Lesson 2.1.

Mathematics as a Language

Objectives of the Lesson

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Describe the language of mathematics
2. List the symbols used in mathematics
3. Translate English expressions/sentences to mathematical
expressions/sentences
4. Use the mathematical language properly in writing mathematical ideas.

Before moving on with the lesson, you have to know that mathematics language is
1. Precise – It can make a very fine distinction or definitions among a
set of mathematical symbols.
2. Concise – It can express otherwise long expositions or sentences
briefly.
3. Powerful - It can express complex thoughts with relative ease.

The language of mathematics was designed so that we can write about things
(like numbers, sets, …) and what we do with those things (add, subtract, multiply,
divide, …).

2.1.1 Mathematical Symbols and Conventions in the Language

Symbols

Mathematics uses symbols instead of words.

There are ten digits. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
There are symbols for operations. +, −,×,/, …
Symbols that "stand-in" for values x, y, …
Relation/special symbols 𝜋, =, <, ≤, …
Grouping symbols ( ), [ ], 𝑎𝑛𝑑 { }
Other symbols Σ the sum of
∃ there exists
∀ for every (for any)
∞ infinity

Note: You may come across some other symbols as you travel through the
learning roadmap of this unit.

LETTER CONVENTIONS
Examples What they usually mean
Start of the alphabet a, b, c, … Constants (with fixed values)
From I to n i, j, k, l, m, n Positive integers (for counting)
End of the alphabet …, x, y, z Variables (unknowns)

Note: These are not rules, but they are often used that way.

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UPPERCASE vs. lower case

It is also common to use

• Lowercase for variables (like x or y) or counting values (like m or n) and
• UPPERCASE for sets (like X or Y) and special constants.

2.1.2 The English Language and the Language of Mathematics

Do you know that there is an intimate connection between the English language
and the language of Mathematics? The reason: the left brain hemisphere that is
responsible for controlling language also coordinates logical or analytical thinking.
Now let's see how the language of mathematics and the English language are
similar. The table that follows shows how.

English Language Language of Examples

Mathematics
Nouns (objects, fixed things Numbers 1
15, , 42
2
Connectives/associations Operational symbols/ +, −,∗ ,÷, 2(𝑥 2 − 6𝑦)
grouping symbols
Verbs (to show comparison) Relation symbols =, <, >
Pronouns Variables (letters 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
representing quantities)
Adjectives Subscripts 𝑥𝑛

2.1.2.1 Translating English Expressions to Mathematical Expressions

Knowing how to translate English expressions to mathematical symbols is

essential in problem-solving. The first step in any problem-solving situation in
mathematics is always to read and understand the problem. Translating the words
into mathematical symbols is next.

The following information may help you.

A. The symbol of operations and relations with their corresponding meanings

Symbol Meanings
plus, sum, total, increased by, more, more than, add, added
+ to, added by, added with, in addition to, combined with, put
together, augmented
minus, less, less than, difference, decreased by, diminished
- by, subtracted from, subtracted by, exceeds by, lowered by,
reduced by, loss, fewer, exceeds
· (raised dot) or times, the product of, multiplied by, multiplied to, multiplied
any grouping symbol with, twice, doubled, thrice, tripled, squared, cubed
÷ ratio, quotient, divided by, half of, average, per, over, all
over
= equals, is equal to, is the same as, is similar to, results in,
produces, represents, is equivalent to, is, are, was, were,
will be,

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Note: The operation between letters or between a number and a letter is understood
to be multiplication.

Let us continue our translation. If the English expression becomes complicated,

we are going to use a diagram.

For the sake of uniformity, let x be the 1st unknown number,

y be the 2nd unknown number, and
z be the 3rd unknown number.

English Expression Mathematical Expression

the sum of a number and seventeen 𝒙 + 𝟏𝟕
a certain number added to seven
the difference of a number and ten 𝒚 − 𝟏𝟎
ten less than a number 𝒚 − 𝟏𝟎
ten subtracted from a number 𝒚 − 𝟏𝟎
a number less than 10 𝟏𝟎 − 𝒚
seven less than the product of a number and six 𝟔𝒙 − 𝟕

the product of a number and nine 𝟗𝒛

twice a number 𝟐𝒙
cube of a number 𝒚𝟑
the product of a number and four increased by 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟗
nine
the product of four and a number less five times a 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟓𝒚
second number
the product of four and a number less than five 𝟓𝒚 − 𝟒𝒙
times a second number

The ratio of a number and nine 𝒙

𝒙÷𝟗 ;
𝟗
𝒙
The quotient of a number and eight 𝒙÷𝟖 ;
𝟖
The ratio of 3, and eight decreased by a number
𝟑
The quotient of half a number and eleven 𝟖−𝒙
𝟏 𝒚
𝟏 𝒚
𝟐 𝟐
𝒚 ÷ 𝟏𝟏 or or
𝟐 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
The average of three numbers
𝒙+𝒚+𝒛
𝟑
The sum of a number and its reciprocal is 1. 𝟏
𝒙+ =𝟏
𝒙
Thrice the difference of a number and four equals
twenty-four. 𝟑(𝒚 − 𝟒) = 𝟐𝟒

The sum of two numbers all over a third number is 𝒙+𝒚

= 𝟏𝟎
the same as ten. 𝒛

four more than twice a number divided by thrice of 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟒

the same number 𝟑𝒙
the sum of the squares of two numbers 𝒙 + 𝒚𝟐
𝟐

the cube of the sum of two numbers (𝒙 + 𝒚)𝟑

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the cube of a number increased by the square of 𝒙 𝟑 + 𝒚𝟐
another number
the quotient of the cube of a number and six, more 𝒙𝟑
than three +𝟑
𝟔

B. Other Useful Translations

1. For representing this statement, "The sum of two numbers is 12."

One unknown Two unknowns
x = the first number x = first number
12 - x = the second number y = second number

2. For consecutive integers

Integers Odd/even Integers
x = first integer x = first integer
x+1 = second integer x+2 = second integer
x+2 = third integer x+4 = third integer
and so forth and so forth

3. The following phrases simply mean the subtraction of the past number of
years from the present age:
years ago, years back, was at that time, and during or in the last ___
years

Example: Carlo's age ten years ago x – 10

The following phrases mean the addition of the future number of years to
the present age:

years from now, years hence, years after or in or more years

Example: Bernard's age 3 years from now x+3

4. Representing two-digit and three-digit numbers

Let h = first digit or hundreds digit,

t = second digit or tens digit, and
u = third digit or unit digit.

For a 2-digit number For a 3-digit number

t +u = sum of the digits h+ t + u = sum of the digits
10t + u = the number 100h + 10t + u = the number
10u + t = the number in 100u + 10t + h = the number in
reverse reverse

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2.1.3 Expression vs. Sentence in the Language of Mathematics

Is there really a mathematical sentence? Let's find out!

A mathematical expression is A mathematical sentence is
• The mathematical analog of a • Mathematical analog of an English
noun sentence
• With a correct arrangement • With a correct arrangement of
of mathematical symbols but mathematical symbols that express a
does not express a complete complete thought
thought • Makes sense to ask if the sentence
is TRUE or FALSE
Examples:
18 52 (10 − 7) + 11 Examples:
3𝑥 2 3
-22 (6𝑥 − 𝑧) 6 + 3 = √81 TRUE
𝑦
20 ÷ 5 > 4 FALSE
The number 7 is a prime number. TRUE

Lesson 2.2 The Binary Operations

Objectives of the Lesson

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. Define binary operations
2. State the properties of binary operations in the set of Real Numbers
3. Manipulate operations with two inputs

Early in your elementary grades, you learned first to add then multiply two numbers
to get a result. Afterward, you were taught to subtract and divide two numbers to obtain
a third number.
In such situations, as stated above, an operator (represented by characters or
keywords) manipulates individual data items or inputs (called operands or arguments)
and returns a result.
Operations with two inputs or operands are called binary operations.
Mathematically, a binary operation is denoted by the symbol, " ∗ " which means any
operation using two elements in the set of Real Numbers. Although there are many
binary operations in the set of Real Numbers, you are very familiar with the
fundamental operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
The properties of two binary operations, addition and multiplication over the set of
real numbers, are as follows:
1. Closure of Binary Operations

The sum and product of any two real numbers is also a real number. In
symbols, we write
∀ x, y, ∈ R, x + y ∈ R and ∀ x, y, ∈ R, x • y ∈ R

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2. Commutativity of Binary Operations

The addition and multiplication of any two real numbers are commutative in
whatever order they are added or multiplied. In symbols, we have

∀ x, y, ∈ R, x + y = y + x (addition)

∀ x, y, ∈ R, x • y = y • x (multiplication)

3. Associativity of Binary Operations

Given any three real numbers, you may take any two and perform addition or
multiplication, and you will get the same answer. In symbols, we write

∀ x, y, z ∈ R, (x + y) + z = x + (y + z) (addition)

∀ x, y, z ∈ R, (x • y) • z = x • (y • z) (multiplication)

4. Distributivity of Binary Operations

Distributivity applies when multiplication is performed in a group of two

numbers added or subtracted together. The symbolic notation is

∀ x, y, z ∈ R, x(y + z) = xy + xz (addition)

∀ x, y, z ∈ R, x(y - z) = xy - xz (subtraction)

5. Identity Elements of Binary Operations

An element of the set of Real Numbers is an identity element for addition or

multiplication if, when added or multiplied by any real number, the result is the same
real number. Symbolically, we have

∀ x ∈ R, x + e = e + x = x (identity element for addition is zero, e = 0)

∀ x ∈ R, x • e = e • x = x (identity element for addition is one, e = 1)

6. Inverses of Binary Operations

∀ x ∈ R, x + (- x) = -x + x = 0 (the additive inverse is -x)

1 1 1
∀ x ∈ R, x • 𝑥 = 1 in ,x≠0 (the multiplicative inverse is 𝑥 )
𝑥

Lesson 2.3 The Language of Sets

Objectives of the Lesson

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. Discuss what a set is in mathematics
2. Identify the different set of symbols and notations

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 3. Write sets using two methods
4. Differentiate the kinds of sets
5. Show the union and intersection of sets

Sets become a powerful building block of mathematics when applied to different

situations. Some of the higher mathematics disciplines whose common denominator
is set are the following: Graph Theory, Abstract Algebra, Real Analysis, Complex
Analysis, Linear Algebra, Number Theory.

2.3.1 Set and Set Notations

The idea of a set in Mathematics is not different from how we think of it in

everyday living. Words such as collection, group, batch, class, and bundle all convey
the idea of a set.
However, mathematically speaking, a set is a collection of distinct objects. The
objects must be well-defined, which means that we can tell whether any given object
is or is not in the set. Distinct means no duplication of the object in the set (it is listed
only once).

Consider these examples to distinguish well-defined sets.

Well -defined Sets Not Well-defined Sets (listing of
elements are not clear)
1. The set of female presidents 1. The set of good Filipino writers.
of the Philippines.
2. The set of quadrilaterals. 2. The set of best books in the
library.
3. The set of rainbow colors. 3. The set of difficult subjects in
SHS.
4. The set of even numbers 4. The set of delicious smoothies.
less than 80.
5. The set of ASEAN Member 5. The set of smart people in the
countries. meeting.

In writing sets, you need to follow these rules:

1. Name the set in capital letters of the English alphabet (A, B, C, …, X, Y, Z).
2. The objects in the set are known as elements. We write them in lower case
letters (a, b, c, …, x, y, z).
3. The elements are written in braces { }.

For example, Set A has as its elements the letters in the word freshmen. Writing
the set, we have A = {𝑓, 𝑟, 𝑒, 𝑠, ℎ, 𝑚, 𝑛}.

Note: The letter 𝑒 must be written only once.

Another thing, if an object is an element of the set, use the symbol ∈.

In the above example, 𝑓 is an element of set A or 𝑓 is a member of set A or

𝑓 is in A, or 𝑓 belongs to A. We write𝑓 ∈ 𝐴 .

On the other hand, if an object is not an element of the set, we use the symbol
∉ as in 𝑎 is not an element of set A, 𝑎 ∉ 𝐴.
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 Before moving further, to help you understand some concepts/examples in this
lesson, a review of the set of real numbers is given in the table that follows.

The Set of Real Numbers

Symbol Name Description Examples

Natural Counting numbers (also called

N 1, 2, 3, . . .
Numbers positive integers)

Naturals numbers, their …-4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2,

Z Integers
negatives and 0 3, 4, ...

Numbers that can be

-15, -2, 0, 23,
represented as a/b, where a and
Rational -1/4, 3/7, 15/2,
Q b are integers and b ≠ 0.The
Numbers -2.75, 1.625,
decimal representations are
-0.3333, 5.272727
terminating or repeating
Numbers that can be
Irrational √2 = 1.414213562 … ,
Q' represented as non-repeating
Numbers 𝜋 = 3.141592654 …
and non-terminating decimals

Real
R Rational and Irrational
Numbers

2.3.2 Methods of Writing a Set

Enumeration or Roster Method Defining or Rule Method

• The elements of a set are • The members of the set are
listed or enumerated in any defined by stating their
order but no repetition and common properties. The set-
enclosed by curly braces. builder notation of
{𝑥 |𝑃(𝑥)} 𝑜𝑟 {𝑥: 𝑃(𝑥)} is used
and is read as "the set of all 𝑥
such that"

Here are some examples for you.

Enumeration or Statement Rule Method

Roster Method
B = {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, B is the set of all prime B = {xIx is a prime
29} numbers between 10 and number between 10 and
30. 30}
D = {e,i} D is the set of vowels in D = {xIx is a vowel in the
the word little. word little}
E = {c, d, n, y} Set E is the set of E = {xIx is a consonant in
consonants in the word the word decency}
decency.
N = {1, 2, 3, . . .} N is the set of Natural N = {xIx is a natural
numbers. number}

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 R = {22,24, 26, 28, 30, R is the set of positive R = {xIx is a positive even
32, 34, 36, 38} even numbers greater number greater than
than 20 but less than 40. 20 but less than 40}
M = {0, 2, 4, 6, …, 22} M is the set of whole M = {xIx is a whole
numbers less than 21. number less than 21}
O = {-15, -10, -5, 0, 5, O is the set of multiples O = {xIx is a multiple of 5
10} of 5 greater than -20 but greater than -20 but
less than positive 15. less than positive 15
S = {13, 14, 15, …} S is the set of natural S = {xIx is a natural
numbers greater than 12. number greater than 12

2.3.3 Kinds of Sets

These are simple descriptions and examples to help you distinguish one kind
of set from another.
Kind of Set Definition / Notation Examples
A = {x | x is a positive
integer less than 17}
• A set whose elements
A = {1,2,3,…,16}
are limited or countable
n(A) = 16
• The cardinality of a set is
1. Finite Set
the number of its
B = {x | x is an odd integer
elements. The cardinality
between 50 and 60}
of set A is denoted by
B = {51,53,55,57,59}
n(A).
n(B) = 5
W = {0, 1, 2, 3, ...}
• A set whose elements n(W) = ∞
are unlimited or cannot
be counted D = {x | x is a negative odd
integer}
2. Infinite Set
Note: the infinity of the set D = { -1, -3, -5, . . .}
is denoted by three dots (...)
called an ellipsis and is read E = {x | x is a proper
"and so forth." fraction}
E = {1/2, -3/4, 5/7, . . .}
F = {x | x is an integer
greater than 10 but
less than 12}
3. Unit Set F = { 11 }
• A set with only one
or n(F) = 1
element
Singleton Set
G = {x l x is the vowel in
the word day}
G={a}
H = { x I x is an integer
4. Empty Set • A set with no object or
greater than -1 but
or element.
less than 0}
Null set
H = { } or H = ∅

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 • The symbols "{ }" and n(H) = 0
"∅" are used to denote
an empty set. I = {x l x is a counting
number between 45
and 46}
I = { } or I = ∅
Let A = {l3, 14, 15, 16}
• Two sets containing the
B = {14, 15}
same elements are
C = { integers
equal.
between 13 and 16}
• Symbolically, A = B.
D = { natural numbers
5. Equal Sets greater than 12 but
less than 17}.
• The symbol "≠" is used
Then, A = D and B = C
to denote that two sets
are not equal.
and A ≠ B, A ≠ C, B ≠ D
• If Sets A and B have the
same number of
elements or the same
cardinality, then they are Let A = {11,12, 13}
equivalent sets. B = {x, y, z}
C = {𝜆, 𝛽, 𝛼}
6. Equivalent
• They may have different
Sets
elements or some
common elements only. Then A ≈ B, A ≈ C, and
B ≈ C.
• The symbol for set
equivalence is ≈.

• Two sets with no

common elements are Let R = {2, 4, 6},
disjoint. S = {11, 13, 15}
7. Disjoint
Sets
• Note: The empty set is Then, R and S are disjoint.
or
non- intersection from
non-
any set and from itself The set of whole numbers
intersection
since it has no element and the set of negative
common with the numbers are disjoint.
elements of the sets.

2.3.4 Subsets, Supersets, and Power Sets

• A is a subset of B denoted Consider the sets:

by A ⊆ B if every element J = {5, 6, 7}
of A is contained in B. K = [8,7, 6, 5}
L = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
Subsets A is a subset of B if every
element of A is in B. The then, we can say that
phrases "A is contained in J⊆K, J ⊆ L, and K ⊆ L.
B" and "B contains A" are
other ways of saying that A
is a subset of B. Given: M = {7, 8, 9}
11
 c(M) = 3
Symbolically, A ⊆ B.
2n
The number of subsets of a 23 = 8 subsets
given set with "n" elements
can be computed using the Subsets of M are:
formula 2n. {7}, {8}, {9},
{7, 8}, {7, 9}, {8, 9},
Note: Every set is a subset {7, 8, 9}, ∅
of itself.
The empty set is a subset
of every set.
If every element of A is in B,
but there is at least one Consider the sets:
element in B that is not in J = {7, 6, 5}
A, then A is a proper K = {8,7, 6, 5}
subset of B. L = {9, 8, 7, 6, 5}

In symbols, we have A ⊂B. then, we can say that

J ⊂ K, J ⊂ L, and K ⊂ L.
If a set has "n "elements, the
number of proper subsets Given: J = {5, 6, 7}
Proper Subset can be verified using
2n – 1. For number of proper
subsets of J:
2n - 1
23- 1 = 8 - 1 = 7

Note: Every set is not a Proper subset of J are:

proper subset of itself. {5}, {6}, {7},
A null set is a proper subset {5, 6}, {5, 7}, {6, 7},
of every set. ∅

Consider the sets:

J = {2, 4, 6}
• If A is a subset of B, then
K = {2, 4, 6, 8}
we can say that B is a
Superset L = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
superset of A, denoted by
B ⊇ A.
Then, we can say that
K ⊇ J, L ⊇ J, and L ⊇ K.

• The set of all subsets of a

set A is called the power Let N = { q, r, s }
set of A, denoted as P(A). n(N) = 3

Power Sets • The cardinality (or the |P(N)| = 23 = 8

number of elements) in the
power set of A can be P(N) = [∅, {q}, {r}, {s},
verified by the formula {q, r}, {q, s}, {r, s},
|P(A)| = 𝟐𝒏 . {q, r, s} ]
2.3.5 Universal Set and Complementary Sets

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 Let A = {a, c, e, g}
B = {b, d, f}
• The set containing all the
C = {a, d, g, h}
Universal Set possible elements under
consideration
Then, U = {a, b, c, d, e,
f, g, h}
Let U = {10, 11, 12, 13,
14, 15, 16, 17}
• Sets A and B are
A = {10, 12, 14}
complementary if they have
B = {11, 13, 15, 17}
no common elements, and
C = {10, 12, 13,14,
Complementary their union is the universal
16}
Sets set.
Then, Ac = {11, 13, 14,
• In symbol, the complement
15, 16, 17}
of A is 𝐀𝐜 .
Bc = {10, 12, 14, 16 }
Cc = {11, 15, 17}

2.3.6 Union and Intersection of Sets

Operations of Sets

The union of two sets A and Let A = {1, 3, 5}

B is the set containing all the B = {1, 5, 8, 10}
elements of both sets. C = (3, 6, 12, 14}
Union D={ }
In symbols, we write A ∪ B.
A U B = {1, 3, 5, 8, 10}
B U C ={1,3,5,6,8,10,12,14}
C U D = {3, 6, 12, 14}
The intersection of two sets A Let A = {1, 3, 5}
and B is the set containing B = {1, 5, 8, 10}
the common elements of both C = (3, 6, 12, 14}
Intersection sets. D={ }

In symbols, we write A ∩ B. A ∩ B = {1, 5}

B ∩ C = { } or ∅
C ∩ D = { } or ∅
Let U = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 }
A = {1, 3, 5}
B = {1, 5, 8, 10}
C = (3, 6, 12, 14}
D={ }

Examples:
Combinations (A U B) ∩ C = {1, 3, 5, 8, 10} ∩ (3, 6, 12, 14}
={3}

(A ∩ C) U B = { 3 } U {1, 5, 8, 10}
= {1, 3, 5, 8, 10}

A U B U C = {1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}

13
 A ∩B∩C={ }

(A U B) ∩ (C U D) = {1, 3, 5, 8, 10} ∩ {3, 6, 12, 14}

={3}
(A ∩ B) U (C ∩ D) = {1, 5} U { }
= {1, 5}

(A U D) ∩ (B ∩C) = {1, 3, 5} ∩ { }
= {1, 3, 5}

Ac ∩ Bc = {2,4,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14}∩
{2,3,4,6,7,9,11,12,13,14}
= {2, 4, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14 }

Bc ∩ Cc = {2,3,4,6,7,9,11,12,13,14}∩ {1,2,4,5,7,8,9,10,11,13}
= { 2, 4, 7, 9, 11, 13}

2.3.7 Product Sets

Let A = {5, 7, 9},

B = {r, s, t}

Find: A x B
• The product set of two non-
empty sets A and B is the
Solution:
set of all ordered pairs
(a, b). The first element a is
A x B = {(5, r), (5, s),
from set A, and the second
(5, t), (7, r),
element b is from set B.
(7, s), (7, t),
|
Product Sets (9, r), (9, s),
(9, t)}
Note: The symbol "x" is used for
the operation.
Find: B x A
Read A x B as A cross B.
Solution:
B x A = {(r, 5), (r, 7),
AxB≠BxA
(r, 9), (s, 5),
(s, 7), (s, 9),
(t, 5), (t, 7),
(t, 9)}

Lesson 2.4 Elementary Logic

Objectives of the Lesson

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. Identify propositions
2. Distinguish the kinds of propositional logic

14
 3. Write compound propositions in statements and symbolic forms
4. Construct truth tables for given compound statements
5. Establish the validity and falsity of arguments
6. Use truth tables for logical equivalence
7. Restate a conditional statement as converse, inverse, and contrapositive

Logic is the discipline that deals with the methods of reasoning. It is regarded
as one of the oldest intellectual disciplines in the history of humanity. It was the Greek
philosopher Aristotle who pioneered logical reasoning. Throughout centuries, logic has
immensely influenced other fields such as philosophy, mathematics, science,
engineering, business, and law, to name a few.
Logic is essential in our daily lives. It helps steer us in the direction of the truth
and away from falsehood. Thus, it helps us in expressing our ideas and opinions and
in making decisions.
2.4.1 Propositions, Simple and Compound Statements

The first step to learning logic is to identify propositions. A proposition,

sometimes called a statement, is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but
not both. To represent propositions, we symbolically use lower case letters a, b, c, d,
…, p, q, r, s, … or z. When several statements are involved, they can be denoted as
𝑝1 , 𝑝2, … , 𝑝𝑛 .

The table shows examples of propositions and sentences that are not
propositions.
Examples of Propositions Examples of not a Proposition
1. Tarlac is a province in Region III. 1. Where is your teacher? (It is
(True) a question.)
2. Elephants have wings. (False) 2. Open the door. (It is a
command.)
3. 15 – 2x = 8, if x = 5. (False) 3. Ouch! (an exclamation)
4. Twenty is less than fifty. (True) 4. This food is delicious.
(subjective)
5. 52 + 1 is a prime number. (False) 5. 5x + 2y = 7 (There are no
assigned values to x and y.)

Propositions can either be a simple statement or a compound statement.

A simple statement is a single statement that does not have other statements
as parts.
A compound statement contains two or more statements joined by logical
connectives.
Try this!
Which of the following are propositions?
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 a. I am a freshman student.
b. Answer the exercises.
c. −9 + 15 = −6

2.4.2 Logic Connectives and Symbols

The table that follows shows the kinds of propositional logic, their corresponding
connectives, and symbols.
Propositional Symbolic
Connective Symbol/Term Read as
Logic Form
~curl or tilde ~p
Negation not not p
¬ dash with a tail ¬p
Conjunction and/but ∧caret mark p∧q p and q
Disjunction or ∨wedge or vee p∨q p or q
if p, then q
p implies q
p only if q
Conditional/
if..., then →right arrow p→q q if p
Implication
q whenever p
q is necessary
for p
p if and only if q
if and only ↔double-headed
Biconditional p↔q p implies q, and
if arrow
q implies p

The following examples show how to write compound propositions in statements

and their symbolic forms. Let us start first with negation though it is a simple statement
but can be a part of a compound proposition.
A. Negation:
Proposition Negation
p: The traffic in EDSA is heavy. ~p: The traffic in EDSA is not
heavy.
q: Today is Friday ~q: Today is not Friday.
r: I do not like milk tea. ~r: I like milk tea.
s: The students did not attend ~s: The students attended the
the webinar webinar.
t: 23 + 34  57 ~t: 23 + 34 = 57

B. Conjunction:

Let p, q, r, and s be the propositions:

p: Russel is not happy.
q: Russel is going to a party.
r: It is a holiday.
s: Jack is not invited.

Compound Propositions Symbolic Form

1. Russel is not happy but it is a holiday. p ∧¬r

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 2. It is not a holiday and Russel is happy. ¬r ∧¬p
3. Russel is going to a party but Jack is not invited. q∧s

C. Disjunction:

Let p, q, and r be the propositions:

p: Jerald is a producer.
q: Jerald is a composer.
r: Jerald is a model.

Compound Propositions Symbolic Form

1. Jerald is a producer or Jerald is a composer. p∨q
2. Jerald is a model or Jerald is not a composer. r ∨¬q
3. Jerald is not a producer or Jerald is not a model. ¬p ∨¬r

D. Conditional:

In "if p, then q", p is called the antecedent (hypothesis or premise), and

q is called the consequent (or the conclusion).

Let p, q, and r be the propositions:

p: It is going to rain.
q: I will not go out.
r: Cherry is going to visit a friend.
Compound Propositions Symbolic Form
1. If it is going to rain, then I will not go out. p→q
( in the if p then q form)
2. I will not go out if it is going to rain. p→q
(in the q if p form)
3. I will not go out whenever it is going to rain. p→q
(in the q whenever p form)
4. If it is not going to rain, then Cherry is going to ~p → r
visit a friend.
5. If it is not going to rain, then I will go out. ~p → ~q

E. Biconditional:
Let p, q, and r be the propositions:
p: Lewis is a singer.
q: Lewis is a vocalist.
r: Lewis is a recording artist.

Compound Propositions Symbolic Form

1. Lewis is a vocalist if and only if Lewis is a singer. q↔p
2. Lewis is a recording artist if and only if Lewis is a r↔p
singer.
3. Lewis is not a recording artist if and only if Lewis ~r ↔ ~p
is not a singer.

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Now let us translate the following logic symbols into words. Consider the following
statements:
m: Cathy is good at science.
n: Cathy is good at math.
s: Cathy is a scholar.
t: Cathy is an athlete.

1. t ∧ s Cathy is an athlete and Cathy is a scholar.

Cathy is an athlete but Cathy is a scholar.
2. ~m ∨~n Cathy is not good at Science or Cathy is not good at
Math.
3. (m ∧ n) → s If Cathy is good at Science and Cathy is good at Math,
then Cathy is a scholar.
4. s ↔ (m ∧ n) Cathy is a scholar if and only if Cathy is good at Science
or Cathy is good at Math.
5. (~m ∧~n) ∧t Cathy is not good at Science and Cathy is not good at
Math, but Cathy is an athlete.
6. (t ∧ s) → n If Cathy is an athlete and Cathy is a scholar, then Cathy is
good at Math.

Try this!

Translate (~s ∧ ~t) ∧(m ∧ n) into words.

2.4.3 Truth Values and Truth Tables

First, let us define truth value and truth table.

The truth value

• of a simple statement is either true (T) or false (F)
• of a compound statement depends on the truth values of its simple
statements and its connectives.

A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound statement for
all possible truth values of its simple statements.

Note: 1. The Truth Table of one simple statement consists of two rows
showing the truth values of the given statement.

Truth
Table
(Assertion)
p
T
F

Note: 2. The Truth Table of a compound statement containing two simple

statements starts with two columns of four rows showing the truth
values of every possible combination of the two given statements. The
third column shows the truth values of the given compound statement

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 and their connectives in all possible cases. This table is the so-called
standard truth table form.

Truth Table
Truth Value of the
p q
compound statement
T T
T F
F T
F F

The following show the Truth Tables for Propositional Logic.

Truth Tables for Propositional Logic:

Negation:
Truth Table If a statement is true, its negation is
p ~p false.
T F If a statement is false, its negation is
F T true.

Conjunction:
Truth Table
p q p∧q
T T T The conjunction p ∧ q is TRUE when
T F F both p and q are true.
F T F
F F F

Disjunction:
Truth Table
p q p∨q
The disjunction p ∨ q is TRUE if at
T T T
least one of them (either p or q) is
T F T
true.
F T T
F F F

Conditional:
Truth Table
p q p→q
The conditional p → q is FALSE
T T T
when p is true, and q is false. It is
T F F
true in all other cases.
F T T
F F T

Biconditional:

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 Truth Table
p q p↔q
The biconditional p ↔ q is TRUE
T T T
when p and q have the same truth
T F F
value.
F T F
F F T

Let us determine the truth values of the following compound statement.

1. Five is an even integer and four is an odd number.

F ∧ F F ∧F

F F

2. Sampaguita is our national flower or Narra is a vegetable.

T ∨ F
T ∨F
T
T

3. If California is a continent, then the Philippines is a province.

F → F
F→F
T
T

4. Five is a factor of 10 if and only if 10 is a multiple of 100.

T ↔ F
F T↔ F
F

Try this!
Given the following propositions with their corresponding truth values, what is
the truth value of the statement "Archie has a fever and he has difficulty in breathing,
but he is infected with COVID 19".

p: Archie has a fever. (T)

q: Archie has difficulty in breathing. (F)
r: Archie is not infected with COVID 19. (T)

2.4.4 Constructing Truth Tables

Now let us try to construct a truth table. Follow the steps, as shown in the
examples that follow.

Examples:
1. Construct the truth table for the compound statement (p ∨ q) ∧ ~ p.

Solution:
20
 Step 1: Start with the standard truth table form.
Step 2: Write the truth values of the disjunction p ∨ q on a new column.
Step 3: Negate p, then write the results on the next column.
Step 4: Using the truth values of p ∨ q (in step 2) and ~p (in step 3), perform
the conjunction of (p ∨ q) ∧~p to produce the truth values. Write the
results in the last column.

p q p∨q ~p (p ∨ q) ∧~p
T T T F F
T F T F F
F T T T T
F F F T F

2. Construct the truth table for the compound statement (p → q) ↔ (~q ∨~p).

Solution:
Step 1: Start with the standard truth table form.
Step 2: Negate p and then write the results on a new column.
Step 3: Negate q and then write the truth values in the next column.
Step 4: Write the truth values of the conditional p → q on another column.
Step 5: Using the truth values from negated p (in step 2) and negated q
(in step 3), determine the truth values of ~q ∨~p.
Step 6: Using the truth values of p → q (in step 4) and ~q ∨~p (in step 5),
perform the biconditional of (p ∨ q) ∧~p to produce the truth values.
Write the results in the last column.

p q ~p ~q p→q ~q ∨~p (p → q) ↔ (~q ∨~p)

T T F F T F F
T F F T F T F
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T T

Try this!

Construct a truth table for the proposition (p → ~q) ↔ (~p ∨ q).

2.4.5 Tautology, Contradiction, and Contingency

A tautology is a proposition where the truth values are always true in all
possible cases.
A contradiction is a proposition where the truth values are always false in all
possible cases.

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 A contingency is a proposition where the truth values are not always true nor
always false.

Examples:
1. Show that ~p ∨ (~q →p) is a tautology.

Solution:
Step 1: Start with the standard truth table form.
Step 2: Negate p and then write the results on a new column.
Step 3: Negate q and then write the truth values on another column.
Step 4: Using the truth values from negated q (in step 3) and p (in step 1),
determine the truth values of ~q →p.
Step 5: Using the truth values of negated p (in step 2) and ~q →p (in step 4),
perform the conjunction of ~p ∨ (~q →p) to produce their truth values.
Write the results in the last column.

p q ~p ~q ~q →p ~p ∨ (~q →p)
T T F F T T
T F F T T T
F T T F T T
F F T T F T

It shows that the truth values of ~p ∨ (~q →p) are always true.
Thus, ~p ∨ (~q →p) is a tautology.

2. Is the proposition p ∧ (p→ ~p) a tautology, a contradiction, or a

contingency? Look at the table below.

p ~p p → ~p p ∧ (p → ~p)
T F F F
F T T F

Since the truth values of p ∧ (p → ~p) are always false, then it is a

contradiction.

3. Is (p ∧ ~q) ∧ (p ∨ q) a tautology, a contradiction, or a contingency?

p q ~q p ∧~q p∨q (p ∧~q) ∧( p ∨ q)

T T F F T F
T F T T T T
F T F F T F
F F T F F F

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Since the truth values of (p ∧ ~q) ∧ (p ∨ q) are not always true nor always false, then
(p ∧ ~q) ∧ (p ∨ q) is a contingency.

Try this!

Tell whether the proposition (q ∨ ~p) →p is a tautology, a contradiction, or a

contingency.

2.4.6 Logical Equivalence

What is this so-called logical equivalence, and can we be able to prove it?

Logical Equivalence

Two statements having the same truth values in all possible cases are
logically equivalent.

Symbolic form: p <=> q or p ≡ q (read as p and q are logically equivalent)

Examples:
1. Show that p → q and ~p ∨ q are logically equivalent.
Solution:
Step 1: Begin with the standard truth table form.
Step 2: Negate p and then write the results on a new column.
Step 3: Write the truth values of p → q in the next column.
Step 4: Using the truth values of negated p (in step 2) and q (in Column 2),
perform the conjunction of ~p ∨ q to produce the truth values. Write
the result in the last column.

p q ~p p→q ~p ∨ q
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T

Since p → q and ~p ∨ q have the same truth values in all possible cases, they
are logically equivalent. In symbolic form: p → q ⇔ ~p ∨ q or p → q ≡ ~p ∨ q.

2. Is ~p ∧~q logically equivalent to p ∨ q? Use the truth table to show

your answer.

p q ~p ~q ~p ∧~q p∨q
T T F F F T
T F F T F T
F T T F F T
F F T T T F

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 Since the truth values of ~p ∧ ~q in all cases are not the same as the truth
values of p ∨ q, then p ∧ ~q is not logically equivalent to p ∨ q or in symbols, ~p
∧ ~ q ⇎ p ∨ q.
3. Verify if ~(p → q) is logically equivalent to p ∧ ~q.

p q ~q p→q ~ (p → q) p ∧ ~q
T T F T F F
T F T F T T
F T F T F F
F F T T F F

From the truth table, we can see that ~ (p → q) have different truth values as
p ∧ ~ q. Therefore they are not logically equivalent.
Try this!
Is q ∧ ~p logically equivalent to ~p ∨ q? Use the truth table to show your
answer.

2.4.7 The Converse, the Inverse, and the Contrapositive

Every conditional statement has three related statements. They are called the
converse, the inverse, and the contrapositive.

The converse of p → q is q → p.
The inverse of p → q is ~p → ~q.
The contrapositive of p → q is ~q → ~p.

You can form the above statements by using the following guide:

The converse of p → q is formed by interchanging the antecedent p with the

consequent q.
The inverse of p → q is formed by negating the antecedent p and negating the
consequent q.
The contrapositive of p → q is formed by negating both the antecedent p and
consequent q and then interchanging these negated statements.

Examples:

Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the following conditional

statements:
1. If I get the loan, then I will buy a new motorbike.
2. If you are smart, then you get the job.

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Solution:
1. If I get the loan, then I will buy a new motorbike.

Converse: If I buy a new motorbike, then I get the loan.

Inverse: If I don't get the loan, then I won't buy a new motorbike.
Contrapositive: If I don't buy a new motorbike, then I don't get the loan.

2. If you are smart, then you get the job.

Converse: If you can get the job, then you are smart.
Inverse: If you are not smart, then you cannot get the job.
Contrapositive: If you cannot get the job, then you are not smart.

Try this!

Tell the converse, the inverse, and the contrapositive of the conditional
statement, "I feel nauseous whenever I stay up late at night."

Truth Table for the Conditional and its Related Statements

The truth table for conditional and its related statements is shown below.

Conditional Converse Inverse Contrapositive

p q ~p ~q
p→q q→p ~p → ~q ~q → ~p
T T F F T T T T
T F F T F T T F
F T T F T F F T
F F T T T T T T

The table also shows that any conditional statement is equivalent to its
contrapositive, and its converse is equivalent to its inverse.

Notation:
p → q ≡ ~q → ~p
q → p ≡ ~p → ~q

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References

Earnheart, Richard and Adina, Edgar (2018). Math in the Modern World. C &E
Publishing, Inc.: Quezon City.

Cha, Jhon Harley Niño, Miro, Eden, and Quiming, Romel (2016). General
Mathematics. Vibal Group: Quezon City.

Simpson, Andrew (2002). Discrete Mathematics by Example. McGraw-Hill

Education: United Kingdom.

Baltazar, E., Ragasa, C., & Evangelista, J. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern
World. Quezon City: C&E Publishing, Inc.

Alejan, Ronnie O., Veloria, Elisa V., et al. (2018) Mathematics in the Modern World.
Mutya Publishig House, Inc.

Malang, Paulino, Malang, B.,& Tiongson, I. (2011). Discrete Structure. HFM

Publishing: San Rafael

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