energies

Review
Available Technologies and Commercial Devices to Harvest Energy
by Human Trampling in Smart Flooring Systems: A Review
Paolo Visconti 1,2, * , Laura Bagordo 1 , Ramiro Velázquez 2 , Donato Cafagna 1 and Roberto De Fazio 1,2

1 Department of Innovation Engineering, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy;

[email protected] (L.B.); [email protected] (D.C.);
[email protected] (R.D.F.)
2 Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Panamericana, Aguascalientes 20290, Mexico; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +39-0832-297334

Abstract: Technological innovation has increased the global demand for electrical power and energy.
Accordingly, energy harvesting has become a research area of primary interest for the scientific
community and companies because it constitutes a sustainable way to collect energy from various
sources. In particular, kinetic energy generated from human walking or vehicle movements on smart
energy floors represents a promising research topic. This paper aims to analyze the state-of-art of
smart energy harvesting floors to determine the best solution to feed a lighting system and charging
columns. In particular, the fundamentals of the main harvesting mechanisms applicable in this
field (i.e., piezoelectric, electromagnetic, triboelectric, and relative hybrids) are discussed. Moreover,
an overview of scientific works related to energy harvesting floors is presented, focusing on the
architectures of the developed tiles, the transduction mechanism, and the output performances.



Finally, a survey of the commercial energy harvesting floors proposed by companies and startups is

 reported. From the carried-out analysis, we concluded that the piezoelectric transduction mechanism
Citation: Visconti, P.; Bagordo, L.; represents the optimal solution for designing smart energy floors, given their compactness, high
Velázquez, R.; Cafagna, D.; De Fazio,
efficiency, and absence of moving parts.
R. Available Technologies and
Commercial Devices to Harvest
Keywords: energy harvesting; smart energy floors; piezoelectric mechanism; electromagnetic mecha-
Energy by Human Trampling in
nism; triboelectric mechanism; rectifiers; signal regulation systems; wearable technology
Smart Flooring Systems: A Review.
Energies 2022, 15, 432. https://
doi.org/10.3390/en15020432

Academic Editors: Yooseob Song and 1. Introduction

Hyunjun Jung
Energy harvesting is a research area of great interest for the scientific community and
Received: 16 November 2021 the R&D departments. It constitutes a simple and sustainable way to collect energy from
Accepted: 29 December 2021 various sources available in the environment (i.e., light, heat, wind, salinity gradients, and
Published: 7 January 2022 kinetic energy deriving from human walking or vehicle movements) [1–5]. The primary
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
goal is to reduce the emission of tons of CO2 . Harvesting involves capturing energy from
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
different environmental and anthropic sources and converting it into electric energy that
published maps and institutional affil- can be used to supply wearable technology, sensor networks, or stored for large-scale
iations. power production [6–10]. Specifically, the kinetic energy related to the human and vehicle
motions represents a valuable energy source that is commonly wasted, despite being used
to generate electric energy.
In this context, researchers and companies have proposed several smart harvesting
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. floors in the literature to scavenge a reasonable amount of energy to feed lighting and
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. screens into public spaces or buildings. This review paper aims to analyze the state-of-art
This article is an open access article of smart energy harvesting floors for determining the best solution to feed the applications
distributed under the terms and that require a power output in the range from 3 W to 7 W, such as lighting systems and
conditions of the Creative Commons charging columns. This work also discusses the rectifiers and signal regulation systems,
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
which could increase the collected energy. In the paper, some harvesting prototypes that
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
researchers have created to enhance the efficiency of the existing commercial systems are
4.0/).

Energies 2022, 15, 432. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15020432 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2022, 15, 432 2 of 38

analyzed. These prototypes involve knowledge in different fields, such as nanomaterials,

electronics, mechanics, applied physics. Some solutions are more suitable for small-scale
power production or are not useful for harvesting energy from human walking. However,
the ideas under these technologies can be extended to hybridise a large-scale device.
Similar review works are presented in the scientific literature, dealing with the differ-
ent technologies for scavenging energy from pavements. In [11], the authors investigated
and compared different technologies and solutions for harvesting energy from walking.
Specifically, the main transduction mechanisms identified for kinetic energy harvesting
are piezoelectric, electromagnetic, electrostatic, and magnetoelectric materials. the paper
describes several harvesting solutions, both those placed on the human body and those
installed inside tiles. They concluded that the smart harvesting floors are a more efficient
and reliable strategy for scavenging walking energy, regardless of body conditions. More-
over, S. Ahmad et al. completed a comprehensive survey on pavements and roadways for
energy harvesting applications; in particular, the paper discusses several energy harvest-
ing methods, materials, commercial systems, and future challenges [12]. The researchers
identified open challenges and study margins to improve the efficiency and reliability of
energy harvesting floors, enabling their wide employment of these technologies in smart
city scenarios.
Similarly, in [13], D. Vizzari et al. investigated the main energy harvesting technolo-
gies applicable to smart pavements, highlighting strengths and weaknesses, providing
useful insights for future optimization. Notably, they focused on thermal and photovoltaic
harvesting methods applied to pavements or roadways, using solar cells or thermal-solar
systems covered by a semi-transparent protective layer. Furthermore, they described en-
ergy harvesting floors based on a piezoelectric mechanism for scavenging walking energy.
Furthermore, in [14], the authors analysed the main key issues in energy harvesting floors,
determining the best transduction mechanism for Malaysian operative conditions. In par-
ticular, they investigated both photovoltaic, thermoelectric, geothermic, and piezoelectric
harvesting technologies, comparing them from the point of view of efficiency, cost and
side effects. Lastly, they concluded that the geothermal harvesting mechanism is the best
solution for the Malaysian environmental conditions; however, they identified the piezo-
electric mechanism as the most promising solution for the next generation of harvesting
floors. Comparisons between our review work with respect to other similar surveys above
discussed are reported in Section 4.
This review paper is arranged as follows. Section 2 discusses, at first, the fundamentals
of the main harvesting mechanisms applicable in this field (i.e., piezoelectric, electromag-
netic, triboelectric, and relative hybrids). Their application’s physical concepts and limits
are described, and materials and useful devices for designing innovative smart tiles are
proposed. Moreover, the power management strategies are discussed, fundamental for
improving the harvesting efficiency. Later, an overview of scientific works related to energy
harvesting floors is presented, focusing on the architectures of the developed tiles, the
transduction mechanism, and the output performances.
Section 3 reports a survey of companies and startups’ commercial energy harvesting
floors, pointing out their structure, transduction mechanisms, and output performances.
However, not all these models are made up of ecological material, and not all these smart
floors are now available on the market. Some solutions provide a data transmission system
that enriches the user experience when walking on the tile. Lastly, Section 4 reports a brief
discussion of all the reviewed technologies and highlights the most promising among them.

2. Smart Tiles for Energy Harvesting Applications: Current Technologies and

Future Challenges
Energy Harvesting is a process that allows the production of useful electric energy
through an appropriate system of transduction (e.g., piezoelectric, electromagnetic, electro-
static or triboelectric, etc.), conversion, regulation and storage from different energy sources
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 38

Energy Harvesting is a process that allows the production of useful electric energy
Energies 2022, 15, 432 through an appropriate system of transduction (e.g., piezoelectric, electromagnetic,3 elec- of 38
trostatic or triboelectric, etc.), conversion, regulation and storage from different energy
sources available in the environment. This idea allows clean and sustainable energy pro-
duction in
available inatheworld where 85%This
environment. of energy needsclean
idea allows depend
and on fossil fuels.
sustainable energy production in
Despite the 2020 turmoil caused
a world where 85% of energy needs depend on fossil fuels.by the COVID-19 pandemic, the global energy de-
mand is enormously increased. Notably, there has
Despite the 2020 turmoil caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, the globalbeen a heavy exploitation ofenergy
renewable
de-
sources
mand (wind and solar
is enormously power Notably,
increased. production), therewith
has an impressive
been increase of 238
a heavy exploitation GW in last
of renewable
year—50%
sources (wind more andthan
solarany previous
power increase. Equally
production), with an impressive
impressivewas the decrease
increase of 238 GWin car-
in
bonyear—50%
last emissions,more with than
emissions falling by
any previous more than
increase. 6% in
Equally 2020, the largest
impressive was thedecline
decreasesince
in
1945. The rate of decline in carbon emissions is in line with that of
carbon emissions, with emissions falling by more than 6% in 2020, the largest decline since the world’s needs every
year The
1945. for theratenext 30 years
of decline to be onemissions
in carbon track to meet the with
is in line Paristhat
Agreement goals. needs
of the world’s In addition,
every
oil demand
year for the next is estimated
30 years toto have
be ondecreased
track to meet by 9.3% [15]. Agreement
the Paris An examplegoals. of technology in line
In addition, oil
with thisisgoal
demand are smart
estimated to havesurfaces,
decreased i.e., by
tiles that[15].
9.3% produce electricity
An example from the pressure
of technology ap-
in line with
plied
this goalby are
the smart
peoplesurfaces,
who step ontiles
i.e., them.thatThe core ofelectricity
produce this technology
from the is the harvester,
pressure which
applied by
canpeople
the exploitwho different
step ontransduction
them. The core mechanisms, such as piezoelectric,
of this technology is the harvester, triboelectric,
which can electro-
exploit
different
magnetic,transduction mechanisms,
electronic conditioning such asand
systems, piezoelectric,
the materialtriboelectric,
constitutingelectromagnetic,
the tile.
electronic
This conditioning
paragraph providessystems,an and the material
overview of the constituting the tile. of operation, prob-
physical principle
lems,This
andparagraph provides an in
current developments overview
this field,of focusing
the physical principle of operation,
on piezoelectric, triboelectricprob-
and
lems, and currentharvesters.
electromagnetic developments in this field, focusing on piezoelectric, triboelectric and
electromagnetic harvesters.
2.1. Transduction Mechanisms, Conditioning Sections, Operational Strategies Applied to Smart
2.1. Transduction
Floor ApplicationsMechanisms, Conditioning Sections, Operational Strategies Applied to Smart
Floor Applications
Electrical energy can be scavenged by footsteps in three convenient ways: from the
Electrical energy can be scavenged by footsteps in three convenient ways: from the
direct piezoelectric effect, electrostatic energy produced by the contact of two different
direct piezoelectric effect, electrostatic energy produced by the contact of two different
triboelectric layers, and electromagnetic effect, or using mechanical solutions to convert
triboelectric layers, and electromagnetic effect, or using mechanical solutions to convert the
the linear movement to rotate for the electromagnetic generator.
linear movement to rotate for the electromagnetic generator.
2.1.1.Piezoelectric-Based
2.1.1. Piezoelectric-BasedSmart SmartFloor
FloorSolutions:
Solutions:Working
WorkingPrinciple
Principleandand Theoretical Fun-
damentals
Theoretical Fundamentals
Acommon
A commonapproach
approachto todesigning
designingaapiezoelectric-harvesting
piezoelectric-harvesting structure,
structure, called
called piezo-
piezo-
electricdevice
electric deviceflooring
flooringlayers,
layers, isisshown
shownin inFigure
Figure11[16,17].
[16,17].The
Thetile
tilecomprised
comprisedaafloating
floating
surfacesuspended
surface suspendedbyby springs
springs above
above thethe piezoelectric
piezoelectric elements;
elements; thetravels
the tile tile travels down-
downwards
when
wardspressure is applied
when pressure to its surface.
is applied The projections
to its surface. on the tile
The projections surface
on the come into
tile surface come touch
into
with
touch the piezoelectric
with substance.
the piezoelectric There There
substance. is enough space space
is enough between the springs’
between surface
the springs’ and
surface
the
andtile
thefor free
tile fordeflection. The imparted
free deflection. The impartedforce creates strainsstrains
force creates inside inside
the piezoelectric mate-
the piezoelectric
rial, which generate electric charges. The spring ensures that the piezo
material, which generate electric charges. The spring ensures that the piezo material re- material remains
stable
mainsand is not
stable anddamaged by the extra
is not damaged load.
by the Theload.
extra base The
platebase
is securely
plate isfitted into the
securely frame
fitted into
to support
the frame to thesupport
piezo material
the piezo during compression
material [18].
during compression [18].

Figure1.1.Example
Figure Exampleof
ofpiezoelectric
piezoelectrictile.
tile.

The piezoelectricity represents the generation of electric charge in solid material (such
as crystals, ceramics, DNA, or some proteins) from a pressure variation on the sensor. It
is a reversible process in crystal materials with an asymmetric electric balance center: the
electric charge is generated after applying pressure on the material (direct piezoelectric
 The piezoelectricity represents the generation of electric charge in solid material
(such as crystals, ceramics, DNA, or some proteins) from a pressure variation on the sen-
Energies 2022, 15, 432 sor. It is a reversible process in crystal materials with an asymmetric electric balance4 cen- of 38

ter: the electric charge is generated after applying pressure on the material (direct piezoe-
lectric effect). Conversely, an extension or contraction of the material can be obtained by
applying an electrican
effect). Conversely, field (reverse
extension orpiezoelectric
contraction ofeffect).
the material can be obtained by applying
an electric field (reversephenomenon
The piezoelectric piezoelectricdepends
effect). on the chemical structure of the solid. The
The piezoelectric
polarization vector (and phenomenon
the directlydepends on the
proportional chemical
charge structure
density) of the
changes solid.
with the The
ap-
polarization
plied mechanical vectorstress
(and the directly
because proportional
it causes charge
the charge density) changes
separation with the applied
in the individual atoms:
mechanical
they get pushedstressaround,
becauseand it causes the charge
suddenly separation
the crystal in thean
can conduct individual
electrical atoms:
currentthey get
(Figure
pushed around, and suddenly the crystal can conduct an electrical current
2) [19]. Polycrystalline ceramic, the piezoelectric material with the highest activity, com- (Figure 2) [19].
Polycrystalline
prises ceramic, randomly
small crystallites the piezoelectric material
oriented. Thesewith the constituted
last are highest activity, comprises
by small small
“domains”,
crystallites
or randomlybyoriented.
regions featured These last
similar dipole are constituted
configurations; the by smalleffect
global “domains”,
of polarordomains
regions
featured randomly
oriented by similar is dipole
a lackconfigurations; the global
of piezoelectricity at first.effect of polar
However, domains oriented
macroscopic ran-
polarization
domly is a lack of piezoelectricity at first. However, macroscopic polarization
is conferred to the material by a poling process. Examples of piezoelectric materials are is conferred
to the material
natural quartz by a poling
crystals, process. Examples
polycrystalline of piezoelectric
piezo-ceramics, materials arepolyvinylidene
semi-crystalline natural quartz
crystals, polycrystalline
polymer, bone, and wood. piezo-ceramics, semi-crystalline polyvinylidene polymer, bone,
and wood.

.
Figure 2.
Figure Piezoelectric effect
2. Piezoelectric effect in
in quartz.
quartz.
The single crystals PZN-PT (lead zirconate titanate) and PMN-PT (lead magnesium
The single crystals PZN-PT (lead zirconate titanate) and PMN-PT (lead magnesium
niobate-lead titanate) have the best piezoelectric characteristics but are more temperature-
niobate-lead titanate) have the best piezoelectric characteristics but are more temperature-
sensitive, fatigue sensitive, and difficult to manufacture. As a result, PZT continues to be the
sensitive, fatigue sensitive, and difficult to manufacture. As a result, PZT continues to be
most widely used piezoelectric material in energy harvesters [20]. Another useful material
the most
is the widely used barium
polycrystalline piezoelectric
titanatematerial
(BaTiOin energy harvesters [20]. Another useful ma-
3 ), with a positive temperature coefficient of
terial is the polycrystalline barium titanate
resistance, which makes it applicable for thermistors (BaTiO 3), with a positive temperature coeffi-
and self-regulating electric heating
cient of resistance, which makes it applicable for
systems. PZT (Lead Zirconate Titanate) transducers like a cymbal, thermistors and self-regulating
conical, and electric
PMUT
heating systems. PZT (Lead Zirconate Titanate) transducers like
(Piezoelectric Micromachined Ultrasonic Transducers) are suitable for high-frequency a cymbal, conical, and
PMUT
operation.(Piezoelectric Micromachined
On the contrary, Ultrasonic
harvesters realised withTransducers)
piezopolymers are(PVDF-
suitable for high-fre-
polyvinylidene
quency
fluoride,operation. On the
P(VDF-TrFE)) contrary,
featured harvesters realised
by semi-cylindrical shapewith
canpiezopolymers
be employed for(PVDF- poly-
applications
vinylidene fluoride, P(VDF-TrFE)) featured by semi-cylindrical shape
with a low-frequency [21]. The most employed piezo materials are PZT, PVDF, ZnO (Zinc can be employed
for applications
Oxide), and AlNwith a low-frequency
(Aluminium Nitride), [21].
etc.The most
[22]. Theemployed
cymbal and piezo materials
bridge are most
are the PZT,
PVDF, ZnO (Zinc Oxide), and AlN (Aluminium Nitride), etc [22]. The
common designs for piezoelectric harvesters [23]. Ceramic piezoelectric transducers are cymbal and bridge
are the most
relatively common
fragile; in fact,designs
they can forbepiezoelectric
destroyed when harvesters
exposed [23]. Ceramic
to energy piezoelectric
produced from
transducers
human motions are [24,25].
relatively fragile; inthere
Nowadays, fact,are
they can be structures
different destroyedofwhen exposedgenerators;
piezoelectric to energy
produced from
in particular, human
they motionsinto
are classified [24,25]. Nowadays, there are different structures of pie-
two categories:
zoelectric
• Single-Layer Piezoelectric Generators:classified
generators; in particular, they are into two
they consist of acategories:
piezoelectric foil and a
• Single-Layer
passive Piezoelectric Generators: they consist of a piezoelectric foil and a pas-
substrate;
• sive substrate;
Multi-Layer Piezoelectric Generators: they are constituted by a series of piezoelectric
• Multi-Layer
ceramic foilsPiezoelectric Generators:
stacked on each other andthey are constituted
enclosed betweenby twoa series of piezoelectric
electrodes (Figure 3).
ceramic
There is foils
onlystacked on eachbetween
one electrode other andtwoenclosed
adjacent between
foils to two electrodes
optimise (Figure 3).
the dimensions
There
and is onlyofone
number electrode between
components, realizing two adjacent
a stack of thinfoils to optimise
piezoelectric the (i.e.,
layers dimensions
<1 mm
and number
thickness) of components,
interposed realizing
between a stack
electrodes. Theofelectric
thin piezoelectric
fields (andlayers (i.e., <1 mm
consequently the
potential difference) generated by the single piezoelectric layer, perpendicular to the
foils, change towards each layer. A multi-layer piezo generator provides a lower
output voltage than that provided by a single-layer piezo harvester. Conversely, a
multi-layer generator provides an output current significantly higher than a single-
layer piezoelectric generator [26].
 than a single layer harvester, making the power extraction more simple [27] (Table 1).
However, the single-layer piezoelectric generators are commonly featured by a higher
output voltage than multi-layer ones, since the stacked structure increases the inner ca-
pacitance [28]. The multi-layer structure can be connected in series or parallel, resulting
in different device capacitances, output impedance, and charge distribution inside the
Energies 2022, 15, 432 5 of 38
generator [29]. Table 1 reports a comparison between single-layer and multi-layer gener-
ators, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages.

(a) (b)
Figure 3. Schematic representation of single-layer (a) and multi-layers piezoelectric generators (b).
Figure 3. Schematic representation of single-layer (a) and multi-layers piezoelectric generators (b).

Table 1.
TheComparison between
multi-layer single-layer
structures are a and multi-layer
common piezoelectric
solution generators.
for enhancing the output power
ofSingle-Layer
piezoelectric Piezoelectric
energy harvesters than a single-layer
Generator generator
Multi-Layer with the Generator
Piezoelectric same thickness.
Furthermore, multi-layer generators are featured by lower polarization voltage avoiding
Higher Output Voltage (+) Lower Output Voltage (−)
the breakdown risk during the polarization step; also, they show a lower output impedance
Lower Output Current (−) Higher Output Current (+)
than a single layer harvester, making the power extraction more simple [27] (Table 1).
Higher Output Impedance (−) Lower
However, the single-layer piezoelectric generators are commonly Output Impedance
featured by(+) a higher
outputLower
voltageInner
thanCapacitance (−) since the stacked
multi-layer ones, Higher Inner increases
structure Capacitance the (−)
inner capac-
Higher Polarization (−) Lower Polarization Voltage
itance [28]. The multi-layer structure can be connected in series or parallel, resulting (−) in
different device capacitances, output impedance, and charge distribution inside the gener-
atorKnowing how
[29]. Table quicklyaacomparison
1 reports piezoelectricbetween
transducer can respond
single-layer andtomulti-layer
an input solicitation
generators,
ishighlighting
useful information; the fundamental
their advantages resonant frequency (Fr) represents the main pa-
and disadvantages.
rameter contributing to this response. Up to its resonance frequency, a sinusoidal input
can be followed
Table by a between
1. Comparison piezo element; this and
single-layer last multi-layer
is unable topiezoelectric
keep up with stimulation beyond
generators.
this point due to inertia. The mechanical response time, tr, is the time taken by a piezoe-
Single-Layer Piezoelectric Generator Multi-Layer Piezoelectric Generator
lectric element to bring the amplitude of the oscillation from zero to its maximum positive
amplitude atHigher Output Voltage
the resonant (+) This parameter is 1/4
frequency. Lower
theOutput
time the Voltage (−)
transducer takes
to perform aLower
full bipolar cycle. Due
Output Current (−) to hysteresis and other losses, t is rarely obtained.
Higher Output Current (+)
r The
following Higher
formula is more realistic
Output Impedance (−) than the previous estimation:
Lower Output Impedance (+)
Lower Inner Capacitance (−) Higher Inner Capacitance (−)
1
Higher Polarization (−) 𝑡 ~ Lower Polarization Voltage (−) (1)
3𝐹
Knowing how quickly a piezoelectric transducer can respond to an input solicitation is
useful information; the fundamental resonant frequency (Fr) represents the main parameter
contributing to this response. Up to its resonance frequency, a sinusoidal input can be
followed by a piezo element; this last is unable to keep up with stimulation beyond this
point due to inertia. The mechanical response time, tr , is the time taken by a piezoelectric
element to bring the amplitude of the oscillation from zero to its maximum positive
amplitude at the resonant frequency. This parameter is 1/4 the time the transducer takes to
perform a full bipolar cycle. Due to hysteresis and other losses, tr is rarely obtained. The
following formula is more realistic than the previous estimation:

1
tr ∼ (1)
3Fr

A piezoelectric transducer working under its fundamental resonance frequency can

be viewed as a capacitive element responsible for supplying, withdrawing, and storing
charges. However, the generated charge could be lost through the piezo-material, bulk,
or external conditioning section. The equivalent scheme is represented in Figure 4. In the
resonance condition, the transducer can be modelled as a capacitor with a parallel resistor
 A piezoelectric transducer working under its fundamental resonance frequency can
be viewed as a capacitive element responsible for supplying, withdrawing, and storing
Energies 2022, 15, 432 charges. However, the generated charge could be lost through the piezo-material, bulk, 6 of 38
or external conditioning section. The equivalent scheme is represented in Figure 4. In the
resonance condition, the transducer can be modelled as a capacitor with a parallel resistor
(with
(witha value equal
a value toto
equal itsits
capacitance), modelling
capacitance), the
modelling environment
the oror
environment internal loss
internal within
loss within
the transducer.
the transducer.

Figure 4. 4.
Figure Electrical model
Electrical of of
model a piezoelectric transducer.
a piezoelectric transducer.

When
When the
the piezoelectrictransducer
piezoelectric transducerworks
worksnear
nearthe
theresonant
resonant frequency,
frequency, its impedance
impedanceis:
is: h  i
1
R1 + j ωL1 − ωC 1
jωC0 1
1

Z𝑅
+ 𝑗 𝜔𝐿
=  − 𝜔𝐶  1 (2)
1 1
R1 + j ωL1 − ωC +
𝑗𝜔𝐶 1 jωC 0
𝑍= (2)
1piezoelectric
1 transducer, C1 the dynamic ca-
𝑅 + 𝑗 𝜔𝐿 −
where C0 is the static clamping capacitor of the +
pacitor, L1 the dynamic inductance, and R1 the𝜔𝐶dynamic 𝑗𝜔𝐶
equivalent resistance, ascribable to
internal loss and external load. This formula shows that piezoelectric generator impedance
where
depends𝐶0 isonthe static clamping
frequency, changing capacitor
when the of resonant
the piezoelectric transducer,
state varies. 𝐶1 thecomponent
The resistance dynamic
capacitor, 𝐿
R1 is usually the dynamic inductance,
1 the impedance’s real part, whereas and 𝑅 1 thethe impedance’s imaginary part isascrib-
dynamic equivalent resistance, termed
able
theto internal loss and
anti-component external
X, and load.impedance
the series This formula is X1shows
. Whenthat
the piezoelectric
imaginary part generator
of X1 is 0,
impedance depends angular
the series resonant on frequency,
frequency changing
is (1/C1whenL1 )1/2 .the
Theresonant
minimumstate varies. frequency
impedance The re-
sistance component 𝑅 1 is usually the impedance’s real part,
f m is defined when the impedance Z is the lowest, whereas the maximum impedance whereas the impedance’s im-
aginary part is termed the anti-component X, and the series
frequency f n is defined when the impedance Z is the highest. Instead, the parallelimpedance is 𝑋 1 . When the
resonant
imaginary part of
frequency f p is reached𝑋 1 is 0, the series resonant angular frequency
when resistance R is maximum, whereas the resonant is (1/𝐶 𝐿
1 1 ) 1/2. The mini-
frequency
mum impedance
f r and frequency 𝑓frequency
the anti-resonance 𝑚
is defined when
f a are the impedance
obtained when the Z is the lowest, whereas
anti-component X1 is 0
the maximum
(Figure
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW impedance
5) [30]. frequency
At the resonance 𝑓𝑛 is defined
frequency, whencancellation
reactance the impedance Z is
of the the highest.
dynamic induc-
7 of 38
Instead,
tance andthe capacitance
parallel resonantoccurs. frequency
Application 𝑓𝑝 iscondition
reached of when resistance
the best R is maximum,
impedance matching is
obtained
whereas theforresonant
a transducerfrequency 𝑓𝑟 and state,
in a resonant where it behaves
the anti-resonance 𝑓𝑎 are
as a purely
frequency resistive
obtainedload.
For quasi-static
when the piezoelectric
anti-component 𝑋 elements,
is 0 (Figure 2/35) of the
[30]. fundamental
At the resonance
resonance frequency
frequency, signs
reactance
OP is obtained when the moved 1 charge corresponds to one-half the open-circuit voltage;
the limit ofofthe
cancellation useful frequency band;andfor resonant applications, the operating frequency
this conditionthe is dynamic
verified when inductance
the generated capacitance occurs.one-half
charge equals Application
of the condition of
short-circuit
range
thecharge is restricted
best impedance to a narrow band around the used resonant modes.
matching is obtained for a transducer in a resonant state, where it
[31].
behaves as a purely resistive load. For quasi-static piezoelectric elements, 2/3 of the fun-
damental resonance frequency signs the limit of the useful frequency band; for resonant
applications, the operating frequency range is restricted to a narrow band around the used
resonant modes.
Open-circuit voltage and short-circuit charges are commonly used to characterise pi-
ezoelectric generators. The overall charge created at the greatest suggested applied stress,
when the charge can move from one electrode to the other, and no output voltage is re-
quired, it is called a short-circuit charge or 𝑄 . The voltage created in correspondence to
the maximum suggested stress level with no charge moving from one electrode to the
other is defined as an open-circuit voltage or 𝑉 . When the voltage is zero, the charge is
highest; when charge transfer is zero, the voltage is maximum.
Generally, a piezo transducer produces a specified amount of charge and produces a
voltage, determining its operating point (OP) on the voltage vs. charge graph. The optimal
Figure 5.
Figure 5. Typical
Typical resonant
resonant characteristic
characteristic of
ofaapiezoelectric
piezoelectrictransducer.
transducer.

Open-circuit voltage and

The electromechanical short-circuit
coupling charges
coefficient are commonly
k expresses used to capability
the transducer’s characterise
to
piezoelectric generators.
convert mechanical The overall
to electrical energycharge createdThe
or vice-versa. at the
ratiogreatest suggested
of electrical energyapplied
output
stress, when theenergy
to mechanical chargeinput
can move fromtoone
is equal theelectrode to the other,
square of and coefficient.
coupling no output voltage is
In a real
bending transducer, a fraction of its mechanical energy is stored in the mount and metal
support layer; thus, it is fundamental to maximise the output work of the piezoceramic
material compared to bending layers. The relative dielectric constant K is defined as the
ratio of piezoceramic material’s permittivity to that of empty space, 𝜀 ; K value establishes
Energies 2022, 15, 432 7 of 38

required, it is called a short-circuit charge or Qs . The voltage created in correspondence

to the maximum suggested stress level with no charge moving from one electrode to the
other is defined as an open-circuit voltage or Vo . When the voltage is zero, the charge is
highest; when charge transfer is zero, the voltage is maximum.
Generally, a piezo transducer produces a specified amount of charge and produces a
voltage, determining its operating point (OP) on the voltage vs. charge graph. The optimal
OP is obtained when the moved charge corresponds to one-half the open-circuit voltage;
this condition is verified when the generated charge equals one-half of the short-circuit
charge [31].
The electromechanical coupling coefficient k expresses the transducer’s capability to
convert mechanical to electrical energy or vice-versa. The ratio of electrical energy output
to mechanical energy input is equal to the square of the coupling coefficient. In a real
bending transducer, a fraction of its mechanical energy is stored in the mount and metal
support layer; thus, it is fundamental to maximise the output work of the piezoceramic
material compared to bending layers. The relative dielectric constant K is defined as the
ratio of piezoceramic material’s permittivity to that of empty space, ε 0 ; K value establishes
the sample capacitance according to the following equation [32]:

K eA
C= (3)
T
where A is the electrode surface, and T is the thickness of the ceramic layer or layers
between electrodes. As detailed above, high inner capacitance values are not desirable for
all harvesting applications, since they involve low output power from the piezoelectric gen-
erators. The piezoelectric voltage coefficients gij , elements of a 3 × 6 matrix G, correlating
the produced electric field E (with open-circuited electrodes) with applied stress T. The
coefficients gij are expressed in units of V/m per N/m2 [33].

Ei = − gij Tj (4)

The piezoelectric charge coefficient dij is defined as a third-order tensor, representable

as a 3 × 6 matrix, correlating the charge moved for unit area (with short-circuited electrodes),
expressed in C/m2 , with the applied stress T. The coefficients dij are expressed in C/N [33].

Di = dij Tj (5)

Moreover, Young’s modulus Y is defined as the stress required to generate a unit strain,
describing the material stiffness in units of N/m2 . Since mechanical stress applied on a
piezoceramic element produces an electrical response opposing the corresponding strain,
the effective Young’s modulus with short-circuited electrodes is lower than that with the
open-circuited electrodes [31].
However, for the considered application, the piezoelectric generator must operate
with low (Hz-range) and random frequency solicitations derived from human movements;
this means that the applied frequency does not match with the piezoelectric generator’s
resonant frequency, resulting in reduced conversion efficiencies. As detailed in Section 2.2,
several frequency up-conversion techniques that stimulate a harvester from low-frequency
input vibration have recently been investigated to attain a high harvesting efficiency. These
solutions make the oscillation frequency always tuned to the resonant frequency regardless
of the vibration source. A commonly used solution is to initially deflect the piezoelectric
cantilever or disk, leaving it oscillating. Mechanical contact or non-contact magnetic
interaction can be implemented to provide an initial deflection. This strategy is applied
to convert a low-frequency vibration resulting from pedestrian steps into usable electrical
energy [34,35].
Energies 2022, 15, 432 8 of 38

2.1.2. Electromagnetic-Based Smart Floor and Power Management Solutions: Working

Principle and Theoretical Fundamentals
Most of the energy produced by piezoelectric generators is localised around their
natural frequency, greater than 200 Hz, but the human motion has a bandwidth from 1 to
10 Hz. On the other hand, the electromagnetic generators work near this frequency range;
as a result, they are better suited to gather energy from human movement. Furthermore,
electromagnetic generators have a higher power density and a lower cost than piezoelectric
generators. For energy harvesting floors, the main limitations regard the size and depth of
the device, given the reduced available space, whereas there is not any limitation related
to weight. An electromagnetic harvester scheme can employ different electromagnetic
sources, such as electromagnetic generators or magnet-coil systems [36]. The dynamo is
an example of an electromagnetic generator; it is a commutator-based electrical generator
that generates a direct current (DC). Considering the limitations of the dimensions and
displacement involved in energy harvesting tiles (15 ÷ 20 mm), small 12 V or 24 V DC
motors are employed. The synchronous generator can be used for harvesting applications,
where the rotation speed is synchronised with the electrical frequency [37]. The brushless
DC generator has no brushes or commutators and are therefore safer and more reliable
than standard brushed DC generators because no brushes are rubbing against anything,
and so no energy is lost due to friction.
Another way to produce electromagnetic energy is by working directly on induction
law or Faraday’s law. This last states that the electromotive force induced into a close circuit
equals the negative derivative with respect to the time of the magnetic flux concatenated
by the circuit. This means that energy can be scavenged by moving a magnet in a copper
coil [38].
∂φ
E = −N B (6)
∂t
E is the electromotive force, φB the magnetic flux, and N the number of coils. Moreover,
Lenz’s law defines the direction of induced electromotive force. If the magnet is moving in
the coils, the induced voltage is [38]:

E = Blv (7)

where v is the magnet’s translation speed, l is the coil length, and B is the magnetic induction
of the magnet. The efficiency of energy generation is heavily affected by the transmission
efficiency, as well as that of the generator. However, size restrictions to the gearing system
inhibit the generation efficiency, since mechanical and electrical loss increase. In the
literature, microscale magnetic generators have demonstrated efficiencies from 10% to 70%
for milliwatt power generations.
Then, the power management section and storage device convert and store the electri-
cal energy from AC-generated signals (Figure 6). The rectifier converts the AC voltage to
DC; these last are classified as passive or active depending on the devices employed and
whether or not an external DC power supply is required. In passive rectification, passive
filtering devices and diodes are commonly employed. In contrast, the active rectifiers
commonly utilise MOSFETs and BJTs as switches, and active drive or control circuits must
control them. As a result, a DC power supply, normally external, is required to power
the active components. Besides, the rectifiers can be single half-wave or double half-wave
rectifiers. Adopting four diodes arranged in the well-known Graetz bridge configuration
allows us to obtain a signal that combines a positive half-wave and the inverted negative
half-wave (double half-wave).
 control
controlthem.
them.As
Asaaresult,
result,aaDC
DCpower
powersupply,
supply,normally
normallyexternal,
external,isisrequired
requiredto
topower
powerthethe
active
active components. Besides, the rectifiers can be single half-wave or double half-waverec-
components. Besides, the rectifiers can be single half-wave or double half-wave rec-
Energies 2022, 15, 432 tifiers.
tifiers.Adopting
Adoptingfour
fourdiodes
diodesarranged
arrangedin inthe
thewell-known
well-knownGraetz
Graetzbridge
bridgeconfiguration9 ofal-
configuration al-
38
lows us to obtain a signal that combines a positive half-wave and the inverted
lows us to obtain a signal that combines a positive half-wave and the inverted negative negative
half-wave
half-wave(double
(doublehalf-wave).
half-wave).

Figure 6.6.Example
Figure6.
Figure of
Exampleof
Example ofaaapower
power management
powermanagement system
managementsystem of
systemof the
ofthe EM
theEM harvester
EMharvester [36].
harvester[36].
[36].

This
This solution,
This solution, widely
solution, widely used
widely usedused in in power
in power supplies,
powersupplies, makes
supplies, makesmakes the the subsequent
thesubsequent filtering
subsequent filtering and
filtering andand
levelling of the voltage much easier until
levelling of the voltage much easier until a DCvoltage a DC voltage is obtained,
obtained, without requiring aa
voltage isobtained, without requiring
transformer
transformer
transformerwith with double
withdouble winding
doublewinding
windingand and
andaaacentral
central
centraltap.tap.The
Themain
maindisadvantage
disadvantageof ofthis
thismethod
method
the
isisthe voltage
thevoltage drop
voltagedrop
drop equal
equal
equaltoto
that
to that
of of
that of two
two diodes
diodes
two diodes in
in series,
in series, which
series, which isis about
is about
which 1.4
1.4 volts.
1.4 volts.
about WhenWhen
volts. very
When
very
small small voltages
voltages are are considered,
considered, the the
excessiveexcessive
loss loss
and and distortion
distortion
very small voltages are considered, the excessive loss and distortion could be intolerable could could
be be intolerable
intolerable [39].
[39]. Conventional
Conventional passive passive
full-wavefull-wave
bridge bridge rectification
rectification has fourhas four junction-based
junction-based
[39]. Conventional passive full-wave bridge rectification has four junction-based diodes diodes diodes
(p/n or
(p/n
(p/n or Schottky). To eliminate forward voltage drop across the diodes and power lossin
or
Schottky). Schottky).
To To
eliminate eliminate
forward forward
voltage voltage
drop acrossdropthe across
diodes theand diodes
power and
losspower
in the loss
diode- in
the
the diode-based
based diode-based full-wave
full-wave rectifiers,
full-wavetwo rectifiers,
P-type two
rectifiers, two P-type
and two
P-type and
and two
N-type two N-type
MOSFETs N-type can MOSFETs
be used, can
MOSFETs in
can be
be used,
particular
used,
in
in particular
inside
particular inside
integrated integrated
circuits
inside circuits
fabricated
integrated with
circuits fabricated with
with CMOS
CMOS technology.
fabricated CMOS technology.
Active Active
Active or
or synchronous
technology. syn-
orrecti-
syn-
fiers increase
chronous the conversion efficiency by decreasing the voltage
chronous rectifiers increase the conversion efficiency by decreasing the voltage drop in
rectifiers increase the conversion efficiency by decreasing drop in
the circuit
voltage elements
drop in
and
circuitpower
circuit lossesand
elements
elements in switches.
and power
powerlosses Nevertheless,
losses in
inswitches.
switches. active components
Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, activeinvolve
active a supplementary
components
components involve
involveaa
power consumption
supplementary
supplementary power
power on the rectifier. Active
consumption
consumption on
on the components
the rectifier. are a disadvantage
rectifier. Active
Active componentsinare
components energy
are har-
aa disad-
disad-
vesters’
vantage power conditioning circuits, since their output power
vantage in energy harvesters’ power conditioning circuits, since their output power isis
in energy harvesters’ power conditioning circuits, is limited.
since their Therefore,
output passive
power
MOSFET
limited. rectifiers passive
limited.Therefore,
Therefore, represent
passiveMOSFET the optimal
MOSFET solution
rectifiers
rectifiers for rectifying
represent
represent the
theoptimal
optimal thesolution
signals generated
solution for
forrectifying by
rectifying
electromagnetic
the
thesignals
signalsgeneratedharvesters
generatedby (Figure
byelectromagnetic 7) [40].
electromagneticharvesters harvesters(Figure
(Figure7) 7)[40].
[40].

Figure
Figure7.7.Power
Powerefficiency
efficiencyof
offull-wave
full-waverectifiers
rectifiersas
asaafunction
functionof
ofinput
inputvoltage
voltageVVinin(left);
(left);full-wave
full-wave
Figure
rectifier Power efficiency
7.constituted of full-wave rectifiers as a two
function of input voltage V(right)
in (left); full-wave
rectifier constituted by two PMOS (P-M1, P-M2) and two NMOS (N-M1, N-M2) (right)[40].
by two PMOS (P-M1, P-M2) and NMOS (N-M1, N-M2) [40].
rectifier constituted by two PMOS (P-M1, P-M2) and two NMOS (N-M1, N-M2) (right) [40].

The buck-boost converter transduces the time-varying DC voltage in output from the
rectifier into DC power suitable for battery recharging. In addition, they must operate
following a matching-impedance circuit for ensuring the maximum power transfer from
harvester to conditioning section. Essentially, a boost converter does the opposite of a buck
 The buck-boost converter transduces the time-varying DC voltage in output from the
rectifier into DC power suitable for battery recharging. In addition, they must operate
Energies 2022, 15, 432 following a matching-impedance circuit for ensuring the maximum power transfer10from of 38
harvester to conditioning section. Essentially, a boost converter does the opposite of a
buck converter or a step-down converter, which reduces—rather than raises—the DC
voltage.
converter Theor buck-boost
a step-downconverters
converter,include both types, making
which reduces—rather thanthem suitableDC
raises—the forvoltage.
every
DC
Thesource.
buck-boostIn particular,
convertersbuck and boost
include converters
both types, making canthem
be combined
suitable forin the 4-switch
every con-
DC source.
verter. It has two
In particular, modes
buck of operation:
and boost buck
converters (step-down)
can be combined andinboost (step-up).
the 4-switch A two-switch
converter. It has
buck-boost
two modesconverter can buck
of operation: be created using two
(step-down) anddiodes; however, A
boost (step-up). upgrading
two-switch thebuck-boost
diodes to
FET transistor
converter can beswitches
created is relatively
using inexpensive,
two diodes; however, and the efficiency
upgrading improves
the diodes to FET due to the
transistor
reduced
switchesvoltage drop inexpensive,
is relatively [41]. The double-switch buck-boost
and the efficiency converter
improves due to based on diodevoltage
the reduced recti-
drop [41].
fication The double-switch
is defined buck-boosthowever,
as non-synchronous; converterMOSFET
based on replaces
diode rectification
the diode is indefined
a syn-
as non-synchronous;
chronous however,[42].
conversion scheme MOSFET replaces the
The four-switch diode in aconverter
buck-boost synchronous conversion
is featured by
scheme [42]. regulation;
synchronous The four-switch buck-boost
in buck-boost converter
mode, is featured by
the gate-control synchronous
signal of Q3 andregulation;
Q4 MOS
isinshared,
buck-boost mode, the gate-control
complementary to that usedsignal
for Q1ofandQ3Q2and(Figure
Q4 MOS is shared,
8). The complementary
four-switch synchro-
to that
nous used for Q1
buck-boost and converter
(FSBB) Q2 (Figureis 8). The for
suited four-switch synchronoussystems
battery management buck-boost (FSBB)
because of
converter is suited for battery management systems because of its broad
its broad input voltage range, high efficiency, and positive voltage output [41]. Other input voltage range,
high efficiency,
DC/DC conversionandsolutions
positive voltage output
are flyback, [41].and
sepic Other
ĆukDC/DC
converters;conversion solutionsare
their topologies are
flyback,tosepic
similar and Ćuk converters;
the buck-boost converters.their topologies are similar to the buck-boost converters.

Schematicofofaatwo-switch
Figure8.8.Schematic
Figure two-switchbuck-boost
buck-boostconverter:
converter:MOSFETs
MOSFETsQ1
Q1and
andQ2
Q2share
shareaagate-control
gate-control
signaland
signal andswitch
switchon
onandandoff
off at
at the
the same
same time
time in
in buck-boost
buck-boost mode.
mode.

In the
In the end,
end, maximum
maximum power
powertransfer,
transfer,called
calledconjugate matching,
conjugate matching,is obtained when
is obtained whenthe
source’s output impedance corresponds with the complex conjugate of the load
the source’s output impedance corresponds with the complex conjugate of the load im- impedance.
In contrast,
pedance. minimalminimal
In contrast, signal reflection is guaranteed
signal reflection whenever
is guaranteed the source
whenever impedance
the source imped-
matches the load impedance, called reflection-less matching. Solutions based on
ance matches the load impedance, called reflection-less matching. Solutions based on ca- capacitors
and inductors
pacitors can be used
and inductors to obtain
can be used tothe maximal
obtain power transfer
the maximal [43,44]. [43,44].
power transfer
2.1.3. Triboelectric-Based Floor Solutions: Working Principle and Theoretical Fundamentals
2.1.3. Triboelectric-Based Floor Solutions: Working Principle and Theoretical Fundamen-
tals The triboelectric effect works by contact triboelectrification and electrostatic induction
between two materials featured by different polarities by applying an external force on the
The triboelectric effect works by contact triboelectrification and electrostatic induc-
tile’s surface, inducing opposite distribution of charges between the layers [45] (Figure 9).
tion between two materials featured by different polarities by applying an external force
There is no overlap between the electron clouds of two materials before they come into
on the tile’s surface, inducing opposite distribution of charges between the layers [45]
atomic-scale contact, and an attractive force occurs. The electrons are so firmly confined
(Figure 9). There is no overlap between the electron clouds of two materials before they
in their orbits that they cannot escape. When two atoms in two materials come close
come into the
together, atomic-scale contact,overlap
electron clouds and anandattractive
createforce occurs.
an ionic The electrons
or covalent bond.areAnsoexternal
firmly
confined in their orbits that they cannot escape. When two atoms in two
force can reduce the bond length; the strong electron clouds overlapping causes the energymaterials come
close together, the electron clouds overlap and create an ionic or covalent bond.
barrier drop, allowing electron transfer, representing the triboelectrification process. The An exter-
nal force canelectrons
transferred reduce the bondon
remain length; the strongmaterials
the respective electron clouds
after theoverlapping
two atoms causes the
have been
energy
separatedbarrier drop,
because allowing
energy electrontotransfer,
is required move them representing the triboelectrification
back, resulting pro-
in electrostatic charges
cess. The transferred electrons remain on the respective materials after the
on the material’s surfaces. The triboelectric effect will introduce stable dynamic chargetwo atoms have
been separated
transfer, held atbecause energy is interface,
the tribological required to move them
featured back, resulting
by capacitive in electrostatic
characteristics. Some
charges
typical triboelectric materials are polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), fluorinated dynamic
on the material’s surfaces. The triboelectric effect will introduce stable ethylene
charge
propylenetransfer,
(FEP),held at thenitrile,
silicone, tribological interface,
polyethene featured by
terephthalate capacitive
(PET), characteristics.
polydimethylsiloxane
(PDMS), metals (Cu, Al, Ni, etc.), skin, graphene, water, etc. [22] The most crucial issue
in triboelectricity is to experimentally design the triboelectric series, which gives a broad
concept of how charging happens when two materials come into contact via rubbing,
pushing, or friction. The greater charge transferred is obtained farther away the two
materials are on the electrification scale (Figure 10) [46].
 Some typical triboelectric materials are polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), fluorinated eth-
Some typical triboelectric materials are polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), fluorinated eth-
ylene propylene (FEP), silicone, nitrile, polyethene terephthalate (PET), polydime-
ylene propylene (FEP), silicone, nitrile, polyethene terephthalate (PET), polydime-
thylsiloxane (PDMS), metals (Cu, Al, Ni, etc.), skin, graphene, water, etc. [22] The most
thylsiloxane (PDMS), metals (Cu, Al, Ni, etc.), skin, graphene, water, etc. [22] The most
crucial issue in triboelectricity is to experimentally design the triboelectric series, which
crucial issue in triboelectricity is to experimentally design the triboelectric series, which
gives a broad concept of how charging happens when two materials come into contact via
Energies 2022, 15, 432 gives a broad concept of how charging happens when two materials come into contact via
11 ofthe
38
rubbing, pushing, or friction. The greater charge transferred is obtained farther away
rubbing, pushing, or friction. The greater charge transferred is obtained farther away the
two materials are on the electrification scale (Figure 10) [46].
two materials are on the electrification scale (Figure 10) [46].

Figure 9. Electron-cloud-potential-well model to explain triboelectrification between two materials

Figure9.9.Electron-cloud-potential-well
Figure
[45]. Electron-cloud-potential-well model
model to explain
to explain triboelectrification
triboelectrification between
between two materials
two materials [45].
[45].

Figure10.
10. Electrificationscale
scale fortriboelectric
triboelectric seriesdesign
design [35].
Figure 10.Electrification
Figure Electrification scalefor
for triboelectricseries
series design[35].
[35].
Zhao et
Zhao et al. demonstrated
demonstratedthatthatthethepolyvinyl
polyvinylchloride
chloride (PVC)
(PVC) film,
film,widely
widely used
usedin the
in
Zhao et al. demonstrated that the polyvinyl chloride (PVC) film, widely used in the
industry
the industrybut not
but in TENG
not (Triboelecric
in TENG Nanogenerators)
(Triboelecric development,
Nanogenerators) development,presented optimal
presented
industry but not in TENG (Triboelecric Nanogenerators) development, presented optimal
performances
optimal in terms in
performances of terms
surfaceofcharge
surfacedensity,
chargepolarization strength, friction
density, polarization strength, coefficient,
friction
performances in terms of surface charge density, polarization strength, friction coefficient,
charge’s utilization
coefficient, rate, andrate,
charge’s utilization stability [47]; this
and stability material
[47]; is suitable
this material for developing
is suitable for developing DC
charge’s utilization rate, and stability [47]; this material is suitable for developing DC
TENGs,
DC TENGs, thatthat
do notdo need any rectification
not need circuit.
any rectification Specifically,
circuit. the effective
Specifically, charge charge
the effective density
TENGs, that do not need any rectification circuit. Specifically, the −2 effective charge density
for a microstructured
density TENG based
for a microstructured TENGon PVCon
based can obtain
PVC ~8.80 mC·m
can obtain ~8.80 mC ·m−2a, new
, fixing fixingTENG’s
a new
for a microstructured TENG based on PVC can obtain ~8.80 mC·m−2, fixing a new TENG’s
record. record.
TENG’s
record.
There
Therearearefour working
four working modes
modesfor TENGs:
for TENGs:vertical contact
vertical mode,mode,
contact lateral lateral
sliding sliding
mode,
single There are mode,four working modes fortriboelectric
TENGs: vertical contact mode,11) lateral sliding
mode,electrode
single electrodeand free-standing
mode, and free-standing layer mode
triboelectric layer(Figure
mode (Figure [48].11)
In the
[48].
mode,
vertical single electrode
contact-separation mode, and
mode, the free-standing
potential triboelectric
drop is drop
caused layer mode (Figure 11) [48].
In the vertical contact-separation mode, the potential is by
causedthe physical contact and
by the physical con-
In the vertical
separation of twocontact-separation
materials. mode, flow
the potential drop is caused by the physical con-
tact and separation of two The electrons
materials. through
The electrons the
flow external
through connection
the externaland balance
connection
tact
the and separation of two materials. The electrons flow through the external connection
andpotential
balance difference.
the potential Thedifference.
lateral sliding
The mode
lateralissliding
defined as two
mode materialsassliding
is defined against
two materials
and balance the potential difference. The lateral sliding mode is defined
one other in a relative parallel motion, producing triboelectric charges and polarization as two materials
fluctuations with the relative contact area.
In single electrode mode, only the triboelectric material and a grounded single electrode
guarantee the potential variations. Lastly, in the free-standing mode, the symmetric elec-
trodes are placed on the back of one triboelectric material, causing the electron flow when
another material travels over the surface and generating an uneven charge distribution.
 sliding against one other in a relative parallel motion, producing triboelectric charges and
polarization fluctuations with the relative contact area.
In single electrode mode, only the triboelectric material and a grounded single elec-
trode guarantee the potential variations. Lastly, in the free-standing mode, the symmetric
electrodes are placed on the back of one triboelectric material, causing the electron flow
Energies 2022, 15, 432 12 of 38
when another material travels over the surface and generating an uneven charge distri-
bution.

Figure 11.
Figure 11. The
The four
fourfundamental
fundamentalmodes
modesofofTENGs:
TENGs:vertical
verticalcontact
contactmode,
mode, lateral
lateral sliding
sliding mode,
mode, sin-
single
gle electrode mode, and free-standing triboelectric layer mode
electrode mode, and free-standing triboelectric layer mode [48]. [48].

Usually, in
Usually, in energy
energy harvesting
harvesting tiles,
tiles, the
the vertical
vertical contact
contact mode
mode is is exploited,
exploited, including
including
two plates
two plates covered
covered by by the
the triboelectric
triboelectric materials.
materials. Periodic
Periodic plate’s
plate’s contact
contact andand separation
separation
due to
due tohuman
humantrampling
trampling causes
causes friction
friction between
between them, them, generating
generating an electric
an electric signal, signal,
which
which suitably
suitably conditioned,
conditioned, is preserved
is preserved into a storage
into a storage device. device.
Surface charge
Surface densityσ𝜎measures
chargedensity measures thethe charge
charge generation
generation on onbothboth materials,
materials, estab-
establish-
lishing
ing the triboelectric
the triboelectric efficiency
efficiency of transducer.
of the the transducer. It is Itthe
is basic
the basic parameter,
parameter, determining
determining the
surface power density and volume energy density. Furthermore,
the surface power density and volume energy density. Furthermore, as demonstrated in as demonstrated in the
following
the following function, the surface
function, charge
the surface density
charge is a helpful
density metricmetric
is a helpful for linking and analyzing
for linking and ana-
surface capacitance
lyzing surface characteristics
capacitance and interface
characteristics electrical
and interface performance.
electrical performance.
𝑉 = 𝑓(𝑄) ≅ 𝑓(𝐴 ∙ 𝜎)

(8)
V = f ( Q) ∼ = f Ae f f ·σ (8)
where Q is the surface charge on Aeff effective area; the accumulated charge generates a
voltageQVis[49].
where the surface
Through charge
contact Aeff effective area;
onelectrification, the accumulated
the contacted charge
triboelectric generates
surfaces show a
oppositeVsurface
voltage [49]. Through
chargescontact
but with electrification,
the same density the contacted triboelectric
σ (Table 2). The charge surfaces
polarity show
and
opposite
intensity surface charges
are affected but materials
by the with the same density
and other σ (Table
factors, such2).asThe charge
surface polarity and
processing, the
intensity are affected by the materials and other factors, such as
surfaces width, contact pressure, rubbing intensity, environmental conditions (such as hu- surface processing, the
surfaces width, contact
midity), presence pressure, rubbing
of contaminants intensity,
or oxidants, environmental
and rapidity with which conditions (suchsur-
the contact as
humidity), presence of contaminants or oxidants, and rapidity
faces are removed. Besides, load stress is fundamental in the triboelectric generation sincewith which the contact
surfaces are removed.
it binds mechanical andBesides, loadbehaviours.
electrical stress is fundamental
Understanding in themechanical
triboelectric generation
reactions can
since it binds mechanical and electrical behaviours. Understanding
provide a solid base and effective tool for developing future triboelectric harvesters. mechanical reactions
As a
can provide
result, a solid baseeffect
the triboelectric and iseffective
greatlytool for developing
dependent on the load.future triboelectric
Humidity and harvesters.
acidity im-
As a result, the triboelectric effect is greatly dependent
pact the triboelectric effect concerning ion/polarity generation and chemical on the load. Humidity andreaction.
acidity
impact the triboelectric effect concerning ion/polarity generation
When a hygroscopic surface works in a moist environment, more water or salt will be and chemical reaction.
When
attracteda hygroscopic
before/during surface works in
triboelectric a moist
contact, environment,
forming more layer,
a conducting water causing
or salt will
chargebe
attracted before/during triboelectric contact, forming a conducting layer, causing charge
leakage [49]. The TENG output performances are deteriorated by increasing environmental
humidity because of the electrostatic dissipation. This effect is critical for outdoor applica-
tions, making them suitable in controlled environments [50]. Furthermore, by increasing
the size of triboelectric tiles and connecting more devices in parallel, the output power
provided by the energy harvesting floor can be increased.
 leakage [49]. The TENG output performances are deteriorated by increasing environmen-
tal humidity because of the electrostatic dissipation. This effect is critical for outdoor ap-
plications, making them suitable in controlled environments [50]. Furthermore, by in-
Energies 2022, 15, 432 13 of 38
creasing the size of triboelectric tiles and connecting more devices in parallel, the output
power provided by the energy harvesting floor can be increased.
There are two categories of triboelectric material pairs: dielectric-to-dielectric and
conductor-to-dielectric
Table contact
2. Surface charge density (Figure
after 12) [51]. for different materials [48].
triboelectrification

Material
Table 2. Surface charge Pair after triboelectrification for different
density Charge (C/m2 )
Density[48].
materials
Chromium-Chromium 2.02 × 10–8
Material Pair Charge Density (C/m2)
Chromium-Steel 3.37 × 10–8
Chromium-Chromium
Chromium-Gold 2.02×× 10
6.73 10–8–8

Chromium-Steel
Metal-SiO2 (quartz) 3.37
~10 ×–510–8
Chromium-Gold
Metal-NaCl 6.73
5.0 ××1010–4–8
Metal-Nylon ~10 –3
Metal-SiO2 (quartz) ~10–5
Metal-PTFE ~10 –4 –3
Metal-NaCl 5.0 ×–10
10–3–4
Metal-Polyimide 3.0 × 10
Metal-Nylon ~10–3
Metal-PTFE ~10–4–10–3
There are Metal-Polyimide
two categories of triboelectric material pairs: dielectric-to-dielectric
3.0 × 10–3 and
conductor-to-dielectric contact (Figure 12) [51].

Figure12.
Figure 12.Triboelectric
Triboelectricpairs:
pairs: dielectric-to-dielectric
dielectric-to-dielectric and
and conductor-to-dielectric
conductor-to-dielectric contact
contact[51].
[51].

Thefollowing
The following equation
equation expresses
expresses the
the capacitance
capacitance of
of the
the tribo-dielectric
tribo-dielectric layers:
layers:
𝑄 𝜀 𝑆
C𝐶== 𝑉SC =
= ε0S
Q (9)
d𝑑0 ++x (𝑥(𝑡)
(9)
VOC t)
whereCCand
where andSSarearecapacitance
capacitance and
and contact area; d00 the
contact area; the effective
effective dielectric
dielectricthickness
thicknessgiven given
by the sum of the dielectric thicknesses divided for its relative permittivity ε
by the sum of the dielectric thicknesses divided for its relative permittivity εr , as well as x(t)
r , as well as
x(t) is the distance between the triboelectric layers [51]. Employing a
is the distance between the triboelectric layers [51]. Employing a porous dielectric layerporous dielectric
layer
in in a triboelectric
a triboelectric harvester,
harvester, for example,
for example, allows allows
improving improving
the ε/dthe ε/dby
ratio ratio
jointlyby jointly
raising
raising the dielectric constant and lowering the thickness when the
the dielectric constant and lowering the thickness when the dielectric layer is squeezed, dielectric layer is
squeezed,inresulting
resulting in a considerable
a considerable increasecharge
increase in surface in surface charge
density. As density.
a result, As
theatriboelectric
result, the
triboelectric
layer’s layer’s
dielectric dielectric
constant constant
is a more is a more
influential influential
factor factor surface
in improving in improving
chargesurface
density
charge
than thedensity
surfacethan the surface
potential potential
determined determined pair
by triboelectric by triboelectric pair material
material selection [51]. selec-
tion Li
[51].
et al. in ref [52], have maximised the charge density by improving the charge
Li et al., process.
accumulation in ref [52], have
The maximised
charge the charge
accumulation ratedensity by improving
can be efficiently the charge
accelerated viaac-
ion
cumulation process. The charge accumulation rate can be efficiently accelerated
injection, charge pumping, and external/self-charge excitation strategies. Despite greater via ion
injection,
charge charge
decay under pumping, and densities,
high charge external/self-charge
the surfaceexcitation strategies.
charges achieve Despite
a higher greater
equilibrium
charge
due decaycharge
to rapid under formation,
high chargeleading
densities,to the surfaceTENG
improved charges achieve
output a higher equilib-
performance. They
rium dueato
proposed rapid
novel chargetoformation,
solution leading
obtain a higher to improved
charge density of TENG
TENG output performance.
by employing a fast
charging process on an insulating layer featured by a high dielectric constant. Exploiting
the self-charge excitation and high dielectric permittivity of P(VDF-TrFE) (poly-vinylidene
fluoride-trifluoroethylene)), the TENG charge density can be increased to 2.20 mC·m−2 .
Besides, the contact efficiency was enhanced to 82% by avoiding utilising ultrathin dielectric
layers. Exploiting the fast charge aggregation, surface charges achieve a high equilibrium
state in humid environments, resulting in steady output performance even under harsh
circumstances. The charge density can be maintained at 1.30 mC·m−2 , over 260 times that
 trathin dielectric layers. Exploiting the fast charge aggregation, surface charges ach
high equilibrium state in humid environments, resulting in steady output perfor
even under harsh circumstances. The charge density can be maintained at 1.30 m
over 260 times that of the conventional TENG, even at 90% relative humidity. [52
voltage multiplier circuit (VMC), comprising three rectifier diodes and two capaci
Energies 2022, 15, 432 14 of 38
used to understand better the charge accumulation and transfer processes [52]. Ex
capacitors can be automatically configured in series and parallel during TENG’s pe
contact/separation, obtaining alternate capacitors’ charging and discharging duri
of the conventional
chargeTENG, even
storage. Theat external
90% relative humidity
capacitors [52]. One in
are configured voltage multiplier when th
series-connected
circuit (VMC), comprising three rectifier diodes and two capacitors, is used to
layers are turned away. Meanwhile, TENG’s capacitance drops dramatically as thunderstand
better the chargeageaccumulation
rises abruptly, and transfer
causing processes
a charge flow[52].
fromExternal
TENG tocapacitors cancapacitors.
the external be D
automatically configured in series and parallel during TENG’s periodic contact/separation,
the unidirectional conductivity of diodes, the external capacitors are automatica
obtaining alternate capacitors’
ranged charging
in parallel during theandcontact
discharging during
process. TENG’sthecapacitance
charge storage.
rises The
as the voltag
external capacitors are configured in series-connected when the two
causing a drain of the charges from the external capacitors to the TENGlayers are turned
until the po
away. Meanwhile, TENG’s capacitance drops dramatically as the voltage rises
difference disappears. In the subsequent separation process, external capacito abruptly,
causing a charge flow from
changed backTENG to the external forcing
to series-connected, capacitors. Duetotoflow
charges the unidirectional
back from TENG to ex
conductivity ofcapacitors
diodes, the external capacitors are automatically arranged
and creating a charge circulation loop. Surface charges in parallel
achieve a high e
during the contact process. TENG’s capacitance rises as the voltage falls,
rium state after a period of rapid charge accumulation. Furthermore, causing a drain
adopting die
of the charges from the external capacitors to the TENG until the potential difference
materials with a proper thickness, higher relative permittivity, and low leakage c
disappears. In the subsequent
improves separation
transducer process,
efficiency external
(Figure 13). capacitors are changed back
to series-connected, forcing charges to flow back from TENG to external capacitors and
Finally, a comparison between piezoelectric and triboelectric technologies
creating a charge circulation loop. Surface charges achieve a high equilibrium state after a
ported in the following table. Furthermore, relevant scientific works focus on hybr
period of rapid charge accumulation. Furthermore, adopting dielectric materials with a
nanogenerators that combine PENG and TENG, showing a promising future, leve
proper thickness, higher relative permittivity, and low leakage current improves transducer
their respective advantages (Table 3) [22].
efficiency (Figure 13).

.
Figure
Figure 13. Working 13. Working
mechanism mechanism
of self-charge of self-charge
excitation excitation
TENG during TENG during
the periodic the periodic contact-
contact-separation
process [52]. tion process [52].

2.2. State ofbetween

Finally, a comparison the Art about Energy Harvesting
piezoelectric Technologies
and triboelectric Applicable
technologies is to Smart Floors
reported
in the following2.2.1.
table.Piezoelectric
Furthermore, relevant
Smart scientific
Tiles for Energyworks focus on
Harvesting hybridised nano-
Applications
generators that combine PENG and TENG, showing a promising future, leveraging their
Piezoelectric energy harvesters (PEHs) are used in specific applications: smart
respective advantages (Table 3) [22].
tire pressure monitoring systems, artificial pacemakers, and infrastructure mon
systems. Yet piezoelectric stacks are attracting the interest of researchers due to th
Table 3. Macroscopic differences between piezoelectric and triboelectric harvesting solutions [22].
lowing features: low internal resistance, high capacitance, capacity to stand high lo
to hundreds of newtons PENGor more), low resonance frequency.
TENG
• Commercialised technique
• Compatible with • Wide options of materials
Materials and MEMS process • Relative cheap for most of
Fabrication • Relative complex and the materials
expensive process • Easy to fabricate
• Ceramics are fragile
• Relative low power density,
• High power density but highly tunable with
Power density • Affected by surface texturing and charge
operation frequency implementation, etc.
• Multiple operation modes

• Suitable for high • Wide sensing range (depend

Sensing (sensitivity, dynamic sensing on o materials and design)
sensing range, • Fast response • Good dynamic sensing
response time) • Poor static sensing • Fast response
• Poor static sensing
Energies 2022, 15, 432 15 of 38

Table 3. Cont.

PENG TENG
• Suitable for large-area
• Suitable for miniaturization
applications
Scalability • Expensive and fragile for
• Low output after
large size applications
miniaturization
• Sensitive to environmental
• Good electrical stability fluctuations, i.e., humidity.
Stability • Poor mechanical stability • Good mechanical stability
(depends on material and
design)
• Many polymers are
• Polymer and lead-free
biocompatible
materials are biocompatible
Biocompatibility • Able to apply the
• Lead-based ceramics need
biocompatible materials to
encapsulation
fabricate TENG directly

2.2. State of the Art about Energy Harvesting Technologies Applicable to Smart Floors
2.2.1. Piezoelectric Smart Tiles for Energy Harvesting Applications
Piezoelectric energy harvesters (PEHs) are used in specific applications: smart shoes,
tire pressure monitoring systems, artificial pacemakers, and infrastructure monitoring
systems. Yet piezoelectric stacks are attracting the interest of researchers due to their
following features: low internal resistance, high capacitance, capacity to stand high load
(up to hundreds of newtons or more), low resonance frequency.
These features collectively work, allowing piezoelectric stacks to generate very high-
power density under large external loads or solicitations. Because the PEH is more efficient
when it works near the resonance frequency, a solution employs an auxiliary structure that
consists of mechanical support, a cantilever, and a PZT layer deposited on it. Researchers are
interested in the frequency-up conversion technology for converting excitation frequency
to high-frequency oscillations because it can boost output power.
In ref. [35], Panthongsy et al. presented an energy harvesting floor tile that extracts
electric energy from human footfall using a frequency up-conversion method. The struc-
ture of the energy harvesting floor tile with the frequency up-conversion mechanism is
depicted in Figure 14. The free ends of twenty-four unimorph piezoelectric cantilevers
are connected to a stainless-steel mass to enhance the strain in the piezoelectric material
and improve electrical output power during oscillation. The permanent magnets hooked
to the mass attract the iron bar below the cover plate when the floor tile is trodden on.
The impact force between the iron bar and the permanent magnet is absorbed by a soft
plastic layer. Furthermore, a stopper protects the piezoelectric layer from damage due to
over-displacement excitation. Four springs are placed at the tile’s corners to pull up the
cover plate. The resonant frequency is 10.54 Hz, and the mean power and overall produced
energy produced by one-foot step on the tile were 1.24 mW and 3.49 mJ, at a 74.44 kΩ
optimal load resistance.
In ref. [53], the authors presented a piezoelectric tile using an indirect method of energy
transmission based on vibrating cantilevers with a tip mass. The piezoelectric tile consists
of an upper plate attached to a middle plate, with four piezoelectric cantilevers (based on
PZT-PZNM) of 47 × 32 × 0.2 mm3 . Four springs are installed at the tile angles to support
the whole structure. This research aims to match the resonance frequency of integrated
cantilevers with that of the piezoelectric tile. The conditioning circuit was optimised to get
the impedance matching as well as the mechanical structure for obtaining the frequency
matching (Figure 15). The experimental results showed that, with a 10 g tip mass, a 22.5 Hz
resonant frequency was obtained, and 770 µW RMS was scavenged from the piezoelectric
tile using a 15 KΩ matching impedance.
Energies 2022,
Energies 2022, 15,
15, 432
x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 38

Figure 14. Example of Frequency-up converter [35].

In ref. [53], the authors presented a piezoelectric tile using an indirect method of en-
ergy transmission based on vibrating cantilevers with a tip mass. The piezoelectric tile
consists of an upper plate attached to a middle plate, with four piezoelectric cantilevers
(based on PZT-PZNM) of 47 × 32 × 0.2 mm3. Four springs are installed at the tile angles to
support the whole structure. This research aims to match the resonance frequency of in-
tegrated cantilevers with that of the piezoelectric tile. The conditioning circuit was opti-
mised to get the impedance matching as well as the mechanical structure for obtaining the
frequency matching (Figure 15). The experimental results showed that, with a 10 g tip
mass, a 22.5 Hz resonant frequency was obtained, and 770 µW RMS was scavenged from
the piezoelectric tile using a 15 KΩ matching impedance.
In ref. [54], the authors proposed a mechanism of force amplification relying on link-
age mechanism theory to implement an energy harvesting floor. The vertical force was
converted into tensile force in the horizontal plane during a foot strike, and the applied
Figure
force 14.
was14. Example of Frequency-up converter [35].
amplified.
Figure Example of Frequency-up converter [35].

In ref. [53], the authors presented a piezoelectric tile using an indirect method of en-
ergy transmission based on vibrating cantilevers with a tip mass. The piezoelectric tile
consists of an upper plate attached to a middle plate, with four piezoelectric cantilevers
(based on PZT-PZNM) of 47 × 32 × 0.2 mm3. Four springs are installed at the tile angles to
support the whole structure. This research aims to match the resonance frequency of in-
tegrated cantilevers with that of the piezoelectric tile. The conditioning circuit was opti-
mised to get the impedance matching as well as the mechanical structure for obtaining the
frequency matching (Figure 15). The experimental results showed that, with a 10 g tip
mass, a 22.5 Hz resonant frequency was obtained, and 770 µW RMS was scavenged from
the piezoelectric tile using a 15 KΩ matching impedance.
In ref. [54], the authors proposed a mechanism of force amplification relying on link-
age mechanism theory (a) to implement an energy harvesting floor. (b)The vertical force was
converted
Figure
into
15. Graphic
tensile force
representation
in the
of theof
horizontal
piezoelectric
plane during
tile (a) tile
and(a)
a foot
a close-up
strike, and the mod-
of the piezoelectric
applied
Figure 15. Graphic representation the piezoelectric and a close-up of the piezoelectric
force was amplified.
ules installed on the center plate (b) [53].
modules installed on the center plate (b) [53].

TheInforce
ref. amplification
[54], the authorsdevice consisteda of
proposed eight connecting
mechanism of forcerods connected by
amplification joints. on
relying
Thelinkage
connecting rods’ angles concerning the horizontal plane were the same,
mechanism theory to implement an energy harvesting floor. The vertical force and two sidewas
joints were also joined by the double-layer structure. A slab was employed
converted into tensile force in the horizontal plane during a foot strike, and the applied as the floor
surface
force onwasthe structure’s upper level. The deforming mechanism is referred to as a
amplified.
“squeezingThe structure.” A clamped–clamped
force amplification device consisted piezoelectric beam wasrods
of eight connecting placed between
connected bythe
joints.
twoThejoints and subjected
connecting rods’to both tensile
angles and bending
concerning stress due
the horizontal to the
plane plates’
were the deformation
same, and two
side joints were also joined by the double-layer structure. A slab was employed as the
floor surface on the structure’s upper level. The deforming mechanism is referred to as a
“squeezing structure.” A clamped–clamped piezoelectric beam was placed between the two
joints and subjected to both tensile and bending stress due to the plates’ deformation and
the force exerted by the rubber pillars. In fact, the clamped–clamped beam comprised a
(a) (b)
4 × 5 array of piezoelectric modules deposited on two substrates and coupled using rubber
Figure 15.
pillars Graphic
(Figure representation
16). The benefitof ofthe
thepiezoelectric tile (a) and a close-up
designed architecture of the
is that by piezoelectric
carefully mod-
adjusting
ulesheight
the installedofon
thethe center supports,
rubber plate (b) [53].
all of the piezoelectric cantilevers are exposed to wide,
equally distributed stressors due to stepping force. Moreover, the double-layer structure
will beThe force amplification
stretched device
because of the consisted
increased of eight
tensile forceconnecting
(Figure 16).rods connected by joints.
The connecting rods’ angles concerning the horizontal plane were the same, and two side
joints were also joined by the double-layer structure. A slab was employed as the floor
surface on the structure’s upper level. The deforming mechanism is referred to as a
“squeezing structure.” A clamped–clamped piezoelectric beam was placed between the
two joints and subjected to both tensile and bending stress due to the plates’ deformation
 It is simple to conclude that a large improvement in output power can be obtained
by increasing the stroke. However, because an extremely large slab stroke might give pe-
destrians an unpleasant feeling of falling, the slab’s stroke was fixed at 5 mm. The peak-
to-peak output voltage was enhanced apparently by increasing the stroke, and the maxi-
mum peak-to-peak voltage was 49 V for a stroke of 5 mm. With a step frequency of 0.95
Energies 2022, 15, 432 17 of 38
Hz, the tested piezoelectric beam produced a 52.2 V peak-to-peak voltage. The peak-to-
peak voltage was 51.4 V when the step frequency was raised to 1.81 Hz.

(a)

(b)

of Schematic
Figure 16.
Figure 16. Schematic of the structure”:
the “squeezing “squeezing structure”:
front viewfront viewthree-dimensional
(a) and (a) and three-dimensional rendering (b) [54].
rendering
(b) [54].
It is simple to conclude that a large improvement in output power can be obtained
The testbyresults
increasing the stroke.
indicated that theHowever, because
peak-to-peak an extremely
voltages large slab
were relatively stroke
stable for might give
different steppedestrians
frequencies. anAnunpleasant feeling of
effective method falling, an
to achieve theactive
slab’sself-tuning
stroke wasoffixed at 5 mm. The
the res-
peak-to-peak
onance frequency employs output voltage was feed
a microcontroller enhanced
by theapparently
piezo elementby increasing the stroke, and the
[34]. The natural
frequency ofmaximum
the powerpeak-to-peak voltage
harvesting device waswas 49 V for
matched a stroke
to the of 5 mm.
excitation Withof
frequency a the
step frequency
of 0.95 Hz, the tested piezoelectric beam
ambient vibration by adjusting the stiffness of the harvester beam. produced a 52.2 V peak-to-peak voltage. The
In ref. [55], Yingyong et al. proposed a novel mechanical structure for scavengingHz.
peak-to-peak voltage was 51.4 V when the step frequency was raised to 1.81
The teststeps,
energy from pedestrian results indicated
obtaining 35 that
mWthe peak-to-peak voltages were relatively stable for
rms output power. At first, they analyzed

the walkingdifferent step frequencies.

characteristics of pedestrians An ineffective
three testmethod
fields for tosizing
achievethean active self-tuning
harvesting sys- of the
resonance frequency employs a microcontroller feed by the
tem, taking into account body weight, walking pace (normal or fast), and pedestrian den- piezo element [34]. The natural
frequencystructure
sity. The mechanical of the power harvesting
of the presented device
EHFTwas matched
(energy to the excitation
harvesting floor tile)frequency
in- of the
ambient vibration by adjusting the stiffness of the
cluded an aluminium support with 450 × 450 × 58 mm dimensions and a 5 mm vertical
3 harvester beam.
stroke (Figure 17). InFour
ref. [55], Yingyong
springs with 16.3et N/mm
al. proposed
Hook’saconstant
novel mechanical
support thestructure for scavenging
cover struc-
energy from pedestrian steps, obtaining 35 mWrms output power. At first, they analyzed the
ture, and a rail guide limits its vertical movement. To convert alternating current to direct
walking characteristics of pedestrians in three test fields for sizing the harvesting system,
current, 44 piezoelectric cantilevers were connected to a rectifier.
taking into account body weight, walking pace (normal or fast), and pedestrian density.
The mechanical structure of the presented EHFT (energy harvesting floor tile) included
an aluminium support with 450 × 450 × 58 mm3 dimensions and a 5 mm vertical stroke
(Figure 17). Four springs with 16.3 N/mm Hook’s constant support the cover structure, and
a rail guide limits its vertical movement. To convert alternating current to direct current,
44 piezoelectric cantilevers were connected to a rectifier.
The accumulated gathered energy was stored in a capacitor. A capacitor was used to
store the scavenged energy. The tests demonstrated that the energy scavenged from the
piezoelectric EHFT did not depend strongly on stepping frequency but was affected by
pedestrian body weight, as well as the pedestrian density had no effect on the harvested
energy. Finally, the tests indicated that the system produces about 24.6 mJ/step.
Energies 2022, 15,
Energies 2022, 15, 432
x FOR PEER REVIEW 18
18 of
of 38
38

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 38

Figure 17. 3D and cross-section views of the piezoelectric EHFT proposed in [42].
Figure 17. 3D and cross-section views of the piezoelectric EHFT proposed in [42].
Figure 17. 3D and cross-section views of the piezoelectric EHFT proposed in [42].
2.2.2.The accumulated Harvesters
Electromagnetic gathered energy was storedPower
for Large-Scale in a capacitor.
Production A capacitor
and Roadwas used to
Pavement
Energy
store the Harvesters
scavenged(RPEHs)
energy. The tests demonstrated that the energy scavenged from the
The accumulated gathered energy was stored in a capacitor. A capacitor was used to
piezoelectric EHFT did not
An electromagnetic (EM) depend
harvesting strongly
systemon was
stepping frequency
proposed but was et
by Jintanawan affected
al. whoseby
store the scavenged energy. The tests demonstrated that the energy scavenged from the
pedestrian
intuitive body
block weight,
diagram is as wellin
shown asFigure
the pedestrian
18 [36]. It density
converts had
the no effect on
platform thetranslation
linear harvested
piezoelectric EHFT did not depend strongly on stepping frequency but was affected by
energy. Finally,
induced bybody the tests indicated
the footsteps inwell
rotative that
energythe system produces about 24.6
for thedensity
electromagnetic mJ/step.
generator
pedestrian weight, as as the pedestrian had no effect on the(EMG)harvestedwith
a mechanical system of translation–rotation conversion.
energy. Finally, the tests indicated that the system produces about 24.6 mJ/step. Researchers worked on two
2.2.2. Electromagnetic
prototypes, the first wasHarvesters
based onfor Large-Scale Power
a rack-pinion model Production
and the second and Road Pavement
on a lead-screw
Energy Harvesters
model. The second(RPEHs)
was more efficient than thePower
first. Production
The rack-pinion and Pavement
lead-screw
2.2.2. Electromagnetic Harvesters for Large-Scale and Road
configurations
Energy AnHarvesters are commonly
electromagnetic used to change the translation
(RPEHs)(EM) harvesting system was proposed by Jintanawan to rotation (Figure 19). et al.,
The rack-and-pinion transmission system consists of a rack fixed
whose intuitive block diagram is shown in Figure 18 [36]. It converts the platform linear to the machine’s side
and An
a electromagnetic
pinion gear or (EM) harvesting
gear/gear that matches system
up wastheproposed
with rack; EMG bymoves
Jintanawanas the et al.,
pinion
translation induced by the footsteps in rotative energy for the electromagnetic generator
whose
turns. intuitive block diagram is shown in Figureto18 [36]. It converts the platform linear
(EMG)The with lead-screw drivesystem
a mechanical systems of act similarly
translation–rotationstandard power screws,
conversion. but theworked
Researchers sliding
translation
friction induced
is substituted by the
with footsteps in rotative energy for the electromagnetic generator
on two prototypes, the firsta was
rolling friction.
based The machinemodel
on a rack-pinion movesand as the
the screw
secondrevolves.
on a lead-A
(EMG)
rack- with a mechanical
and-pinion system
transmission of translation–rotation
system is cheaper than a conversion.
lead-screw Researchers
system, is more worked
efficient
screw model. The second was more efficient than the first. The rack-pinion and lead-screw
on
to two prototypes,
convert energy, the is
first was based on more
a rack-pinion model and the second on a lead-
configurations areand robust,
commonly but to
used withchange friction.
the Only
translation the rough-pitch
to rotation (Figuremodels
19). were
screw model. The second was more efficient than the first. The rack-pinion
reported in the literature, thus limiting the angular pinion movement to the rack’s allowed and lead-screw
configurations
displacement of are15commonly
mm. used to change the translation to rotation (Figure 19).

Figure 18. Block diagram of electromagnetic harvesting system [36].

Figure
Figure18.
18.Block
Blockdiagram
diagramofofelectromagnetic
electromagneticharvesting
harvestingsystem
system[36].
[36].
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 38
Energies 2022, 15, 432 19 of 38

(a) (b)
Figure 19. Two different mechanical configurations applied to electromagnetic smart tiles: rack-pin-
ion model (a), lead-screw model (b) [36].

The rack-and-pinion transmission system consists of a rack fixed to the machine’s

side and a pinion gear or gear/gear that matches up with the rack; EMG moves as the
pinion turns. The lead-screw (a) drive systems act similarly to standard (b) power screws, but
the sliding
Figure 19. Two friction
differentis substituted with a rollingapplied
mechanical configurations friction. The machine moves
to electromagnetic as the
smart tiles: screw
rack-pin-
revolves.
ion model A (a),rack- and-pinion
lead-screw model transmission
(b) [36]. system is cheaper than a lead-screw system, is
more efficient to convert energy, and is robust, but with more friction. Only the rough-
pitchThe rack-and-pinion
models were reported transmission
in the literature, system thusconsists
limiting of thea rack
angularfixedpinion
to the movement
machine’s
side and a pinion gear or
to the rack’s allowed displacement of 15 mm. gear/gear that matches up with the rack; EMG moves as the
pinion Nowadays, EM harvesting technology can be applied to road pavements. Duartebut
turns. The lead-screw drive systems act similarly to standard power screws, et
the sliding friction
al. proposed is (a)
a mechanical substituted
systemwith a rolling
to convert thefriction.
energyThe of the machine (b)
vehicle’s moveswheels as theintoscrew
elec-
revolves.
Figure
trical 19.
Figure energyA rack-
19.Two
Two different
[56]. and-pinion
Two
different mechanical
systems
mechanical transmission
configurations
are mainly used
configurations system
applied is to
cheaper
to
to achieve
applied than a lead-screw
electromagnetic
a rotational
electromagnetic smart
motion
smart tiles:
tiles: system,
rack-pin-
output:
rack-pinion is
the
ion model
more (a),
efficient
rack-and-pinion lead-screw
to convert
and model
the
model (a), lead-screw model (b) [36]. lever(b)
energy, [36].
and
systems is robust,
(Figure but
20). with
The more
first is friction.
the most Only the
widespread, rough-
but
pitch
the levermodels
system were has reported
the benefit in the literature, thus
of amplifying limiting
surface motion, the angular pinion movement
but the increase in motion
to The
the rack-and-pinion
Nowadays,
rack’s allowed EM transmission
harvesting
displacement of system
technology
15 mm. canconsists
comes at the expense of force. Therefore, the lever geometry must be carefully be of
applied a rack
to fixed
road to the machine’s
pavements. Duarte
designed.
side and
et al. a
Nowadays,pinion
proposed
A more efficient a gear or
mechanical
EM harvesting gear/gear
system would system that
to
technology matches
convert
maximise canboth up
the with
energy
be applied theof rack;
the EMG
vehicle’s
to road pavements.
the transmitted moves
wheels
force and shaft as rota-
Duarte the
into
et
pinion
al.
tion, turns.
electrical
withenergy
proposed The lead-screw
[56]. Twoforce
theatransmitted
mechanical drive
systems
system systems
areconvert
to
taking act
mainlythe
precedence. similarly
used to
Atomechanism
energy achieve standard
of theavehicle’s power
rotational
using awheels screws,
motion
crank but
output:
into
connectedelec-
the
the sliding
trical
from energy
the friction
rack-and-pinion
surface isaand
[56].toTwo substituted
theislever
systems
slider with
are systems
presented a rolling
mainly thisfriction.
for(Figure
used to20).
aim achieveThefirst
The
(Figure amachine
isForthe the
rotational
21). moves
most asscenario,
the screw
widespread,
motion
same output: but
the
revolves.
the lever A
rack-and-pinion rack-
system and-pinion
has
and the
the transmission
benefit
lever of amplifying
systems system
(Figure is
surface
20). cheaper
The motion,
results show that it is two times more efficient than the rack-and-pinion system and four first than
is but
thea lead-screw
the
most increase system,
widespread, in motionis
but
more
comes
the efficient
at
lever the
system to
expenseconvert
has of
the energy,
force.
benefit
times more efficient than the lever method [56]. and
Therefore,
of is robust,
the
amplifying leverbut with
geometry
surface more
motion, friction.
must
but be Only
carefully
the increase the rough-
designed.
in motion
pitch
comes models
at thewereexpense reported
of force.in the literature,
Therefore, thethus
leverlimiting
geometry themust
angular pinion movement
be carefully designed.
to the A rack’s allowed displacement of 15 mm.
more efficient system would maximise both the transmitted force and shaft rota-
tion,Nowadays, EM harvesting
with the transmitted force technology
taking precedence.can be applied
A mechanism to roadusing pavements.
a crankDuarte connected et
al.from
proposed
the surfacea mechanical
to a slidersystem to convert
is presented theaim
for this energy of the
(Figure 21).vehicle’s
For the same wheels into elec-
scenario, the
trical
resultsenergy
show[56]. thatTwo it is systems
two times aremore
mainly used to
efficient achieve
than a rotational motion
the rack-and-pinion system output:and the
four
rack-and-pinion
times more efficient and the thanlever systems
the lever (Figure
method [56]. 20). The first is the most widespread, but
the lever system has the benefit of amplifying surface motion, but the increase in motion
comes at the expense of force. Therefore, the lever geometry must be carefully designed.
A more efficient system would maximise both the transmitted force and shaft rota-
tion,
Figure
Figurewith20.the
20. Lever
Levertransmitted
system [43].
system force taking precedence. A mechanism using a crank connected
[43].
from the surface to a slider is presented for this aim (Figure 21). For the same scenario, the
resultsAshow morethat it is two
efficient system times more
would efficientboth
maximise thanthe thetransmitted
rack-and-pinion force andsystem shaft and four
rotation,
with the transmitted force taking
times more efficient than the lever method [56]. precedence. A mechanism using a crank connected from
the surface to a slider is presented for this aim (Figure 21). For the same scenario, the results
show that it is two times more efficient than the rack-and-pinion system and four times
more
Figureefficient
20. Leverthan system the[43].
lever method [56].

Figure 21. Crank-to-slider mechanism coupled to a rack-and-pinion system and an IW [56].

Figure 20. Lever system [43].

21. Crank-to-slider mechanism coupled

Figure 21. coupled to
to aa rack-and-pinion
rack-and-pinion system
system and
and an
an IW
IW [56].
[56].

In ref. [57], Zhang et al. develop a rotational electromagnetic harvester. It is mainly

composed of a twist driving system and a ratchet clutch system (Figure 22).

Figure 21. Crank-to-slider mechanism coupled to a rack-and-pinion system and an IW [56].

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 38

Energies 2022, 15, 432 20 of 38

In ref. [57], Zhang et al. develop a rotational electromagnetic harvester. It is mainly
composed of a twist driving system and a ratchet clutch system (Figure 22).

Figure 22.
Figure 22. 3D
3D model
model of
of the
the rotational
rotational electromagnetic
electromagnetic harvester
harvester installed
installedin
inthe
thesmart
smarttile
tile[57].
[57].

In the
In the twist
twist driving
driving system,
system, aa double-helix
double-helix structured
structured rod passes through
rod passes through aa circular
circular
disk with
disk withaadumbbell-shaped
dumbbell-shapedhole, hole,and
andfour
four guide
guide rails
rails limit
limit thethe rod’s
rod’s movement
movement direc-
direction.
tion. Due to the interaction between the twist rod and the hyperboloid hole,
Due to the interaction between the twist rod and the hyperboloid hole, the twist rod spins the twist rod
spins with the pawl when it is pressed perpendicular to the disk. Thus, the
with the pawl when it is pressed perpendicular to the disk. Thus, the linear motion becomes linear motion
abecomes a ratchet-rotational
ratchet-rotational motion.
motion. Spring is Spring is also employed
also employed to return tothereturn
twist the
rodtwist
to itsrod to its
original
original position.
position. The testThe test indicate
results results indicate
that thethat the ratchet
ratchet may rotate
may rotate inertially
inertially for around
for around 20 s,
20 s, yielding
yielding total energy
total energy of 85.2 of
mJ;85.2 mJ; furthermore,
furthermore, 32.2 mW32.2peakmW peakoutput
power powerand output
7.7 mWandroot
7.7
mW root
mean mean
square square
power canpower can be generated
be generated (Figure 23).
(Figure 23).

Figure 23.
Figure 23. Output
Output characteristic
characteristic of
of the
the smart
smart tile
tile [57].
[57].

2.2.3.
2.2.3. TENG
TENG and
and Hybrid
Hybrid Energy
Energy Harvesters
Harvesters Evolution
Evolution inin Small-Scale
Small-Scale Power
Power Production
Production
Essential
Essentialcharacteristics
characteristicsofofTENG
TENG in in
smart floors
smart are are
floors the easy integrability
the easy but also
integrability butlimit
also
the power
limit outputs.
the power For instance,
outputs. He et al.
For instance, He [58]
et developed a triboelectric
al. [58] developed smart floor;
a triboelectric to avoid
smart floor;
abrasion and frictional heating in the contact mode, the TENG can operate in no-contact
mode by separating triboelectric materials from electrodes spatially. The smart tile relies on
 on). Indeed, the proposed tile supports two working modes. In mode I, vibrational energy
is harvested: when the TENG is subjected to an external force or vibration, the inner Al
spheres oscillate between the top and bottom planes, pushing electrons to flow via the
external circuit. When the Al balls come into touch with the PTFE films, the triboelectric
effect causes electrons to flow from the Al balls to the PTFE films. In mode II, the smart
Energies 2022, 15, 432 21 of 38
floor offers a different method for harvesting energy from human activities, such as run-
ning and dancing, since it exploits the interactions between the floor and things made of
triboelectric materials (Figureframe)
an SF (Square 24). The experimental
TENG results showed
using triboelectric thatsuch
materials TENG as provided
polytetrafluoroethylene
364 ± 43 V with(PTFE)
9 ± 1 µA current when a basketball is bounced repeatedly
sheets and aluminium (Al) spheres, as well as the floor itself on it andand
238things
± that come
17 V with 2.4 ± into
0.3 µA current during walking.
touch with it (for example, basketballs, shoe bottoms, scotch tape, and so on). Indeed,
However, the
the proposed
power output is low fortwo
tile supports energy harvesting,
working modes. and the best
In mode technology
I, vibrational for is harvested:
energy
the smart floorwhen
depends on the is
the TENG application
subjected to typology and force
an external its power consumption
or vibration, [59].AlTo
the inner spheres oscillate
optimise the mechanical
between theenergy
top andgeneration and thus
bottom planes, maximise
pushing output
electrons power,
to flow research
via the external circuit. When
teams worldwide the have developed
Al balls come into hybrid
touchnanogenerators
with the PTFE films,(NGs)thewith different and
triboelectric novel
effect causes electrons to
structures, including triboelectric, electromagnetic, piezoelectric, thermoelectric, pyroe-
flow from the Al balls to the PTFE films. In mode II, the smart floor offers a different method
lectric transducers. Generally,energy
for harvesting TENGs are human
from considered efficient
activities, suchenergy harvesters
as running for ener-since it exploits
and dancing,
getically-autonomous sensors [60].
the interactions The hybridization
between of different
the floor and things madeNGs offers an efficient
of triboelectric materials (Figure 24).
approach to enhancing the outputresults
The experimental powers by simultaneously
showed harvesting
that TENG provided 364multiple energy
± 43 V with 9 ± 1 µA current
sources. Hybrid energy
when harvestingis(HEH)
a basketball bounced systems are classified
repeatedly on it and into
238multi-source
± 17 V withhybrid
2.4 ± 0.3 µA current
harvesters and during
single-source
walking.harvesters.

(a)

(b)
Figure 24. Operating modalities
Figure 24. of the
Operating SF-TENG,
modalities Mode
of the I (a) andMode
SF-TENG, ModeI II
(a)(b)
and[58].
Mode II (b) [58].

However, the power output is low for energy harvesting, and the best technology for
the smart floor depends on the application typology and its power consumption [59]. To op-
timise the mechanical energy generation and thus maximise output power, research teams
worldwide have developed hybrid nanogenerators (NGs) with different and novel struc-
tures, including triboelectric, electromagnetic, piezoelectric, thermoelectric, pyroelectric
transducers. Generally, TENGs are considered efficient energy harvesters for energetically-
autonomous sensors [60]. The hybridization of different NGs offers an efficient approach
to enhancing the output powers by simultaneously harvesting multiple energy sources.
Hybrid energy harvesting (HEH) systems are classified into multi-source hybrid harvesters
and single-source harvesters.
The combination of TENG and electromagnetic generator (EMG) appears to have the
potential to compensate for the limited energy harvesting capability of EMG at low me-
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 38

Energies 2022, 15, 432 22 of 38

The combination of TENG and electromagnetic generator (EMG) appears to have the
potential to compensate for the limited energy harvesting capability of EMG at low me-
chanical
chanical frequencies.
frequencies. Islam
Islam et
et al.
al.presented
presentedaahybrid
hybridfloor-tile
floor-tileto
toharvest
harvestthe
thebiomechanical
biomechanical
energy from human footsteps
energy from human footsteps (Figure 25) [61].

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure
Figure25.25.Layer
Layerwith
withmagnets
magnetsandandthe
theelectrode
electrodefor
forthe
thetriboelectric
triboelectricgenerator
generator(a);
(a);layer
layerwith
withcopper
copper
coils (b); layers that make the tile (c); rectifying circuits (d) [61].
coils (b); layers that make the tile (c); rectifying circuits (d) [61].

The
The electron flow across
electron flow acrossthe themagnetic
magneticfield fieldofofthethemagnets
magnets is is enhanced
enhanced when
when a con-
a conduc-
ductive wire is coiled in a series circuit, resulting in an EMG current.
tive wire is coiled in a series circuit, resulting in an EMG current. The electromagnetism of a The electromag-
netism of a coil
coil increases increases proportionally
proportionally to the number toofthe number
turns, and the of turns,
magnetic and field
the magnetic
is strongerfield is
as the
stronger
magnet’sassizetheincreases.
magnet’s The sizehybrid
increases. The comprises
system hybrid system coils comprises
of 20 turnscoils of 20 minimal
to ensure turns to
ensure minimal tile
tile compression andcompression
user safety.and Theuser safety. The
triboelectric triboelectric
effect relies on effect relies on
electrostatic electro-
induction
static induction and contact triboelectrification between two materials
and contact triboelectrification between two materials of different polarities following of different polari-
ties following an external force on the tile. The Al electrode is positively
an external force on the tile. The Al electrode is positively charged during the contact charged during
the contact
phase due tophase duetriboelectrification
contact to contact triboelectrification
between Al and between
Kapton,Al and Kapton,
whereas whereaslayer
the Kapton the
Kapton
becomeslayer becomes
negatively negatively
charged whencharged
combined when
withcombined
the MoS2 with the MoS2 disulfide)
(molybdenum (molybdenum layer,
disulfide)
acting as anlayer, acting
electron as an electron
acceptor acceptor
and aiding in theand aiding in the triboelectrification
triboelectrification of contacts. Meanwhile,of con-
the top
tacts. electrode becomes
Meanwhile, positively
the top electrode chargedpositively
becomes due to contact charged triboelectrification with the
due to contact triboelec-
top Kapton
trification surface.
with the top The uppersurface.
Kapton component beginscomponent
The upper to separatebegins from the lower Alfrom
to separate layertheas
the applied force is released; at this point, a voltage difference between
lower Al layer as the applied force is released; at this point, a voltage difference between two electrodes can
be observed
two electrodes (Figure
can be26).observed (Figure 26).
As previously
As previously indicated,
indicated, EMG EMG creates
creates more
more current,
current, whereas
whereas TENG TENG generates
generates aa
higher voltage;
higher voltage;the thecombination
combinationofofTENG TENG andand EMG EMG is the
is the idealideal combination
combination for our
for our in-
investigation for a floor tile construction thanks to their low cost, high
vestigation for a floor tile construction thanks to their low cost, high efficiency, and simple efficiency, and simple
design.The
design. TheEMGEMGgenerates
generates power
power when
when thethe
two twotiletile layers
layers come come
intointo
touch,touch, whereas
whereas the
the TENG produces energy as the two layers separate, reaching
TENG produces energy as the two layers separate, reaching for each footstep, 5 mA short- for each footstep, 5 mA
short-circuit
circuit currentcurrent and 1200
and 1200 V open-circuit
V open-circuit voltage.
voltage. Besides,
Besides, environmentalsustainability,
environmental sustainability,
packaging concerns,
packaging concerns, and and pedestrian
pedestrian safety
safety have
have beenbeen taken
taken intointo account
accountin in this
this new,
new,
ground-breaking
ground-breaking study. study.
 higher voltage; the combination of TENG and EMG is the ideal combination for our
investigation for a floor tile construction thanks to their low cost, high efficiency, and
simple design. The EMG generates power when the two tile layers come into touch,
whereas the TENG produces energy as the two layers separate, reaching for each footstep,
Energies 2022, 15, 432 5 mA short-circuit current and 1200 V open-circuit voltage. Besides, environmental 23 of 38
sustainability, packaging concerns, and pedestrian safety have been taken into account in
this new, ground-breaking study.

(a)

(b)

Figure 26. Operative

Figure 26. Operativephases
phasesof of
thethe triboelectric
triboelectric and and electromagnetic
electromagnetic generators
generators [61]; working
[61]; working mecha-
mechanism of the triboelectric generator (i) Initial stage, (ii) Contact stage, (iii), (iv) Separation
nism of the triboelectric generator (i) Initial stage, (ii) Contact stage, (iii), (iv) Separation stage, (v) stage,
final
(v) final stage (a); working mechanism of the electromagnetic generator (i) Initial stage, (ii) Contact
stage (a); working mechanism of the electromagnetic generator (i) Initial stage, (ii) Contact stage (b).
stage (b).
The test results demonstrated that the storing capacitor was charged to 15.12 V in 60 s
÷ 80The testinterval.
s time results demonstrated that the
However, although thestoring capacitor
tile produced upwas charged
to 1200 to 15.12 V
V, capacitors in 60
cannot
sstore
÷ 80 this
s time interval. However, although the tile produced up to 1200 V, capacitors cannot
high voltage value, indicating that the presented device is suitable for large-scale
store this high
installation, voltage
where value, indicating
a battery that the
and generator wouldpresented device
be more is suitable
applicable. for large-scale
Furthermore, the
installation,
authors compared where athe
battery and generator
developed would be tile
energy harvesting more applicable.
with Furthermore,
a competitor the
product (i.e.,
Pavegen), showing that the first one generated 25 times greater open-circuit voltage and
20%. Furthermore, their design employs a specified coil size to generate a robust, flat
tile, guaranteeing the safety of human walkers with a compression of just 1 mm, unlike
Pavegen’s 5 mm.
Another way to hybridise TENG is by using piezoelectric material. Zhao et al. inte-
grated a bimorph-based PENG into a one-end-fixed TENG [62]. Harvesting mechanical
energy in arbitrary modes (e.g., periodic bending, vibration, rotation, etc.) for sustainable
portable electronics, advanced wearable sensors, and self-powered systems appears to be
very promising. To gather rotating mechanical energy, the developed H-P/TENGs were
placed on three upright posts of a bespoke frame (stator) and were exposed to bending
forces from a coaxial tri-blade structure (rotor). The presented device shows both strengths
of TENG (low-frequency energy harvesting) and PENG (high output power), which is fun-
damental for stably supplying electronic devices. The device can deliver 210 V open-circuit
voltage, 395 µA short-circuit current, 10.88 mW average output power, and 6.04 mW/cm2
power density. Besides, it can provide 210 V/400 µA at rotation speeds ranging from 50
to 250 rpm. They integrated an energy regulating circuit with the H-P/TENG to create a
DC power supply (3.6 V steady DC output voltage) to feed an RF wireless temperature
sensor network and commercial devices. At a wind speed of 14 m/s, the H-P/TENG could
produce high output voltage (150 V) and current (150 µA) to power 50 LEDs in parallel.
In another study [63], Chen et al. demonstrated a rotating-disk-based hybridised
electromagnetic-triboelectric nanogenerator that scavenges rotational energy and acts as a
power source for WSN applications. The device is made up of a TENG with rotating and
stator layers, an EMG with six magnets on the revolving layer, and six copper coils aligned
with magnets behind it (Figure 27). Particularly, circular acrylic support, including six
magnets, is comprised in the EMG. The rotator’s multilayered structure includes a printed
circuit board (PCB) with 1◦ radially distributed Au sectors in close contact with a foam
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 38

Energies 2022, 15, 432 with magnets behind it (Figure 27). Particularly, circular acrylic support, including 24 ofsix
38
magnets, is comprised in the EMG. The rotator’s multilayered structure includes a printed
circuit board (PCB) with 1° radially distributed Au sectors in close contact with a foam
layerfor
layer forthe
the TENG.
TENG. Its
Its operation
operation is
is based
based on
on periodic rotation between rotator and stator,
stator,
including the
including the TENG
TENG andand EMG.
EMG. InIn the
the EMG,
EMG, there
there are
are four
four groups
groups of
ofrotating
rotatingmagnetic
magnetic
coil pairs,
coil pairs, each
each of
of which
which may
mayproduce
producean analternating
alternating current
current bybychanging
changing the
themagnetic
magnetic
flux
flux in
inthe
thecoil
coilusing
usingfaraday
faradayelectromagnetic
electromagneticinduction.
induction. The
Thefunctioning
functioning mechanism
mechanism ofof
the
theTENG
TENGcomponent
componentisisbased
based on
on triboelectrification
triboelectrificationandandelectrostatic
electrostaticcoupling,
coupling,which
whichcan
can
cause
causeinductive
inductiveelectrons
electronsto
toflow
flowacross
acrosselectrodes.
electrodes.

Figure27.
Figure 27.Diagram
Diagramofofthe
thehybridized
hybridizednanogenerator:
nanogenerator: coils
coils are
are on
on the
the stator,
stator,magnets
magnetson
onthe
therotator
rotator
(a); photographs of the hybridized nanogenerator (b) [63].
(a); photographs of the hybridized nanogenerator (b) [63].

Toquantify
To quantify the
the performance
performance of the hybridised
hybridised nanogenerator,
nanogenerator,ititwas wasoperated
operatedby bya
agovernor
governormotor;
motor; bybyusing a rotating
using raterate
a rotating of 900
of rpm, the hybrid
900 rpm, generator
the hybrid provided
generator 137.39
provided
mW output
137.39 powerpower
mW output (power(power
densitydensity
180 µW180 g−1)µW −1 ) to a load
to a gmatched resistance
matched of 300 Ω and
load resistance of
300 Ω mW
217.8 (power
and 217.8 mWdensity
(power1152 µW1152
density g−1) µW
to ag20−1 )kΩ
to amatched load. The
20 kΩ matched harvested
load. power
The harvested
was wirelessly
power transmitted
was wirelessly to a user
transmitted todevice;
a user the transmitting
device; antenna antenna
the transmitting comprises a hollow
comprises
ainductance coil and acoil
hollow inductance topand
capacitor (Figure 27);
a top capacitor the receiver
(Figure 27); thegathers thegathers
receiver power the
employing
power
the same principle.
employing the sameThe developed
principle. Thewireless
developedpower transmitting
wireless power system was used
transmitting to charge
system was
used to charge
a mobile phone a mobile
100 cmphone 100 cm
away from away
the from theusing
transmitter transmitter
a pair using a pair of helical
of specialised specialised
wire
helical wire
coils and coils and a supercapacitor
a supercapacitor bank (Figure bank
28).(Figure 28).
Increasing the conductivity of the polymers of the electrodes is another simple tech-
nique to maximise power output using sustainable materials. Despite the huge voltage
spikes caused by charge separation, non-conductive polymers yield poor electric currents.
Mallineni et al. improved the output current by depositing conductive indium tin oxide
on their W-TENGs [64]. A 3D printed microstructured film of graphene–poly (lactic acid)
(gPLA) was deposited and connected to a Teflon layer to construct a TENG (Figure 29). The
W-TENG produced significant output voltage (>2 kV) and peak power (>70 mW at 10 MΩ)
when triggered by simple mechanical movements like hand tapping.
Energies 2022,15,
Energies2022, 15,432
x FOR PEER REVIEW 2525ofof3838

Figure 28. Wireless power transmission based on W-TENG (Wireless Triboelectric Nanogenerator).
Equivalent-circuit model for the emission section (a), photographs of the transmitter (b), output
current of 130.6 mA by the hybridized nanogenerator through two DC transformers with 5 V output
(c), transmission distance of the WPT system: 40 cm (d-i) and 60 cm (d-ii) with a hand besides the
receiver. Mobile phone charged by the WPT system with a distance 100 cm away from the transmit-
ter (e). The output voltage through a voltage booster at a distance of 80 cm (f) [63].

Increasing the conductivity of the polymers of the electrodes is another simple tech-
nique to maximise power output using sustainable materials. Despite the huge voltage
Figure
Figure 28.
spikes28. Wireless
caused powertransmission
bypower
Wireless charge transmission basedon
separation,based onW-TENG
W-TENGpolymers
non-conductive (WirelessTriboelectric
(Wireless Triboelectric
yield Nanogenerator).
poor electric currents.
Nanogenerator).
Equivalent-circuit model
Mallineni et al. improved
Equivalent-circuit for
model for the the emission
theemission section
output current (a), photographs
by photographs
section (a), of
depositing conductivethe transmitter
indium
of the transmitter (b),
(b),tinoutput
oxide
output
current
on their of 130.6
W-TENGsmA by the hybridized nanogenerator through two DC transformers with 5 V output
current of 130.6 mA by [64]. A 3D printed
the hybridized microstructured
nanogenerator through twofilmDCof transformers
graphene–poly with(lactic acid)
5 V output
(c), transmission distance of the WPT system: 40 cm (d-i) and 60 cm (d-ii) with a hand besides the
(gPLA)
(c), was deposited
transmission and
distance of the connected
WPT system: to 40
a Teflon
cm (d-i)layer
and 60tocm
construct
(d-ii) witha TENG
a hand (Figure 29).
besides the
receiver. Mobile phone charged by the WPT system with a distance 100 cm away from the transmit-
The W-TENG
receiver. Mobile produced
phone significant
charged by the output
WPT system voltage
with a (>2 kV)
distance and
100 peak
cm power
away
ter (e). The output voltage through a voltage booster at a distance of 80 cm (f) [63]. from (>70
the mW at
transmitter 10
MΩ) when triggered by simple mechanical movements like hand
(e). The output voltage through a voltage booster at a distance of 80 cm (f) [63]. tapping.
Increasing the conductivity of the polymers of the electrodes is another simple tech-
nique to maximise power output using sustainable materials. Despite the huge voltage
spikes caused by charge separation, non-conductive polymers yield poor electric currents.
Mallineni et al. improved the output current by depositing conductive indium tin oxide
on their W-TENGs [64]. A 3D printed microstructured film of graphene–poly (lactic acid)
(gPLA) was deposited and connected to a Teflon layer to construct a TENG (Figure 29).
The W-TENG produced significant output voltage (>2 kV) and peak power (>70 mW at 10
MΩ) when triggered by simple mechanical movements like hand tapping.

Figure 29. Cross-sectional view of the W-TENG and working mechanism’s schematic: pressure
(a) and release (b) phases of the top electrode (Teflon); dependence of W-TENG’s output voltage on
thickness of the gPLA bottom electrode; here 2L, 4L, 6L represent two, four, and six layers of printed
gPLA electrodes whose thicknesses are ≈1, 2, 3 mm, respectively (c–e) [64].

By applying a 120 N force with a 3 Hz average frequency, the W-TENG generated a

high voltage output and strong electric fields, enabling wireless transmission without any
external power source. The wireless signal processing section comprises a preamplifier
Energies 2022, 15, 432 26 of 38

(i.e., LMC6001), an intermediate amplifier (i.e., TL082), and a pulse-shaping relying on the
NE555 IC. To reduce interference from the surroundings, a band-pass filter made up of
passive single-pole low-pass and high-pass filters was employed.

3. Commercial Smart-Floors and Components for Energy-Harvesting Applications

This Section will present the existing commercial technologies and devices for en-
ergy harvesting by human footsteps, with their costs and performance, discussing the
technologies behind these systems, already introduced in the previous Section.

3.1. Transduction Mechanisms, Conditioning Sections, Operational Strategies Applied to Smart

Floor Applications
The market for energy harvesting systems is expected to be worth USD 468 million
in 2021 and USD 701 million by 2026, with a CAGR (compound annual growth rate) of
8.4%. The rising demand for safe, energy-efficient, and long-lasting and maintenance-
less systems, the increasing use of IoT devices in automation and harvesting systems
for home automation, as well as favourable government initiatives and the rising WSNs’
adoption equipped with harvesting systems are prominent trends. COVID-19 has had a
low impact on the energy harvesting industry, but with so many service providers and
integrators involved in dealing with the unprecedented pandemic, harvesting systems’
adoption may be slower than expected in the short term. The United States is a major
hub for energy harvesting systems in construction, residential, and industrial automation
applications. In the manufacturing industry of energy harvesting systems, Europe is home
to prominent enterprises. The major players in the energy harvesting system market are
ABB (Zurich, Switzerland), Linear Technology (Milpitas, CA, USA), ST Microelectronics
(Geneva, Switzerland), Texas Instruments (Dallas, TX, USA), Cymbet (New Brighton, MN,
USA), Convergence Wireless (Newport Beach, CA, USA), Fujitsu (Tokyo, Japan), EnOcean
(Oberhaching, Germany), Honeywell (Charlotte, NC, USA), and Powercast Corporation
(Pittsburgh, PA, USA) [65].

3.1.1. Pavegen’s Tiles

Pavegen is a device developed by Laurence Kemball-Cook that transduces kinetic
energy from trampling into electrical energy. He started the development in 2008, and
over 750 prototypes were created [66]. The first model consisted of piezoelectric blocks
in various shapes to be used in outdoor and indoor pavements. When a person walks
across a Pavegen slab, a small displacement (up to 5 mm) is produced on the vertical axis,
enough to generate electrical energy (Figure 30). These blocks were employed to produce
electrical energy for pedestrian lighting, navigation solutions, public illumination, outdoor
advertising, traffic signals, and electrical device supply, among other things, on municipal
sidewalks. The pavement block’s top surface was composed entirely of recycled tire rubber,
and the base was made up of more than 80% recycled materials. Because the blocks were
waterproof, they could be used in both inside and external contexts. Ideal locations to
apply these blocks included busy streets, transport hubs, busy train stations, offices, events,
schools, shopping centers, pedestrian crossings, etc. [67]
Energies
Energies2022,
2022,15,
15,x 432
FOR PEER REVIEW 2727
ofof
3838

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure30.
30.V3V3version
® of of
® version Pavegen’s tiletile
Pavegen’s [68]; top
[68]; view
top (a),
view side
(a), view
side (b).
view (b).

Seow
Seowetetal. al.analyzed
analyzedand andtested
tested the the first model of
first model of the
thePavegen
Pavegentile tile[69].
[69].They
Theyfound foundno
noeconomic
economic advantage
advantage in in installing
installing it because
it because thethecostcost of the
of the tile tile
hadhad been been recuperated
recuperated after
after 444 years of saving money in electrical energy [69]. One
444 years of saving money in electrical energy [69]. One to seven watts are produced by a to seven watts are produced
byfoot
a foot
stompstomp
that that depresses
depresses a singlea single
tile bytile
fiveby five millimeters.
millimeters. These
These tiles usetiles use aapproach
a hybrid hybrid
approach that the
that involves involves the piezoelectric
piezoelectric effect andand
effect and induction induction and copper
copper coils and magnets coils and mag-
to generate
nets to generate
electric power. electric
The new power.
Pavegen The new Pavegencalled
technology, technology,
“V3”, iscalled
sleeker “V3”,
andismoresleeker and
efficient
more
thanefficient
the firstthan the first generation.
generation. It consists of It aconsists
triangularof a basement
triangular with basement with an elec-
an electromagnetic
tromagnetic
generator at generator
each corner at each[70].corner [70]. Onegenerates
One footstep footstep generates enoughenergy
enough off-grid off-grid toenergy
light an
toLED
lightlightbulb
an LED for lightbulb
about 20 fors.about 20 s. A
A wireless APIwireless API (application
(application program interface)program interface)
sensor is also
included
sensor in the
is also tiles toincommunicate
included data related data
the tiles to communicate to movement
related topatterns
movement in places
patterns wherein
Pavegen
places whereis deployed.
Pavegen is deployed.
Thissystem
This systemcouldcouldbe beused
used to to estimate peak pedestrian
pedestriantraffictraffichours
hoursinina agiven given location,
loca-
forecast
tion, consumer
forecast consumer patterns,
patterns, andand produce
produceheatheat
maps mapsof popular
of popularurban areas.
urban The The
areas. tilestiles
track
people’s
track position
people’s positionand and
the number
the number of steps they’ve
of steps walked
they’ve in real
walked time,time,
in real which whichcompanies
com-
mightmight
panies utiliseutilise
to track to client movements
track client movements [68,71,72].
[68,71,72].
Pavegen has been successfully
Pavegen has been successfully installed on installed on two
two local
local football
football fields
fields in in Brazil
Brazil and and Nige-
Ni-
ria. In
geria. In2013,
2013,Pavegen
Pavegeninstalled
installedits itskinetic
kinetictiles
tilesononthe
thefinal
finalstretch
stretchofofthe theParis
ParisMarathon,
Marathon,in
inwhich
whichparticipated
participated40,000 40,000runners
runners and andgenerating
generating 7 kWh
7 kWh as as
theytheycrossed
crossed thethe
finish lineline
finish [71].
[71]. In Figure 31 is reported a detail of the Pavegen’s installation. Other installations canbe
In Figure 31 is reported a detail of the Pavegen’s installation. Other installations can
beviewed
viewedatatthe thefollowing
followinglink, link,www.pavegen.com
www.pavegen.com(accessed (accessedon on1 1June
June2021).
2021).Piezoelectric
Piezoelec-
technology in the form of kinetic tiles, smart speed
tric technology in the form of kinetic tiles, smart speed absorbers, and reactiveabsorbers, and reactive flooring could
flooring
power everyday life systems in the near future: roads,
could power everyday life systems in the near future: roads, pathways, public transpor- pathways, public transportation,
and more.
tation, SmartSmart
and more. flooring energy
flooring can becan
energy usedbe in conjunction
used in conjunctionwith other renewable
with other energy
renewable
sources
energy like solar
sources likeandsolarwindandtowindminimise their susceptibility
to minimise to changing
their susceptibility weather.weather.
to changing Multiply-
ing the number of simultaneous renewable energy sources
Multiplying the number of simultaneous renewable energy sources is the key to making is the key to making the future
green while using solar, wind and hydropower large-scale
the future green while using solar, wind and hydropower large-scale kinetic flooring is kinetic flooring is unnecessary.
These kinetic floor tiles can provide more energy by installing them in specific high
unnecessary.
traffic areas to power surrounding equipment as needed. Because this technology is self-
sufficient, the Pavegen tiles would save roughly 50 ktons of CO2 emitted in the atmosphere
and make street lighting immune to power outages [71]. Ref. [73] reports Pavegen’s tile
patent, ref. [74] the electromechanical generator patent. The tile is triangular, slightly
truncated at the corners and supported by three supports; it has an equilateral triangular
shape because if a user steps on the corner of a squared tile, there can be a displacement
on the opposite corner. These deformations that can produce trip hazards are avoided
using the triangular shape. The longest dimension of each tile is from 300 to 700 mm. The
thickness has to be small, the core material can be Nomex, polypropylene, fiber-reinforced
cement. The top and bottom layer can be steel or laminated ceramics, with an additional
top layer of decorative or resistant material. There is flexible sealing to prevent the entry
of solid or liquid materials between the tiles, made by rubber, neoprene, TPV (Vulcanized
Energies 2022, 15, 432 28 of 38

Thermoplastic Elastomer), TPE (Thermoplastic Elastomer) or polymeric materials. The

movement range is from 5 to 10 mm. Each tile is supported by gaskets with a cap on top. To
prevent the relative translating of the support, an O-ring made up of rubber or polymeric
material avoids the hard contact between the cap and tile. The flooring system has a data
processing section that communicates with the generator acquiring the electrical power
used to estimate the number of people on the tile crossing the floor and recording the time
and location of each footstep. This operation is possible by comparing the output value
of the three generators recorded and used to estimate the footstep location. The tracking
algorithm for the footsteps localization can be the Kalman filter or a probability hypothesis
density tracker. The tracking algorithm can input the location, the footstep direction,
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 28 the
of 38
magnitude and the user’s estimated mass.

Figure31.
Figure 31.Detail
Detailofofinstallation
installationofofthe
thetiles.
tiles.

These kineticthe
Additionally, floor tiles can
flooring provide
system moreelectromagnetic
can have energy by installing themtoinreceive
receivers specific high
RFID,
traffic areas
Bluetooth to power
or Zigbee surrounding
identifier signalsequipment as needed.
of mobile phones withBecause
an app this
thattechnology
generates it.is The
self-
sufficient,
Pavegen tilethe
hasPavegen
a base with tiles drainage
would save roughly
holes 50 ktons
to provide a path of for
COthe2 emitted in the on
entry liquid atmos-
the
phereThe
base. andelectrical
make street lighting
generator immuneatohousing,
comprises power outages
an actuator[71].movable
Ref. [73] axially
reportsrelative
Pavegen’s to
tilehousing
the patent, ref.
by an [74] the distance
axial electromechanical
of betweengenerator
5 mm and patent.
10 mm, The tile is triangular,
a rotatable memberslightly
being
truncatedrelative
rotatable at the corners and supported
to the housing by threeto
and configured supports;
cooperate it has
withanthe equilateral triangular
actuator such that
shape
axial because ifof
movement a user steps on causes
the actuator the corner of a squared
rotation tile, there
of the rotatable can be aFurthermore,
member. displacement
aonstator is included
the opposite in theThese
corner. generator, as well as
deformations a rotor
that configured
can produce trip to receiveare
hazards rotational
avoided
kinetic
using theenergy from the
triangular rotatable
shape. member.dimension
The longest In particular, the rotor
of each tile isand
from stator are700
300 to configured
mm. The
tothickness
interact hassuch tothat rotation
be small, the of
core thematerial
rotor relative to the stator
can be Nomex, results in electromagnetic
polypropylene, fiber-reinforced
induction
cement. The in thetoprotor
and and/or
bottom the layer stator, which
can be steelproduces
or laminateda three-phase
ceramics,alternating current.
with an additional
Furthermore, the electrical generator further comprises: an electronic
top layer of decorative or resistant material. There is flexible sealing to prevent the entry circuit comprising a
rectifier (flyback converter) configured to convert the alternating
of solid or liquid materials between the tiles, made by rubber, neoprene, TPV (Vulcanized current to direct current
and a current controller
Thermoplastic Elastomer), configured to regulate the
TPE (Thermoplastic direct current
Elastomer) to be a fixed
or polymeric constant
materials. The
current
movement of between
range is150 from mA and
5 to 10 500
mm.mA.Each Thetileelectromechanical
is supported by gaskets systemwith useda to
capconvert
on top.
linear translation
To prevent in rotative
the relative movement
translating is the
of the ball screw.
support, an O-ring made up of rubber or poly-
meric material avoids the hard contact between the cap and tile. The flooring system has
3.1.2. Sustainable Dance Floor by Studio Roosegard
a data processing section that communicates with the generator acquiring the electrical
power Anusedinnovative
to estimate product is the ofSustainable
the number people on the Dance Floor® the
tile crossing produced
floor and byrecording
Studio
Roosegaarde [75], a modular system of × 65 × 30
65operation 3
cm ablebytocomparing
produce 25
the time and location of each footstep. This is possible theW per
output
module
value oftothe power threethegenerators
lighting and DJ booth
recorded and (Figure
used to 32)estimate
[75,76]. When a person
the footstep dances The
location. on
the tile, springs come down, and the rack drives the pinion that
tracking algorithm for the footsteps localization can be the Kalman filter or a probability rotates the dynamo shaft.
hypothesis density tracker. The tracking algorithm can input the location, the footstep di-
rection, the magnitude and the user’s estimated mass.
Additionally, the flooring system can have electromagnetic receivers to receive RFID,
Bluetooth or Zigbee identifier signals of mobile phones with an app that generates it. The
Pavegen tile has a base with drainage holes to provide a path for the entry liquid on the
base. The electrical generator comprises a housing, an actuator movable axially relative to
the housing by an axial distance of between 5 mm and 10 mm, a rotatable member being
rotatable relative to the housing and configured to cooperate with the actuator such that
 linear
lineartranslation
translationininrotative
rotativemovement
movementisisthe
theball
ballscrew.
screw.

3.1.2.
3.1.2.Sustainable
SustainableDance
DanceFloor
FloorbybyStudio
StudioRoosegard
Roosegard
An
An innovative product is the SustainableDance
innovative product is the Sustainable DanceFloorFloor®®produced
producedbybyStudio
StudioRoose-
Roose-
gaarde
gaarde[75],
[75],aamodular
modularsystem
systemofof65 65××65
65××30
30cm
cm able
3 3 abletotoproduce
produce2525WWper
permodule
moduletoto
Energies 2022, 15, 432 29 of 38
power
powerthethelighting
lightingand
andDJ
DJbooth
booth(Figure
(Figure32)
32)[75,76].
[75,76].When
Whenaaperson
persondances
danceson
onthethetile,
tile,
springs
springscome
comedown,
down,and
andthe
therack
rackdrives
drivesthe
thepinion
pinionthatthatrotates
rotatesthe
thedynamo
dynamoshaft.
shaft.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure32.
Figure 32.Sustainable
32. SustainableDance
Sustainable DanceFloor
Dance Floor®®®(a),
Floor (a),and
andaacross-section
cross-sectionofofthe
theharvester
harvester(b)
(b)[75].
[75].

3.1.3. Smart
3.1.3.Smart Energy
SmartEnergy
EnergyFloor Floor
Floorby by Energy
byEnergy Floors
EnergyFloors
Floors
Sustainable Energy Floor ® (SEF) was the first smart tile model created byEnergy
Energy
Sustainable Energy Floor
Sustainable Energy Floor (SEF)was ®®(SEF)
wasthe thefirst
firstsmart
smarttile tilemodel
modelcreated
createdby by Energy
Floors
Floors [77].
[77]. It
It could
could produce
produce 2–20
2–20 JJ per
per step,
step, depending
depending on
on
Floors [77]. It could produce 2–20 J per step, depending on the user’s weight, movement the
the user’s
user’s weight,
weight, movement
movement
type,
type, and
type,and maximum
andmaximum
maximumdeflection deflection
deflectionof of the
ofthe SEF
theSEF module.
module.ItIt
SEFmodule. can
Itcan have
haveaaamaximum
canhave maximum
maximumstatic static loadofof
staticload
load of
25 kN. Each tile is 500 × 500 × 100 mm 3 , and the core (450 mm × 450 mm) is made of
25kN.
kN.Each
Eachtile tileisis500
500××500 500××100
100mmmm,3,and
3
andthe thecore
core(450
(450mm mm××450 450mm)
mm)isismademadeofofrecycled
recycled
recycled
ceramicsceramics
ceramics ororrubber,
rubber, orglass,
rubber, glass, bamboo
glass,bamboo
bamboo or
orsyntheticor synthetic
synthetic materials.
materials.materials.
The
ThebatteryThe battery
battery pack
packhad pack
had aa7hadAha
7Ah
7capacity
Ah capacity
capacity and a and
6–12 aV6–12 V
voltage voltage (depending
(depending on the on the application’s
application’s
and a 6–12 V voltage (depending on the application’s power consumption). Tiles power power consumption).
consumption). Tiles
Tiles
can
canbe can
be be integrated
integrated
integrated ononthetheonexisting
the existing
existing floorfloor
floor and and
andcustomised customised
customised [77]. [77].
[77].The The second
Thesecond
second SEF SEF version
SEFversion
version was
was
was born in 2018 from Energy Floors company, called Smart Energy Floor ® , available in
born
borninin2018
2018from fromEnergy
EnergyFloors Floorscompany,
company,called calledSmart
SmartEnergyEnergyFloorFloor, ,available
®® availableininthree
three
three
models:models:
models: the the Dancer,
theDancer,
Dancer, the the
theGamer, Gamer,
Gamer, andand
and thethe
the Walker.
Walker.
Walker. They They
They are
areare based
based
based on on
on an anelectromechanical
an electromechanical
electromechanical
solution,
solution, based
solution,based
basedon on a rack-pinion
onaarack-pinion mechanism
rack-pinionmechanism
mechanismthat that converts
thatconverts
convertslinear linear
lineartile tile translation
tiletranslation
translationininthe inro-
the the
ro-
rotative
tative movement
tativemovement
movementfor for
forthe the
theEM EM generator
EMgenerator
generator(Figure(Figure
(Figure33). 33).
33).TheThe Dancer
TheDancer
Dancerfloor floor module
floormodule produces
moduleproduces
producesup up
up
to
to 35
35W.
to35 W. TheWalker
W.The
The Walkercomprises
Walker comprises
comprises walkable
walkable
walkable solar
solar
solar top
top
topmodules,
modules,
modules, andand a abuilt-in
and abuilt-in LED
built-in
2 [77]. The Gamer is made up for children education,
LED
LEDillumination
illumina-
illumina-
system;
tion each
system; tile
each has
tile a size
has a of 60
size ×
of 60 cm
60×60 cm 2 2[77]. The Gamer is made up for children edu-
tion system; each tile has a size of 60×60 cm [77]. The Gamer is made up for children edu-
health
cation,and
cation, healthfitness
health and [78].
andfitness
fitness[78].[78].

Figure
Figure33.
33.Working
Workingprinciple
principleof
ofthe
theSustainable
SustainableEnergy
EnergyFloor
Floor®®®[77].
[77].
Figure 33. Working principle of the Sustainable Energy Floor [77].

3.1.4.
3.1.4.Hybrid
HybridEnergy
Hybrid EnergyTile
Energy Tileby
Tile byOTEM2000
by OTEM2000
OTEM2000
The
TheHybrid
The HybridEnergy
Hybrid EnergyTile
Energy Tile®®
Tile®(HET)
(HET)isis
(HET) isaaanew-generation
new-generationurban
new-generation urbanflooring
flooringthat
thatcombines
combines
Kinetic
Kineticand
Kinetic andPV
and PVSolar
PV Solartechs
Solar techs(Figure
techs (Figure34).
(Figure 34).The
34). Theclean
The cleanenergy
clean energysolutions
energy solutionsare
areinstalled
installedatatfirst
firstatat
Rotterdam’s Energy Floors showroom. The HET is made up of a top layer of walking solar
tiles (invented by OTEM2000, Spain) and energy floor tiles that convert kinetic energy from
human movement into electrical energy (developed by Energy Floors), to be installed in
commercial streets, public squares, parks and pavements. The tile is available in different
formats: 500 × 500 mm2 , 750 × 750 mm2 , 1000 × 2000 mm2 .
 Rotterdam’s
Rotterdam’s Energy Floors
Energy showroom.
Floors showroom. The HET
The HET is made
is made upup of of
a top
a toplayer ofof
layer walking
walking solar
solar
tiles (invented
tiles (inventedbyby
OTEM2000,
OTEM2000, Spain)
Spain)andandenergy
energy floor tiles
floor that
tiles thatconvert
convertkinetic
kineticenergy
energy
Energies 2022, 15, 432
fromfromhuman
human movement
movement into electrical
into energy
electrical energy(developed
(developed bybyEnergy
EnergyFloors),
Floors),totobe30
bein-
ofin-
38
stalled in commercial
stalled streets,
in commercial public
streets, publicsquares,
squares,parks
parks andandpavements.
pavements. The tile
The is is
tile available
availableinin
different
differentformats: 500500
formats: × 500 mm
× 500 2, 750
mm × 750
2, 750 mm
× 750 mm2, 1000
2, 1000× 2000
× 2000mm mm 2. 2
.

Figure
Figure
Figure 34.
34.34.
HEFsHEFs
HEFs based
based
based on
onon photovoltaic
photovoltaic panels
panels
photovoltaic and
panels and EnergyFloors
EnergyFloors
and electromechanical
electromechanical
EnergyFloors technology
technology
electromechanical [79].
[79].
technology [79].

Several
Several
Several HEF HEF
HEF ®®(Hybrid
(Hybrid
® (Hybrid Energy
Energy
Energy Floor
Floor®)®®
Floor )) are
are are deeply
deeply
deeply discussed
discussed
discussed in
inin[79]: Urban
[79]: Urban Solarfloor ® ®
Solarfloor
andand
and the
thetheother
other solutions
solutions
solutionsareare nonslip
nonslip
are flooring
flooring
nonslip certificated.
certificated.
flooring Sport
Sport
certificated. Solarfloor
Solarfloor
Sport ®
® and
Solarfloorand® Solar
Solar Sport
andSport
Solar
Courts
Sport ® Courts ® developed
® developed together
togetherASBGlassfloor
ASBGlassfloor
Glassfloor [80]. The
[80]. The iEPAS ®tiles,
® ®tiles,
iEPAS tiles, developed
developedbyby
Courts developed together ASB [80]. The iEPAS developed
OTEM2000,
OTEM2000,
OTEM2000, areare
are based
based
based onon
on piezoelectric
piezoelectric
piezoelectric materials
materials
materials and
andand electromechanical
electromechanical
electromechanical systems
systems
systems tototo scav-
scavenge
scav-
enge
the the
enge the mechanical
mechanical
mechanical energyenergy
energy relatedrelated
related to footsteps
totofootsteps
footsteps(Figure(Figure
(Figure35) 35) [81]. Similarly,
35) [81]. Similarly,
Similarly,the the EVELRED
theEVELRED
EVELRED ® ®

(Energy
(Energy
(Energy Speed
Speed
Speed Reduced)
Reduced)
Reduced) has
has hasthethe shape
shape
shape ofaof
of a road
aroad
roadbump bump
bump and and
andallowsallows
allows toto scavenge
to scavenge
scavenge energyenergy
from
energy
from
vehicles
from vehicles
passing
vehicles passing
passing itover
overover it by
byit using
by usinganan electromechanical
an electromechanical
using electromechanical generator
generator
generator [79]
[79][79]
(patent (patent availa-
available
(patent availa- in
bleble
ref. in ref.
in[82]).
ref. [82]).
[82]).

(a)(a) (b)(b) (c)(c) (d)(d)

Figure
Figure 35.
35.35. Different
Different OTEM2000′s
OTEM2000′s products:
products: EnergyFloors
EnergyFloors
® solution to recover energy from the per-
® solution to recover
® solution energyenergy
from the per-
Figure Different OTEM2000’s products: EnergyFloors to recover from the
son's
son's footsteps
footsteps (a), example
(a), example of HEF ®
of HEFof tile
® tile (b);
(b); IEPAS
IEPAS
® tile ®
® (c) and EVELRED
(c) and®EVELRED
® real applications to recover
® real applications to recoverto
® real applications
person’s
energy footsteps
from (a), example HEF (b); IEPAS (c) and EVELRED
energy from carcar transit
transit (d)(d) [82].
[82].
recover energy from car transit (d) [82].
3.1.5.
3.1.5.
3.1.5. Smart
Smart
Smart Energy
Energy
Energy Floor
Floor
Floor bybyby Veranu
Veranu
Veranu
Veranu
Veranu
Veranu ®®
® is an Italian startup founded in 2015 [83]; the Veranu tile measures 30 × 30 ×
is isananItalian
Italianstartup
startupfounded
foundedinin2015 2015[83];
[83];the
theVeranu
Veranutile tilemeasures
measures 30 30 ××3030××
4
4 4cm cm
3 3
cmwith
3 with a weight of approximately 1 kg (Figure 36). The tile is made up of a plurality
with a weight
a weight ofof approximately
approximately 1 kg
1 kg (Figure
(Figure 36).
36). The
The tile
tile is is made
made upup ofof
a aplurality
plurality
ofofofpiezoelectric
piezoelectric
piezoelectric stacks,
stacks,
stacks, each
each
each realised
realised
realised overlapping
overlapping
overlapping different
different
different elements,
elements,
elements, and
and
and elastic
elastic
elastic insulating
insulating
insulating
spacers
spacers interposed
spacersinterposed
interposed between
between
between each pair
eachpair
each of adjacent
pairofofadjacent piezoelectric
adjacentpiezoelectric
piezoelectricelementselements
elementsthat that favour
thatfavour
favourthe the
the
tiletile
tile performance.
performance.There
performance. There
There are are
are five piezoelectric
fivepiezoelectric
five elements
piezoelectricelements
elementsmade made
madeup up of PIEZOTITE
upofofPIEZOTITE
PIEZOTITE
® polarised
® polarised
® polarised
to be connected in parallel. The wiring required to connect
to be connected in parallel. The wiring required to connect the piezoelectric elements ofof
to be connected in parallel. The wiring required to connect the
the piezoelectric
piezoelectric elements
elements of
each piezoelectric
eachpiezoelectric
piezoelectricstack stack converges
stackconverges
convergesinto into an electronic
intoananelectronic control
electroniccontrol
controlunit unit
unitthatthat allows
thatallows
allowsthe the signal
thesignal
signal
each
producedby
produced by the
the piezoelectric
piezoelectric stack stack totobe
be converted
converted ininelectric
electric current.
current.Moreover,
Moreover, thisthis
en-
produced by the piezoelectric stack to be converted in electric current. Moreover, this en-
ergy
energy is used
is used to feed
to feed a temperature
a temperature sensor,
sensor,a wireless
a wireless transceiver,
transceiver, a pressure
a pressuresensor, a
sensor,pe-
ergy is used to feed a temperature sensor, a wireless transceiver, a pressure sensor, a pe- a
dometer, a alighting
pedometer, lighting system,
system, orora motion
a motion detector
detector[83]. TheThe released results indicate thatthat
the
dometer, a lighting system, or a motion detector [83]. [83].
The released released
resultsresults indicate
indicate that the
the Veranu tile can produce up to 2 W of power/footstep; 20 steps are enough to turn on a
street LED lamp and ten thousand to fully charge a smartphone’s battery [84–86].
 ment Mechanics Lab of the Coimbra University [87]. This system consisted of various-
shaped modules that included an electric power generating device scavenging energy
from a limited vertical axis displacement up to 3 mm when a person or vehicle passed
over it [88]. The vertical pavement displacement actuates a mechanical gear system (rack
Energies 2022, 15, 432
and pinion) connected to the generator shaft. The pavement comprises on its base resilient
31 of 38
support elements maintaining the tile horizontal. Its output performances (power, W) are
reported in ref. [88] as function of the foot support type and user weight.

Figure36.
Figure 36.Veranu
Veranupiezoelectric
piezoelectrictile
tile[86].
[86].

3.1.6.
3.1.7.Waydip Company’s Tiles
EAP: Electro-Active-Polymers
In 2009, the Waydip
Electroactive polymersstartup
arepresented
materialsWaynergy,
with bothan energyand
sensing harvesting pavement
actuation con-
capabilities.
verting
They aremechanical energy into
ideal alternatives forelectric
operatingenergy, designed
as sensors andin partnership with the
actuators because of Pavement
their high
Mechanics
strain rate,Lab of the
rapid Coimbra
reaction, Universityand
robustness, [87]. Thismechanical
high system consisted of various-shaped
compliance under severe
modules that included
manufacturing an electric
environments. Bashirpower
et al. generating
investigateddevice scavenging
the general energy
operating from a
processes of
limited
severalvertical axis displacement
electroactive polymers using up totheir
3 mmindividual
when a person or vehicle
features passed over
and variables it [88].
influencing
The vertical
their pavement
properties displacement
[89]. They are used inactuates
biomedical,a mechanical
structuralgear system
health (rack and
monitoring, pinion)
aerospace,
connected to the generator shaft. The pavement comprises on its base
defense and robotics applications. DE (Dielectric elastomers) have displayed energy den- resilient support
elements maintaining
sities as high the tile
as 550 mJ/g; horizontal.
they are basedIts onoutput performances
films with thicknesses (power,
of tensW)toare reported
hundreds of
in ref. [88] as function of the foot support type and user weight.
micrometers, thus large area generators are required to provide useful power. Unlike pi-
ezoelectric or electromagnetic generators, which struggle to adjust to millimeter- or meter-
3.1.7. EAP: Electro-Active-Polymers
scale, DEGs (Dielectric Elastomers Generators) can be practically modified to multiple di-
Electroactive
mensional ranges,polymers are materials
allowing various with both
applications sensing
ranging fromand
humanactuation
motion capabilities.
to renewa-
They are ideal alternatives for operating as sensors and actuators
ble energy harvesting [90]. DEGs are a very promising energy conversion technology because of their high
since
strain rate, rapid
they feature thereaction,
following robustness,
features: and high
(1) an mechanicalcyclical
intrinsically compliance underprinciple
working severe man- that
ufacturing environments.
closely matches the mechanicalBashir et al. investigated
energy’s the general operating
alternating/time-varying quality; (2)processes
high energy of
several
densitieselectroactive
up to 3 J g−1polymers
in theory using
and 0.78their
J gindividual features
−1 in experiments; (3)and variables influencing
a convertible energy den-
their properties [89]. They are used in biomedical, structural health
sity that is theoretically independent of running frequency; (4) low raw material monitoring, aerospace,
costs; (5)
defense
small weight, architectural simplicity (with few or no moving rigid parts), and quietden-
and robotics applications. DE (Dielectric elastomers) have displayed energy op-
sities as high as 550 mJ/g; they are based on films with thicknesses of tens to hundreds
eration. Failure modes like electrical breakdown (EB) and voltage loss limit the DEG’s
of micrometers, thus large area generators are required to provide useful power. Unlike
performance, material features, and other phenomena, including material extensibility
piezoelectric or electromagnetic generators, which struggle to adjust to millimeter- or meter-
and viscoelasticity, loading configurations, and current leakage [91].
scale, DEGs (Dielectric Elastomers Generators) can be practically modified to multiple
In ref. [92], McKay et al. proposed an electroactive-polymer energy harvester for
dimensional ranges, allowing various applications ranging from human motion to renew-
wireless sensor networks, composed of a stacked membrane configuration that allows
able energy harvesting [90]. DEGs are a very promising energy conversion technology
self-supporting generators to be fabricated without rigid frames with a much smaller foot-
since they feature the following features: (1) an intrinsically cyclical working principle that
print than that needed using a single membrane. The end caps were provided because
closely matches the mechanical energy’s alternating/time-varying quality; (2) high energy
adhering to the stack ends between two structures is the most practical way for tying a
densities up to 3 J g−1 in theory and 0.78 J g−1 in experiments; (3) a convertible energy
stack to a load. The constrained ends do not deform as much as the central stack. The
density that is theoretically independent of running frequency; (4) low raw material costs;
(5) small weight, architectural simplicity (with few or no moving rigid parts), and quiet
operation. Failure modes like electrical breakdown (EB) and voltage loss limit the DEG’s
performance, material features, and other phenomena, including material extensibility and
viscoelasticity, loading configurations, and current leakage [91].
In ref. [92], McKay et al. proposed an electroactive-polymer energy harvester for
wireless sensor networks, composed of a stacked membrane configuration that allows self-
supporting generators to be fabricated without rigid frames with a much smaller footprint
than that needed using a single membrane. The end caps were provided because adhering
to the stack ends between two structures is the most practical way for tying a stack to a
load. The constrained ends do not deform as much as the central stack. The transducer
scavenges energy by moving electrical charges using mechanical deformation as depicted
in Figure 37; at a 0.5 Hz frequency, the generator generates 300 µW.
 mercialization are being pursued by some companies, including Aisin AW and Zeon Co.
[93].

3.1.8. POWERleap Tiles

During her fourth-year thesis at the University of Michigan, E. Redmond, founder of
Energies 2022, 15, 432 32 of 38
Powerleap Inc., designed new floor solutions for smart sensing and power generation.
Powerleap employs a piezoelectric generator to harvest power from human footsteps [94].

Figure
Figure37.
37.EAP
EAPgenerator
generatorproposed
proposedinin[92].
[92].

Piezoelectric
However, nomaterials companies scavenge energy
are selling from vibrations
commercial DEGs for instead
human of footsteps
employing butme-are
chanical displacement
instead producing like magnetic
dielectric elastomer motors and micro-turbines
materials. do, thus eliminating
Large-scale manufacturing and commer-the
need for moving
cialization are being components.
pursued by Thesometile companies,
includes two energy Aisin
including devices AW based on polarised
and Zeon Co. [93].
polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) layers sandwiched between a set of electrodes that gen-
3.1.8.current
erate POWERleap Tiles out of the piezoelectric layer when stressed. Alternatively, the
into and/or
During generator
piezoelectric her fourth-yearcan be thesis
made at of the
one University
or more lead of zirconate
Michigan,titanate
E. Redmond, founder
harvesters in a
of Powerleap Inc., designed new floor solutions for smart sensing
stack configuration separated by electrodes, obtaining a wound piezoelectric stack of mul- and power generation.
Powerleap
tiple employs
piezoelectric a piezoelectric
layers. The electrode generator
can be toaharvest
metallic power
(e.g.,from
copper,human footstepsfoil,
aluminium) [94].
Piezoelectric
conductive ink, or any materials
other scavenge
conductive energy fromBesides,
material. vibrations instead
the two energyof employing
devices com- me-
chanical
prise displacement
a Bluetooth like magnetic
transceiver motors information
for transmitting and micro-turbines
related to do,thethus eliminating
scavenged powerthe
need for moving components. The tile includes two energy devices
to an external receiver. An RFID (Radio Frequency Identifier) reader creates transient elec- based on polarised
polyvinylidene
tromagnetic fields fluoride (PVDF)
for feeding layerstags
the RFID sandwiched
attached to between
each item a setinoftheelectrodes
customer’s that gen-
shop-
ping cart. The unique IDs are subsequently transmitted in the form of data packets tothe
erate current into and/or out of the piezoelectric layer when stressed. Alternatively, a
piezoelectric
central generator
server within the can
store,bewhere
made the of one or morefootfall
customer’s lead zirconate
likewisetitanate
powers harvesters
the wirelessin
a stack configuration
transmitters. The product separated by electrodes,
characterization obtaining
indicated a wound
that the developed piezoelectric stack of
tile can generate
multiple piezoelectric layers. The electrode can be a metallic
10 W/m per hour, corresponding to about 1 kWh per hour from 100 square meters with
2 (e.g., copper, aluminium) foil,
conductive ink, or any other conductive material. Besides, the
about 3000–5000 people each hour. The target price ranges from $50–100 per square foot two energy devices comprise
a Bluetooth transceiver for transmitting information related to the scavenged power to an
[95].
external receiver. An RFID (Radio Frequency Identifier) reader creates transient electromag-
neticPower
3.1.9. fields for feeding the
Generating RFID
Floor bytags attached to each item in the customer’s shopping cart.
Sound-Power
The unique IDs are subsequently transmitted in the form of data packets to a central server
In 2008, Soundpower developed its Power-Generating FloorTM, and in July of that
within the store, where the customer’s footfall likewise powers the wireless transmitters.
year, corporate office design firm Kokuyo Office System Co. installed Power-Generating
The product characterization indicated that the developed tile can generate 10 W/m2 per
Floor tiles in its offices. Each tile covers a surface of about 50 cm2, made up of a crystalline
hour, corresponding to about 1 kWh per hour from 100 square meters with about 3000–5000
piezoelectric
people each hour. substance (Figure
The target price38).ranges
The Power-Generating
from $50–100 per square Floor foot
consists
[95]. of tiles that
transduce vibrations created by pedestrians or cars passing overhead into electric energy
[96,97]. The harvested
3.1.9. Power Generating energy
Floorfrom tramping feeds green LED lights integrated into the
by Sound-Power
tiles, which
In 2008, Soundpower developedisits
is triggered when the tile tramped on, and is used
Power-Generating Floor toTMilluminate
, and in Julythe of
walk-
that
way. The tile has a remote controller with operation buttons,
year, corporate office design firm Kokuyo Office System Co. installed Power-Generating a transmitter, a memory, a
timer, and a detector. The tile includes the piezoelectric power
Floor tiles in its offices. Each tile covers a surface of about 50 cm , made up of a crys- generator
2 and the power
supply
talline section
piezoelectricwith the bridge rectifier
substance (Figure recharging circuit. The power
38). The Power-Generating generator
Floor includes
consists of tiles
that transduce vibrations created by pedestrians or cars passing overhead into electric
energy [96,97]. The harvested energy from tramping feeds green LED lights integrated
into the tiles, which is triggered when the tile is tramped on, and is used to illuminate the
walkway. The tile has a remote controller with operation buttons, a transmitter, a memory,
a timer, and a detector. The tile includes the piezoelectric power generator and the power
supply section with the bridge rectifier recharging circuit. The power generator includes
an ionic polymer-metal composite (IPMC) made by plating both sides of an ionic conduct-
ing polymer film (gel) with a metal (such as gold), anionic conducting polymer gel film
(ICPF). The pair of piezoelectric devices generate electricity when deformed by pressure,
formed of a piezoelectric ceramic, such as barium titanate or Zirconia, or a piezoelectric
monocrystalline, such as lithium tantalate (LiTaO3 ). A rotating shaft is used to return to
the original position after the press down. The detector is an operation detection method
Energies 2022, 15, 432 33 of 38

for detecting when any operation buttons are pressed by sensing output current from the
rectifier. The timer measures support time under the control of the operation identification
unit. This last detects the operation performed on the operation buttons and determines the
subsequent operation depending on which operation buttons have been pressed and the
measured support time. The memory is used to store information needed for the controller
in a nonvolatile manner. An operation identification table, previously stored in the memory,
was used to recognise the user’s activity based on the selected operation type and the
pressed operation button. The transmitter wirelessly transmits an operation signal that
corresponds to the outcome of the operation identification unit.

Figure 38. SoundPower® ’s tiles [96].

4. Comparative Analysis and Discussions

In Table 4, we have summarised all the commercial smart floors previously discussed
in terms of transduction mechanism, main features, size and output performance. As can
be noticed, for those applications that require a power output in the range 3–7 W, the
electromagnetic transduction mechanism, hybridised with piezoelectric or triboelectric
harvesters, is the most promising solution for developing floors for energy harvesting
applications. They provide significant advantages, simple realization and maintenance,
relatively low cost, the possibility of employing ecological materials for the pavements and,
finally, the realization of very compact and efficient devices, allowing an easy integration
inside existing structures and buildings. On the other hand, electromechanical systems that
convert the linear motion of the tile surface into a rotative motion for an electromagnetic
generator are efficient but require a more complex design.

Table 4. Summary and performance comparison of presented smart floor devices in terms of trans-
duction mechanism, main features, size and produced output power.

Device—Company Uses and Features Dimension Output Power

• In train stations, airports, shopping centres, etc.
• Each tile has a wireless API that transmits real-time
data of the movement.
V3® by Pavegen [68,70] 50 cm on each side 5 W/step
• Wireless trasmission system.
• It has a football tracker system.
• Electromagnetic harvesting system (V3).
Sustanaible Dance Floor® • Used in dance clubs.
by Studio • Save 30% total energy of the club at the party. 65 cm × 65 cm × 30 cm 25 W/module
Roosegaarde [75] • Electromechanical harvesting system.
Sustainable Energy • Used in train station pavements, airports, shopping
Floor® by Energy Floors malls, etc. 50 cm × 50 cm × 10 cm 2 ÷ 20 J/step
[77] • Customizing modules.
• Three models for different applications.
Smart Energy Floor® by
• Adapt for education but expensive. 60 cm × 60 cm 35 W with a 10 mm airgap
Energy Floors [78]
• Electromechanical system.
Energies 2022, 15, 432 34 of 38

Table 4. Cont.

Device—Company Uses and Features Dimension Output Power

• Combine photovoltaic technology with other energy
sources.
50 cm × 50 cm;
Hybrid Energy Tile® by • Solar panels contain Copper Indium Selenide (CIS),
75 cm × 75 cm; Not specified
OTEM2000 [81] maximizing efficiency.
100 cm × 100 cm
• Hybrid and Customizable system.
• Wireless transmitting system.
• Simple maintenance.
Smart Energy Floor by • Ecological materials and low cost.
30 cm × 30 cm × 4 cm 2 W/step
Veranu® [83] • Piezoelectric system.
• Not for large scale power production.
• Out of production.
Waynergy tiles by
• Electromechanical system. 40 cm × 40 cm 10 W
Waydip Co. [87]
• Adapt to harvest energy from vehicles.
• Low cost and small dimensions.
Dielectric Elastomer • Problem with current leakage. 11 mm × 11 mm × 9 mm
300 µW @ 0.5Hz
Generator [92] • Commercial devices not available. (11 mm is the diameter)
• Dielectric elastomer system.
• Out of production.
• Piezoelectric system.
Powerleap tiles [94,95] 2400 × 2400 0.5 mW/step
• Data wireless transmission of direction, velocity, time,
weight, mass, speed of the users’ motion.
Power Generating Floor™ • Piezoelectric system.
50 cm × 50 cm 0.1 W/step
by SoundPower [96,97] • For feeding lighting systems.

Compared to similar review papers reported in the literature, the proposed scientific
work focuses on energy harvesting floors for scavenging energy from human walking,
presenting the fundamentals related to the main transduction mechanisms applicable in
this field (i.e., piezoelectric, electrostatic, electromagnetic, etc.), pointing out for each tech-
nology strengths and weakness. Besides, an up-to-date overview of scientific works related
to energy harvesting floors based on presented technologies and corresponding hybrid
solutions is presented, not limited only to the piezoelectric transduction mechanism [11,13].
According to us, the strength of our review paper is to extensively focus only on smart
floors able to harvest mechanical energy associated with walking, not covering solutions
that scavenge energy from other types of energy sources (solar, thermal, geothermal, etc.),
making it more specialised and detailed [12,14]. However, some examples of hybrid so-
lutions that combines kinetic and photovoltaic solar technologies have been introduced
(e.g., EnergyFloors® , HEF® , IEPAS® and EVELRED® ). Furthermore, the paper reports a
survey of commercial energy harvesting floors available on the market, discussing in detail
their architecture, working modalities, transduction mechanism, overall performances, not
just dwelling on a superficial description [12]. A critical analysis and comparisons between
the presented commercial devices are provided to identify the best solutions for the next
generation of smart floors.

5. Conclusions
Considering that kinetic energy generated from human walking or vehicle movements
represents a useful energy source, this review paper has investigated the state-of-art of
smart energy harvesting floors to identify the best solution to feed, for example, a lighting
system or charging electric columns. Piezoelectric, electromagnetic, triboelectric harvest-
ing mechanisms have been discussed. Furthermore, an overview of the scientific papers
available in the literature related to energy harvesting floors has been presented, together
with a survey of the commercial energy harvesting floors proposed by companies and
startups. Critical analysis and comparisons between the different technologies and de-
vices are reported to determine the optimal strategies for scavenging energy from human
trampling. According to us, the piezoelectric transduction method represents the most
Energies 2022, 15, 432 35 of 38

promising solution for developing smart energy floors, given their small dimensions, high
efficiency, and absence of moving parts. In this way, more degrees of freedom in designing
such harvesting systems are available, providing new insights for designing future smart
energy floors.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.B., P.V. and R.D.F.; methodology, P.V. and R.D.F.; valida-
tion, P.V. and R.V.; data curation, R.D.F. and L.B.; writing—original draft preparation, R.D.F., P.V. and
D.C.; writing—review and editing, P.V. and R.D.F.; supervision, D.C. and R.V. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: Data of our study are available upon request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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