is closed
k
(ii) U Fi
iε 1

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

(1) Prove Remark 1 and 2

(2) Prove Theorem (3.3).

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MTH 301 MODULE 2

3.2 Interior, Frontier, Exterior Closure and Limit Point

Definition (30101): For any set AC n

xA, is an interior point of A if ℑ
an open set U such that x ε U CA

U A
x.

Fig. 2

The implication of the above is that given a set A, and a point x, x is an

interior point of A if we can find ε >0, such that
B(x, ε ) C A.

We shall denote interior point of A as Int A.

Examples

(i) Let A = {x} then

Interior A = φ .

(ii) Let A = x2 + y2 < 1 be a disk in 2

Then the Int A is defined as

Int A = {(x, y) : x1 + y2 < 1}.

Remark: We note that

Int A = {collection of all interior point of A}.

On the basis of the above remark, we have the following definition:

n
Definition (3.1.2): The interior of set A in is defined as the union
of all open subset of A.

Remark:
(i) From the above definition Ant A is open
(ii) Int A is the largest open subset of A
(iii) A set which does not contain an open set has an empty interior.

Theorem: A is op miff Ant A = A

Prove: Trivial

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MTH 301 METRIC SPACE TOPOLOGY

FRONTIER OR BOUNDARY POINT

Definition (3.1.3) Let (X, d) be a metric space, let S be a subset of X,

a point of X is called a boundary point ℑ. If every open set containing
this point also contains a point of S and a point not in S (see fig 3
below).

X
x
S

Fig. 3

Definition (3.1.4): by a closure of a subset S of X, we mean the union

of S and all its boundary point.

The closure of S is denoted by S .

Definition (3.1.5): S is closed and is equal to the intersection of all
closed set containing S.

In particular

S =S .

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Show that for the subsets

S, T of X then
(i) S UT = S U T
(ii) S I T C S IT

Definition (3.1.6): A point x ε n is an accumulative point or a limit

point of SC n if every open set U containing x interest with A at point
other than x.

This implies

{ (U − {x}) I A ± φ .

Examples: Let (0, 1) ε let ε 〉 0, then (0 - ε , 0 + ε ) ± φ 0 is a point

of accumulation, but 0 ∈(0,1).

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MTH 301 MODULE 2

n
Definition (3.1.7): A set SC close iff S contains all its accumulation
points.

We may characterized the closure of S as follows.

n
Definition (3.1.7): Let SC , and Qi are closed set, such that
I
SC Qi ∀ i . Then Qi = S (closure of S).
iε I

Theorem: A set S C n
is closed iff S = S .

n
Theorem: Let S C , then S consist of the union of S and its
accumulation points.

Remark: We normally denote the frontier of S by ∂S .

Theorem: ∂S is a closed set.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this section we have defined open set, closed set closure, limit point
and closure of a set.

We have also characterized them, with the properties of each. You are
required to master those properties very well. Work through all the
grades exercises and prove all the theorems left unproved.

5.0 SUMMARY

Recall that:

• Open ball is B (x, ε ) = {y ε n : d(x, y) < ε }

• Set A C X is open if B(x, ε ) < A.
• Finite intersection of open set is open
• Arbitrary union of open set is open
• A set S, is closed if its compliment is open
• Arbitrary intersection of closed set is closed
• Finite union of closed set is closed
• Interior of A is the union of all open subsets of A
• A set SC n is closed if S contain all its accumulation points
• A set S is closed if S = S .

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

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MTH 301 METRIC SPACE TOPOLOGY

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

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MTH 301 MODULE 2

UNIT 4 DENSE SUBSET AND SEPARABLE SPACES,

BAIRE CATEGORY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Separable Set
3.2 Baire Category
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit relied heavily on the concept of closed sets and properties of
closure studied in unit 3.

You are to master unit 3 properly before venturing into this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this study, you should be able to:

• define correctly what is meant by dense set

• explain what is separability of sets
• proof theorem relating to separability
• understand the Baire – category theorem
• solve – problems on this unit correctly.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Separable Set

Before explaining the concept of separability we need to define some

concepts.

Definition (3.1.1): Countable Set: A set A is said to be countable

if it is equivalent to the set of all positive integers or to some (finite or
infinite) subset of the positive integers.

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MTH 301 METRIC SPACE TOPOLOGY

Example

(i) The set of rational number denoted by is countable.

(ii) The set of real number is not countable

Definition (3.1.2): Dense Subset: Let X be a non-empty set,

suppose DCX, we say D is dense in X if D = X. i.e. the closure of D is
the closure of X.

Example:

The set of rational numbers are dense in .

Definition 3.1.3: (Separability): a metric space (X, d) is said to

be separable, if it has a countable dense subset.

Example:

Let be real let C such that = {x ε : x is a rational number}

Now Q = , and since is countable the is separable.

n
Theorem: is separable.

Proof: Take n = {x ε n , x = (x1….x)} with xi, is national.

We know that n is countable and dense in n
Therefore n is separable.
n
Theorem: In , every family of disjoint non-empty open set is
countable.

Proof: Let {xn} be countable dense subset. Let {Bi} be a family

of non-empty disjoint open sets. Bi ε {Bi}, ∃ ∀ n, xn ε Bi .

φ :{Bi} → Ni such that φ ( Bi ) = smallest n, to which xn ε Bi

Then φ mass {Bi} into a subset of N hence it is countable.

3.2 Baire Category

In this section, we shall go deeply, by examining certain aspect of metric

spaces.

We first consider the following definition.

Definition (3.2.1): A set Ε is said to be nowhere dense if (∈)c is dense.

25
MTH 301 MODULE 2

The definition above is equivalent to saying that ∈ contain no spheroid.

Example: Let be the set of real numbers and let be the set of
integers then ( )c is dense in ⇒ is nowhere dense in .

Definition (3.2.2): First category: A set ε is said to be of first

category (or meager), if it is the union of countable collection of
nowhere dense sets.

Definition (3.2.3): A set which is not of first category is said to be of

second category.

Definition (3.2.4): (complete metric space) Let (X, d) be a metric

space (X, d), we shall say that (X, d) is a complete metric space if all the
Cauchy sequence {xn} converges to points in the metric space.
(Refer to unit 6).

Our intention is to show that a complete metric space is of second

category.

We begin with the following theorem

Theorem: Let X be a complete metric space and {On} is countable

collection of dense open subset of X, then U0n is not empty.

Proof: Let x1 be a point of 01 and S1 a spheroid of radius r1, which

is countered at x1 and contained in 01. Since 01 is dense, there must be a
point x1 in 02 ∩S1 . Since 02 is open, there is a spheroid S2 countered at
x1, and contained in 02, and we may take the radius r2 of S2 to be smaller
than ½ r1 and smaller than r1 – ∂ (x1, x2). Then S2 CS1.

Proceeding inductively, we obtain a sequence 〈 Sn 〉 of spheroid such

that Sn C Sn-1 and SnC0n1 and whose radii 〈 rn 〉 tend to zero.

Let 〈 xn 〉 be the sequence of centres of these sphere. Then for n, m ≥ N .

we have xn ε SN and dense SN. Hence ∂ (xn, xm) ≤ ∂rn and {xN} is a
Cauchy sequence, since rN → 0. By the completeness of X there is a
point such that xn → x , since xn ε S N +1 for n>N, we have x ε S N +1 C S N C
0N. Hence x ε I0n.

Corollary (Biare Category Theorem). A complete metric space is not the

union of a countable collection of nowhere dense set.

26
MTH 301 METRIC SPACE TOPOLOGY

An application of Baire category.

Theorem, we established the following theorem, which is known as

uniform boundedness principle.

We will state that theorem without prove!

Theorem: Let τ be family of real-valued continuous functions on a

complete metric space X and suppose that for each x ε X there is a
number Mk such that if cxV<Mk ∀ f ε τ, there is a non-empty open set
OCX and a constant M such that f ( x ) ≤ M for all f ε τ and all x ε O.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Baire category had been used extensively in establishing some powerful

proves of some mathematical theorem in Degrel Theory. Although this
is advance mathematics, but nonetheless it is a very useful tools in
analysiss.

5.0 SUMMARY

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

27
MTH 301 MODULE 2

MODULE 2

Unit 1 Continuous Functions and Homeo Morphisms

Unit 2

UNIT 1 CONTINOUS FUNCTIONS AND HOMEO

MORPHISMS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Functions from N to M

3.2 Continuity of Functions

3.3 Homeomorphism
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

3.0 INTRODUCTION

In our previous lessons on real analysis, we made attempt to a point. In

this section we shall consider functions defined on a whole set and open
sets.

4.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this study, the students should be able to:

• define correctly functions of several variables

• explain concept of continuity in a metric spaces
• explain concept pf moreomorphsim
• solve related exercise correctly.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

N M
3.1 Functions from to

Definition (1): Let X and Y be arbitrary non-empty set. A function

τ from X into Y is a singled-valued relation such that
DOMfCX and range fC Y.

28
MTH 301 METRIC SPACE TOPOLOGY

Definition (2): Two functions f and g are identical if

(i) Domf = Domg
(ii) f(x) = g(x) ∀ x ε Domf.

Definition (3): Function with the Range fC are called real-

n
valued functions, while those with Rang fC are called vector-valued
function.

If X = N , y = M
there
fC n x M ' (ii) (f: N → M
).

Definition (4): If in definition 3 above

m- τ, then we have
f: N → 1 , f is called a function of several variables.
N = 1 implies
f: → M and f(τ) ε M
f is called a vector valued functions. ∋ ∀ τ ε
f(τ) ε M can be expressed as f(τ) = {f1(τ), f2(τ),……..fn(τ)}

Definition (5): Let f: N → M

Dom f ε N , and Range f ε M with let x0 be an accumulative point of
Dom (f). then we say f(x) → b ε M as x → x0 if ε > 0, τ ε > 0, τ
δ (ε ) > 0, such that f ( x ) − b < ε ∀ xε Dom f such that x − x0 < δ .

We write this as
lim f(x) = b
x→x

Remark (1): lim f(x) = b ⇒

x → xε
f(x) ε Β [b, ε ] → xε Β[ x0,δ ]
x−x <δ

The implication of this is that given a neighbourhood U of Β in m τ a

neighbourhood V of x0 with ∨ ∩ Dom f ± φ such that x ε ∨ ∩ Dom (f)
⇒ f (x) ε U .

N M
Theorem (1): Let f be a function with domain fC , and Range fC .
If f(n) → b1 as x → x0 and f(x) → b2 as x → x0.
Then b1 = b2.

Theorem (2): Let f and g be real-valued functions with Domain (f) =

Range (g) = DC N .

29
MTH 301 MODULE 2

Let x0 be a point of accumulation on D, if the

lim f(x) = l and limit g(x) = n
n→x x → x0

(i) for α , β ε ℜ , then

Lim ( α f + β g ) ( x ) = α l + β m .
n = x0

(ii) limt (fg) (x) = lm

n → R0

(iii) if g(x) ± 0 for x ε D and m ±0

Lim ( f g )( x ) = l m = x → x0
lim
f (x)
x → x0
lim
g(x)
x → x0

Example

(i) f: 2 →
f(x, y) = x2 + y2 + 1
(x0, y0) = (1, 3)

Solution

lim f(x, y) = 1 + 9 + 1 = 11
(x0, y,) → (1,3)

(ii) f: 2
→ such that
2x
f(x, y) =
x + y 2 +1
2

as (R, y) = (1,3)

2x
lim f(x, y) = lim
x + y2 +1 2

(x0, y0) → (1,3) ( x1 y0 ) → (1, 3)

= ( 2 11)

 xy  2
(iii) fcx , y =  2 2
x + y2 = 0
x + y 
{0 ( x , y ) = 0}

30
MTH 301 METRIC SPACE TOPOLOGY

Show that the limit fcx, y)

(x, y) → (0, 0)
Does not exist.

x2
Solution: f(x,y) = = 12
x2 + x2
As x = y
Let (x, y) → 0 along the x-axis,
⇒ f(x, y) = (x, 0) = 0.
This show that the limit does not exist since 0 = ½

Self assessment exercise 1

 x 2 sin 1 y + y 2 sin 1 x 
 
Let f(x, y) =  x ± 0, y ± 0 
0 x = 0, y = 0 

Find lim f(x, y)
(x, y) → (0, 0) .

3.2 Continuity of Functions

Definition 3.2.1: Let A, B be metric spaces, with metric dA, dB

respectively. Let f : A → B be a map.

(a) f is continuous at x0 ε A if, given ε >0, there exist δ >0 such that
dA (x1 x0) < δ implies dB )fcx), f(cx,) < ε

(b) f is continuous if it is continuous at x0 for every point x0 ε A

Remark(2): the definition that we have proposed for continuity of

maps between the choice of the particular metric.

The closer study of continuity and its independence from specific choice
of metric leads naturally to the idea of a topology.

We will re-cast the definition of continuity given above.

Definition (3.2.2): Let S be a metric space with metric d defined on S.

given any x ε S , let Bα ( x ) denote set of all points in S, whose distance
from x is less than α , i.e Bα ( x ) { xε S d ( x1x1 ) < α }
We call Bα ( x ) open α =ball around x

31
MTH 301 MODULE 2

A map f: A → B (metric spaces) is said to be continuous at x0 if given

ε > 0, there exists δ > 0 .
Such that
f( ( Bδ ( x0 )) C Bε CY0 )
We can write as
Bδ ( x0 ) cf −1 ( Bε ( y0 ))

Theorem: f: A → B between metric spaces is continuous if and only if f-1

(V) is an open set in A whenever V is open set in B.

Remark (3): The above theorem does not say that if U is open in A then
f(U) is open in B.

For example f: R → R defined by f(x) = x2 let U = R, then f(U) = R+0

which is not open in R.

Proof of the theorem: Assume f is continuous. Let V be an open set

in B. We need to show that f-1 (V) is open in A. choose any x in f-1(V)
then f(x) ε V and so since V is open then we can find some ε > 0,
with Bε (f(x)) CV. Now the continuity of f guarantee the existence of
some Bδ ( x )C F −1 (V ) . This argument applies to each at f-1(V) and then
shows that f-1(v) is open.

Conversely, assume the property about open set and show that f is
continuous. To see this, let x ε A . for any ε > 0 then ε − ball Bε ( f ( x )) is
and an open set in B and by hypothesis, f-1 ( Bε ( f ( x )) is open in A. this
means that since x ε f-1 ( Bε ( f ( x )) there is some δ > 0 , with
Bδ ( x ) cf −1 ( Bε ( f ( x )) or in other words f ( Bδ ( x )) C Bε ( f ( x )) .

This applies for each ε > 0 and so proves the continuity of f at x. Since x
was an arbitrary point of A, we have shown that f is continuous.

Remark (4): In view of the above theorem is a clear that in the study of
continuity of maps between metric spaces, it is the family of open set in
each space which is important, rather than the actual metric.

More precisely, if two different metrics give rise to the same family of
open sets then any map which is continuous using one metric will
automatically be continuous using the other.

The family of open sets of a metric space is called topology.

32
MTH 301 METRIC SPACE TOPOLOGY

4.0 CONCLUSION

5.0 SUMMARY

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

33
MTH 301 MODULE 2

UNIT 2 CONVERGENCE IN METRIC SPACES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Convergence of Metric Spaces
3.2 Some Results on Convergence of Metric Spaces
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References /Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In a previous course in Real analysis students have been made to be

familiar with the notion of convergence of sequence of real numbers. It
is defined as follows. The sequence x1, x2………xn…….of real numbers
is said to be converge to the real number x if given ε > 0 there exists a
number n0 such that for all n ≥ n0 , xn − x < ε .
From this, it is obvious that we can extend this definition from the set of
real number with the Euclidean metric to any metric space.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this study, you should be able to:

• defined the convergence of metric spaces

• be able to differentiate between convergence of sequence of real
numbers and metric spaces
• solve some questions on the convergence of metric spaces.

34
MTH 301 METRIC SPACE TOPOLOGY

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Convergence of Metric Spaces

Definition: Let (x, d) be a metric space and x1 +……….xn…. a

sequence of points in X. then the sequence is said to converge to x ε X if
given an ε > 0 there exists an integer no such that for all n ≥ n0 , d(x, xn)
< ε . This is denoted by xn → n.

The sequence y, y2……..yn of points in (X, d) is said to be convergent if

there exists a point y ε X such that yn → y .

Remark

Let x1, x2, ………..xn be a sequence of point in a metric space (X, d).
Furthermore if x and y are points in (X, d) such that xn → x and xn → y ,
then n = y.

The implication of this is that the point of convergence of sequence of

points in metric space in always unique.

Proposition (4.1) = Let (X, d) be a metric space. A subset A of X is

closed in (X, d) if and only if every convergent sequence of points in A
converges to a point in A. (In order words, A is closed in (X, d) if and
only if an → x where x ε X and an is a sequence of points in A ∀ n
implies that x ε A) .

Proof: We assume that A is closed in (X, d) and let an → n, where an

ε A for all positive integers n. Suppose that x ε (X- A). Then, as X-A is
open set containing x, there exists an open ball Bε (x) such that x
ε Bε ( x ) ≤ ( X − A) . Nothing that each an ε A implies that d(x, an)> ε for
each n. thence the sequence a1, a2, ………an……does not converge to x.
This is a contradiction hence x ε A as required.

Conversely, we assume that every convergent sequence of points in A

converges to a point of A. Suppose that X-A is not open. Then there
exist a point y ε x – A such that for each ε > 0 Bε ( y ) ∩ A ± Φ. For each
positive integer n, Let xn be any point in B ( y ) ∩ A . Then we claim that
1
n

xn → y. To see this let ε be any positive real number, and n0 any integer
greater that 1ε . Then for each n ≥ n0 .
xn ε B ( y ) ⊆ B (y) ⊆ Bε ( y )
1 1
n no

35
MTH 301 MODULE 2

So xn → y and by our assumption y ε (X-A). This is also a contradiction

and so (X – A) is open and thus A is closed in the space (X, d).

Proposition 4.2:

Let (X, d) and (Y, d,) be metric spaces and fa mapping of X into Y. Let
τ and τ1 be the topologies determined by d and d1 respectively. Then f(x,
τ) → (y, τ,) is continuous if and only if xn → x → f ( xn ) → f ( x ) : that is if
x1, x2,……..xn,….. is a sequence of points in (X, d) converging to x,
then the sequence of points f(x1), f(x2),…………….f(xn),……..in (Y, d)
Convergence to x.

Proof: Assume that xn → x ⇒ f ( xn ) → f ( x ). To show that f is

continuous if suffices to prove that the inverse image of every closed set
in (Y, τ1) is closed in (X, τ). So let A be closed in (Y, τ,). Let x1,
x2,……xn…….. be a sequence of points in f , ( A) convergent to a point
x ε X . As xn → x , f ( xn → f ( x ).

But since each f ( xn ) ε A and A is closed proposition 4. L then implies

that f ( x )ε A. Thus xε f −1 ( A) . Hence we have shown that every
convergent sequence of points from f −1 ( A) converges to a point of
f −1 ( A). Thus A is closed and hence f is continuous.

Conversely, let f be continuous and xn → x . Let ε be any positive real

number. Then the open ball Bε ( f ( x )) as an open set in (Y, τ1). Therefore
f −1 ( Bε f ( x )) in an open set in (X, τ) and it contains x. Therefore there
exists a δ f 0 such that
xε Bδ ( x ) ⊆ f −1 ( Bε ( f ( x )) .

As xn → x , there exists a positive integer n0 such that for all

n ≥ n0 , xn ε Bδ ( x ) . Therefore
f ( xn ) ε f ( Bδ ( x )) ⊆ Bε ( f ( x )) , for all n ≥ n ,
Thus f ( xn ) → f ( x , )

Corollary 4.1

Let (X, d) and (Y, d,) be metric spaces, f is mapping of X into Y and τ
and τ1 the topologies determined by d and d, respectively. Then f: (x,
τ) → (Y, τ1) is continuous if and only for each x0ε X and ε > 0 there
exists a δ > 0 such that x ε X and d(x, x0) < δ → 0 d , ( f ( x ), f ( x )) < ε

36
MTH 301 METRIC SPACE TOPOLOGY

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

4.0 CONCLUSION

5.0 SUMMARY

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Let C[0, 1] denote the set of continuous functions from [0, 1]

into . Define a metric on this set by d ( f , g ) =
1

∑1 f ( x ) − g ( x ) | dx
0

Where g and f are are in ⊂ [1, 0] .

Define a sequence of functions f1, f2,……….fn……… in
sin(nx )
( ⊂ [0,1], d ) by f n ( x ) = , n = 1, 2,.........xε [0,1]
n
Prove that f n → f 0 where f 0 ( x ) = 0 ∀ xε [0,1]

2. Let (X, d) be a metric space and x1, x2,…………., xn…….a

sequence such that xn → n if and x , → y. Prove that x = y .

3. (i) Let (X, d) be a metric space, and an τ the induced

topology on X and x1, x2 , ………..xn,….. a sequence of points in
X. Prove that xn → n if only if for every open set U τ x, there
exists a positive integer n0 τ xnε U for all n ≥ n0 .

(ii) Let x be a set and d and d, be equivalent metric on X.

deduce from (i) that if xn → x in (X, d) then xn → x in (X, d,).

4. Let (X, τ) be a topological space and let x1 , x2 ,........xn ....... be a

sequence of points in X. we say that xn → x if for each open set
U τ x there exists a positive integer n0 such that xnε U for all
n ≥ n0 . Find an example of a topological space and a sequence
such that xn → x and xn → y be x ± y.

5. Let A and B be non-empty set in a metric space (X, d). Define

P(A, B) = in f {d (a, b): aε A and bε B} .
(α ( A, B ) is the distance between two sets A and B)

37
MTH 301 MODULE 2

i. If S is non-empty subset of (X, d), prove that S =

{x : xε X and α ({x} , S} = 0
ii. If S is any non-empty subset of (X, d), then the function
f(X, d) → defined by f ( x ) = α ({ x} , S ), xε X . is
continuous.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

38
MTH 301 METRIC SPACE TOPOLOGY

UNIT 3 CONNECTEDNESS AND COMPACTNESS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References /Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Neighbourhoods.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1

Definition (1): Let X a metric space and N a subset of X and P a

point in X. Then N is said to be a neighbourhood of the point P if there
exist open set U such that P U ⊆ N

Examples 1

The closed interval in is a neighbourhood of the point ½. Since ½

ε ( ¼, ¾) ⊆ [0,1].

Examples 2

The interval [0, 1] in is a neighbourhood of the point ¼ as ¼ ε (0, ½)

⊆ (0,1] . But (0, 1] is not a neighbourhood of point 1.

Examples 3

If X is a metric space and U is a subspace of X then from definition 1

above it follows that U is a neighbourhood of every point P ε U for
example every open interval (a, b) in is a neighbourhood of every
point that it contains.

Definition 1: Let X be a topological space. X is said to be connected if

the only open and closed subsets of X are X and φ .

39
MTH 301 MODULE 2

Example 1

The topological space is connected.

Example 2

If X is a discrete space into more than one element, then X is not

connected as each singleton set is open.

Remark:

From definition 1 above it follows that a topological space X is not

connected if and only if there are non-empty open sets A and B such that
A I B = φ and A U B = X .

Compactness

Definition

Let (X, d) be a metric space and let SCX. An open cover for S is a
collection U, if open subsets of X such that S C U {U :U ε ψ } .

Definition:

A subset K of a metric space (X, d) is called compact if for each open

cover U of K there exist U1, U2, ……………Un ε ∪ such that K C U,
∪....... ∪ u .

Definition can be restated as “A set is compact if and only if each open

cover has a finite subcover”.

Examples:

1. Let (X, d) be a metric space and let S C X be definite that is, S =

{X1, X2……….Xn}. let U be an open cover of X. Then for each
x j ε U j . If follows that S C U, ∪........ ∪ U n. hence, S is compact.

2. Let (X, d) be a compact metric space and let φ ± k c x be compact.

Fix n0 ε k. Since {Br (x0) : r > 0 } is an open cover of K, there are
r1 , r2 ,........., rn > 0 such that K C Br , ( x0 ) ∪ ....... ∪ Br ( x0 ) .
n

With R : = max { r1 , r2 ,........., rn } , we observed that K C BR (x0) so

that the diameter of K claim (k) ≤ 2 R < ∞ . This means, for
example that any unbounded subset n (or more generally of any

40
MTH 301 METRIC SPACE TOPOLOGY

normal space) cannot be compact. Infact the only normal space

that is compact is {0}.

3. Let X = (0, 1) be equipped with the usual metric. For rε (0,1) let
ur :(r ,1). then {ur : r ε (0,1)} is an open cover for (0, 1) which has
no finite subcover.

Proposition

Let X be a metric space and let Y be a subspace of X than

(i) If X is compact and Y is closed in X, then Y is compact

(ii) If Y is compact, then it is closed in X.

Proof: For (i): Let U be an open cover for Y. Since Y is closed in X,

then family u ∪ { X/Y} is an open cover for X. since X is
compact, it has a finite subcover i.e. there are u1 , u2 ,.........., un ε u
such that X = u1 ∪ u2 ,..........un ∪ X/Y.

By intersecting this into Y it is observed that

Y C U , U U 2 U,.......... U un.

For (ii): Let xε X / Y . For each y ε Y there are ε y , δ y , > 0

such that Bε y ( x ) ∩ Bδ y ( y ) = φ . Since {Bδ y ( y ): yε Y } is an open cover
for Y, there are y1, yn ε Y such that
Y ⊂ Bδ ( y , ) U ...... U Bδ ( yn )
y, yn

Letting ε := min {ε y1 ,...., ε yn } we obtain that

Bε ( x ) I Y C Bε ( x ) I ( Bδ y ( y1 ) ∪ .... ∪ Bδ y ( y )
1 n
= φ . And thus Bε ( x ) ⊂ X / Y .
Since xε X / Y is arbitrary this implies that X/Y is open hence Y is
closed in X.

Proposition: Let (k, dk) be a compact metric space. Let (Y, dy) be any
metric space and let f: K → Y be continuous. Then f(k) in compact.

Proof. Let U be an open cover for f(k). Then {f −1

(υ) : υ ε U } is an
open cover for k. hence there are υ1,……….υn ε u with
K = f-1 (ư): ư ε u with K = f-1 (ư, ∪....... U f −1 ( ưn). and thus f(k) C ư,
∪ ư2 ∪... ∪ ưn.
This proves the claim.

Lemma: Let (k, d) be a compact metric space. Then every sequence in k

has a convergent subsequence.

41
MTH 301 MODULE 2

Proof: Let { xn }n =1 be a sequence in k. Assume that { xn }n −1 has no

δ δ

convergent subsequence. This means that for each x ε X (It cannot be

the limit of any subsequences of { xn }n =1 ) there is ε n > 0 such that Bε ( x )
δ
n

contain infinitely many terms of { xn }n =1 ; that is there is nn ε

δ
such that
{
xn ⊄ Bε x ( x ) for ∩ ≥ nx . Since Bε n ( x ): x ε k } is an open cover for k there
are x11 , x12 ,....., x1m ε k with k = Bε ( x11 ) ∪ ... ∪ Bε ( x1m )
n11 k1m

{
For n ≥ max nn ,...., nn 1
1
1
m
} this means that
xn ⊄ Bε 1 ( x11 ) ∪ .... ∪ Bε 1 ( x1m ) = k . This is contradiction hence every
n1 nm

sequence in k has a convergent sequence.

Definition: Let (x, d) be a metric space. Then:

(a) X is called totally bounded if for each ε > 0 there are n1, n2,……,
xn ε X with X = Bε ( x1 ) ∪ ..... ∪ Bε ( xn )
(b). X is called sequentially compact if every sequence is X has a
convergent subsequence.

Theorem: The following properties are equivalent for a metric space

(X, d)

(i) X is compact
(ii) X is complete and totally bounded
(iii) X is sequentially compact.

Proof: Left as exercise

Corollary: Let (X,d) be a totally bounded metric space. Then it’s

completion is compact.

Corollary: (Hence – Bored theorem)

Let K ⊂ n
. Then K is compact if and only if it is bounded and closed in
n
.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
4.0 CONCLUSION

5.0 SUMMARY

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

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