Using Gypsum Board

Gypsum Association
Using Gypsum Board for Walls and Ceilings

Section I
Section I – Gypsum Board Construction
©Copyright Gypsum Association – All rights reserved.
This document may be revised or withdrawn from circulation at any time.
1. I. GYPSUM BOARD CONSTRUCTION

2. What is Gypsum Board?
3. Advantages of Gypsum Board Construction
4. Ease of installation
5. Fire resistance
6. Sound isolation
7. Durability
8. Economy
9. Versatility
10. Types of Gypsum Board
11. Limitations of Use
12. Application of Gypsum Board
13. Storage and Handling
14. Jobsite Preparations
15. Tools
16. Application Sequence
17. Cutting and Fitting Procedures
18. Single-Ply and Multi-Ply Application
19. Control Joints
I. GYPSUM BOARD CONSTRUCTION
WHAT IS GYPSUM BOARD?
Gypsum board is the generic name for a family of panel products that consist of a
noncombustible core, composed primarily of gypsum, and a paper surfacing on the face, back
and long edges. Gypsum board is one of several building materials covered by the umbrella term
“gypsum panel products.” All gypsum panel products contain gypsum cores; however, they can
be faced with a variety of different materials, including paper and fiberglass mats.
Gypsum board is often called drywall, wallboard, or plasterboard. It differs from other panel-
type building products, such as plywood, hardboard, and fiberboard, because of its
noncombustible core and paper facers. When joints and fastener heads are covered with a joint
compound system, gypsum wall board creates a continuous surface suitable for most types of
interior decoration. A typical board application is shown in Figure 1.
Fig. 1 – Horizontally Applied Gypsum Wallboard Showing Joints and Framing
Gypsum is a mineral found in sedimentary rock formations in a crystalline form known as

calcium sulfate dihydrate CaSO4•2H2O. One hundred pounds of gypsum rock contains
approximately 21 pounds (or 10 quarts) of chemically combined water. Gypsum rock is mined or
quarried and transported to the manufacturing facility.
The manufacturer receives quarried gypsum, and crushes the large pieces before any further
processing takes place. Crushed rock is then ground into a fine powder and heated to about 350
degrees F, driving off three-fourths of the chemically combined water in a process called
calcining. The calcined gypsum (or hemihydrate) CaSO4•½H2O is then used as the base for
gypsum plaster, gypsum board and other gypsum products.
Synthetic gypsum, commonly known as the FGD (Flue Gas Desulphurization) gypsum or DSG
(desulphurised) gypsum may also be used in the production of gypsum board. This product is
primarily derived from coal-fired electrical utilities which have systems in place to remove sulfur
dioxide from flue gasses. These systems capture the sulfur dioxide by passing the gasses through
scrubbers that contain limestone (calcium carbonate) which absorbs and chemically combines
with the sulfur dioxide to form pure calcium sulfate, or gypsum. The synthetic gypsum is then
transported to the gypsum board manufacturer; the production process for calcining synthetic
gypsum is largely the same as with mined gypsum only no primary crushing is necessary.
To produce gypsum board, the calcined gypsum is mixed with water and additives to form a
slurry which is fed between continuous layers of paper on a board machine. As the board moves
down a conveyer line, the calcium sulfate recrystallizes or rehydrates, chemically combining
with the water that was removed during calcination and reverts to its original rock state. The
paper becomes chemically and mechanically bonded to the core. The board is then cut to length
and conveyed through dryers to remove any free moisture.
Advantages of Gypsum Board Construction
Gypsum board walls and ceilings have a number of outstanding advantages:
 Ease of installation
 Fire resistance
 Sound isolation
 Durability
 Economy
 Versatility
Ease of installation
Gypsum board building systems are easy to install for several reasons. Gypsum board panels are
relatively large compared to other materials. They come in 48- and 54-inch wide sheets and in
lengths of 8, 10, or 12 feet, so they quickly cover large wall and ceiling areas. Gypsum board
assemblies require only a few tools for their construction. Gypsum board can be cut with either a
utility knife or a variety of saws, and it can be attached with a variety of fasteners, including
screws, nails, and staples. It can also be adhesively attached to many substrates. Gypsum board is
a lightweight material. Two workers can easily handle most panels and cover large areas in very
short time periods. Gypsum board is easily finished using either a few hand tools or relatively
modest machines. Gypsum board installers can quickly learn most application techniques in a
few hours.
Fire resistance
Gypsum board is an excellent fire-resistive building material. In North America, it is the most
commonly used interior finish where fire resistance classifications are required. Its
noncombustible core contains nearly 21% chemically combined water, as described earlier,
which, under high heat, is slowly released as steam. Because steam will not exceed 212 degrees
F under normal atmospheric pressure, it very effectively retards the transfer of heat and the
spread of fire. Even after complete calcination, when all the water has been released from its
core, gypsum board continues to serve as a heat-insulating barrier. Moreover, tests conducted in
accordance with ASTM E 84 show that gypsum board has a low flame-spread index and a low
smoke-density index. When installed in combination with other materials in laboratory-tested
wall and ceiling assemblies, gypsum board serves to effectively protect building elements from
fire for prescribed time periods.
Sound isolation
Preventing the transfer of unwanted sound to adjoining areas is a key consideration when
designing a building, specifically when taking into account the intended activities of the
occupants in the various parts of the building. For example, a building containing office spaces
adjacent to manufacturing facilities requires more noise-reducing features than are typically
necessary in a building that has only office space in it. Gypsum board wall and ceilings systems
effectively help control sound transmission. Some construction techniques and gypsum board
building systems that are successfully used for sound isolation and control are described and
illustrated in Section VII.
Durability
Gypsum board is used to construct strong, high quality walls and ceilings that offer excellent
dimensional stability and durability. Surfaces created using gypsum board are easily decorated
and refinished.
Economy
Gypsum board is readily available and easy to apply. It is an inexpensive wall surfacing material
that provides a fire resistant interior finish. Gypsum board building systems can generally be
installed at significantly lower labor costs than most alternate systems.
Versatility
Gypsum board satisfies a wide range of architectural requirements for design. Ease of
application, performance, ease of repair, availability, and its adaptability to all forms of
decoration combine to make gypsum board unmatched by any other surfacing product.
Fig. 2 – How Gypsum Retards Heat Transmission

Types of Gypsum Board
Using ever-developing new technologies, gypsum producers offer a variety of gypsum board
products for many specific applications, including: the surface layer of interior walls and
ceilings; a base for ceramic, plastic and metal tile; exterior sheathing and soffits; elevator and
other shaft enclosures; area separation fire walls between occupancies; and the fire-resistant layer
over structural elements.
Regular and Type X gypsum board (described below) are available in several thicknesses.
Different thicknesses are typically used in the specific following applications:
 ¼ -inch – A low cost gypsum board used as a base in a multilayer application for
improving sound control, used to cover existing walls and ceilings in remodeling and for
curved surfaces.
 5/16 -inch – A specialty product primarily used in the production of manufactured
housing and in laminated double thickness for special sound control panels.
 3/8-inch – A gypsum board principally applied in a double-layer system over wood
framing and as a face layer in repair or remodeling.
 ½-inch – Generally used as a single layer wall and ceiling material in residential work
and in double-layer systems for greater sound and fire ratings.
 5/8-inch – Used in quality single-layer and double-layer wall systems. The greater
thickness provides additional fire resistance, higher rigidity, and better impact resistance.
 ¾-inch & 1 inch – Used in interior partitions, shaft walls, stairwells, chaseways, area
separation firewalls and corridor ceilings. Special edged panels are used in some interior
partitions.
Standard size gypsum boards are 48 inches wide and 8, 10, 12 or 14 feet long. The 48 inch width
is compatible with standard framing methods in which studs or joists are spaced 16 inches and 24
inches o.c. (Other lengths and widths of gypsum board are available from the manufacturer on
special order.)
Edges available are rounded, tapered, beveled, square edge, and tongue and groove (V-edge).
Fig. 3 – Graphic of Edge Types
Common Types of Gypsum Board in Alphabetical Order:
 Abuse-resistant gypsum panels offer greater resistance to surface indentation, abrasion

and penetration than standard gypsum panels.
 Eased edge gypsum board, which has a tapered and slightly rounded or beveled factory
edge. It may be used as an aid in custom finishing of joints.
 Exterior gypsum soffit board is board designed for use on the undersides of eaves,
canopies, carports, and other commercial and residential exterior applications with
indirect exposure to the weather. Soffit board is available in 1/2 or 5/8 -inch thicknesses
with both regular and Type X core.
 Foil-backed gypsum board has aluminum foil laminated to the back surface of regular
gypsum board or other gypsum panel products. Foil-backed panels serve as vapor
barriers.
 Gypsum base for veneer plaster serves as a base for thin coats of hard, high strength
gypsum veneer plaster.
 Gypsum liner board serves as a liner panel in shaft walls, stairwells, chase ways, area
separation fire walls, and corridor ceilings. It has a special fire-resistant core encased in
moisture-resistant paper. Liner board is available in ¾ or 1 -inch thicknesses, widths of
24 or 48 inches and with square edges (sometimes eased square edges). Gypsum liner
board is also available with fiberglass mat facing that increases its weather and mold
resistance.
 Gypsum sheathing is used as a protective fire resistive membrane under exterior wall
surfacing materials such as wood siding, masonry veneer, stucco and shingles. It also
provides protection against the passage of water and wind and adds structural rigidity to
the framing system. The noncombustible core is surfaced with water repellent paper; in
addition, it may also have a water resistant core. Available in 2 feet and 4 feet widths, ½ -
inch and 5/8 -inch thick. It is also available with Type X core. Gypsum sheathing is also
available with a glass mat facing. This product is more weather resistant and mold
resistant than paper-faced gypsum sheathing, and it is often used as a substrate for
Exterior Insulating Finishing Systems (EIFS).
 Impact-resistant gypsum panels offer greater resistance to the impact of solid objects
from high traffic and vandalism than standard gypsum panels.
 Mold-resistant board incorporates various methods of preventing the growth of mold
and mildew on the board’s surface.
 Non-paper-faced gypsum board is unfaced or has a facing other than paper.
 Regular gypsum board (gypsum wallboard) is used as a surface layer on walls and
ceilings.
 Sag-resistant board is a ceiling panel that offers greater resistance to sagging than
regular gypsum products used for ceilings where framing is typically spaced 24 inches
o.c.
 Type C or Proprietary Type-X gypsum board is available in ½ -inch and 5/8 -inch
thicknesses and is required in some fire rated assemblies. Additional additives give this
product improved fire resistive properties.
 Type X gypsum board is available in ½ -inch and 5/8 -inch thicknesses and has an
improved fire resistance made possible through the use of special core additives. It is also
available with a predecorated finish. Type X gypsum board is used in most fire rated
assemblies.
 Water-resistant gypsum board has a water resistant gypsum core and a water repellent
paper. It serves as a base for ceramic or plastic wall tile or plastic finish panels in non-wet
areas. This product is available with a regular or Type X core and in ½ -inch and 5/8 -
inch thicknesses.
Note: Do not use water-resistant gypsum board on ceilings or soffits unless extra framing is
installed; do not exceed 12 inches o.c. between framing members. Do not use water-resistant
gypsum board as a tile-backing substrate material where the final surface is directly exposed to
running water; select one of several specialty products, including glass-mat-faced gypsum board
or cement-based board, as a tile-backing substrate for areas directly exposed to running water.
Limitations of Use
For installation of gypsum board and finishes, maintain room temperature at not less than 40
degrees F for the mechanical application of gypsum board and not less than 50 degrees for the
adhesive application of gypsum board and for joint treatment, texturing and decoration, unless
recommended otherwise by the manufacturer. CAUTION: When using a temporary heat source,
do not allow ambient temperatures to exceed 95 degrees F in any given room or area. Maintain
adequate ventilation in the working area during installation and curing period. Do not use
gypsum board where exposure to moisture is extreme or continuous. Take care to ensure that the
gypsum board will not be exposed to temperatures exceeding 125 degrees F for extended periods
of time, for example, when located adjacent to wood burning stoves, electric lighting, electric
heating appliances or other heating units, or hot air flues.Note: Proper installation of lighting and
other heat–producing electrical fixtures requires strict adherence to the National Electrical Code
(NFPA 70A). When using gypsum board in air handling systems, keep the gypsum board surface
temperature above the air stream dew point temperature but below 125 degrees F. Consult
manufacturer’s literature for other limitations of use for specific products.
APPLICATION OF GYPSUM BOARD
Gypsum board can be applied over wood or metal framing or furring. It can be applied to
masonry and concrete surfaces, either directly or to wood or metal furring strips. When applying
board directly to masonry or concrete surfaces, smooth or fill in any irregularities to ensure
proper attachment and an acceptable final finished surface. Furring properly attached to interior
sides of exterior walls provides flat surfaces for standard fastener application as well and
sufficient separation from substrates to overcome dampness in exterior walls. Do not allow
gypsum board to directly contact surfaces, such as concrete or soil, with potentially high
moisture contents. Most common in residential construction is the gypsum wallboard system 1in
which the joints between the panels and internal corners are reinforced with tape and covered
with joint compound to create a surface suitable for final decoration. External corners are
normally reinforced with either a metal or plastic corner bead which in turn is covered with joint
compound. Exposed edges are covered with metal or plastic trim. The result is a smooth,
unbroken surface ready for final decoration of paint, textures, wallpaper tile, paneling, or other
materials.1 See GA-216, Recommended Specifications for the Application and Finishing of
Gypsum Panel Products.
Storage and Handling
Schedule the delivery of gypsum board to coincide with its installation. (Fig.4)
Fig. 4 – Boom Truck Delivering Board to Jobsite
Store boards or panels flat and protected from the elements. Be sure that materials used as
storage supports (risers) are at least 4 inches in width and of uniform depth or length. As the
units of gypsum board are tiered, align risers carefully from bottom to top so that the load of
each tier is transferred directly to the next level of risers, thus avoiding sagging or otherwise
distorting the plane of the boards.
Avoid stacking longer boards on shorter boards to prevent the longer boards from warping or
breaking. Avoid leaning boards horizontally against vertical framing as they may shift and fall
and in turn injure workers. Also avoid leaning boards during periods of high humidity or else the
boards may warp. Remove shipping bags immediately after delivery to prevent the buildup of
condensation. Keep materials protected from the weather until ready for use on the jobsite. Take
care while moving boards not to drag them and damage their edges and corners.
Refer to Gypsum Association publication GA-801 “Handling and Storage of Gypsum Panel
Products: A Guide for Distributors Retailers and Contractors” and GA-238, Guidelines For
Prevention Of Mold Growth On Gypsum Board, for more detailed instructions. Also see Section
IX.
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Jobsite Preparations
Job conditions such as temperature and humidity can affect the performance of joint treatment
materials and the appearance of joints. These conditions can sometimes affect adhesive materials
and their ability to develop adequate bonds. Where materials are being mixed and used for joint
treatment or the laminating of one layer of board to another, maintain the temperature in the
building no lower than 50 degrees F for 48 hours before and continuously until applied materials
are thoroughly dry.
If humidity is excessive, provide adequate ventilation. In glazed buildings, leave windows open
to provide air circulation. In enclosed areas without natural ventilation, use fans to create air
movement. When drying conditions are unfavorable, allow additional drying time between coats
of joint compound. During hot dry weather, avoid drafts so that joint compound will not dry too
rapidly.
Ceilings finished with water-based spray texture finishes require special attention to the spacing
of framing members, the thickness and type of gypsum board used, proper ventilation, placement
of a vapor retarder, presence of insulation, and other items that can affect the performance of the
system. Failure to follow recommendations for joist spacing, board application, vapor retarder
and insulation placement may result in the sagging of the ceiling. During cold or damp weather,
insulate before installing gypsum board on a ceiling with a vapor barrier.
The following table shows maximum framing spacing for gypsum board that is to be covered
with water-based texturing materials:
(Note: 1/2-inch ceiling board may be

applied perpendicular to framing spaced
at 24″ o.c.)
Table I – with framing spacing for textured gypsum board
ceilings per board thickness
Keep lumber dry during storage and installation at the jobsite. Avoid using lumber with a
moisture content exceeding 15 % at the time of the gypsum board application. Avoid using
“green lumber” –which may contain up to 19% moisture at the time of sale – for framing. When
green lumber is used, screw attachment of gypsum board reduces the chances of fastener
fastening problems. Because lumber shrinks across the grain as it dries, it tends to expose the
shanks of nails driven into the edge of the framing members.
Fig. 5 – Stud
Shrinkage with Reduction in Moisture Content
If framing shrinkage is substantial or nails are longer than necessary, the gypsum board may
separate from its framing lumber, which often causes nail heads to protrude above the board
surface (these blemishes are colloquially known as “nail pops”).
Tools
Gypsum board installation and finishing require only some basic tools. While there are also
many specialized hand and power tools available for gypsum board installation, here’s a list with
brief descriptions of the basic tools necessary for a typical wallboard job:
Measuring tape – A steel retractable measuring tape, usually 25 feet in length.
Gypsum board T-square –Square edge for measuring and cutting gypsum board to length and for
cutting out holes for square outlet boxes and other openings.
Utility knife – Standard cutting tool with replaceable/reversible blades for scoring and cutting
gypsum board.
Hammer – Drives nails through gypsum board into wood framing.
Keyhole saw – Small triangular saw for cutting out holes for outlet boxes, pipes, and other
penetrations.
Rasp – A tool for smoothing rough edges of wallboard after it has been scored and snapped.
Assorted trowels and taping knives – Bladed tools for applying and smoothing tape and joint
compound over joints and fastener heads.
Mud tray – Box to contain joint compound while finishing joints and fastener heads.
Sanding pole – Tool that enables sanding walls from floor to ceiling and standard height ceilings
without the use of a ladder.
Screw gun – Power tool that drives all types of gypsum board screws through gypsum board and
into framing or substrate.
Drywall Installation and Finishing Tools
Application Sequence
Use the following procedures

to ensure a successful gypsum
board application:
1. Install ceiling panels first,

then the wall panels.
2. Once cut to size, position

gypsum boards into place
without forcing them.
3. Match similar edges and ends, i.e.: tapered to tapered, square-cut ends to square ends.
4. Plan to span the entire length of ceilings or walls with single boards if possible to reduce the
number of butt joints, which are more difficult to finish. Stagger butt joints and locate them as
far from the center of the wall and ceiling as possible so they will be inconspicuous.
5. In a single-ply application, position all board ends and edges over parallel framing members to
ensure that the joints are supported. (Exception: In a two-ply assembly, with adhesive between
the plies, the ends and edges of face layers need not fall on supporting members.
Take care to install mechanical and electrical equipment at the proper distance relative to the
framing to allow for the gypsum board thickness so that the trim components, such as cover
plates, registers, and grilles, fit correctly. Do not allow the depth of electrical boxes to exceed the
framing depth and avoid placing boxes on opposite sides of a wall in the same stud cavity space.
Avoid having electrical boxes, cabinets, and other devices penetrate completely through walls as
this can be detrimental to sound isolation and fire resistance.
Cutting and Fitting Procedures
Gypsum board installations require careful planning: accurate measuring, cutting and fitting are
very important. In residential buildings with ceiling heights under 8′1″, wallboard is best
installed at right angles (perpendicular) to framing members as this orientation of the panels
leaves fewer joints to finish. On long walls, horizontally attaching boards of the maximum
practical length will minimize the number of butt joints. Avoid using damaged board.
Carefully measure where board ends and edges will meet corners and ceilings (Fig. 6). Accurate
measuring reveals irregularities in framing and furring that require corrective allowances when
cutting boards. Correct poorly aligned framing before attaching gypsum board (see Section II,
Supporting Construction).
Fig. 6 – Measuring from Edge before Cutting Board
To cut gypsum board, working from the face side , first score the board by cutting through the
paper to the core with a sharp knife (Fig. 7).
Fig. 7 – Using Utility Knife to Score Board
Then snap the board back and away from the scored cut on the face of the board(Fig 8).
Fig. 8 – Snapping Scored Board
Sever the board’s backing paper by snapping the board in the reverse direction or by cutting the
backing paper with a scoring knife. Gypsum board may also be cut using a hand saw. Smooth all
cut edges and ends of the gypsum board to form neat, tight-fitting joints when installed. Smooth
ragged ends or broken edges with a rasp or sandpaper, or trim them with a sharp knife. If burrs
on the cut ends are not removed, they will form visible ridges in the finished surface.
Single-Ply and Multi-Ply Application
In light commercial and residential construction, single-ply gypsum board systems (Fig. 9) are
the most commonly used wall and ceiling systems. Usually such systems meet fire resistance and
sound control requirements . Multi-ply systems (Fig. 10) have two or more layers of gypsum
2
board that will typically increase sound isolation and fire resistive performance.Multi-ply
systems also provide better surface quality because face layers are often laminated over base
layers, so fewer fasteners are needed to attach the face layer. As a result, surface joints of the
face layer are reinforced by the continuous base layers of gypsum board. Nail popping and joint
ridging problems are less frequent, and imperfectly aligned supports have less effect on the
finished
surface.
2
See GA-600, Fire Resistance Design Manual, for specific details and description of fire rated
and sound rated assemblies.
Fig. 9 – Single-Ply Application
Fig. 10 – Multi-Ply Application
Ensure satisfactory results with either single-ply or multi-ply assemblies by requiring proper:
·framing details (straight, correctly spaced, properly cured lumber)
·job conditions (controlled temperature and adequate ventilation during application)
·application of the board (measuring, cutting, aligning, fastening)
·joint and fastener treatment
·special requirements for proper sound isolation, fire resistance, thermal properties, or moisture
resistance.
Control Joints
Ceilings exceeding 2500 sq. ft. in area, and partition-, wall-, and wall-furring runs exceeding 30
ft. all require control joints. Do not exceed 50 ft. between ceiling control joints in either
direction. Install a control joint wherever ceiling framing or furring changes direction. Do not
exceed 30 ft. between control joints in walls or wall furring. Be sure to install a control joint
where an expansion joint occurs in the base of an exterior wall. Wall- or partition-height door
frames may serve as control joints. Whenever possible, ensure that control joints coincide with
any building control joints. NOTE: Where a control joint occurs in an acoustically rated
assembly, provision may be necessary to block the sound at the joint opening by using backing
material, such as gypsum board, mineral fiber or equivalent, or filling the void created with
resilient insulating material.
Control joint in 1-hour fire rated system

Section II
Section II – Supporting Construction
1. II. SUPPORTING CONSTRUCTION

2. WOOD FRAMING
3. Furring
4. Wood Studs
5. Wood Joists
6. METAL STUD PARTITIONS AND CEILING SYSTEMS
7. Metal Studs
8. Metal Joists
9. METAL FURRING OR FRAMING
10. Attachments and Fasteners
11. Nails
12. Screws
13. Staples
14. Pneumatic Pins
15. Adhesives
16. Masonry and Concrete Walls
Table of Contents
II. SUPPORTING CONSTRUCTION
WOOD FRAMING
Gypsum board cannot compensate for defective, improperly installed, or misaligned framing. All
wood framing and furring must be accurately aligned in the same plane so that the gypsum board
fits flat against it at all points (Fig. 11). Following proper framing practices ensures a firm, even
structure for the application of gypsum boards.
To ensure wood framing is properly installed, do not allow the fastening surface of any framing
or furring member to vary more than 1/8 -inch from the plane of the faces of adjacent framing,
bridging, or furring members, and do not exceed the maximum recommended spacing between
framing members for the specific gypsum board thickness. See Table II for single-ply
construction and Tables III and IV for multi-ply construction. Avoid placing and stapling paper
flanges of insulation batts over framing faces because the presence of the paper may cause poor
nailing, which in turn can eventually result in joint ridging and nail popping problem.
Take care to use only properly cured lumber for wood framing and furring. Excessive moisture
in wood causes warping as the wood dries. Replace warped or crooked studs and joists with
straight lumber. Provide headers or lintels over openings to support structural loads, and provide
special construction wherever necessary to support wall-hung equipment and fixtures. Bathand
shower areas are examples where special framing must be provided for grab bars and heavy
fixtures. Cabinets or wall-hung appliances also require additional framing for support.
Fig. 11 – Improper Board Attachment Due to Faulty Stud Alignment
Table II – Maximum Framing Spacing Single-Ply Application
Table III – Two-Ply Application without Adhesive between Plies

Table IV – Two-Ply Application with Adhesive between Plies
Furring
Use cross furring to correct surface unevenness in existing framing. Make sure that the fastening
surface of wood furring strips is no less than 1-1/2 -inch actual dimension. When using nails to
attach gypsum board to wood framing, use nominal 2 x 2 wood furring over the underlying wood
framing to provide a rigid support during nailing. Where wood furring strips are attached to
concrete or masonry walls or where screws are used to attach the gypsum board over wood
framing, use nominal 1 x 3 wood furring (3/4 -inch minimum thickness). Maintain the same
maximum spacing between furring strips as is shown for framing members in Table II or Table
III. In wood framed construction where a higher degree of sound control is desired, use screws to
attach gypsum board to resilient metal furring channels, laminate another layer of gypsum board,
or follow the directions for board attachment in specific sound control assemblies.
Wood Studs
Wood studs in load-bearing partitions are typically nominal 2 x 4, or larger, and can be 2 x 3 in
double walls. In non-load-bearing or non-fire rated single row stud or in staggered stud
partitions, 2 x 3 wood studs may be used (Fig. 12).
Provide back-up framing or special clips at all interior corners for support or as a nailing base for
the gypsum board.
Fig. 12 – Staggered Stud Partition
Wood Joists
Place ceiling joists with faces aligned in a level plane. Space joists evenly. Do not use
excessively bowed or crooked joists. Install joists with a slight crown with the crown up. Slightly
crooked or bowed joists can sometimes be aligned by nailing bracing members (strong-back)
across the joists approximately at mid span (Fig. 13).
Fig. 13 – Stringers Used to Straighten Crooked Joists
Wood trusses, to which a ceiling is to be attached, might have irregularities in spacing and
leveling. When wide variances are found, use cross furring to provide a level surface to support
the gypsum board.
When trusses change direction in the middle of a room, install blocking so that the spacing of the
framing does not exceed the requirements indicated in Tables II, III and IV. With truss roof
construction, the exterior walls and ceilings often are finished before interior partitions are
erected and finished. However, if substantial roof or other loads are introduced after partitions
are installed, the ceiling may be forced down against the partitions, which in turn can result in
distortion of the ceiling or the partitions or both. To avoid these distortions, install the roofing
and all other construction elements that increase roof loads before erecting the interior partitions
(Fig 14).
Fig. 14 – Ceiling Truss Movement

METAL STUD PARTITIONS AND CEILING SYSTEMS
The advantages of metal framing are noncombustibility, uniformity of dimension, lightness of

weight, freedom from rot and moisture problems, and relative ease of installation. The
components of metal frame systems fit together easily and are generally friction fit (requiring no
fasteners) except at doors, windows, and other openings. There is a wide selection of metal
framing systems, both load-bearing and non-load-bearing. Some non-load-bearing gypsum
partition systems are designed to be demountable or movable and still meet requirements for
sound isolation and fire resistance. 1 Certain metal stud partition systems meet requirements for
non-combustible partition framing and furring in high-rise and other buildings (Fig. 15). Metal
framing systems are beginning to enjoy increased use in residential construction. 2 Ceilings in
commercial and institutional structures are typically attached to metal furring members that are
secured to or suspended from steel open-web joists or light beams. 3 Note: See Tables II and III
for the recommendations for spacing of metal framing to receive gypsum board in single and
multi-ply construction.4
Fig. 15 – Metal Studs Being Fastened to Track
Metal Studs
Typically, metal studs used in non-load-bearing partition framing systems are “C” shaped. (Fig.
16).They are available in a range of widths, including 1-5/8-, 2-1/2-, 3-5/8-, 4- or 6- inches, and
lengths from 6 feet. to 16 ft.4 Steel studs may be spaced up to a maximum of 24 inches o.c.
1
The Gypsum Association GA-600, Fire Resistance Design Manual, contains a wide
variety of designs tested for fire resistance and sound control.
2See ASTM C 754 for detailed application procedures for metal framing.
3
See Gypsum Association GA-216, Recommended Specifications for the Application and
Finishing of Gypsum Panel Products, and ASTM C 840 for detailed specifications for
application of gypsum board to metal framing.
4Ensure that studs are manufactured in conformance with ASTM C 645.
Fig. 16“C” – Shaped Steel Studs Placed in Runners Support Multi-Ply Partition
Metal Joists
Open-web steel bar joists are not designed to receive wallboard

directly, and they are often spaced more than 24 inches o.c. Hence, theyrequire suitable furring
or suspension systems, installed with appropriatespacing, to support gypsum board ceilings.
METAL FURRING OR FRAMING
Channels – There are two major types of metal furring channels used in gypsum board
construction (Fig. 17):
(1) Rigid furring channels
(2) Resilient furring channels
Rigid furring channels are 18-mil thick (minimum) galvanized steel and are generally “hat”
shaped. Rigid furring channels are designed for gypsum board attachment with gypsum drywall
screws. Install furring channels at right angles to the furring supports (Fig. 18). Fasten rigid
furring to wood framing with 1-1/4 -inch long screws or 1-3/4 -inch 5d nails, and to metal
framing with screws, wire ties or clips.
Fig. 17 Varieties of Metal Furring
Fig. 18 Furring Channel Details
Ridgid furring channels can be installed over masonry or concrete surfaces either horizontally or
vertically. Where necessary, metal studs can be used as furring channels. Follow the spacing
recommendations shown in Table I or Table II for the proper placement of furring.
Grid-type furring systems allow the use of suspended grid systems below both metal and wood
framing. They include directly suspended inverted T-shaped main runners (beams), typically 4′
o.c., and inter-connecting cross channels spaced either 16 inches or 24 inches o.c.
Resilient furring channels provide a sound absorbent mounting framework for gypsum board
over both metal and wood framing. Attach resilient furring to framing per the manufacturer’s
specifications. Pay particular attention to the orientation of the channel so that the open edge
faces up so that the system performs as intended. Resilient furring channels not only improve
sound isolation, but they also help to isolate the gypsum board from structural movement, thus
minimizing the possibility of cracking. Resilient furring channels are also suitable for the
application of gypsum board over masonry or concrete walls.
Other materials used as furring channels:
Steel studs may also be used as furring channels for spans exceeding 48 inches. The minimum
width of any metal furring channel to provide a sufficient fastening surface for properly attaching
abutting edges or ends of gypsum board panels is 1-1/4 inches.
Cold-rolled channels may be used in furred partitions and in most types of suspended ceiling
assemblies. Ordinarily, they are suspended by wire or rods with the furring channels tied or
clipped to them. These channels are usually composed of 54-mil thick steel with either a
galvanized or black asphaltum finish. They are available in standard widths of ¾, 1-1/4, or 2 -
inch, with lengths ranging up to 20 ft.
Attachments and Fasteners

Nails, screws, and staples are the fasteners most commonly used for attaching gypsum board to
various substrates. Use nails and screws to attach gypsum board in both single and multi-ply
installations; use staples only to attach the base layer in multi-ply construction.
Use special drywall adhesives to improve the bond and reduce the number of fasteners required
to secure single-ply gypsum board to framing and furring, masonry and concrete, or to laminate
face plies to base layers of gypsum board or other base materials. Adhesives require the use of
supplemental mechanical fasteners, either temporary or permanent, depending on the application.
Install fasteners at least 3/8 -inch from board edges and ends. Begin installing fasteners in the
middle of the board and proceed outward toward the perimeter. Drive fasteners as near to
perpendicular as possible while holding the board firmly against the supporting construction.
Drive nails using a crown-headed hammer, which forms a uniform depression or “dimple” not
more than 1/16 -inch deep around the nail head (Fig. 19). Take particular care not to break the
face paper or crush the core with too heavy a blow.
Fig. 19 Cross Section of Nail-Attached Gypsum Board to Wood Framing
Nails
See Fig. 20 below for examples of nails that are acceptable for gypsum board application. Nails
used for gypsum board installation preferably have heads that are flat or concave and thin at the
rim. Use nails with heads at least 1/4 -inch in diameter and not more than 5/16 -inch in diameter
to provide adequate holding power without cutting the face paper when the nail is dimpled.
Avoid using casing nails and common nails because their heads are too small relative to their
shanks; consequently, they easily cut into the face paper. Nail heads that are too large are also
likely to cut the paper surface if the nail is driven incorrectly at a slight angle. Use nails long
enough to go through the wallboard layers and far enough into supporting construction to
provide adequate holding power. Be sure that nail penetration
into framing members is 7/8 -inch for smooth shank nails but only ¾ -inch for annular ringed
nails, which provide more withdrawal resistance. Fire-rated assemblies require greater nail
penetration, generally 1-1/8 -inch to 1-1/4 -inch for one hour assemblies.
Fig. 20 Nails Used in Drywall Construction
Screws
The drywall screw is the most commonly used type of fastener for attaching gypsum board to
either framing or existing gypsum board. Drywall screws have Phillips’ heads that are designed
to snugly fit the tip of a powered drywall screwdriver. Drywall screws pull the board tightly to
the supports without damaging the board, and they minimize surface defects caused by loose
boards and shrinking lumber. The specially contoured head, when properly driven, makes a
uniform depression free of ragged edges. Correct setting of the nosepiece on the power
screwdriver permits correct countersinking of the drywall screw head for proper fastener
concealment with joint compound. See Figure 21 for the three basic types of drywall screws,
Type W for wood, Type S for light gage steel studs, and Type G for solid gypsum construction.
Also shown is a sample of a Type S-12 screw, which is used for attaching wallboard to heavier
gauge steel framing.
For best results:

 Use Type W gypsum drywall screws for fastening gypsum board to wood framing or
furring. Diamond-shaped points on Type W screws provide efficient drilling action
through both gypsum and wood, and a specially designed thread gives quick penetration
and increased holding power. Type W screws must penetrate into supporting construction
at least 5/8 -inch.However, in two-ply construction where the face layer is screw
attached, additional holding power is developed in the base ply. In multi-layer
applications, screws need only penetrate ½-inch into supports. Type S screws may be
substituted for Type W.
Fig. 21 Screws Used for Attaching Gypsum Board
 Use Type S gypsum drywall screws for fastening gypsum board to steel studs or furring.
They are self-drilling, have a self-tapping thread and generally a mill-slot or hardened
drill point for penetrating metal with little pressure. (Easy penetration is important
because steel studs often are flexible and tend to bend away from the screws.)
 Use Type G gypsum drywall screws for fastening gypsum board to gypsum backing
boards. Type G are similar to Type W screws, but they have a deeper special thread
design. They are generally 1-½ -inch long, but other lengths are available. Type G
gypsum drywall screws require penetration of at least ½ -inch of the threaded portion into
the supporting board. Do not use Type G drywall screws to attach wallboard to 3/8-inch
backing board because the backing board will not support a face layer using screws
alone. Drive nails or longer screws through both the surface layer and the 3/8 -inch base
ply to penetrate sufficiently into the supporting wood or steel framing members.
Staples
Staples are suitable for attaching the base ply to wood members in multi-ply construction.
Preferred staples are 16-gauge, flattened, galvanized wire with a minimum 7/16-inch – wide
crown and spreading points. Staples must penetrate at least 5/8 -inch into framing or supports.
Do not use staples for attaching face layers.
Pneumatic Pins
Pneumatic pins attach gypsum board to steel framing by using forced air to drive the pin through
the board into the steel framing member. The pin has ridges or ribs that grip the framing member
and prevent it from working loose. Using pneumatic pins is much faster than using screws.
Adhesives
Wallboard adhesives bond single layers of gypsum board directly to framing, furring, masonry or
concrete. They also bond face layers of gypsum board to base layers of backing board, sound
deadening board, rigid foam, or other rigid insulation boards. Follow the recommendations of the
adhesive manufacturer. Do not use adhesives without nails, staples, or screws to provide
supplemental support.
Adhesives for applying wallboard finishes are classed:
1. Stud adhesives
2. Laminating adhesives:
A. joint compound adhesives
B. drywall contact and modified contact adhesives
Stud adhesives are specifically formulated for attaching single-ply wallboard to steel or wood
supports and are used with adhesive/nail-on application. Some stud adhesives are strong enough
to permit the use of fewer mechanical fasteners for attaching gypsum board panels to studs;
however, panels attached in this fashion do require that mechanical fasteners are installed around
their perimeters. Stud adhesives must be of caulking consistency to properly bridge framing
irregularities. Use an adhesive that meets the requirements of ASTM C 557, Standard
Specification for Adhesives for Fastening Gypsum Wallboard to Wood Framing, for workability,
consistency, open-time, wetting characteristics, strength, bridging ability, aging and freeze-thaw
resistance. Apply stud adhesive with a caulking gun (Fig. 22)in a continuous or semi-continuous
bead. Do not use solvent-based stud adhesives near an open flame or in poorly ventilated areas.
Fig. 22 Image of Applying Adhesive with Gun.
Joint compound, either dry powder setting-type or ready mixed drying type, is designed for
laminating gypsum boards to each other or to suitable masonry or concrete surfaces. They are not
intended for adhesive attachment of gypsum board panels to steel or wood framing or furring.
When using dry powder setting-type compound, mix only as much compound as can be used
within the working time specified by the manufacturer. When the use of water for mixing the
adhesive compound is necessary, ensure that the water is room temperature and clean enough to
drink. Apply compound over the entire board area with a suitable notched spreader, in spaced
parallel ribbons, or a pattern of spots as recommended by the manufacturer. All boards attached
using joint compound require permanent mechanical fasteners installed around their perimeters.
When attaching board vertically on sidewalls, install fasteners at the top and bottom. Laminated
face boards may require temporary support or supplemental fasteners until full bond is
developed.
Drywall Contact and Modified Contact Adhesives serve to laminate gypsum boards to each other
or to steel studs. Gypsum boards applied to walls, ceilings, and soffits using contact adhesives
also require, at minimum, permanent mechanical fastener attachment along their perimeters. On
ceilings, space fasteners no further apart than 24 inches o.c., regardless of the type adhesive used.
Apply the adhesive by roller, spray gun, or brush, in a thin, uniform coating to both surfaces to
be bonded.
Most contact adhesives require some drying or setting time before surfaces can be joined and
bond can be developed. To ensure proper adhesion between mating surfaces, strike the face
board, once in place, over its entire surface with a suitable tool, such as a rubber mallet. No
temporary supports are needed while a contact-adhesive sets and the bond forms. One
disadvantage of contact adhesives is their inability to fill in irregularities between surfaces,
which leaves areas without adhesive bond between the gypsum board and its substrate. Another
disadvantage is that most of these adhesives do not permit moving the boards once contact has
been made, so they must be carefully applied. Take extra care when working with contact
adhesives. Carefully follow the manufacturer’s recommendations.
Modified contact adhesives provide longer placement time. They have an open time of up to 1/2
hour during which the board can be repositioned if necessary. They combine good long-term
strength with sufficient immediate bond to permit attachment with a minimum of temporary
fasteners. In addition, a modified contact adhesive has bridging ability. Modified contact
adhesives are intended for attaching wallboard to all kinds of supporting construction, including
solid walls, other gypsum board, and various insulating boards, including some types of rigid
foam insulation.
Masonry and Concrete Walls
Gypsum board can be laminated directly to above-grade interior masonry and concrete wall
surfaces, provided those surfaces are dry, smooth, clean, and flat. Gypsum board can be
laminated directly to the interior surface of exterior masonry walls provided the cavities are
properly insulated to prevent condensation and the interior surface of the masonry is properly
water proofed.
Before applying gypsum board to an interior masonry or concrete surface, ensure that the surface
is as level as possible. Remove rough or protruding edges and excess joint mortar; fill
depressions with mortar to smooth out the wall surface.
Verify that all surfaces are free of form oils, curing compounds, loose particles, dust, or grease to
ensure complete bond. Allow concrete to cure for at least 28 days before laminating gypsum
board directly to it.
Install furring and insulation on the interior side of exterior below-grade walls or surfaces and
protect with a vapor retarder to provide a suitable base for attaching the gypsum board. Follow
this procedure for any similar surface that cannot be readily prepared for direct adhesive
lamination.
Use supplemental mechanical fasteners spaced 16 inches o.c. to hold gypsum board in place
while adhesive is developing bond. Several manufacturers offer furring systems that employ
clips, runners, and adjustable brackets to make the installation of gypsum board over irregular
masonry walls possible (Fig.23). Carefully follow the manufacturer’s instructions when using
special clips in a furring system.
Fig. 23 Examples of Furring Systems Designed for Installing Gypsum Wallboard over Masonry
Walls.

Section III
Section III – Single Ply Application
1. II. SINGLE-PLY APPLICATION

2. Nail Attachment and Spacing
3. Screw Attachment
4. Floating Interior Angle Construction
5. Joint Location at Openings
6. Air Barrier Installation
III. SINGLE-PLY APPLICATION

The finished quality of single-ply surfaces depends on accurately installed and aligned framing.
So, before initiating a single-ply application of gypsum board, check the framing or furring
members for firmness and alignment (Fig. 11). Gypsum board is generally attached to framing
with nails, screws, or staples. Staples are economical and can be quickly applied with staple
guns; however, their application is limited to the base-ply of two layers or for gypsum sheathing
over wood framing.
Nail Attachment and Spacing
Gypsum board can be nail-attached using either a single-nailing or double-nailing pattern.

Double-nailing produces a tighter board-to-stud contact. Applicators must follow the nail spacing
specified in the fire test to meet fire resistive construction requirements.
Space single nails a maximum of 7 inches o.c. on ceilings and 8 inches o.c. on walls along
framing supports (Fig. 24)1. First drive nails in the center or field of the board and then outward
toward the edges and ends. In single-ply installation, place all ends and edges of gypsum boards
over framing members or other solid backing except where treated joints are at right angles to
framing members.
1
For fire- and sound-rated construction, framing and fastener size and spacing must follow that of
the system tested. Refer to Gypsum Association GA-600, Fire Resistance Design Manual, for
details of fire resistive construction.
When double-nailing, space the first set of nails 12 inch o.c. and the second nailing 2 inch to 2-
1/2 inch from the first (Fig. 25). Apply the second set of nails in the same sequences as the first
set, but not along the perimeter of the board. Reseat the first nails driven as necessary following
application of the second set.
Attachment Procedures
1. Carefully measure and cut the board.
2. Prior to nailing, mark the gypsum board to indicate the location of the framing.
3. Hold board firmly against framing when nailing to avoid nail pops or protrusions.
4. Drive nails straight into the framing member. Remove nails that miss the supports, dimple the
nail holes, and then cover with joint compound.
5. Correct damage to the board caused by over driving nails by driving a new nail 2 inch away
from the damaged site to provide firm attachment. Repair damaged area with joint compound.
See figures 26 and 27 for examples of correctly and incorrectly driven nails. Other common
causes of face paper fractures are misaligned or twisted supporting framing members (Fig. 11)
and projections of improperly installed blocking or bracing. These framing faults prevent solid
contact between gypsum board and supporting members, and hammer impact causes the board to
rebound and rupture the paper. Correct defective framing prior to application of gypsum board.
Trim or reinstall protruding supporting members. Minimize problems resulting from such defects
by using screws, adhesives or two-ply construction.
Fig. 24 – Single Nailing Pattern
Fig.25 – Double Nailing Pattern

Fig. 26 – Cross-Section of Examples of Mis-driven Nails
Fig. 27 – Cross-Section of Properly Driven Nail
Screw Attachment
Screw attachment of gypsum board requires the least number of fasteners. Using screws
minimizes the number of fastener heads requiring treatment with joint compound and reduces the
number of possible application defects. Do not exceed 12 inches o.c. between screws on ceilings
and 16 inches o.c. on walls where framing members are 16 inch o.c. Do not exceed 12 inch o.c.
between screws on walls and ceilings where framing members are 24 inch o.c. See Figure 21 for
the necessary penetration for screws.
Use Type S screws to attach gypsum board to metal framing and furring. Do not exceed more
than 12 inch o.c. between screws along supports for both walls and ceilings. These screw
spacings are also appropriate for gypsum board mounted on resilient furring channels over wood
framing.
Note: One may use a combination of fasteners consisting of nails along the perimeter and screws
in the field of the gypsum board. Do not allow the spacing between a nail and an adjacent screw
to exceed the spacing specified for screws.
Floating Interior Angle Construction

The floating interior angle method helps minimize the possibility of fastener popping in areas
adjacent to the wall and ceiling intersection and to minimize cracking due to structural stresses.
This method is suited to either single or double layer application of gypsum board to wood
framing.Use the floating interior angle method is applicable for single nailing, double nailing or
screw attachment. Maintain the same nail-free clearances at corners as in double nailing. See
Figure 28 .
Fig. 28 – Floating Angle Construction
In floating interior angle construction where the ceiling framing members are perpendicular to
the wall/ceiling intersection, locate the ceiling fasteners 7 inches from the intersection for single
nailing and 11 to 12 inch for double nailing or screw application. On ceilings, where the joists
are parallel to the intersection with a wall, start nailing at the intersection. Apply gypsum board
first to ceilings and then to walls.
Apply gypsum board to sidewalls in such a manner as to provide a firm, level support for the
floating edges of the ceiling board. Locate the top attachment into each stud 8 inches down from
the ceiling intersection for single nailing, and 11 to 12 inches for double nailing or screw
applications (Figs. 29a and 29b). At vertical angles, (Fig. 29c) apply the overlapping board
firmly against the underlying board to bring the underlying board into firm contact with the face
of the framing member behind it. Attach the overlapping board with nails or screws and omit
fasteners from the underlying board at the vertical intersection.
Fig. 29a – Vertical Section, Ceiling Framing Member Perpendicular to Wall

Fig. 29b –Vertical Section, Ceiling Framing Parallel to Wall
Fig. 29c – Cross Section Through Interior Vertical Angle
Special clips designed to support gypsum wallboard at wall corners and wall/ceiling intersections
may be used where approved. These clips are used to replace one of the two conventional “back
up” studs or blocking used to provide support at such locations. Clip spacing varies according to
the type of clips; see clip manufacturer’s recommendations (Figs. 30a, 30b, 30c )
Fig. 30a – Special Clips Used When Joists Are Parallel to Intersection of Wall
Fig. 30b – Special Clips at Interior Corners Eliminate Backup Stud
Fig. 30c – Special Clips Allow Corners to Be Fully Insulated
Joint Location at Openings
The layout of gypsum board joints needs to be planned around openings such as doors and
windows to reduce the possibility of unsightly cracking as the building settles after construction.
The ends of edges of gypsum board applied in either the horizontal or vertical direction should
not be placed at the edge of a door or window opening, unless a control joint is to be installed at
that location.
Air Barrier Installation
Apply a bead of caulk to bottom and top edges to prevent unwanted passage of air.

Section IV
Section IV – Multi-Ply Application
1. lV. MULTI-PLY APPLICATION

2. INSTALLATION OVER WOOD FRAMING AND FURRING
3. Base Ply On Ceilings
4. Base Ply On Walls
5. METAL FRAMING OR FURRING
6. Base Ply Attachment
7. Face Ply Attachment
8. Adhesive Attachment
9. Supplemental Fasteners
10. Resurfacing Existing Construction
lV. MULTI-PLY APPLICATION
Multi-ply construction uses one or more layers of gypsum board applied over a base layer. The
use of multiple layers of gypsum board results in improved surface finish, greater strength and
higher fire resistance and sound classifications. The base layer can be a gypsum foil-backed
board, regular gypsum board, or other gypsum base material.
The maximum support spacing for multi-ply systems depends mainly upon the base-ply
thickness and placement. See Tables I and II for proper framing spacing for wood and metal
framing or furring. Table V shows fastener spacing for the base ply attachment.
Table V
Base Ply Fastener Spacing for Two-Ply Gypsum Board Application
INSTALLATION OVER WOOD FRAMING AND FURRING
Base Ply On Ceilings
When attaching a multi-ply system with a laminated face ply over wood supports, fasten the base
ply in the same manner as in single-ply construction. Double nailing the base layer is not
necessary because the fasteners used to attach the second layer will produce a firmly fastened
system. The base ply may be attached with long edges either perpendicular or parallel to framing
members. End joints of the base layer may fall on or between framing members. Position face
ply joints over framing, and offset face ply joints from base ply joints. If the base ply is foil
backed board, apply the foil side against framing.
Base Ply On Walls
Orient the long edges of a base ply parallel with the framing members unless a referenced tested
assembly specifies otherwise. At inside corners, mechanically fasten only the overlapping ends
of the base ply boards and omit fasteners from the face ply. The floating corner treatment is
better able to resist structural stresses (Fig. 31).
Fig. 31 – Floating Angle in Multi-Ply Systems
If staples are used to attach the base ply parallel to the framing, drive staples with the crowns
perpendicular to the framing in the field of the board and parallel to the framing when next to the
finished edges. Where edges fall over supports, orient staples parallel with the finished edges. If
staples are used to attach the base ply perpendicular to the framing, drive staples with
the crowns parallel to the framing in the field of the board and perpendicular to the
framing when next to the unfinished edges. Where edges fall over supports, orient
staples parallel with the finished edges and perpendicular to the framing. (Fig. 32)
Fig. 32 – Applications Showing Staple Orientation

Drive staple crowns so that staples bear tightly against the board without breaking the face paper.
METAL FRAMING OR FURRING
Base Ply Attachment
When attaching base-ply gypsum board to metal framing or furring, use screws at least 3/8-inch
longer than the thickness of the board. When using no adhesive between plies in a perpendicular
application, fasten the base ply with a single screw at each stud or furring channel around the
board edges and with one screw in the middle of the board at each stud or channel.
In parallel application with no adhesive between plies, fasten the base ply with screws 12 inches
o.c. along the edges of the board and 24 inches o.c. in each stud in the field of the board.
When the base ply is to be attached either perpendicular or parallel to metal framing 16 inches
o.c. and with adhesive between the plies, space screws 12 inches o.c. for ceilings and 16 inches
o.c. for walls. Do not exceed maximum screw spacing of 24 inches o.c. on metal framing for
both walls and ceilings.
Face Ply Attachment
Offset the joints in a face ply at least 12 inches from joints in the base ply or as defined by the
applicable test report. Perpendicular application is more common, as it usually results in fewer
joints. When the face ply is attached with mechanical fasteners and with no adhesive between
plies, use the maximum spacing and minimum penetration recommended for screws in a single
ply application. Find these spacings in Section II under “Screw Attachment.”
Adhesive Attachment
Typical adhesive methods for attaching the face ply to the base ply in multi-ply construction
include sheet lamination, strip lamination, and spot lamination. For sheet lamination, cover the
entire back of the face ply with laminating
adhesive using a notched spreader, box spreader, or other suitable tool (Fig. 33). Adjust size and
spacing of the notches to suit the type of adhesive being used. For strip lamination, apply
adhesive in ribbons with a special
spreader. Space the ribbons 16 inch to 24 inch o.c. (Fig. 34). For spot lamination, brush or daub
spots of adhesive on in a regular pattern.
Attach gypsum board using moderate pressure and promptly remove any adhesive squeezed out
at the joints. Strip and spot lamination provide better results than sheet lamination in sound rated
partitions.
Fig. 33 – Notched Spreader Used to Apply Adhesive
Fig. 34 – Applying Adhesive in Vertical Strips
Supplemental Fasteners
Hold the face ply firmly against the base ply with supplemental fasteners, shoring or bracing as
necessary while the adhesive is setting to ensure satisfactory adhesive bond. For ceiling
applications, apply mechanical fasteners in the field of each laminated face ply. On side walls,
place fasteners at the perimeter of the board where they will be concealed by joint treatment or
trim. Note that in fire-rated assemblies, the specific fastener spacing is given for the particular
assembly tested and may not be related to whether or not adhesive is used between the plies.
Fastener spacing details in fire-rated assemblies are available from the sponsor of the test and, in
many cases, from the Gypsum Association. In sound-rated partitions where fire resistance is not
a consideration, one may attach the face ply vertically over sound insulation board or backing
board with permanent mechanical fasteners at the board ends only. In such applications, omit
intermediate fasteners and temporarily brace gypsum board until the adhesive has developed
sufficient bond strength.
Resurfacing Existing Construction
Gypsum board can provide a new finish on existing walls and ceilings of wood, plaster, masonry
or old gypsum board. If the existing surface is structurally sound and provides a sufficiently
smooth and solid backing, one may directly apply a ¼-inch or thicker gypsum board layer with
adhesives, nails or screws. Use nails long enough to penetrate into the framing 7/8-inch. When
using power driven screws, be sure that the threaded portions of the screws penetrate the framing
not less than 5/8-inch.
Use a combination of furring and shims to provide a suitable framework over existing surfaces
that are too irregular to receive gypsum board directly. Use the same support spacings and
installation methods, per gypsum board thickness, recommended in Section II for new
construction.
Remove all surface trim for mechanical and electrical equipment such as switch plates, outlet
covers, and ventilating grilles and save them for reinstallation. Reset electrical boxes to the
correct depth prior to the installation of new gypsum board.

Section V
Section V – Joint and Fastener Treatment
1. V. JOINT AND FASTENER TREATMENT

2. Joint Treatment Products and Precautions
3. JointTreatment Procedure
4. Texturing
5. Trim and Casings
6. Perimeter Relief
V. JOINT AND FASTENER TREATMENT
After installing and securing the gypsum board with the proper fasteners, one must reinforce and
conceal the joints, fastener heads, and corner beads. Use joint compound and joint tape that
conform to ASTM C 475 “Standard Specifications for Joint Treatment Materials for Gypsum
Wallboard Construction” for this stage of the process. Ensure that all compounds used are
compatible. Do not mix different formulations unless recommended by the joint compound
manufacturer. During the taping and finishing operations, provide adequate and continuous
ventilation to ensure proper setting and drying of the taping and finishing compounds. Use pre-
creased tape the corners of wall and ceiling intersections. Use metal or plastic casing or trim to
conceal exposed edges of the gypsum board.
Fig. 35 – Gypsum Board Walls and Ceilings with Joints Treated to Give Monolithic Appearance
Fig. 36 – Cross Section Showing Layers of Taped Gypsum Wallboard Joint
Fig. 37 – Bedding Compound Being Applied

Fig. 38 – Joint Tape Being Embedded into Compound
Fig. 39 – Joint Topping Applied

Original photo courtesy of AWCI
Fig. 40 – Machine Application of Tape and Compound
Original Photo Courtesy of EZ PRO

Fig. 41 – Spray Applying Texture
Joint Treatment Products and Precautions
Joint tapes work with ready-mixed or dry, powder-type joint compounds to reinforce and finish
the joints between adjacent gypsum boards. Paper tape with metal strips is available to reinforce
exterior corners.
Joint reinforcing compounds are of three general types:
1. A taping or bedding compound used to attach the tape to board
2. A finishing or topping compound used especially for finishing
3. An all-purpose compound to be used for both embedding and finishing.
Most ready-mixed joint compounds contain water-soluble organic thickeners and adhesives or
synthetic resins. These products achieve their strength and adhesion through drying and are
consequently referred to as “drying compounds.” The loss of water inherent in drying
compounds results in shrinkage, which necessitates several thin applications of the compound.
Each application must dry thoroughly before the next application is started to ensure the desired
result. Synthetic resin compounds such as “vinyls” will keep longer than the organic water-
soluble types. Ready-mixed joint compounds come in two consistencies: one for hand
application and the other for machine application.
Another family of joint compounds achieves strength by setting and is referred to as “setting
type” joint compounds. These products are dry powders that must be mixed with water. To meet
varying job requirements, setting type joint compounds come in a wide choice of setting times.
The set may occur within 5 minutes or take as long as several hours. Setting compounds are
formulated with specific setting-time ranges and must be used within those prescribed time
limits. (Additional coats are possible before complete drying takes place.) A common practice is
to use setting compounds for embedding the tape and “non-setting, or drying,” types for the
finishing operation.
Do not allow ready-mixed compounds to freeze. Do not begin taping and finishing operations
until the interior temperature has been maintained at a minimum of 50 degrees F for a period of
at least 48 hours. Maintain the minimum interior temperature until the compounds have
completely dried. Note: Kerosene and propane heaters emit unacceptably high levels of moisture
for the proper drying of non-setting type joint compounds. Avoid using any heater that burns
petroleum products or gas to achieve the minimum interior temperature while working with non-
setting type joint compounds.
Avoid contaminating containers or tools used for different types of joint compounds when
mixing or storing. Even a small quantity of one type of joint compound in the seam of a mixing
pail or inside a pump or on a tool can adversely affect the adhesive properties of a full mixture of
another type of compound. All equipment must be clean: disassemble and clean all tools after
each use.
Always wear an approved protective respirator when mixing powder or sanding dry compound.
Always mix materials per the manufacturer’s directions.
Joint Treatment Procedure
Pre-fill any gaps between gypsum boards that exceed 1/4-inch with setting-type compound prior
to commencing the taping process.
Fill the depression formed by the tapered edges where gypsum boards join with taping or all-
purpose joint compound. Do not use topping or finishing compound for embedding tape. Wipe
off excess compound that is applied beyond the groove. Center reinforcing tape and press it
down into the joint compound with a 4 -inch broad knife or smooth-edged trowel. Draw knife
along joint with sufficient pressure to remove excess compound above, below, and along edges
of the tape. Leave sufficient compound under tape for a proper bond but not more than 1/32 -inch
under the feathered edge of the tape. Take care to leave a thin coat of joint compound over the
embedded tape, as it reduces edge wrinkling or curling and makes the tape easier to conceal with
following coats. (The initial tape embedding can also be done with a semi-automatic tool that
applies the joint compound and tape simultaneously.) Allow the compound to dry completely.
Drying can take 24 hours or more, depending on temperature and humidity.
After the embedding coat is completely dry, apply a second coat of topping or all-purpose joint
compound feathered about two inches beyond edges of the first coat. Spot fastener heads and
allow to dry.
After the second coat is dry sand lightly, if necessary, or wipe with a damp sponge and apply a
thin finishing coat to joints and fastener heads; use topping or all-purpose joint compound.
Feather edges to at least 6 inches on each side of the joint. The final step prior to decoration is to
lightly sand the joints in order to eliminate laps where joints intersect and in general to smooth
the surface where necessary. Take care to avoid scuffing the paper surface of the gypsum board,
as the scuffed areas may be visible after the decoration. Back-fill all cut-outs with compound
used for taping or finishing so that there is no opening larger than 1/8 -inch between the gypsum
board and a fixture or receptor.
At joints where there are no tapered edges, such as where two horizontal square-cut edges meet
together, additional care is necessary to make the joint look as monolithic as possible and create
the “illusion” of
smoothness. Fill the area where the boards meet with taping or all-purpose joint compound. (Do
not use topping or finishing compound for embedding the tape.) Center the reinforcing tape and
press it down into the joint compound with a 6-inch broad knife or smooth-edged trowel. Draw
knife along joint with sufficient pressure to remove excess compound above, below, and along
edges of the tape. Leave sufficient compound under tape for a proper bond but not more than
1/32 -inch under the feathered edge of the tape. Take care to leave a thin coat of joint compound
over the embedded tape, as it reduces edge wrinkling or curling and makes the tape easier to
conceal with following coats. (The initial tape embedding can also be done with a semi-
automatic tool that applies the joint compound and tape simultaneously.) Allow the compound to
dry completely. Drying can take 24 hours or more, depending on temperature and humidity.
compound over the tape with a 10-inch knife or trowel. Apply two wider stripes of compound
along the side of the tape to create a significantly wider joint. Feather edges to approximately 18
– 24 inches.
Feather edges to at least 12 inches on each side of the joint. The final step prior to decoration is
to lightly sand the joints in order to eliminate laps where joints intersect and in general to smooth
as the scuffed areas may be visible after the decoration.
While joints are being finished, fastener heads should also be spotted with compound. Apply
compound with a 4-inch knife to fill depressions created when fasteners were set slightly below
the board surface.
Texturing
Decorators and design professionals routinely specify texture finishes for gypsum board surfaces.
There are many choices of commercially available texture finishes compatible with gypsum
board, ranging from light stipples to heavy swirls or simulated acoustical finishes. These finishes
are typically machine applied; however, certain finishes can be brush-and-roller applied, while
others require specialized hand tools. In all cases, such finishes perform best when applied over a
sealed or primed gypsum board surface. Always prime or seal bare gypsum board surfaces with a
product recommended by the manufacturer of the specified texture product. Unless specifically
recommended, do not use stain-blocking, fast-dry primers directly under texture products, as
those primer products generally lack sufficient profile and absorption properties to properly bond
with the finish
product.
Texture finishes are not generally considered final finished surfaces. They must be over-painted
when thoroughly dry with a primer or finish paint applied according to manufacturers
recommendations.
Trim and Casings
Figure 42 illustrates some of the more common sections used around doors, windows, and other
openings. They are also used when gypsum board is butted against a different surfacing material.
Fig. 42 – Examples of Corner Bead, Trim, and Casings
Perimeter Relief
Detailed designs for perimeter relief of nonbearing partitions are available to improve this
condition (Fig. 43). The use of relief runners to attach nonbearing walls to ceiling and column
members is effective in the prevention of cracking due to structural movement.
Fig. 43 – Examples of Perimeter Relief Assemblies
Fig. 44 – Details of Control Joints
Section VII
Section VII – Special Construction
1. VII. SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION

2. SOUND ISOLATION CONSTRUCTION
3. Separated Partitions
4. Resilient Mounting
5. Sound Isolating Materials
6. Rigid Plastic Foam Insulation
7. General Procedures
8. Mechanical Application
9. Tiled Areas
10. Tile Backer
11. Preparation
12. Application of Tile
13. Gypsum Sheathing
14. Uses
15. Fire Protection
16. Code Compliance
17. Weather Protection
18. Application of Gypsum Sheathing
19. General Provisions
20. Fasteners
21. Framing Members
22. Water-Resistive Barriers
23. Delivery, Identification, Handling, and Storage
24. Methods of Cutting and Installation
25. Soffits
26. Exterior Soffit and Ceiling Construction
27. Gypsum Board as a Fire Resistant Roofing Underlayment
28. Purpose
29. Methods of Installing Gypsum Roof Underlayment
30. Ledger Strip Method
31. Partial Roof Underlayment
32. Full Roof Underlayment
33. Shaft Walls
34. Chase Walls
35. Area Separation Firewalls
36. Code Compliance
37. System Types
38. Proper Installation
39. Sound Attenuation
40. Veneer Plaster
41. Advantages
42. Gypsum Base for Veneer Plaster
43. One or Two Component Systems
44. One Component Systems
45. Two Component Systems
46. Direct Application to Masonry Surfaces
47. Trowel Application
48. Machine Spray-Application
VII. SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION
Most special building systems designed to improve sound isolation, fire resistance, moisture
resistance, or thermal condition depend on gypsum board assemblies built to specifications
proven to provide higher performance than standard systems typically provide. Items specified
that help achieve higher performance include framing techniques, positioning of boards, spacing
and selection of fasteners, caulking, and taping and finishing of joints. To ensure the desired
performance from a gypsum board system, always closely follow the manufacturer’s installation
specifications.
SOUND ISOLATION CONSTRUCTION
The first essential for attaining airborne sound isolation of any assembly is to close off air leaks
and flanking paths – routes by which sound can escape from one area to another. Because sound
can travel over, under, or around walls, through windows and doors adjacent to them, through air
ducts and through floors and crawlspaces below, these flanking paths must be correctly treated to
reduce the transmission of sound. Hairline cracks and small holes permit the transmission of
sound that can reduce the acoustical performance of an assembly, adversely affecting the Sound
Transmission Class (STC), particularly in higher rated assemblies. Failure to properly follow
special construction and design details can ruin the effectiveness of the best assembly.
To improve sound isolation:
·Separate framing of the two sides of the wall.

·Mount gypsum board on resilient channels.
·Install sound absorbing materials in the wall cavity.
·Use adhesively applied gypsum board of varying thicknesses in multi-layer construction.
·Caulk the perimeters of gypsum board partitions, openings in walls and ceilings, partition-
mullion, intersections, outlet box openings, etc.
·Locate recessed wall fixtures in different stud cavities. (Avoid installing medicine cabinets,
electrical, telephone, television and inter-com outlets, plumbing, heating and air conditioning
ducts back to back.)
·Carefully cut to proper size and caulk any opening for fixtures, piping and electrical outlets.
·Caulk the entire perimeter of sound insulating partitions around gypsum board edges to make
them airtight – see Figure 52.
·Caulk with non-hardening, non-shrinking, non-bleeding, non-staining, resilient sealant.
·Ensure that sound control sealing is covered in the specifications, understood by the workmen
of all related trades, supervised by the foreman, and inspected carefully as construction
progresses.
Separated Partitions
A staggered wood stud gypsum board partition placed on separate plates will effectively
decouple the system and provide an STC of 40-42. The addition of a sound absorbing material
between the studs of one partition side can increase the STC as much as 8. Attach kitchen
cabinets, lavatories, ceramic tile, medicine cabinets and other fixtures to a staggered stud wall or
a metal stud chase wall rather than a resiliently mounted wall. The added weight and fastenings
of these items will acoustically “short circuit” a resiliently mounted wall.
Resilient Mounting
Resilient attachments, acting as “shock absorbers,” reduce the passage of sound through the wall
or ceiling and increase the STC rating. To achieve higher STC ratings, it is necessary to use more
complex construction methods,
such as separated partitions, multiple layers of gypsum board, and sound absorbing materials.
Walls
Attach resilient furring channels with the nailing flange down (open edge facing up) and at right
angles to the wood studs (Fig. 46c). Drive 1-1/4 -inch type W or S screws or 6d coated nails
through the pre-punched holes in channel flange. Use 7/8-inch or 1-in Type S screws with
extremely hard lumber. Locate channels 24 inch from the floor, within 6 inch of the ceiling line
and no more than 24 inch o.c. Extend channels into all corners and fasten to corner framing.
Attach a resilient channel or ½ -inch by 3 inch wide continuous gypsum board filler strips to the
bottom plate at floor line. Splice channels directly over studs by overlapping ends and fastening
both flanges to the support.
Apply gypsum board horizontally with long dimension parallel to channels using 1 -inch Type S
screws spaced 12 inch o.c. along channels. Center abutting edges of board over channel flange
and securely fasten. Using a long fastener that contacts framing members will defeat the purpose
of the resilient channels, which is to isolate the gypsum board from the framing.
Ceilings
Attach resilient furring channels at right angles to wood joists in ceilings using 1-1/4 inch Type
W or Type S screws or 6d coated nails 1-7/8 -inch long (screws preferred). Locate channels
within 6 inch of the wall-ceiling intersection and no more than 24 inch o.c. for joists spaced 24
inch o.c. maximum. Extend the channel into all corners and fasten to corner framing. Splice
channels under joists by nesting channels and screwing through both flanges into the supporting
framing member. Attach the gypsum board with Type S screws placed 12 inch o.c. in the field
and along abutting ends. Apply the long dimension of the board at right angles to the channels
with end joints neatly fitted and staggered in alternate rows. Use pieces of resilient channel for
back blocking butt joints not falling on furring members.
Fig. 45 – Designs for Sound Isolating Assemblies
Sound Isolating Materials
·Mineral or glass fiber blankets and batts for in metal and wood stud assemblies.
·Mineral (including glass) fiberboard.
·Gypsum core sound insulating board used behind gypsum board applied adhesively or
mechanically fastened.
·Rigid plastic foam board used in exterior wall furring systems.
·Lead or other special shielding material.
Install mineral wool or glass fiber insulating batts and blankets in assembly cavities to absorb
air-borne sound within the cavity. Place batts in cavities and carefully fit behind electrical
outlets, around blocking and fixtures and around cutouts necessary for plumbing lines.
Some insulating batts and blankets have paper facings or other vapor barriers and flanges. Others
have no facings and flanges. Install batts by friction fitting the batts inside the stud cavities. To
ensure good board-to-stud contact, avoid stapling or fastening the flanges to stud faces. In metal
framed and in laminated gypsum board partitions, attach the blankets to the back of the gypsum
board. Install batts and blankets without facings by friction-fitting within the stud space.
Fig. 46a–46d – Details of STC Rated Assemblies
RIGID PLASTIC FOAM INSULATION
General Procedures
Gypsum board may be applied over rigid plastic foam insulation on the interior side of exterior masonry and concrete
walls to provide a finished wall and protect the insulation from early exposure to fire originating within the building.
These systems provide high insulation values needed for energy conservation. Gypsum board applied over rigid
plastic foam insulation in the manner described in this section may not necessarily provide finish ratings required by
local building codes. Many building codes require a minimum fire protection for rigid foam on interior surfaces equal
to that provided by ½-inch gypsum board. Review manufacturer’s literature when working with these materials as
flammability characteristics of rigid foam insulation products
vary widely.
Mechanical Application
When protecting rigid foam insulation with gypsum board, cover the entire insulated wall
surface, including the surface above ceilings and in closed, unoccupied spaces. Screw attach
single or double-ply, 1/2 -inch or 5/8 -inch thick gypsum wallboard to steel wall-furring
members attached to the masonry per the insulation manufacturer’s directions, or attach gypsum
board with nails or screws driven directly into wood framing.
Choose furring members designed to minimize thermal transfer through the member and to
provide a 1-1/2 -inch minimum width face or flange for screw application of the gypsum board.
Install furring members vertically, spaced 24 inches o.c. Provide blocking or other backing as
required for attachment and support of fixtures and furnishing. Attach furring members at floor-
wall and wall-ceiling angles (or at the termination of gypsum board above suspended ceilings),
and around door, window and other openings.
Apply single-ply gypsum boards vertically with the long edges of the board located over furring
members. Place gypsum boards so that end joints are avoided. Take care that fastener spacing
meets requirements for single-ply application over framing or furring.
Attach base ply of double-ply applications vertically over framing. Attach face ply either
vertically or horizontally. Offset edge joints of vertically-applied face ply and end joints of
horizontally applied face ply at least one furring member space from base ply edge joints. Use
fastener spacing for two-ply application over framing or furring (see Table V in Section IV).
Use mechanical fasteners of such length that they do not penetrate completely to the masonry or
concrete. In single layer application, reinforce all joints between gypsum boards with tape and
finish with joint compound. In two-ply application, the base layer joints may be concealed or left
exposed.
TILED AREAS
Tile Backer
Water-resistant gypsum backing board, commonly called “green board” because of the color of
its face paper, is specially designed and formulated to serve as a base for ceramic and similar tile.
The core, face paper, and back paper are formulated and manufactured to resist the effects of
moisture and humidity. Water-resistant gypsum backing board contains additives in its core that
provide water resistance and its face and back paper are treated to limit water absorption;
however, water resistant gypsum backing board is NOT WATER-PROOF. Consequently, water
resistant gypsum backing board is not suited for use in areas with direct exposure to running
water or high humidity, but it is very well suited as a tile backer in areas directly adjacent to wet
areas or areas of high humidity.
Model building code requirements typically prohibit the use of gypsum board as a tile or panel
backing material for tub and shower enclosures. In non-wet areas, water resistant gypsum
backing board or regular gypsum board (ASTM C 1396) may be used as a base for application of
ceramic or plastic wall tile or plastic finished wall panels. Do not use gypsum board in extremely
critical exposure areas such as hot tubs, swimming pools, saunas, steam rooms, or gang shower
rooms. Do not use water resistant gypsum backing board on ceilings without installing additional
framing; do not exceed spacing of framing members beyond 12 inches o.c. with 1/2 –inch-thick
board and 16 inches o.c. with 5/8-inch-thick board.
Back to Top
Preparation
Before beginning the application of water-resistant gypsum backing board to walls or partitions,
inspect the framing for proper spacing and alignment. Space framing no more than 24 inches o.c.
and reinforce all interior angles with framing to provide rigid corners. Install shims or furring as
needed to align fixtures flush with the face of the gypsum board.
Where framing is spaced more than 16 inches o.c., or where ceramic tile is more than 5/16-inch
thick, install blocking between the studs. Regardless of framing spacing, install suitable
blocking, headers, or supports for plumbing fixtures. Take care that plumbing fixtures are
properly installed, securely attached, and adequately supported.
Application of Tile
Follow American National Standard Specifications for Installation of Ceramic Tile With Water
Resistant Organic Adhesives, ANSI A 108.4., for ceramic wall tile application to gypsum board.
Use an adhesive that meets the specifications of the American National Standard for Organic
Adhesives for Installation of Ceramic tile, ANSI A 136.1, Type I.
Gypsum board joints, including those at all angle intersections that are under areas to receive tile
or wall panels, must be treated with joint treatment and tape.
Caulk the cut edges and openings around pipes and fixtures flush with the surface using a
flexible sealant caulking compound or adhesive complying with the American National Standard
for Organic Adhesives for Installation of Ceramic Tile, Type I (ANSI A 136.1). Always follow
the directions of the manufacturer of the tile, wall panel, or other surfacing material.
GYPSUM SHEATHING
Gypsum sheathing is a versatile, economical, water-resistive sheathing consisting of a water-

resistive gypsum core and water-resistive paper or other facing. It serves as a substrate under
exterior wall claddings. Gypsum sheathing is designed to be mechanically attached to the outside
surface of exterior wall framing spaced up to 24 inches o.c. using either nails, screws, or staples.
Gypsum sheathing is available in a wide range of lengths to meet the demanding needs of the
construction industry. Easily sized, cut, and installed, gypsum sheathing is the sheathing of
choice wherever fire resistance ratings or noncombustible materials are required.
Uses
Gypsum sheathing is suitable for use with virtually all exterior wall claddings, including wood
siding and shingles, panel siding, vinyl or metal siding, masonry or brick veneer, Portland
cement stucco, and Exterior Insulation and Finish Systems
Fire Protection
The natural noncombustible core of gypsum sheathing protects the framing from the hazards of
fires occurring outside the building, even when covered by combustible siding. When exposed to
high temperatures, chemically combined water in the gypsum is gradually released, providing
protection until all of its combined water is completely driven off. In addition to its fire
resistance properties, gypsum sheathing has a low flame-spread rating of less than 25.
Code Compliance
Gypsum sheathing complies with building code requirements for use as structural sheathing in
frame construction. Consult the local building code for specific details of construction and
permissible shear values.
Application of Gypsum Sheathing
General Provisions
Do not apply gypsum sheathing to ceilings, soffits or sills unless otherwise recommended by the
manufacturer.
Ensure that all wood framing members to which gypsum sheathing will be fastened are straight
and true. Do not exceed stud spacing greater than 24 inches o.c. Ensure that the fastening surface
is no less than 1-1/2 -inches wide and does not vary more than 1/8 -inch from the plane of the
faces of adjacent framing.
Ensure that all steel framing members to which gypsum sheathing will be screw-attached are
straight and true and are spaced no more than 24 inches o.c. Ensure that steel studs meet the
design thickness required and are finished with a protective coating to prevent corrosion. Ensure
that the fastening surface to which gypsum sheathing will be attached is no less than 1-1/4 -
inches wide.
Ensure that gypsum sheathing used in building construction is more than 8 inches from the
finished grade in fully weather and water-protected siding systems, and more than 12 inches
from the ground for properly drained and ventilated crawl spaces. Where ground moisture or
humidity are extreme and/or continuous, cover the ground’s surface with a vapor retarder.
Fasteners
Nails – Use minimum 12 gauge, galvanized, roofing nails.
Staples – Use staples made of galvanized steel, minimum 16 gauge, with 7/16 -inch crowns, and
with divergent points.
Screws – Use screws that meet ASTM C 1002, Standard Specification for Steel Self-Piercing
Tapping Screws for the Application of Gypsum Panel Products or Metal Plaster Bases to Wood
Studs or Steel Studs. Use Type W screws for fastening to wood framing. Use Type S screws for
fastening to light gage steel framing or wood framing. When attaching gypsum sheathing to
heavier gauge steel framing, use screws that meet ASTM C 954, Standard Specification for Steel
Drill Screws for the Application of Gypsum Panel Products or Metal Plaster Bases to Steel Studs
from 0.033 -inch to 0.112 -inch in Thickness.
Framing Members
Ensure that wood framing members conform to American Softwood Lumber Standard, Voluntary
Product Standard PS 20. Ensure that steel framing members conform to ASTM C 645, Standard
Specification for Nonstructural Steel Framing Members (light gage), or ASTM C 955, Standard
Specification for Load-Bearing (Transverse and Axial) Steel Studs, Runners (Tracks), and
Bracing or Bridging for Screw Application of Gypsum Panel Products and Metal Plaster Bases
(not less than 0.033 -inch thick). For more on this topic, see Section XI.
Delivery, Identification, Handling, and Storage
Confirm that all materials are delivered in original packages, containers or bundles bearing brand
name, applicable standard designation, and name of manufacturer or supplier for whom product
is manufactured.
Take care that gypsum sheathing and accessories are properly supported on risers on a level
platform and are fully protected from weather, direct sunlight exposure, and condensation.
Neatly stack gypsum sheathing flat and in such a manner that prevents sagging or damage to
edges, ends and surfaces. Refer to GA-801, Handling Gypsum Panel Products, at
http://www.gypsum.org/pdf/GA-801-07.pdf, for proper storage and handling requirements.
Methods of Cutting and Installation
Cut gypsum sheathing by scoring and snapping or by sawing, working from the face-paper side.
When scoring, use a sharp knife to cut through the face paper into the gypsum core. Then snap
the gypsum sheathing back away from the cut face. Break the back paper by snapping the
gypsum sheathing in the reverse direction, or preferably by cutting the back paper. Neatly trim
all cut edges and ends of gypsum sheathing to obtain neatly fitting joints once the sheathing is
installed. Cut out holes for pipes, fixtures or other small openings with a saw or special tool
designed for the use. Neatly scribe and cut gypsum sheathing where it meets projecting surfaces.
When a mechanically attached water-resistive barrier is required, attach the water-resistive

barrier over the face of the gypsum sheathing and to the framing, with the upper layer lapped
over the lower layer as set forth in the
code.
Take care to properly flash gypsum sheathing at openings, and locate sheathing so that no joint
will align with an edge of an opening. Stagger all joints.
Protect holes and cutouts for pipes or fixtures, or other small openings with flashing or caulking.
Do not exceed spacing of 24 inches o.c. for framing members.
Install control joints in walls wherever specified.

Where shear values are not required, gypsum sheathing 48 inches wide may be applied parallel
or perpendicular to framing with vertical joints over framing members and with gypsum
sheathing fitted snugly around all window and door openings.
Cover square-edge gypsum sheathing applied with its bound edge perpendicular to the framing
with a water-resistive barrier or seal horizontal joints.
Install Tongue & Groove (V-edge) gypsum sheathing perpendicularly to framing members, with
grooved edges down, interlocking the tongue of the panel below without forcing. Abut ends of
panels over centers of framing members and stagger all end joints between adjacent courses. Fit
gypsum sheathing snugly around all window and door openings.
When shear values are not required, space fasteners no more than 8 inches o.c. along vertical
ends or edges and intermediate supports. When wall bracing or wall shear values are being
assigned to the installed gypsum sheathing, space fasteners as specified by the gypsum sheathing
manufacturer.
Space fasteners no less than 3/8 -inch from the ends and edges of the gypsum sheathing.
Drive nails so that the heads are at or slightly below the surface of the gypsum sheathing. Take
care to avoid damaging the face and core.
Drive screws so that the screw heads are at or slightly below the gypsum sheathing surface paper
without breaking the surface paper or stripping the framing member around the screw shank.
Drive staples with crowns parallel to framing members and in such a manner that the crowns
bear down tightly against the gypsum sheathing without cutting into
the face paper.
SOFFITS
Exterior Soffit and Ceiling Construction
Exterior gypsum soffit board and gypsum wallboard are suitable for commercial use as ceilings
for covered walkways and malls, large canopies and parking areas, and for residential use in
open porches, breezeways, carports and exterior soffits. These areas must be horizontal or
sloping downward away from the building.
Space framing no more than 16 inches o.c. for ½ – inch thick gypsum board, nor more than 24
inches o.c. for 5/8 – inch thick board. Use an application method identical to that for interior
ceilings. Treat joints and fastener heads with setting-type joint compound. Provide suitable
fascias and moldings around the perimeter to protect the board from direct exposure to water.
Unless protected by metal or other water stops, do not place the edges of the board less than 1/4-
inch away from abutting vertical surfaces (Fig. 47).
Fig 47a
Fig 47b
Fig 47c
Fig 47d
Fig. 47 (a, b, c, & d) – Protect gypsum board from wetting in outdoor locations with drip edges
at facia boards. Separate gypsum board edges from dampness by metal trim or by a 1/4 inch
space. Spaces enclosed by gypsum board must be adequately vented.
Fig. 47 – Details Showing Proper Installation of Soffit Board
Seal the exposed surfaces of the gypsum board and metal trim with a premium exterior primer
and two coats of exterior paint. Vent attic spaces to the outside where the area above opens to an
attic space over habitable rooms. Install vents at the end of each joist space where the gypsum
board is applied directly to joists or rafters. Ensure that vents are screened, are a minimum 2
inches wide, and span the full width between the joists. Locate vents 6 inches from the outer
edge of eaves.
GYPSUM BOARD AS A FIRE RESISTANT ROOFING UNDERLAYMENT
Purpose
A minimum 5/8-inch thick layer of Type X gypsum board added to a roof structure will help stop
fire from burning down into a building. It will also help prevent the lateral spread of flame under
the roof surface.
Be sure to provide adequate ventilation in attic areas to control moisture and reduce temperature.
Careful attention to design is critical to ensure proper
air flow to all areas.
Methods of Installing Gypsum Roof Underlayment

The Gypsum Association has developed the following three recommended methods of
installation. Although the model codes permit any of these three alternates to parapet
construction, individual code provisions may vary. Consult local code authority for provisions
specific to your jurisdiction.
The three methods of applying gypsum board as a roofing underlayment, in order of preference,
are described below.
Ledger Strip Method
Attach nominal 2-inch x 2-inch ledger strips to form continuous supports along the sides of the
roof framing so that the upper surface of 5/8-inch gypsum board will be flush with the top of the
trusses or rafters. Use at least 1¼-inch-long fasteners spaced a maximum of 48 inches o.c. to
attach strips to roof framing. Cut the gypsum board to fit snugly between the roof framing
members and lay it in place. Take care to ensure that gypsum board end joints spanning between
framing members fit snuggly.
Fig. 48 Ledger Strip Roof Underlayment Installation Method
Partial Roof Underlayment
Install 5/8-inch type X gypsum board under the combustible roof sheathing on both sides of the
party wall for not less than the minimum distance required by the code. Apply the gypsum board
on top of roof framing, with the paper-bound edge perpendicular to the framing, prior to the
installation of combustible roof sheathing. Locate all gypsum board ends on the roof framing
members. Nail the gypsum board to each framing member with at least two minimum 4d
common nails, or 1-3/8-inch gypsum wallboard nails. Butt end joints loosely; fit edge joints
snugly together without forcing. End and edge joints need not be taped.
Protect gypsum board against exposure to inclement weather during installation and until the
roof membrane installation is complete. Shim all remaining trusses and rafters as necessary to
provide a straight and uniform base for the attachment of the combustible roof sheathing. Attach
roof sheathing through the gypsum board to the roof framing with sheathing joints offset from
the gypsum board joints. Increase fastener length by 5/8-inch to accommodate the thickness of
the gypsum board and shims. Apply the roof membrane as specified by the manufacturer.
This second method offers easy attachment of the gypsum board to the roof framing, compared to the ledger
strip method. It does however require shimming the roof framing that is not protected with the
gypsum board. As an alternate to shimming, two different sizes of rafters or trusses may be used.
In typical multi-family housing where individual units are relatively narrow, it is generally more
economical to cover the entire roof.
Fig. 49 Partial Roof Underlayment Installation Method
Full Roof Underlayment
Install 5 / 8 -inch type X gypsum board over the entire roof area. Apply the gypsum board
perpendicular to and on top of roof trusses or rafters prior to the installation of combustible roof
sheathing. Locate gypsum board end joints over and the roof framing. Nail the gypsum board to
each framing member with two minimum 4d common nails, or 1-3 / 8-inch nails complying with
ASTM C 514, Standard Specification for Nails for the Application of Gypsum Board. Butt end
joints loosely; fit edge joints snugly together without forcing. End and edge joints need not be
taped. Protect gypsum board against exposure to inclement weather during installation and until
the roof membrane installation is complete. Attach combustible roof sheathing through the
gypsum board to the roof framing with sheathing joints offset from the gypsum board joints.
Increase fastener length by 5 / 8-inch to accommodate the thickness of the gypsum board. Apply
the roof membrane as specified by the manufacturer.
This full roof underlayment method offers a number of advantages over the partial roof
underlayment and ledger strip methods. First, it provides the greatest degree of fire protection.
Second, it is the least complicated of the three methods to install, and finally, it is generally the
most cost-effective of the three methods when labor costs are factored in.
Fig. 50 Full Roof Underlayment Method
SHAFT WALLS
Shaft walls enclose elevator shafts, stairwells, air return systems, and mechanical utilities (which
include plumbing, heating, electrical, cable, and telecommunication lines, among others) in
multi-story buildings. Shaft walls protect occupants exiting burning buildings via the stairs;
likewise, they protect fire fighters entering burning buildings using the elevators. Until the
1960s, shaft walls were typically constructed using masonry or concrete, but the advantages
inherent in gypsum board construction – lighter weight, quick installation, no cure time, fewer
weather restrictions, smaller footprint – have made gypsum board shaft wall systems the
preferred choice for modern multi-story construction.
Gypsum board shaft wall systems vary some in the variety of their designs; however, most
systems share several common elements. Most use specialized steel framing, including E-studs,
C-H studs, C-T studs, I-studs, and J-runners. Most also use 1-inch thick gypsum liner panel as a
component, along with one or more layers of fire-resistance-rated gypsum board, veneer base, or
abuse resistant board.
Shaft walls must meet building code requirements and adhere strictly to specified fire-tested designs. Some shaftwall
systems also allow for assembly from only one side because working from inside the shaft at elevated heights is
extremely dangerous and financially prohibitive. Stairwell systems typically permit installation and finishing on both
sides.
The steps to installing a typical shaftwall system are as follows:
·Install J-runner to floor and ceiling using power-actuated fasteners spaced no more than 24
inches o.c.
·Seal joints with appropriate sealant.
·Measure width of opening and layout in 24-inch increments to ensure that the final panel will
exceed 8 inches in width; adjust layout as necessary.
·Affix an end-piece framing member (e.g. E-stud or J-runner) at one end of opening to top and
bottom J-runners.
·Cut 1-inch liner panel to a length ¾- to 1 inch shorter than the ceiling height and friction-fit into
or screw attach using type-S screws to end-piece framing member.
·Cut C-H or C-T stud to length 3/4- to 1 inch shorter than ceiling height and friction fit into floor
and ceiling channels and over the bare edge of liner panel.
·Repeat until opening is spanned.
·Attach facing panels to face of studs using S-type screws per the design requirements.
Note that shaft wall studs may not be spliced; they must be ordered in lengths greater than or
equal to the floor-to-ceiling height.
Be sure to use an approved and tested shaft wall design, and carefully follow the manufacturer’s
recommendations for the assembly of that system. See examples of shaft wall designs in the
images below.
Fig. 51 View of Shaft Wall Installation
CHASE WALLS
Chase walls consist of two parallel rows of studs. Each row of studs supports one or more layers
of gypsum board on one side – the side facing the adjacent occupied area – only. This creates an
unfaced hollow area between two wall surfaces where plumbing, electrical, HVAC, and other
services run between two spaces. A common use of chase walls occurs where bathrooms sit
back-to-back, so that plumbing, heating, and electrical service reaches two areas from a common
location. The open space between chase walls also reduces the amount of noise that travels from
one occupied space to the next.
A typical steel-framed chase wall installation is as follows:
Attach tracks to concrete slabs with concrete stub nails or power-driven anchors 24 inches o.c.;
attach track to suspended ceilings with toggle bolts or hollow wall anchors 16 inches o.c.
Position steel studs on opposite sides of chase directly across from each other with flanges facing
in the same direction.
· Cut cross-bracing from gypsum board 12 inches high by chase wall width. Attach braces to
webs of parallel studs no more than 48 inches from the floor and spaced 48 inches o.c.
vertically using three 1-inch type S screws per stud.
· Attach facing panels to outside face of studs using Type-S screws per the design requirements.
Fig. 52 Typical Chase Wall Design
AREA SEPARATION FIRE WALLS
Gypsum board area separation fire walls provide efficient and affordable fire protection and
sound attenuation in multifamily construction up to four stories in height and light commercial
construction. These systems only
require standard framing tools and techniques for their assembly. They can be installed under
almost any weather conditions, enabling builders to reduce the number of trades people working
on a jobsite and avoid the time and weather constraints typically associated with alternate
masonry systems that require 28-day curing periods.
Because gypsum board wall systems weigh significantly less than alternate systems, they do not
require large, costly footers and can be erected directly over poured concrete slab foundations.
Moreover, they provide all these benefits while responding directly to contemporary building
code requirements calling for individual townhouse units and similar multifamily dwellings to be
separated by fire-rated construction.
Code Compliance
The model building codes require all fire walls to meet the following design criteria:
·they must be continuous from the foundation to the underside of protected roof sheathing or
continue through the roof to form a parapet, and;
·they must allow for the collapse of the construction on the side of the wall exposed to fire while
remaining intact to protect the structure on its opposite side.
Any wall system used to separate buildings must pass a test conducted by an independent testing
laboratory according to the provisions set forth in ASTM E119, Standard Test Method for Fire
Tests of Building Construction and Materials, or its equivalent to ensure that the system meets
the specified fire-resistance requirements—usually two hours for walls between dwelling units.
As a consequence, builders must assemble individual walls exactly as designed and tested. In
every instance, the components and methods must meet the specifications described in the fire
test report to ensure that the system provides the required fire resistance.
System Types
Gypsum board area separation firewalls are generally available in cavity-type or solid systems.
Cavity-type systems typically incorporate components such as gypsum liner panels and methods
similar to those for steel stud partitions or shaft wall construction to protect stairwells and
elevator shafts. Solid gypsum board walls use three basic components: 1-inch-thick type X
gypsum board liner panels that are 2-feet wide and either 8-, 10-, 12- or 14-feet long; metal
framing members consisting of 2-inch-wide H-studs and U-shaped track; and “breakaway” L-
shaped aluminum clips that soften at relatively low temperatures.
A solid gypsum wall built to resist fire for two hours uses two layers of 1-inch-thick gypsum
liner panel supported by steel framing. The panels stand on end and slide into the bottom of a
steel U-shaped track, which is attached to the foundation or to the top track of a section of wall
on the story below. Steel H studs hold each pair of 1-inch panels together on their vertical edges.
An inverted U-shaped track serves as a cap over the top ends of the panels and the H studs.
Fasteners secure the H studs to the top and bottom tracks. Once a span of wall is completed,
another section is assembled directly over it.
L-shaped aluminum clips connect the wall to the adjacent building’s structural framework. The
clips connect each H stud on both sides with the adjacent floors or roof/ceiling intersections to
keep the fire wall in place between the two structures.
When the aluminum clips reach a temperature exceeding 1,100 degrees F, they break away
between the steel and the wood frameworks and allow the burning structure to fall away while
leaving the fire wall in place. Because the gypsum board panels prevent the heat on the fire side
from reaching the opposite side, the aluminum clips supporting the wall on the non-burning side
remain intact and prevent the fire from spreading. Note that the L clips must appear in the tested
design to ensure that they perform properly during a fire, and must be fastened and installed in
conjunction with system directions.
Proper Installation
To be fully code compliant, gypsum board fire wall systems used in townhouse or multi-family
construction typically must be erected with a minimum set-back from adjacent combustible
(wood) construction. This is usually accomplished by maintaining a gap of approximately ¾ inch
to 1 inch between the outside face of the gypsum liner panels and the adjacent construction. The
codes also generally require the void created by the set-back at the floor level to be in filled with
a noncombustible fireblocking material. This can easily be accomplished by fitting mineral fiber
insulation, scrap pieces of gypsum board liner panel or another code-approved material into the
void. The fireblocking material must also be mechanically attached to the structure’s wood
framing.
If the mandated set-back cannot be achieved, the steel surfaces of the H studs must be covered
with a 6-inch-wide layer of gypsum board batten strips, full sheets of gypsum board or mineral
fiber insulation. Construction details showing gypsum wall intersections with foundations,
intermediate floor junctions, exterior wall intersections, roof junctions and parapets are available
from component manufacturers.
Sound Attenuation
In addition to defining fire-resistance requirements, the model building codes typically require
walls separating townhouse units to maintain a minimum Sound Transmission Class (STC)
rating of 45 to 50 to ensure that proper sound attenuation occurs between individual units.
Gypsum board wall systems must be constructed in accordance with the original sound test if they are to comply with
sound transmission requirements. Any deviation from the requirements of the test report, including the addition of
additional components, may result in unacceptable system performance.
Fig. 53Typical Gypsum Board Area Separation Fire Wall Construction
VENEER PLASTER
Gypsum veneer plaster systems are thin coat, high strength plaster systems that can be quickly
applied over a variety of substrates. These systems simulate in many respects the versatility,
beauty, and durability of conventional plaster systems. Gypsum veneer plaster finishes provide
hard, dense surfaces that are resistant to scuffing, denting, cracking, and abrasion. The variety of
possible veneer plaster finishes ranges from a mirror smooth surface to any type of floated,
swirled, or light texture. Veneer plaster is easily integrally colored with pigments or finished
with any number of decorating products to achieve a broad array of looks.
Advantages
The setting time of veneer plaster materials is generally between 45 and 90 minutes. With
sufficient manpower and favorable environmental conditions, a veneer plaster job can be
completed, from bare studs to decoration, in only 48 to 72 hours.
Gypsum Base for Veneer Plaster
Gypsum base, or “Blue Board,” is a gypsum board substrate specifically designed to support
gypsum veneer plaster. Gypsum base is usually 48 inches wide and available in 8 foot, 10 foot,
and 12 foot lengths. Other lengths are available by special order. Regular base thicknesses are
3/8-inch, ½-inch, and 5/8-inch. Type X special fire-resistant bases are available in ½-inch and
5/8-inch thicknesses.
Gypsum bases vary among manufacturers. Each manufacturer formulates its gypsum base
specifically for the accompanying gypsum veneer finish. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions
carefully to ensure the proper matching of the gypsum base and gypsum veneer plaster.
Installation of gypsum base is very similar to the installation of regular gypsum board; the tools
and techniques used are essentially the same. The main difference in the installation between the
two systems is that the surface of the veneer base is not dimpled at the fasteners when veneer
base is nail-applied. Joint finishing techniques and materials are also different when gypsum base
is installed.
One or Two Component Systems
Gypsum veneer plasters are available in either one or two component systems. Each type is
available pre-mixed in bags, ready to combine with water at the job site. One component systems
provide quick and easy finishing, while two component systems provide improved aesthetics,
especially where indirect lighting conditions exist or high gloss paint is specified. Both trowel-
applied and machine-applied systems are available.
One component systems can be completed in one or two days and decorated after 24 hours under
favorable conditions. Two component systems can be applied over a variety of substrates and
enable the applicator to level out slightly uneven surfaces.
One Component Systems
A one component gypsum veneer plaster system consists of one product ready to be applied as a
thin membrane after the addition of potable water. This system is usually applied using the
“scratch-and-double-back method,” producing a thickness of 1/16 inches to 3/32 inches. The
surface can be trowelled to a highly polished finish or worked to achieve a float, swirl, pucker,
dimple, Spanish, or other finish.
One component systems work best over gypsum base, but they also produce good results over
other bases such as monolithic concrete or masonry block. Skilled applicators use coarser floats
or add more sand for deeper texture
finishes.
Two Component Systems
Two component systems use two different, separately packaged products – the basecoat and the
finish coat. Gypsum basecoat plaster, which is many times stronger than conventional plaster, is
applied directly over the base. The finish coat can be applied as soon as two hours after the base
coat has set or when proper “suction” is achieved. Two component veneer plaster systems work
particularly well over masonry block walls because the trowelled-on base coat permits the
application of a thickness sufficient to level out the surface. The finish coat after the base coat
has set and achieved proper suction. A two component system may be finished to a smooth
finish, a sand texture, or one of many other textures.
Direct Application to Masonry Surfaces
Both one and two component veneer plaster systems provide high quality, durable finishes over a
variety of masonry surfaces, particularly concrete block and monolithic concrete. One
component systems work best over smooth, straight and true masonry surfaces, while two
component veneer plaster systems allow for a modest amount of surface variation. Most masonry
substrates will require some surface preparation and the application of a bonding coat prior to
receiving a veneer plaster finish.
Trowel Application
One Component
Time the application so that an entire wall or ceiling area can be completed from the same mix.
Work to a ceiling angle or corner. If glass fiber tape is used on the joints, bed the tape first. This
will keep the glass fiber tape from wrinkling, promoting uniform takeup and assuring positive
keying of the veneer plaster into the mesh. After the joints have set, plaster the entire room,
starting with the ceilings and then completing the walls. Tightly scratch in and immediately
double back with material from the same mixer batch to a uniform thickness as recommended by
the manufacturer. When the plaster mass has become firm (taken up) trowel the surface to
remove trowel marks, surface imperfections and integrate the surface to a uniform smoothness.
Just before the surface sets, trowel it to a smooth finish using water sparingly. Do not over trowel
or trowel through the set. The set of most veneer plaster can be recognized when it appears to
darken. Always carefully follow the manufacturer’s instructions.
Two Component
Apply the base coat evenly, yet rough and open enough to provide a key and proper suction for
the finish component per ASTM C 843, Standard Specification for Application of Gypsum
Veneer Plaster, or manufacturer’s specifications. Apply the finish coat with trowel or other
finishing method. The finish may be a smooth or textured veneer plaster, lime putty gauging, or
any other finish that can be applied to a conventional base coat plaster.
Machine Spray-Application
There are veneer plasters made specifically for machine spray-application. This application
method requires extreme care and cleanliness. The key concern associated with spraying veneer
plasters is the time of set. Set time is especially critical in machine application because the
machine accelerates the setting process of the plaster. Follow the veneer plaster manufacturer’s
recommendation to select the proper veneer plaster for the machine. Accelerator addition must
be adjusted at the nozzle to obtain no more than one hour (preferably 30 minutes) set time on the
wall. Cleanliness of mixing and spraying equipment is of utmost importance. Veneer plaster
must not be allowed to set up in machines. Plan the work so that the amount of veneer plaster in
a batch can be mixed and sprayed in about half the published setting time. This will allow time to
properly clean the machine between each batch.
Apply veneer plaster spray in two even passes by spraying at right angles between coats; for
example, up and down on the first pass and side to side on the second pass. Allow base to set and
dry sufficiently to provide proper suction for the finish. Hand-apply smooth finish as previously
described. If a spray texture is desired, hand apply finish plaster by scratching in and doubling
back, then spray texturing with the finish plaster to obtain the desired finish once the initial
scratch and double-up application has become firm but has not set. Vary the texture by changing
plaster consistency, adjusting the air pressure, changing the orifice size, or a combination.
Experiment by spraying a piece of scrap gypsum base until the desired texture is achieved; then
spray the whole room in one operation, if possible.
Concrete Blocks – Ensure wall is straight, clean, and free of oil and dirt. Straighten any
irregularities in the blocks by filling with base plaster as needed. Level but avoid smooth
troweling. Leave the final surface rough and open to provide proper bonding of the finish coat.
After set, apply either the smooth or textured finish coat.
Monolithic Concrete – Dense, smooth concrete requires a liquid bonding compound to receive
gypsum veneer plaster. Grind flush all ridges and bumps, and then remove all loose dust. Apply
the recommended bonding agent carefully
following the manufacturer’s instructions. Mix a small batch of base coat gypsum veneer plaster
and spot fill any deep holes and crevices first. Then, apply the base coat of gypsum veneer
plaster; level, but do not smooth. After the base coat has set, apply either smooth, floated, or
textured finish coat.
Fig. 54 Images of Veneer Plaster Application

Section V
Section V – Joint and Fastener Treatment
1. V. JOINT AND FASTENER TREATMENT

2. Joint Treatment Products and Precautions
3. JointTreatment Procedure
4. Texturing
5. Trim and Casings
6. Perimeter Relief
V. JOINT AND FASTENER TREATMENT
After installing and securing the gypsum board with the proper fasteners, one must reinforce and
conceal the joints, fastener heads, and corner beads. Use joint compound and joint tape that
conform to ASTM C 475 “Standard Specifications for Joint Treatment Materials for Gypsum
Wallboard Construction” for this stage of the process. Ensure that all compounds used are
compatible. Do not mix different formulations unless recommended by the joint compound
manufacturer. During the taping and finishing operations, provide adequate and continuous
ventilation to ensure proper setting and drying of the taping and finishing compounds. Use pre-
creased tape the corners of wall and ceiling intersections. Use metal or plastic casing or trim to
conceal exposed edges of the gypsum board.
Fig. 35 – Gypsum Board Walls and Ceilings with Joints Treated to Give Monolithic Appearance
Fig. 36 – Cross Section Showing Layers of Taped Gypsum Wallboard Joint
Fig. 37 – Bedding Compound Being Applied

Fig. 38 – Joint Tape Being Embedded into Compound
Fig. 39 – Joint Topping Applied

Original photo courtesy of AWCI
Fig. 40 – Machine Application of Tape and Compound
Original Photo Courtesy of EZ PRO

Fig. 41 – Spray Applying Texture
Joint Treatment Products and Precautions
Joint tapes work with ready-mixed or dry, powder-type joint compounds to reinforce and finish
the joints between adjacent gypsum boards. Paper tape with metal strips is available to reinforce
exterior corners.
Joint reinforcing compounds are of three general types:
1. A taping or bedding compound used to attach the tape to board
2. A finishing or topping compound used especially for finishing
3. An all-purpose compound to be used for both embedding and finishing.
Most ready-mixed joint compounds contain water-soluble organic thickeners and adhesives or
synthetic resins. These products achieve their strength and adhesion through drying and are
consequently referred to as “drying compounds.” The loss of water inherent in drying
compounds results in shrinkage, which necessitates several thin applications of the compound.
Each application must dry thoroughly before the next application is started to ensure the desired
result. Synthetic resin compounds such as “vinyls” will keep longer than the organic water-
soluble types. Ready-mixed joint compounds come in two consistencies: one for hand
application and the other for machine application.
Another family of joint compounds achieves strength by setting and is referred to as “setting
type” joint compounds. These products are dry powders that must be mixed with water. To meet
varying job requirements, setting type joint compounds come in a wide choice of setting times.
The set may occur within 5 minutes or take as long as several hours. Setting compounds are
formulated with specific setting-time ranges and must be used within those prescribed time
limits. (Additional coats are possible before complete drying takes place.) A common practice is
to use setting compounds for embedding the tape and “non-setting, or drying,” types for the
finishing operation.
Do not allow ready-mixed compounds to freeze. Do not begin taping and finishing operations
until the interior temperature has been maintained at a minimum of 50 degrees F for a period of
at least 48 hours. Maintain the minimum interior temperature until the compounds have
completely dried. Note: Kerosene and propane heaters emit unacceptably high levels of moisture
for the proper drying of non-setting type joint compounds. Avoid using any heater that burns
petroleum products or gas to achieve the minimum interior temperature while working with non-
setting type joint compounds.
Avoid contaminating containers or tools used for different types of joint compounds when
mixing or storing. Even a small quantity of one type of joint compound in the seam of a mixing
pail or inside a pump or on a tool can adversely affect the adhesive properties of a full mixture of
another type of compound. All equipment must be clean: disassemble and clean all tools after
each use.
Always wear an approved protective respirator when mixing powder or sanding dry compound.
Always mix materials per the manufacturer’s directions.
Joint Treatment Procedure
Pre-fill any gaps between gypsum boards that exceed 1/4-inch with setting-type compound prior
to commencing the taping process.
Fill the depression formed by the tapered edges where gypsum boards join with taping or all-
purpose joint compound. Do not use topping or finishing compound for embedding tape. Wipe
off excess compound that is applied beyond the groove. Center reinforcing tape and press it
down into the joint compound with a 4 -inch broad knife or smooth-edged trowel. Draw knife
along joint with sufficient pressure to remove excess compound above, below, and along edges
of the tape. Leave sufficient compound under tape for a proper bond but not more than 1/32 -inch
under the feathered edge of the tape. Take care to leave a thin coat of joint compound over the
embedded tape, as it reduces edge wrinkling or curling and makes the tape easier to conceal with
following coats. (The initial tape embedding can also be done with a semi-automatic tool that
applies the joint compound and tape simultaneously.) Allow the compound to dry completely.
Drying can take 24 hours or more, depending on temperature and humidity.
compound feathered about two inches beyond edges of the first coat. Spot fastener heads and
allow to dry.
Feather edges to at least 6 inches on each side of the joint. The final step prior to decoration is to
lightly sand the joints in order to eliminate laps where joints intersect and in general to smooth
as the scuffed areas may be visible after the decoration. Back-fill all cut-outs with compound
used for taping or finishing so that there is no opening larger than 1/8 -inch between the gypsum
board and a fixture or receptor.
At joints where there are no tapered edges, such as where two horizontal square-cut edges meet
together, additional care is necessary to make the joint look as monolithic as possible and create
the “illusion” of
smoothness. Fill the area where the boards meet with taping or all-purpose joint compound. (Do
not use topping or finishing compound for embedding the tape.) Center the reinforcing tape and
press it down into the joint compound with a 6-inch broad knife or smooth-edged trowel. Draw
knife along joint with sufficient pressure to remove excess compound above, below, and along
edges of the tape. Leave sufficient compound under tape for a proper bond but not more than
1/32 -inch under the feathered edge of the tape. Take care to leave a thin coat of joint compound
over the embedded tape, as it reduces edge wrinkling or curling and makes the tape easier to
conceal with following coats. (The initial tape embedding can also be done with a semi-
automatic tool that applies the joint compound and tape simultaneously.) Allow the compound to
dry completely. Drying can take 24 hours or more, depending on temperature and humidity.
compound over the tape with a 10-inch knife or trowel. Apply two wider stripes of compound
along the side of the tape to create a significantly wider joint. Feather edges to approximately 18
– 24 inches.
Feather edges to at least 12 inches on each side of the joint. The final step prior to decoration is
to lightly sand the joints in order to eliminate laps where joints intersect and in general to smooth
as the scuffed areas may be visible after the decoration.
While joints are being finished, fastener heads should also be spotted with compound. Apply
compound with a 4-inch knife to fill depressions created when fasteners were set slightly below
the board surface.
Texturing
Decorators and design professionals routinely specify texture finishes for gypsum board surfaces.
There are many choices of commercially available texture finishes compatible with gypsum
board, ranging from light stipples to heavy swirls or simulated acoustical finishes. These finishes
are typically machine applied; however, certain finishes can be brush-and-roller applied, while
others require specialized hand tools. In all cases, such finishes perform best when applied over a
sealed or primed gypsum board surface. Always prime or seal bare gypsum board surfaces with a
product recommended by the manufacturer of the specified texture product. Unless specifically
recommended, do not use stain-blocking, fast-dry primers directly under texture products, as
those primer products generally lack sufficient profile and absorption properties to properly bond
with the finish
product.
Texture finishes are not generally considered final finished surfaces. They must be over-painted
when thoroughly dry with a primer or finish paint applied according to manufacturers
recommendations.
Trim and Casings
Figure 42 illustrates some of the more common sections used around doors, windows, and other
openings. They are also used when gypsum board is butted against a different surfacing material.
Fig. 42 – Examples of Corner Bead, Trim, and Casings
Perimeter Relief
Detailed designs for perimeter relief of nonbearing partitions are available to improve this
condition (Fig. 43). The use of relief runners to attach nonbearing walls to ceiling and column
members is effective in the prevention of cracking due to structural movement.
Fig. 43 – Examples of Perimeter Relief Assemblies
Fig. 44 – Details of Control Joints
Section VI
Section VI – Decorating
1. VI. DECORATING
2. For Glossy Paints
3. For Severe Lighting Conditions
VI. DECORATING
Re-inspect gypsum board finishes prior to decorating, particularly at joints and fasteners. Repair
and sand any imperfections as necessary. Make certain joint compound is thoroughly dry before
applying any decorating products.
Gypsum board surfaces are suitable for decorating with paint, paper, textures, fabric, or vinyl
wall coverings. Always use a high quality latex primer/sealer, preferably one recommended by
the manufacturer of the finish product, prior to decoration. Using a good quality primer helps
minimize color and surface variations and provides a more uniform profile for any surface
covering. A good quality sealer allows wall coverings to be removed more easily without
marring the face paper of the gypsum board. Glue-size, shellac and varnish are not suitable as
sealers or primers on gypsum board surfaces because their use may result in damage to the
gypsum board face paper during removal of a wall covering. Paints may be spray, brush, or roller
applied. The final coat can be textured if desired.
NOTE: Follow the sprayer and paint product manufacturers’ recommendations for proper spray
tip, application, or other instructions before applying paint with an airless sprayer. Back-rolling
spray-applied materials may be necessary for best results.
For Glossy Paints
Remove and repair all surface irregularities and sand or sponge the joint treatment surfaces as
necessary. Apply a thin skim coat of joint compound or a material manufactured especially for
this purpose to the entire surface of the board. This will minimize any suction, porosity, or other
variations between the joint compound and the face paper surfaces. Take care to eliminate laps or
tool marks during the skim coating operation. Lightly sand or sponge wall or ceiling surfaces
wherever necessary to ensure a smooth and even surface. Apply a high quality latex
primer/sealer compatible with the finish product prior to decoration. For additional information, see
GA-214, Recommended Levels of Gypsum Board Finish.
For Severe Lighting Conditions
Apply a skim coat joint compound to wall or ceiling surfaces that will be subjected to severe
natural or artificial side-lighting. Apply a thin skim coat of joint compound or a material manufactured
especially for this purpose to the entire surface of the board. Apply a high quality latex primer/sealer compatible with
the finish product prior to decoration. For additional information, see GA-214, Recommended Levels of
Gypsum Board Finish.

Section VII
Section VII – Special Construction
1. VII. SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION

2. SOUND ISOLATION CONSTRUCTION
3. Separated Partitions
4. Resilient Mounting
5. Sound Isolating Materials
6. Rigid Plastic Foam Insulation
7. General Procedures
8. Mechanical Application
9. Tiled Areas
10. Tile Backer
11. Preparation
12. Application of Tile
13. Gypsum Sheathing
14. Uses
15. Fire Protection
16. Code Compliance
17. Weather Protection
18. Application of Gypsum Sheathing
19. General Provisions
20. Fasteners
21. Framing Members
22. Water-Resistive Barriers
23. Delivery, Identification, Handling, and Storage
24. Methods of Cutting and Installation
25. Soffits
26. Exterior Soffit and Ceiling Construction
27. Gypsum Board as a Fire Resistant Roofing Underlayment
28. Purpose
29. Methods of Installing Gypsum Roof Underlayment
30. Ledger Strip Method
31. Partial Roof Underlayment
32. Full Roof Underlayment
33. Shaft Walls
34. Chase Walls
35. Area Separation Firewalls
36. Code Compliance
37. System Types
38. Proper Installation
39. Sound Attenuation
40. Veneer Plaster
41. Advantages
42. Gypsum Base for Veneer Plaster
43. One or Two Component Systems
44. One Component Systems
45. Two Component Systems
47. Trowel Application
48. Machine Spray-Application
VII. SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION
Most special building systems designed to improve sound isolation, fire resistance, moisture
resistance, or thermal condition depend on gypsum board assemblies built to specifications
proven to provide higher performance than standard systems typically provide. Items specified
that help achieve higher performance include framing techniques, positioning of boards, spacing
and selection of fasteners, caulking, and taping and finishing of joints. To ensure the desired
performance from a gypsum board system, always closely follow the manufacturer’s installation
specifications.
SOUND ISOLATION CONSTRUCTION
The first essential for attaining airborne sound isolation of any assembly is to close off air leaks
and flanking paths – routes by which sound can escape from one area to another. Because sound
can travel over, under, or around walls, through windows and doors adjacent to them, through air
ducts and through floors and crawlspaces below, these flanking paths must be correctly treated to
reduce the transmission of sound. Hairline cracks and small holes permit the transmission of
sound that can reduce the acoustical performance of an assembly, adversely affecting the Sound
Transmission Class (STC), particularly in higher rated assemblies. Failure to properly follow
special construction and design details can ruin the effectiveness of the best assembly.
To improve sound isolation:
·Separate framing of the two sides of the wall.
·Mount gypsum board on resilient channels.
·Install sound absorbing materials in the wall cavity.
·Use adhesively applied gypsum board of varying thicknesses in multi-layer construction.
·Caulk the perimeters of gypsum board partitions, openings in walls and ceilings, partition-
mullion, intersections, outlet box openings, etc.
·Locate recessed wall fixtures in different stud cavities. (Avoid installing medicine cabinets,
electrical, telephone, television and inter-com outlets, plumbing, heating and air conditioning
ducts back to back.)
·Carefully cut to proper size and caulk any opening for fixtures, piping and electrical outlets.
·Caulk the entire perimeter of sound insulating partitions around gypsum board edges to make
them airtight – see Figure 52.
·Caulk with non-hardening, non-shrinking, non-bleeding, non-staining, resilient sealant.
·Ensure that sound control sealing is covered in the specifications, understood by the workmen
of all related trades, supervised by the foreman, and inspected carefully as construction
progresses.
Separated Partitions
A staggered wood stud gypsum board partition placed on separate plates will effectively
decouple the system and provide an STC of 40-42. The addition of a sound absorbing material
between the studs of one partition side can increase the STC as much as 8. Attach kitchen
cabinets, lavatories, ceramic tile, medicine cabinets and other fixtures to a staggered stud wall or
a metal stud chase wall rather than a resiliently mounted wall. The added weight and fastenings
of these items will acoustically “short circuit” a resiliently mounted wall.
Resilient Mounting
Resilient attachments, acting as “shock absorbers,” reduce the passage of sound through the wall
or ceiling and increase the STC rating. To achieve higher STC ratings, it is necessary to use more
complex construction methods,
such as separated partitions, multiple layers of gypsum board, and sound absorbing materials.
Walls
Attach resilient furring channels with the nailing flange down (open edge facing up) and at right
angles to the wood studs (Fig. 46c). Drive 1-1/4 -inch type W or S screws or 6d coated nails
through the pre-punched holes in channel flange. Use 7/8-inch or 1-in Type S screws with
extremely hard lumber. Locate channels 24 inch from the floor, within 6 inch of the ceiling line
and no more than 24 inch o.c. Extend channels into all corners and fasten to corner framing.
Attach a resilient channel or ½ -inch by 3 inch wide continuous gypsum board filler strips to the
bottom plate at floor line. Splice channels directly over studs by overlapping ends and fastening
both flanges to the support.
Apply gypsum board horizontally with long dimension parallel to channels using 1 -inch Type S
screws spaced 12 inch o.c. along channels. Center abutting edges of board over channel flange
and securely fasten. Using a long fastener that contacts framing members will defeat the purpose
of the resilient channels, which is to isolate the gypsum board from the framing.
Ceilings
Attach resilient furring channels at right angles to wood joists in ceilings using 1-1/4 inch Type
W or Type S screws or 6d coated nails 1-7/8 -inch long (screws preferred). Locate channels
within 6 inch of the wall-ceiling intersection and no more than 24 inch o.c. for joists spaced 24
inch o.c. maximum. Extend the channel into all corners and fasten to corner framing. Splice
channels under joists by nesting channels and screwing through both flanges into the supporting
framing member. Attach the gypsum board with Type S screws placed 12 inch o.c. in the field
and along abutting ends. Apply the long dimension of the board at right angles to the channels
with end joints neatly fitted and staggered in alternate rows. Use pieces of resilient channel for
back blocking butt joints not falling on furring members.
Fig. 45 – Designs for Sound Isolating Assemblies
Sound Isolating Materials
·Mineral or glass fiber blankets and batts for in metal and wood stud assemblies.
·Mineral (including glass) fiberboard.
·Gypsum core sound insulating board used behind gypsum board applied adhesively or
mechanically fastened.
·Rigid plastic foam board used in exterior wall furring systems.
·Lead or other special shielding material.
Install mineral wool or glass fiber insulating batts and blankets in assembly cavities to absorb
air-borne sound within the cavity. Place batts in cavities and carefully fit behind electrical
outlets, around blocking and fixtures and around cutouts necessary for plumbing lines.
Some insulating batts and blankets have paper facings or other vapor barriers and flanges. Others
have no facings and flanges. Install batts by friction fitting the batts inside the stud cavities. To
ensure good board-to-stud contact, avoid stapling or fastening the flanges to stud faces. In metal
framed and in laminated gypsum board partitions, attach the blankets to the back of the gypsum
board. Install batts and blankets without facings by friction-fitting within the stud space.
Fig. 46a–46d – Details of STC Rated Assemblies
RIGID PLASTIC FOAM INSULATION
General Procedures
Gypsum board may be applied over rigid plastic foam insulation on the interior side of exterior masonry and concrete
walls to provide a finished wall and protect the insulation from early exposure to fire originating within the building.
These systems provide high insulation values needed for energy conservation. Gypsum board applied over rigid
plastic foam insulation in the manner described in this section may not necessarily provide finish ratings required by
local building codes. Many building codes require a minimum fire protection for rigid foam on interior surfaces equal
to that provided by ½-inch gypsum board. Review manufacturer’s literature when working with these materials as
flammability characteristics of rigid foam insulation products
vary widely.
Mechanical Application
When protecting rigid foam insulation with gypsum board, cover the entire insulated wall
surface, including the surface above ceilings and in closed, unoccupied spaces. Screw attach
single or double-ply, 1/2 -inch or 5/8 -inch thick gypsum wallboard to steel wall-furring
members attached to the masonry per the insulation manufacturer’s directions, or attach gypsum
board with nails or screws driven directly into wood framing.
Choose furring members designed to minimize thermal transfer through the member and to
provide a 1-1/2 -inch minimum width face or flange for screw application of the gypsum board.
Install furring members vertically, spaced 24 inches o.c. Provide blocking or other backing as
required for attachment and support of fixtures and furnishing. Attach furring members at floor-
wall and wall-ceiling angles (or at the termination of gypsum board above suspended ceilings),
and around door, window and other openings.
Apply single-ply gypsum boards vertically with the long edges of the board located over furring
members. Place gypsum boards so that end joints are avoided. Take care that fastener spacing
meets requirements for single-ply application over framing or furring.
Attach base ply of double-ply applications vertically over framing. Attach face ply either
vertically or horizontally. Offset edge joints of vertically-applied face ply and end joints of
horizontally applied face ply at least one furring member space from base ply edge joints. Use
fastener spacing for two-ply application over framing or furring (see Table V in Section IV).
Use mechanical fasteners of such length that they do not penetrate completely to the masonry or
concrete. In single layer application, reinforce all joints between gypsum boards with tape and
finish with joint compound. In two-ply application, the base layer joints may be concealed or left
exposed.
TILED AREAS
Tile Backer
Water-resistant gypsum backing board, commonly called “green board” because of the color of
its face paper, is specially designed and formulated to serve as a base for ceramic and similar tile.
The core, face paper, and back paper are formulated and manufactured to resist the effects of
moisture and humidity. Water-resistant gypsum backing board contains additives in its core that
provide water resistance and its face and back paper are treated to limit water absorption;
however, water resistant gypsum backing board is NOT WATER-PROOF. Consequently, water
resistant gypsum backing board is not suited for use in areas with direct exposure to running
water or high humidity, but it is very well suited as a tile backer in areas directly adjacent to wet
areas or areas of high humidity.
Model building code requirements typically prohibit the use of gypsum board as a tile or panel
backing material for tub and shower enclosures. In non-wet areas, water resistant gypsum
backing board or regular gypsum board (ASTM C 1396) may be used as a base for application of
ceramic or plastic wall tile or plastic finished wall panels. Do not use gypsum board in extremely
critical exposure areas such as hot tubs, swimming pools, saunas, steam rooms, or gang shower
rooms. Do not use water resistant gypsum backing board on ceilings without installing additional
framing; do not exceed spacing of framing members beyond 12 inches o.c. with 1/2 –inch-thick
board and 16 inches o.c. with 5/8-inch-thick board.
Back to Top
Preparation
Before beginning the application of water-resistant gypsum backing board to walls or partitions,
inspect the framing for proper spacing and alignment. Space framing no more than 24 inches o.c.
and reinforce all interior angles with framing to provide rigid corners. Install shims or furring as
needed to align fixtures flush with the face of the gypsum board.
Where framing is spaced more than 16 inches o.c., or where ceramic tile is more than 5/16-inch
thick, install blocking between the studs. Regardless of framing spacing, install suitable
blocking, headers, or supports for plumbing fixtures. Take care that plumbing fixtures are
properly installed, securely attached, and adequately supported.
Application of Tile
Follow American National Standard Specifications for Installation of Ceramic Tile With Water
Resistant Organic Adhesives, ANSI A 108.4., for ceramic wall tile application to gypsum board.
Use an adhesive that meets the specifications of the American National Standard for Organic
Adhesives for Installation of Ceramic tile, ANSI A 136.1, Type I.
Gypsum board joints, including those at all angle intersections that are under areas to receive tile
or wall panels, must be treated with joint treatment and tape.
Caulk the cut edges and openings around pipes and fixtures flush with the surface using a
flexible sealant caulking compound or adhesive complying with the American National Standard
for Organic Adhesives for Installation of Ceramic Tile, Type I (ANSI A 136.1). Always follow
the directions of the manufacturer of the tile, wall panel, or other surfacing material.
GYPSUM SHEATHING
Gypsum sheathing is a versatile, economical, water-resistive sheathing consisting of a water-

resistive gypsum core and water-resistive paper or other facing. It serves as a substrate under
exterior wall claddings. Gypsum sheathing is designed to be mechanically attached to the outside
surface of exterior wall framing spaced up to 24 inches o.c. using either nails, screws, or staples.
Gypsum sheathing is available in a wide range of lengths to meet the demanding needs of the
construction industry. Easily sized, cut, and installed, gypsum sheathing is the sheathing of
choice wherever fire resistance ratings or noncombustible materials are required.
Uses
Gypsum sheathing is suitable for use with virtually all exterior wall claddings, including wood
siding and shingles, panel siding, vinyl or metal siding, masonry or brick veneer, Portland
cement stucco, and Exterior Insulation and Finish Systems
Fire Protection
The natural noncombustible core of gypsum sheathing protects the framing from the hazards of
fires occurring outside the building, even when covered by combustible siding. When exposed to
high temperatures, chemically combined water in the gypsum is gradually released, providing
protection until all of its combined water is completely driven off. In addition to its fire
resistance properties, gypsum sheathing has a low flame-spread rating of less than 25.
Code Compliance
Gypsum sheathing complies with building code requirements for use as structural sheathing in
frame construction. Consult the local building code for specific details of construction and
permissible shear values.
Application of Gypsum Sheathing
General Provisions
Do not apply gypsum sheathing to ceilings, soffits or sills unless otherwise recommended by the
manufacturer.
Ensure that all wood framing members to which gypsum sheathing will be fastened are straight
and true. Do not exceed stud spacing greater than 24 inches o.c. Ensure that the fastening surface
is no less than 1-1/2 -inches wide and does not vary more than 1/8 -inch from the plane of the
faces of adjacent framing.
Ensure that all steel framing members to which gypsum sheathing will be screw-attached are
straight and true and are spaced no more than 24 inches o.c. Ensure that steel studs meet the
design thickness required and are finished with a protective coating to prevent corrosion. Ensure
that the fastening surface to which gypsum sheathing will be attached is no less than 1-1/4 -
inches wide.
Ensure that gypsum sheathing used in building construction is more than 8 inches from the
finished grade in fully weather and water-protected siding systems, and more than 12 inches
from the ground for properly drained and ventilated crawl spaces. Where ground moisture or
humidity are extreme and/or continuous, cover the ground’s surface with a vapor retarder.
Fasteners
Nails – Use minimum 12 gauge, galvanized, roofing nails.
Staples – Use staples made of galvanized steel, minimum 16 gauge, with 7/16 -inch crowns, and
with divergent points.
Screws – Use screws that meet ASTM C 1002, Standard Specification for Steel Self-Piercing
Tapping Screws for the Application of Gypsum Panel Products or Metal Plaster Bases to Wood
Studs or Steel Studs. Use Type W screws for fastening to wood framing. Use Type S screws for
fastening to light gage steel framing or wood framing. When attaching gypsum sheathing to
heavier gauge steel framing, use screws that meet ASTM C 954, Standard Specification for Steel
Drill Screws for the Application of Gypsum Panel Products or Metal Plaster Bases to Steel Studs
from 0.033 -inch to 0.112 -inch in Thickness.
Framing Members
Ensure that wood framing members conform to American Softwood Lumber Standard, Voluntary
Product Standard PS 20. Ensure that steel framing members conform to ASTM C 645, Standard
Specification for Nonstructural Steel Framing Members (light gage), or ASTM C 955, Standard
Specification for Load-Bearing (Transverse and Axial) Steel Studs, Runners (Tracks), and
Bracing or Bridging for Screw Application of Gypsum Panel Products and Metal Plaster Bases
(not less than 0.033 -inch thick). For more on this topic, see Section XI.
Delivery, Identification, Handling, and Storage
Confirm that all materials are delivered in original packages, containers or bundles bearing brand
name, applicable standard designation, and name of manufacturer or supplier for whom product
is manufactured.
Take care that gypsum sheathing and accessories are properly supported on risers on a level
platform and are fully protected from weather, direct sunlight exposure, and condensation.
Neatly stack gypsum sheathing flat and in such a manner that prevents sagging or damage to
edges, ends and surfaces. Refer to GA-801, Handling Gypsum Panel Products, at
http://www.gypsum.org/pdf/GA-801-07.pdf, for proper storage and handling requirements.
Methods of Cutting and Installation
Cut gypsum sheathing by scoring and snapping or by sawing, working from the face-paper side.
When scoring, use a sharp knife to cut through the face paper into the gypsum core. Then snap
the gypsum sheathing back away from the cut face. Break the back paper by snapping the
gypsum sheathing in the reverse direction, or preferably by cutting the back paper. Neatly trim
all cut edges and ends of gypsum sheathing to obtain neatly fitting joints once the sheathing is
installed. Cut out holes for pipes, fixtures or other small openings with a saw or special tool
designed for the use. Neatly scribe and cut gypsum sheathing where it meets projecting surfaces.
When a mechanically attached water-resistive barrier is required, attach the water-resistive

barrier over the face of the gypsum sheathing and to the framing, with the upper layer lapped
over the lower layer as set forth in the
code.
Take care to properly flash gypsum sheathing at openings, and locate sheathing so that no joint
will align with an edge of an opening. Stagger all joints.
Protect holes and cutouts for pipes or fixtures, or other small openings with flashing or caulking.
Do not exceed spacing of 24 inches o.c. for framing members.
Install control joints in walls wherever specified.

Where shear values are not required, gypsum sheathing 48 inches wide may be applied parallel
or perpendicular to framing with vertical joints over framing members and with gypsum
sheathing fitted snugly around all window and door openings.
Cover square-edge gypsum sheathing applied with its bound edge perpendicular to the framing
with a water-resistive barrier or seal horizontal joints.
Install Tongue & Groove (V-edge) gypsum sheathing perpendicularly to framing members, with
grooved edges down, interlocking the tongue of the panel below without forcing. Abut ends of
panels over centers of framing members and stagger all end joints between adjacent courses. Fit
gypsum sheathing snugly around all window and door openings.
When shear values are not required, space fasteners no more than 8 inches o.c. along vertical
ends or edges and intermediate supports. When wall bracing or wall shear values are being
assigned to the installed gypsum sheathing, space fasteners as specified by the gypsum sheathing
manufacturer.
Space fasteners no less than 3/8 -inch from the ends and edges of the gypsum sheathing.
Drive nails so that the heads are at or slightly below the surface of the gypsum sheathing. Take
care to avoid damaging the face and core.
Drive screws so that the screw heads are at or slightly below the gypsum sheathing surface paper
without breaking the surface paper or stripping the framing member around the screw shank.
Drive staples with crowns parallel to framing members and in such a manner that the crowns
bear down tightly against the gypsum sheathing without cutting into
the face paper.
SOFFITS
Exterior Soffit and Ceiling Construction
Exterior gypsum soffit board and gypsum wallboard are suitable for commercial use as ceilings
for covered walkways and malls, large canopies and parking areas, and for residential use in
open porches, breezeways, carports and exterior soffits. These areas must be horizontal or
sloping downward away from the building.
Space framing no more than 16 inches o.c. for ½ – inch thick gypsum board, nor more than 24
inches o.c. for 5/8 – inch thick board. Use an application method identical to that for interior
ceilings. Treat joints and fastener heads with setting-type joint compound. Provide suitable
fascias and moldings around the perimeter to protect the board from direct exposure to water.
Unless protected by metal or other water stops, do not place the edges of the board less than 1/4-
inch away from abutting vertical surfaces (Fig. 47).
Fig 47a
Fig 47b
Fig 47c
Fig 47d
Fig. 47 (a, b, c, & d) – Protect gypsum board from wetting in outdoor locations with drip edges
at facia boards. Separate gypsum board edges from dampness by metal trim or by a 1/4 inch
space. Spaces enclosed by gypsum board must be adequately vented.
Fig. 47 – Details Showing Proper Installation of Soffit Board
Seal the exposed surfaces of the gypsum board and metal trim with a premium exterior primer
and two coats of exterior paint. Vent attic spaces to the outside where the area above opens to an
attic space over habitable rooms. Install vents at the end of each joist space where the gypsum
board is applied directly to joists or rafters. Ensure that vents are screened, are a minimum 2
inches wide, and span the full width between the joists. Locate vents 6 inches from the outer
edge of eaves.
GYPSUM BOARD AS A FIRE RESISTANT ROOFING UNDERLAYMENT
Purpose
A minimum 5/8-inch thick layer of Type X gypsum board added to a roof structure will help stop
fire from burning down into a building. It will also help prevent the lateral spread of flame under
the roof surface.
Be sure to provide adequate ventilation in attic areas to control moisture and reduce temperature.
Careful attention to design is critical to ensure proper
air flow to all areas.
Methods of Installing Gypsum Roof Underlayment

The Gypsum Association has developed the following three recommended methods of
installation. Although the model codes permit any of these three alternates to parapet
construction, individual code provisions may vary. Consult local code authority for provisions
specific to your jurisdiction.
The three methods of applying gypsum board as a roofing underlayment, in order of preference,
are described below.
Ledger Strip Method
Attach nominal 2-inch x 2-inch ledger strips to form continuous supports along the sides of the
roof framing so that the upper surface of 5/8-inch gypsum board will be flush with the top of the
trusses or rafters. Use at least 1¼-inch-long fasteners spaced a maximum of 48 inches o.c. to
attach strips to roof framing. Cut the gypsum board to fit snugly between the roof framing
members and lay it in place. Take care to ensure that gypsum board end joints spanning between
framing members fit snuggly.
Fig. 48 Ledger Strip Roof Underlayment Installation Method
Partial Roof Underlayment
Install 5/8-inch type X gypsum board under the combustible roof sheathing on both sides of the
party wall for not less than the minimum distance required by the code. Apply the gypsum board
on top of roof framing, with the paper-bound edge perpendicular to the framing, prior to the
installation of combustible roof sheathing. Locate all gypsum board ends on the roof framing
members. Nail the gypsum board to each framing member with at least two minimum 4d
common nails, or 1-3/8-inch gypsum wallboard nails. Butt end joints loosely; fit edge joints
snugly together without forcing. End and edge joints need not be taped.
Protect gypsum board against exposure to inclement weather during installation and until the
roof membrane installation is complete. Shim all remaining trusses and rafters as necessary to
provide a straight and uniform base for the attachment of the combustible roof sheathing. Attach
roof sheathing through the gypsum board to the roof framing with sheathing joints offset from
the gypsum board joints. Increase fastener length by 5/8-inch to accommodate the thickness of
the gypsum board and shims. Apply the roof membrane as specified by the manufacturer.
This second method offers easy attachment of the gypsum board to the roof framing, compared to the ledger
strip method. It does however require shimming the roof framing that is not protected with the
gypsum board. As an alternate to shimming, two different sizes of rafters or trusses may be used.
In typical multi-family housing where individual units are relatively narrow, it is generally more
economical to cover the entire roof.
Fig. 49 Partial Roof Underlayment Installation Method
Full Roof Underlayment
Install 5 / 8 -inch type X gypsum board over the entire roof area. Apply the gypsum board
perpendicular to and on top of roof trusses or rafters prior to the installation of combustible roof
sheathing. Locate gypsum board end joints over and the roof framing. Nail the gypsum board to
each framing member with two minimum 4d common nails, or 1-3 / 8-inch nails complying with
ASTM C 514, Standard Specification for Nails for the Application of Gypsum Board. Butt end
joints loosely; fit edge joints snugly together without forcing. End and edge joints need not be
taped. Protect gypsum board against exposure to inclement weather during installation and until
the roof membrane installation is complete. Attach combustible roof sheathing through the
gypsum board to the roof framing with sheathing joints offset from the gypsum board joints.
Increase fastener length by 5 / 8-inch to accommodate the thickness of the gypsum board. Apply
the roof membrane as specified by the manufacturer.
This full roof underlayment method offers a number of advantages over the partial roof
underlayment and ledger strip methods. First, it provides the greatest degree of fire protection.
Second, it is the least complicated of the three methods to install, and finally, it is generally the
most cost-effective of the three methods when labor costs are factored in.
Fig. 50 Full Roof Underlayment Method
SHAFT WALLS
Shaft walls enclose elevator shafts, stairwells, air return systems, and mechanical utilities (which
include plumbing, heating, electrical, cable, and telecommunication lines, among others) in
multi-story buildings. Shaft walls protect occupants exiting burning buildings via the stairs;
likewise, they protect fire fighters entering burning buildings using the elevators. Until the
1960s, shaft walls were typically constructed using masonry or concrete, but the advantages
inherent in gypsum board construction – lighter weight, quick installation, no cure time, fewer
weather restrictions, smaller footprint – have made gypsum board shaft wall systems the
preferred choice for modern multi-story construction.
Gypsum board shaft wall systems vary some in the variety of their designs; however, most
systems share several common elements. Most use specialized steel framing, including E-studs,
C-H studs, C-T studs, I-studs, and J-runners. Most also use 1-inch thick gypsum liner panel as a
component, along with one or more layers of fire-resistance-rated gypsum board, veneer base, or
abuse resistant board.
Shaft walls must meet building code requirements and adhere strictly to specified fire-tested designs. Some shaftwall
systems also allow for assembly from only one side because working from inside the shaft at elevated heights is
extremely dangerous and financially prohibitive. Stairwell systems typically permit installation and finishing on both
sides.
The steps to installing a typical shaftwall system are as follows:
·Install J-runner to floor and ceiling using power-actuated fasteners spaced no more than 24
inches o.c.
·Seal joints with appropriate sealant.
·Measure width of opening and layout in 24-inch increments to ensure that the final panel will
exceed 8 inches in width; adjust layout as necessary.
·Affix an end-piece framing member (e.g. E-stud or J-runner) at one end of opening to top and
bottom J-runners.
·Cut 1-inch liner panel to a length ¾- to 1 inch shorter than the ceiling height and friction-fit into
or screw attach using type-S screws to end-piece framing member.
·Cut C-H or C-T stud to length 3/4- to 1 inch shorter than ceiling height and friction fit into floor
and ceiling channels and over the bare edge of liner panel.
·Repeat until opening is spanned.
·Attach facing panels to face of studs using S-type screws per the design requirements.
Note that shaft wall studs may not be spliced; they must be ordered in lengths greater than or
equal to the floor-to-ceiling height.
Be sure to use an approved and tested shaft wall design, and carefully follow the manufacturer’s
recommendations for the assembly of that system. See examples of shaft wall designs in the
images below.
Fig. 51 View of Shaft Wall Installation
CHASE WALLS
Chase walls consist of two parallel rows of studs. Each row of studs supports one or more layers
of gypsum board on one side – the side facing the adjacent occupied area – only. This creates an
unfaced hollow area between two wall surfaces where plumbing, electrical, HVAC, and other
services run between two spaces. A common use of chase walls occurs where bathrooms sit
back-to-back, so that plumbing, heating, and electrical service reaches two areas from a common
location. The open space between chase walls also reduces the amount of noise that travels from
one occupied space to the next.
A typical steel-framed chase wall installation is as follows:
Attach tracks to concrete slabs with concrete stub nails or power-driven anchors 24 inches o.c.;
attach track to suspended ceilings with toggle bolts or hollow wall anchors 16 inches o.c.
Position steel studs on opposite sides of chase directly across from each other with flanges facing
in the same direction.
· Cut cross-bracing from gypsum board 12 inches high by chase wall width. Attach braces to
webs of parallel studs no more than 48 inches from the floor and spaced 48 inches o.c.
vertically using three 1-inch type S screws per stud.
· Attach facing panels to outside face of studs using Type-S screws per the design requirements.
Fig. 52 Typical Chase Wall Design
AREA SEPARATION FIRE WALLS
Gypsum board area separation fire walls provide efficient and affordable fire protection and
sound attenuation in multifamily construction up to four stories in height and light commercial
construction. These systems only
require standard framing tools and techniques for their assembly. They can be installed under
almost any weather conditions, enabling builders to reduce the number of trades people working
on a jobsite and avoid the time and weather constraints typically associated with alternate
masonry systems that require 28-day curing periods.
Because gypsum board wall systems weigh significantly less than alternate systems, they do not
require large, costly footers and can be erected directly over poured concrete slab foundations.
Moreover, they provide all these benefits while responding directly to contemporary building
code requirements calling for individual townhouse units and similar multifamily dwellings to be
separated by fire-rated construction.
Code Compliance
The model building codes require all fire walls to meet the following design criteria:
·they must be continuous from the foundation to the underside of protected roof sheathing or
continue through the roof to form a parapet, and;
·they must allow for the collapse of the construction on the side of the wall exposed to fire while
remaining intact to protect the structure on its opposite side.
Any wall system used to separate buildings must pass a test conducted by an independent testing
laboratory according to the provisions set forth in ASTM E119, Standard Test Method for Fire
Tests of Building Construction and Materials, or its equivalent to ensure that the system meets
the specified fire-resistance requirements—usually two hours for walls between dwelling units.
As a consequence, builders must assemble individual walls exactly as designed and tested. In
every instance, the components and methods must meet the specifications described in the fire
test report to ensure that the system provides the required fire resistance.
System Types
Gypsum board area separation firewalls are generally available in cavity-type or solid systems.
Cavity-type systems typically incorporate components such as gypsum liner panels and methods
similar to those for steel stud partitions or shaft wall construction to protect stairwells and
elevator shafts. Solid gypsum board walls use three basic components: 1-inch-thick type X
gypsum board liner panels that are 2-feet wide and either 8-, 10-, 12- or 14-feet long; metal
framing members consisting of 2-inch-wide H-studs and U-shaped track; and “breakaway” L-
shaped aluminum clips that soften at relatively low temperatures.
A solid gypsum wall built to resist fire for two hours uses two layers of 1-inch-thick gypsum
liner panel supported by steel framing. The panels stand on end and slide into the bottom of a
steel U-shaped track, which is attached to the foundation or to the top track of a section of wall
on the story below. Steel H studs hold each pair of 1-inch panels together on their vertical edges.
An inverted U-shaped track serves as a cap over the top ends of the panels and the H studs.
Fasteners secure the H studs to the top and bottom tracks. Once a span of wall is completed,
another section is assembled directly over it.
L-shaped aluminum clips connect the wall to the adjacent building’s structural framework. The
clips connect each H stud on both sides with the adjacent floors or roof/ceiling intersections to
keep the fire wall in place between the two structures.
When the aluminum clips reach a temperature exceeding 1,100 degrees F, they break away
between the steel and the wood frameworks and allow the burning structure to fall away while
leaving the fire wall in place. Because the gypsum board panels prevent the heat on the fire side
from reaching the opposite side, the aluminum clips supporting the wall on the non-burning side
remain intact and prevent the fire from spreading. Note that the L clips must appear in the tested
design to ensure that they perform properly during a fire, and must be fastened and installed in
conjunction with system directions.
Proper Installation
To be fully code compliant, gypsum board fire wall systems used in townhouse or multi-family
construction typically must be erected with a minimum set-back from adjacent combustible
(wood) construction. This is usually accomplished by maintaining a gap of approximately ¾ inch
to 1 inch between the outside face of the gypsum liner panels and the adjacent construction. The
codes also generally require the void created by the set-back at the floor level to be in filled with
a noncombustible fireblocking material. This can easily be accomplished by fitting mineral fiber
insulation, scrap pieces of gypsum board liner panel or another code-approved material into the
void. The fireblocking material must also be mechanically attached to the structure’s wood
framing.
If the mandated set-back cannot be achieved, the steel surfaces of the H studs must be covered
with a 6-inch-wide layer of gypsum board batten strips, full sheets of gypsum board or mineral
fiber insulation. Construction details showing gypsum wall intersections with foundations,
intermediate floor junctions, exterior wall intersections, roof junctions and parapets are available
from component manufacturers.
Sound Attenuation
In addition to defining fire-resistance requirements, the model building codes typically require
walls separating townhouse units to maintain a minimum Sound Transmission Class (STC)
rating of 45 to 50 to ensure that proper sound attenuation occurs between individual units.
Gypsum board wall systems must be constructed in accordance with the original sound test if they are to comply with
sound transmission requirements. Any deviation from the requirements of the test report, including the addition of
additional components, may result in unacceptable system performance.
Fig. 53Typical Gypsum Board Area Separation Fire Wall Construction
VENEER PLASTER
Gypsum veneer plaster systems are thin coat, high strength plaster systems that can be quickly
applied over a variety of substrates. These systems simulate in many respects the versatility,
beauty, and durability of conventional plaster systems. Gypsum veneer plaster finishes provide
hard, dense surfaces that are resistant to scuffing, denting, cracking, and abrasion. The variety of
possible veneer plaster finishes ranges from a mirror smooth surface to any type of floated,
swirled, or light texture. Veneer plaster is easily integrally colored with pigments or finished
with any number of decorating products to achieve a broad array of looks.
Advantages
The setting time of veneer plaster materials is generally between 45 and 90 minutes. With
sufficient manpower and favorable environmental conditions, a veneer plaster job can be
completed, from bare studs to decoration, in only 48 to 72 hours.
Gypsum Base for Veneer Plaster
Gypsum base, or “Blue Board,” is a gypsum board substrate specifically designed to support
gypsum veneer plaster. Gypsum base is usually 48 inches wide and available in 8 foot, 10 foot,
and 12 foot lengths. Other lengths are available by special order. Regular base thicknesses are
3/8-inch, ½-inch, and 5/8-inch. Type X special fire-resistant bases are available in ½-inch and
5/8-inch thicknesses.
Gypsum bases vary among manufacturers. Each manufacturer formulates its gypsum base
specifically for the accompanying gypsum veneer finish. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions
carefully to ensure the proper matching of the gypsum base and gypsum veneer plaster.
Installation of gypsum base is very similar to the installation of regular gypsum board; the tools
and techniques used are essentially the same. The main difference in the installation between the
two systems is that the surface of the veneer base is not dimpled at the fasteners when veneer
base is nail-applied. Joint finishing techniques and materials are also different when gypsum base
is installed.
One or Two Component Systems
Gypsum veneer plasters are available in either one or two component systems. Each type is
available pre-mixed in bags, ready to combine with water at the job site. One component systems
provide quick and easy finishing, while two component systems provide improved aesthetics,
especially where indirect lighting conditions exist or high gloss paint is specified. Both trowel-
applied and machine-applied systems are available.
One component systems can be completed in one or two days and decorated after 24 hours under
favorable conditions. Two component systems can be applied over a variety of substrates and
enable the applicator to level out slightly uneven surfaces.
One Component Systems
A one component gypsum veneer plaster system consists of one product ready to be applied as a
thin membrane after the addition of potable water. This system is usually applied using the
“scratch-and-double-back method,” producing a thickness of 1/16 inches to 3/32 inches. The
surface can be trowelled to a highly polished finish or worked to achieve a float, swirl, pucker,
dimple, Spanish, or other finish.
One component systems work best over gypsum base, but they also produce good results over
other bases such as monolithic concrete or masonry block. Skilled applicators use coarser floats
or add more sand for deeper texture
finishes.
Two Component Systems
Two component systems use two different, separately packaged products – the basecoat and the
finish coat. Gypsum basecoat plaster, which is many times stronger than conventional plaster, is
applied directly over the base. The finish coat can be applied as soon as two hours after the base
coat has set or when proper “suction” is achieved. Two component veneer plaster systems work
particularly well over masonry block walls because the trowelled-on base coat permits the
application of a thickness sufficient to level out the surface. The finish coat after the base coat
has set and achieved proper suction. A two component system may be finished to a smooth
finish, a sand texture, or one of many other textures.
Both one and two component veneer plaster systems provide high quality, durable finishes over a
variety of masonry surfaces, particularly concrete block and monolithic concrete. One
component systems work best over smooth, straight and true masonry surfaces, while two
component veneer plaster systems allow for a modest amount of surface variation. Most masonry
substrates will require some surface preparation and the application of a bonding coat prior to
receiving a veneer plaster finish.
Trowel Application
One Component
Time the application so that an entire wall or ceiling area can be completed from the same mix.
Work to a ceiling angle or corner. If glass fiber tape is used on the joints, bed the tape first. This
will keep the glass fiber tape from wrinkling, promoting uniform takeup and assuring positive
keying of the veneer plaster into the mesh. After the joints have set, plaster the entire room,
starting with the ceilings and then completing the walls. Tightly scratch in and immediately
double back with material from the same mixer batch to a uniform thickness as recommended by
the manufacturer. When the plaster mass has become firm (taken up) trowel the surface to
remove trowel marks, surface imperfections and integrate the surface to a uniform smoothness.
Just before the surface sets, trowel it to a smooth finish using water sparingly. Do not over trowel
or trowel through the set. The set of most veneer plaster can be recognized when it appears to
darken. Always carefully follow the manufacturer’s instructions.
Two Component
Apply the base coat evenly, yet rough and open enough to provide a key and proper suction for
the finish component per ASTM C 843, Standard Specification for Application of Gypsum
Veneer Plaster, or manufacturer’s specifications. Apply the finish coat with trowel or other
finishing method. The finish may be a smooth or textured veneer plaster, lime putty gauging, or
any other finish that can be applied to a conventional base coat plaster.
Machine Spray-Application
There are veneer plasters made specifically for machine spray-application. This application
method requires extreme care and cleanliness. The key concern associated with spraying veneer
plasters is the time of set. Set time is especially critical in machine application because the
machine accelerates the setting process of the plaster. Follow the veneer plaster manufacturer’s
recommendation to select the proper veneer plaster for the machine. Accelerator addition must
be adjusted at the nozzle to obtain no more than one hour (preferably 30 minutes) set time on the
wall. Cleanliness of mixing and spraying equipment is of utmost importance. Veneer plaster
must not be allowed to set up in machines. Plan the work so that the amount of veneer plaster in
a batch can be mixed and sprayed in about half the published setting time. This will allow time to
properly clean the machine between each batch.
Apply veneer plaster spray in two even passes by spraying at right angles between coats; for
example, up and down on the first pass and side to side on the second pass. Allow base to set and
dry sufficiently to provide proper suction for the finish. Hand-apply smooth finish as previously
described. If a spray texture is desired, hand apply finish plaster by scratching in and doubling
back, then spray texturing with the finish plaster to obtain the desired finish once the initial
scratch and double-up application has become firm but has not set. Vary the texture by changing
plaster consistency, adjusting the air pressure, changing the orifice size, or a combination.
Experiment by spraying a piece of scrap gypsum base until the desired texture is achieved; then
spray the whole room in one operation, if possible.
Concrete Blocks – Ensure wall is straight, clean, and free of oil and dirt. Straighten any
irregularities in the blocks by filling with base plaster as needed. Level but avoid smooth
troweling. Leave the final surface rough and open to provide proper bonding of the finish coat.
After set, apply either the smooth or textured finish coat.
Monolithic Concrete – Dense, smooth concrete requires a liquid bonding compound to receive
gypsum veneer plaster. Grind flush all ridges and bumps, and then remove all loose dust. Apply
the recommended bonding agent carefully
following the manufacturer’s instructions. Mix a small batch of base coat gypsum veneer plaster
and spot fill any deep holes and crevices first. Then, apply the base coat of gypsum veneer
plaster; level, but do not smooth. After the base coat has set, apply either smooth, floated, or
textured finish coat.
Fig. 54 Images of Veneer Plaster Application

Section VIII
Section VIII – Mold, Moisture, Vapor & Air Penetration
1. VIII. MOLD, MOISTURE, VAPOR & AIR PENETRATION

2. Mold
3. Moisture
4. Assessing the Need for Replacement of Gypsum Board
5. Recommendations for Drying Conditions
6. Vapor Penetration
7. Air Penetration
VIII. MOLD, MOISTURE, VAPOR & AIR PENETRATION
Mold
Mold is actually a family of several species of fungi that can infest damp interior surfaces. They
are spread primarily by microscopic airborne spores that are abundant in most environments.
These fungi require three conditions to grow: oxygen, a food source, and moisture. Eliminating
one of these three elements will keep mold growth in check; however, two of the three are almost
impossible to eliminate: oxygen and a food source. Mold will consume any available organic
nutrient, especially pollen and common house dust, which are readily available on most interior
surfaces and are almost impossible to contain. So, the only one of the three elements over which
we have any real control is moisture. To keep mold in check, keep moisture out.
Warning: Some varieties of mold pose a health risk, particularly to people who are
hypersensitive to mold. For this reason, mold abatement should only be attempted by trained
professionals.
Moisture
Gypsum board will not withstand exposure to elevated levels of moisture for extended periods.
Examples of elevated levels of moisture include, but are not limited to, exposure to rain,
condensation, water leakage, and standing water. Some gypsum board exposed to these
conditions may not need to be replaced, depending upon the source of the moisture and the
condition of the gypsum board being considered for replacement. However, if there is ever any
doubt about whether to keep or replace gypsum board that has been exposed to moisture –
replace it.
Assessing the Need for Replacement of Gypsum Board
Replace gypsum board that has been exposed to excessive moisture unless all of the following
conditions are met:
• The source of the water or moisture is identified and eliminated.
• The water or moisture to which the gypsum board was exposed was uncontaminated.
• The gypsum board can be dried thoroughly before mold growth begins (typically 24 to 48
hours depending on environmental conditions).
• The gypsum board is structurally sound and there is no evidence of rusting fasteners or physical
damage that would diminish the physical properties of the gypsum board or system.
CAUTION: When replacing gypsum board in a fire resistance or sound rated system, take
care to ensure that all repairs are consistent with the specific fire or sound rated design
initially constructed (gypsum board type, fasteners and their spacing, and staggered
joints).
Recommendations for Drying Conditions

These are general recommendations; for more detailed information, contact a water damage
restoration specialist.
• Provide adequate ventilation, air circulation, and drying to minimize the potential for mold or
other fungal growth.
• Eliminate the source of water or moisture.
• Remove all damaged gypsum board and other wet materials that are to be replaced from the
building to facilitate drying.
• Begin thorough drying of the interior of the building immediately.
Vapor Penetration
The penetration and accumulation of water vapor into building cavities can lead to mold growth
and the deterioration of the building materials through rot or rust. Preventing unwanted vapor
penetration is generally accomplished in two ways. The first is to block moist air from entering
the building cavity by closing all passages into the building cavity. The second is to install a
vapor retarder in the building cavity. However, proper placement of a retarder depends on the
local climate.
Air Penetration
The loss of conditioned air (heated or cooled) from the interior of a building to the exterior is a
major source of energy loss. In other words, unwanted air movement through a building will
increase energy costs. Air barriers help reduce unwanted air and moisture movement. Gypsum
panel products, including interior gypsum wallboard and gypsum sheathing serve as air barriers
when properly installed and finished. However, cracks and other openings around exterior doors,
windows, plumbing, electrical boxes, etc., provide passages for air to leak in and out of a
conditioned space. For this reason, it is important to fill all openings through which conditioned
air can escape to the outside with caulk or another appropriate material.

Section IX
Section IX – Material Handling & Storage, Stocking, Safety
1. Safety Tips for Handling Gypsum Board

2. Storage
3. Support Risers
4. Manual Handling
5. Mechanical Handling
6. Stocking Gypsum Board on Job Sites
7. Jobsite Stocking Procedures
8. Safety
IX. MATERIAL HANDLING & STORAGE, STOCKING, SAFETY
Safety Tips for Handling Gypsum Board
Stacks of gypsum panel products are very heavy and can become unstable if proper stacking and
handling procedures are not followed. Workers must always be extremely careful when stacking
or working in an area where gypsum panel products are stacked. For example, a 4 feet wide by
12 feet long by 1/2 inch thick gypsum board can weigh over 80 pounds; this means a stack of
only 25 of these boards weighs over a ton. Heavy equipment is frequently used to move, stack,
load, stock, or otherwise handle gypsum panel products. Only trained,qualified, and properly
certified drivers may operate this equipment. Always follow proper safety measures when
operating or working around these machines.
Follow the safety tips below while handling gypsum panel products:
• Work in pairs whenever possible.
• Lift carefully with good techniques by using the legs, not the back.
• Stack gypsum panel products flat – not on edge or end.
• Wear a dust mask when conditions warrant.
• Ground electrical power tools properly.
• Select and use the correct tool for each job.
• Ensure that all tools are in good repair.
• Protect eyes with safety glasses or goggles when necessary.

• Proceed at a deliberate but steady pace.
• Always take precautions and time to make sure the work is done safely.
• Wear other personal protective devices and clothing such as a hard hat, gloves, safety shoes,
etc.
Store gypsum board in a warehouse or other suitable structure where it will not be exposed to
inclement weather or to temperatures that frequently exceed 125 degrees F. Place stacks of
gypsum board evenly on a firm, dry, level, and structurally sound floor. Do not stack gypsum
board higher than 17 feet. Always store gypsum board flat. Do not store gypsum board in areas
of excessive humidity; do not store them below overhead equipment which may have a tendency
to drip grease, oil, or water. Do not leave gypsum board in heavy traffic areas or where they can
be damaged by lift trucks and other equipment. When necessary, protect exposed corners with
sheet metal or another suitable material.
Do not store gypsum board outdoors or in any area where it may be exposed to moisture.
Remove plastic shipping protection immediately upon receipt.
Support Risers
Support units of gypsum board properly to minimize sagging. Exercise care in the construction
and placement of support members (known as risers or spacers). Figure 55 below shows risers
that are easily and inexpensively constructed from strips of gypsum board. If units of gypsum
board are stored on a floor that may be subject to dampness, use bottom risers made of wood or
plastic. Construct risers to a uniform height to ensure that the gypsum board stack is supported
evenly. The most common size of risers is 3 inches wide by 3 inches high by the width of the
gypsum board.
Fig. 55 Stacks Of Gypsum Board On Risers
Manual Handling
Always have two or more people handle gypsum board. Schedule delivery of gypsum board to
the job site as near to the time it will be used as possible. Take care not to drag gypsum board to
prevent damage to finished edges. When moving panels manually, support by the edges and
never carry panels flat.
Mechanical Handling
Because of the bulky and heavy nature of gypsum board stacks, they are almost always handled
mechanically in warehouses, staging areas, storage, etc. Lift trucks are typically used to move
stacks of gypsum board . Boom trucks are normally used to deliver gypsum board . Lift truck
drivers must be trained and licensed to operate lift trucks per regulatory requirements.
Stocking Gypsum Board on Job Sites
Gypsum board is heavy, awkward to handle, and comes in a variety of lengths, thicknesses and
types. If the customer’s personnel assist with unloading and stocking, be sure the unloading
supervisor makes them aware of, and that they follow, safety precautions.
Delivering a large quantity of gypsum board to a job site also requires special equipment, such as
a boom truck specifically designed to expedite the unloading process. Permit only trained and
qualified operators to operate the boom during the off-loading process. The operator must be
extremely careful with the boom to ensure that it does not come in contact with electrical or
other utility lines or otherwise inflict damage in the area.
Regular flat-bed trucks with hydraulic lift-arms frequently deliver materials to smaller jobs.
Drivers of gypsum board delivery trucks, especially to residential areas, must avoid damaging
property, such as septic systems, lawns and landscaping. Damage to these types of properties
may also result in damage to the truck and expenses for the distributor/retailer. Drivers must
always carefully survey the unloading area to be sure that it is safe to drive into and use
mechanical unloading devices.
Cover gypsum board delivered to a job site immediately and protect from outside elements such
as rain, snow, or other high moisture conditions.
Do not store gypsum board on edges. Board stacked on edge can easily become unstable, and the
entire stack can accidentally topple or slip, which in turn can result in serious injury or even
death.
Jobsite Stocking Procedures
·Separate board products placed on a job site by:
oType (Place the type of board near areas where it will be installed, e.g., type X, regular,
moisture-resistant, etc. This system of placement reduces the chance that the wrong type of board
will be installed and applicators/hangers will have easy access to the stocked gypsum board.)
oSize (Do not place longer-length boards on top of shorter lengths.)
·Stock gypsum board out of the way of construction traffic.
·Take care to ensure that the gypsum boards do not damage the exposed studs, windows, door
frames, etc.
·Stock gypsum board without blocking the work of construction tradesmen, such as electricians
and plumbers.
·Never stock other items on gypsum board stocked on a job site.
·Stock gypsum board stacks so their weight is evenly distributed and the floor is not overloaded.
·Never stack gypsum board so high as to pose a danger from toppling.
·Place gypsum board stacks in unenclosed buildings far enough inside so that they are not
exposed to inclement weather including blowing rain or snow.
·Exercise extreme care when stocking upper floors of open buildings during periods of high
winds.
Safety
To avoid injuries, stay alert on the jobsite and use common sense safety procedures, including:
·Dress appropriately for the weather. Avoid overexposure to heat or cold.
· Use personal protective equipment, including hard hat, boots, goggles, earplugs, gloves, back
support, kneepads, fall protection, etc.
·Keep pathways and work areas clear and free of debris, tools, etc.
·Inspect tools to ensure they are in good condition.
·Ensure power tools are properly grounded.
·Do not use metal ladders near electrical wires.
·Practice proper ladder safety techniques.
·Practice proper carrying and lifting techniques.
·Always have two or more people lift heavy objects.
·Use supports and clamps to hold panels in place while fastening.
·Take regular breaks throughout the day to avoid exhaustion. Stay hydrated.
·Vary tasks to avoid repetitive joint and muscle damage.
·Climb down, do not jump.

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Gypsum Association

Using Gypsum Board for Walls and Ceilings

This document may be revised or withdrawn from circulation at any time.

1. I. GYPSUM BOARD CONSTRUCTION

I. GYPSUM BOARD CONSTRUCTION

WHAT IS GYPSUM BOARD?

Fig. 1 – Horizontally Applied Gypsum Wallboard Showing Joints and Framing

Gypsum is a mineral found in sedimentary rock formations in a crystalline form known as

Advantages of Gypsum Board Construction

Gypsum board walls and ceilings have a number of outstanding advantages:

Fig. 2 – How Gypsum Retards Heat Transmission

Common Types of Gypsum Board in Alphabetical Order:

 Abuse-resistant gypsum panels offer greater resistance to surface indentation, abrasion

APPLICATION OF GYPSUM BOARD

Storage and Handling

Click Image for PDF

(Note: 1/2-inch ceiling board may be

Shrinkage with Reduction in Moisture Content

Measuring tape – A steel retractable measuring tape, usually 25 feet in length.

Hammer – Drives nails through gypsum board into wood framing.

Use the following procedures

1. Install ceiling panels first,

2. Once cut to size, position

Cutting and Fitting Procedures

Fig. 7 – Using Utility Knife to Score Board

Single-Ply and Multi-Ply Application

·framing details (straight, correctly spaced, properly cured lumber)

·job conditions (controlled temperature and adequate ventilation during application)

·application of the board (measuring, cutting, aligning, fastening)

·joint and fastener treatment

Control joint in 1-hour fire rated system

Using Gypsum Board for Walls and Ceilings

This document may be revised or withdrawn from circulation at any time.

1. II. SUPPORTING CONSTRUCTION

II. SUPPORTING CONSTRUCTION

Table III – Two-Ply Application without Adhesive between Plies

Fig. 12 – Staggered Stud Partition

Fig. 13 – Stringers Used to Straighten Crooked Joists

Fig. 14 – Ceiling Truss Movement

The advantages of metal framing are noncombustibility, uniformity of dimension, lightness of

Fig. 15 – Metal Studs Being Fastened to Track

4Ensure that studs are manufactured in conformance with ASTM C 645.

Open-web steel bar joists are not designed to receive wallboard

METAL FURRING OR FRAMING

(1) Rigid furring channels

(2) Resilient furring channels

Other materials used as furring channels:

Attachments and Fasteners

Fig. 19 Cross Section of Nail-Attached Gypsum Board to Wood Framing

Fig. 20 Nails Used in Drywall Construction

For best results:

Fig. 21 Screws Used for Attaching Gypsum Board

Adhesives for applying wallboard finishes are classed:

A. joint compound adhesives

B. drywall contact and modified contact adhesives

Fig. 22 Image of Applying Adhesive with Gun.

Masonry and Concrete Walls

Using Gypsum Board for Walls and Ceilings

This document may be revised or withdrawn from circulation at any time.