ATTC

Automotive Technology
Department

OCTOBER 2023
1
Engine Diagnosis, Tune-up, and Performance Testing
(AUTO -5315)

1. Engine Diagnosis

Elias Haile (MSc)

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 Introduction
Definition of engine diagnosis, tune-up, and performance testing

• Engine:- An IC engine is a mechanical machine that is designed to convert the chemical

energy of fuel (gasoline, diesel,...) into heat energy and then to mechanical energy.

• Diagnosis:- is a method of finding out the troubles within an engine by visual

examination, by the sound produced, by the smoke of the exhaust, and with the help of
instruments.

• Tune-up:- is a process of correcting or adjusting the troubles or problems of an engine.

• Performance Testing:- is a type of test performed on an engine to determine the brake

torque, brake power, and the amount of fuel consumed by the engine for a given range
of engine speed. 3
Diagnostic Terminology

4
 What is needed to find faults?
• Finding the problem when complex automotive systems go wrong is easy if
you have the necessary knowledge.
• This knowledge consists of two parts:
1. understanding of the system in which the problem exists
2. the ability to apply a logical diagnostic routine

• It is also important to be clear about these definitions:

• symptom – what the user notices
• fault – the error in the system that results in the symptom
• root cause – the cause of the fault

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 Diagnostic Process
• Six Stages of diagnostics process
1. Verify: Is there actually a problem, can you
confirm the symptoms
2. Collect: Get further information about the
problem, by observation and research
3. Evaluate: Stop and think about the
evidence
4. Test: Carry out further tests in a logical
sequence
5. Rectify: Fix the problem
6. Check: Make sure all systems now work
correctly

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 Diagnostic Process
• Six-stage process
• Here is a very simple example to illustrate the diagnostic process.
• The reported fault is excessive use of engine oil.
1. Question the customer to find out how much oil is being used (is it excessive?).
2. Examine the vehicle for oil leaks and blue smoke from the exhaust. Are there any
service bulletins?
3. If leaks are found the engine could still be burning oil but leaks would be a likely cause.
4. A compression test, if the results were acceptable, would indicate a leak to be the
most likely fault. Clean down the engine and run it for a while. The leak will show up
better.
5. Change a gasket or seal
6. Run through an inspection of the vehicle systems particularly associated with the
engine. Double-check that the fault has been rectified and that you have not caused
any further problems.
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 Engine Diagnostic Process
• Engine diagnosing, tune-up and performance testing
• The process of finding out the problem and adjusting or correcting different
component parts of an engine as: carburetor, contact breaker point gap (Dwell Angle),
Ignition timing, etc., and checking the power output, fuel consumption and emission
characteristics of an engine.
• Engine Tune-up:- is one type of Engine servicing. During engine operation, internal
parts become worn and others deteriorate. As a result, the engine loses its
performance. To bring it almost to its original operating condition servicing is required.
• Engine servicing:- is a method of keeping the engine in a condition of safety, reliability,
good performance, low fuel consumption, and emission. It also extends the lifetime of
the engine.
• Depending on the type of engine troubles, servicing may be classified as engine tune-up
and engine overhauling.
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 Engine Diagnostic Process
• If the types of troubles are mostly related to the engine systems, then the engine
exterior (carburetor idle speed and idle mixture, ignition timing, etc.)
• should be thoroughly inspected and the defective parts have to be adjusted or
corrected.
• This type of servicing is called an engine tune-up.

• If the types of troubles are mostly related to the engine mechanisms, then the
engine interior (worn out cylinder walls, piston, piston rings; burnt valves, blown
head gaskets, defective bearings, etc.)
• should be thoroughly inspected and the defective parts have to be repaired or
replaced.
• This type of servicing is called an engine overhauling.

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10
 Engine Servicing Flow-Chart

Engine testing instruments and Tune-up procedures 11

 Engine Testing Instruments
The most common instruments used for engine diagnosis and tune-up are: -
• Test lump (bulb): - to adjust ignition timing statically.
• Tachometer: - to indicate the engine speed in revolutions per minute (rpm).
• Cylinder compression tester: - to measure the compression pressure.
• Cylinder leakage tester: - to find places of compression pressure leakage.
• Dwell angle tester: - to measure and correct the dwell angle.
• Ignition timing light: - to adjust ignition timing dynamically.
• Oscilloscope:- to examine the condition of the primary and secondary ignition circuits.
• Exhaust-gas analyzer: - to measure the concentration of exhaust gases (CO, HC, … ).
• Vacuum gauge: - to check manifold vacuum.
• Engine analyzer: - to measure various engine parameters on a single unit.
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Tools And Equipment

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Diagnostic scanner/On-board diagnostics tool

“Just plug it in and the computer will

tell you what’s
wrong!”

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EV Diagnostic scanner/On-board diagnostics tool

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Diagnostic scanner/On-board diagnostics tool

Diagnostic trouble codes

Diagnostic trouble codes (DTCs),
or fault codes, are stored by an
on-board computer diagnostic
system.

Figure On-board diagnostic trouble codes 16

 Common Engine Troubles
• Engine does not crank.
• Engine cranks but does not start.
• Engine runs but misses.
• Engine Lacks power, acceleration,…
• Engine consumes more fuel.
• Engine consumes more oil.
• Engine overheats.
• Engine backfires.
• Engine emission high.

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 Common Engine Inspection
• Inspect the starting system
• Inspect the intake system
• Inspect the fuel system
• Inspect the ignition system
• Inspect the lubrication system
• Inspect the cooling system
• Inspect the exhaust system
• Inspect the charging system
• Check cylinder compression
• Check cylinder leakage
• Check engine balance
• Check manifold vacuum
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Engine Diagnosis, Tune-up, and Performance Testing
(AUTO -5315)

2. Engine systems overview

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 Engine Systems
Principle of engine operation
movement of a piston from top dead centre (TDC) to bottom dead centre (BDC) or the other way round

Figure Four-stroke cycle: induction, compression, power and exhaust. 20

Engine Systems

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 Engine Systems
Engine mechanisms

Crank gear mechanism Valve gear mechanism

• Crank shaft • Camshaft

• Connecting rod • Valve lifter (OHV)

• Piston • Push rod (OHV)

• Cylinder • Rocker arm

• Valve spring
• Valves
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 Component parts of IC Engines
1.Valve
2. Cylinder
3. Cylinder head
4. Piston rings
5. Piston
6. Connecting rod
7. Flywheel
8. Cylinder block
9. Crankshaft
10.Main bearings
11.Timing gear
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Component parts of IC Engines

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Four-stroke gasoline engine cycle of operation

Principle of engine operation

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Two-stroke gasoline engine cycle of operation

Principle of engine operation

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Four-stroke diesel engine cycle of operation

Principle of engine operation

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Two-stroke diesel engine cycle of operation
Principle of engine operation

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 What Does an Engine Inspection Entail?
• An engine inspection typically involves a thorough examination of the engine components to
ensure that they are in good working condition
• Fluid levels: The mechanic will check the levels of various fluids, such as oil, coolant, transmission
fluid, and brake fluid.
• Belts and hoses: The mechanic will inspect the belts and hoses to ensure they are not cracked,
worn, or damaged.
• Air filter: The air filter will be checked and replaced if necessary.
• Spark plugs: The plugs will be removed and inspected to ensure they are not worn or damaged.
• Battery: The battery will be checked to ensure it is in good condition and the connections are tight
and clean.
• Compression: The mechanic may perform a compression test to check the condition of the
engine’s cylinders.
• Ignition system: The mechanic will check the ignition system to ensure it works properly.
• Fuel system: The system will be inspected to ensure no leaks or other issues.
• Exhaust system: The exhaust system will be checked to ensure no leaks or other issues.
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Engine Diagnosis, Tune-up, and Performance
Testing(AUTO -5315)

3. Engine tune-up
and inspection

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 Inspection of Coolant
▪ Purpose of Coolant
▪ Coolant is used in the cooling system because it:
1. Transfers heat from the engine to the radiator
2. Protects the engine and the cooling system from rust and corrosion
3. Prevents freezing in cold climates

The main parts of a water-cooled system

are as follows:
▪ water jacket
▪ water pump
▪ thermostat
▪ radiator
▪ cooling fan
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 Cooling System Operation
▪ parts of a water-cooled system
▪ Water jackets are cast as an integral part of the cylinder block and cylinder head to
provide passages or galleries around the cylinders, combustion chambers, valve seats,
etc., for the circulation of the coolant

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 Cooling System Operation
▪ Parts of a Water-cooled System
▪ Radiator is used to transfer heat from the coolant to the surrounding air stream.
• A radiator typically consists of five components:
• Radiator core—Center section of the radiator. Made up of tubes and cooling fins.
• Radiator tanks—Metal or plastic ends that fit over the core tube ends to provide
storage for coolant and fittings for hoses.
• Radiator filler neck—Opening for adding coolant, Also holds the radiator cap and
overflow tube.
• Radiator cap
• Radiator petcock—Fitting on the bottom of tank for draining coolant

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 Cooling System Operation
▪ Parts of a Water-cooled System
▪ water pump the major parts of a typical water pump include the.
▪ Water pump impeller—Disk with fan-like blades, the impeller spins and produces
pressure and flow,
▪ Water pump shaft—Steel shaft that transfers turning force from the hub to the
impeller.
▪ Water pump seal—Prevents coolant leakage between the pump shaft and pump
housing,
▪ Water pump bearings—Plain or ball bearings that allow the pump shaft to spin freely
in housing.
▪ Water pump hub—Provides a mounting place for belt pulley and fan.
▪ Water pump housing—Iron or aluminum casting that forms the main body of pump.

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 Cooling System Operation
▪ Parts of a Water-cooled System
▪ Cooling fan a cooling system fan pulls air through the core of the radiator and over the
engine to help remove heat.
▪ It increases the volume of air flowing through the radiator, especially when the car is
standing still.
▪ The fan is driven by a fan belt from the engine or an electric motor.

▪ An engine-powered fan bolts to the water pump hub and pulley.

▪ A flex fan has thin, flexible blades that alter airflow with engine speed.
▪ At low speeds, the fan blades remain curved and pull air through the radiator.
▪ At higher engine speeds, the blades flex until they are almost straight.
▪ This reduces fan action and saves engine power.
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 Cooling System Operation
▪ Parts of a Water-cooled System
▪ A thermostatic fan clutch has a temperature-sensitive, bimetal spring that controls fan
action.
▪ The spring controls oil flow in the fan clutch. When cold, the spring causes the clutch
to slip, speeding engine warm-up. After reaching operating temperature, it locks the
clutch, providing forced-air circulation.
▪ The fan only operates when the engine is hot and the spring activates the clutch
mechanism.

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 Cooling System Operation
▪ Parts of a Water-cooled System
▪ Electric Cooling Fans
▪ An electric cooling fan uses an electric motor and a thermostatic switch (coolant
temperature sensor) to provide cooling action.
▪ An electric fan is needed on front-wheel-drive cars having transverse-mounted
engines.
▪ The water pump is normally located away from these vehicles’ radiators. Nevertheless,
electric engine fans can be used on any engine/transmission layout.

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 Cooling System Operation
▪ Parts of a Water-cooled System
▪ The fan motor is a small DC (direct current) motor.
▪ It mounts on a bracket secured to the radiator. A metal or plastic fan blade mounts on
the end of the motor shaft to cause airflow.
▪ An electric fan saves energy and increases cooling system efficiency. Because it only
functions when needed, it helps speed engine warm-up.
▪ This reduces emissions and fuel consumption. In cold weather, the electric fan may
shut off at highway speeds. There may be enough cool air rushing through the grille to
provide adequate cooling

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 Cooling System Operation
▪ Parts of a Water-cooled System
▪ Thermostat
▪ The thermostat senses engine temperature and controls coolant flow through the
radiator.
▪ It reduces coolant flow when the engine is cold and increases coolant flow when the
engine is hot.
▪ The thermostat normally fits under a thermostat housing between the engine and the
end of the upper radiator hose.
▪ Thermostats can be located at either the coolant inlet or outlet on the engine.
▪ A thermostat rating is stamped on the thermostat to indicate the operating (opening)
temperature of the thermostat.

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 Cooling System Operation
▪ Parts of a Water-cooled System
▪ Types of Thermostats
▪ 1.Bellows Type Thermostat

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 Cooling System Operation
▪ Parts of a Water-cooled System
▪ Thermostat Operation
▪ Engine cold: When the engine is cold, the disc valve of the thermostat is held on its
seating by the contraction of the bellows. In this situation there can be no flow of
coolant between the cylinder head and the radiator.
▪ Engine hot: As the engine warms up, the coolant in the jacket is heated, which in turn
heats the volatile liquid contained within the bellows. This increase in pressure causes
the bellows to expand and lift the valve off its seat. The coolant is then free to flow
through the open valve and circulate through the radiator to be cooled.

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 Cooling System Operation
▪ Parts of a Water-cooled System
▪ Types of Thermostats
▪ 2.Wax Type Thermostat
▪ A) When coolant is cold, the thermostat remains closed due to spring tension. The
water pump forces coolant to circulate in engine, but not through the radiator.

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 Cooling System Operation
▪ Parts of a Water-cooled System
▪ Types of Thermostats
▪ 2.Wax Type Thermostat
▪ B) When coolant is hot, the thermostat opens. The pump can then push coolant
through the engine and the radiator.

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 Cooling System Operation
▪ Parts of a Water-cooled System
▪ The radiator cap
▪ The radiator cap performs several functions:
▪ Seals the top of the radiator filler neck to prevent leakage.
▪ Pressurizes the system to raise the boiling point of coolant. This keeps coolant from
boiling and turning to steam.
▪ Relieves excess pressure to protect against system damage.
▪ When cold it prevents the radiator from collapsing by allowing coolant flow to the
radiator.
▪ In closed systems, it allows coolant flow between the radiator and the coolant
reservoir (expansion tank).

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 Cooling System Operation
▪ Parts of a Water-cooled System
▪ Radiator Cap Pressure Valve
▪ The radiator cap pressure valve, consists of a spring-loaded disk that contacts the filler
neck. The spring pushes the valve into the neck to form a seal and increase the
pressure.
▪ When water is placed under pressure, its boiling point increases.
▪ But If the engine overheats and pressure exceeds the cap rating, the pressure valve
opens. Excess pressure and steam force the coolant out of the overflow tube and into
the reservoir (or onto the ground in older systems). This prevents high pressure from
rupturing the radiator, gaskets, seals, or hoses.

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 Cooling System Operation
▪ Parts of a Water-cooled System
▪ Radiator Cap Vacuum Valve
▪ The radiator cap vacuum valve opens to
allow flow back into the radiator when
the coolant temperature drops after the
engine is stopped. It is often a small valve
located in the center of the bottom of
the cap.
▪ The cooling and contraction of the
coolant and air in the system decrease
the coolant volume and pressure.
Without a cap vacuum valve, the radiator
hoses and radiator tanks could collapse
from outside pressure.
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 Cooling System Operation
PRESSURE VALVE OPENED AND VACUUM VALVE OPENED OPERATION

PRESSURE VALVE OPENED VACUUM VALVE OPENED

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Cooling System Operation And Diagnosis

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 Cooling System Operation And Diagnosis
THERMOSTATS PURPOSE AND FUNCTION
▪ There is a normal operating temperature range between low-temperature and high-
temperature extremes.
▪ The thermostat controls the minimum normal temperature.
▪ The thermostat is a temperature-controlled valve placed at the engine coolant outlet on most
engines.

FIGURE A cross section of a typical wax-actuated thermostat showing the position of the wax pellet and
spring. 49
 Cooling System Operation And Diagnosis

▪ the thermostat controls the

temperature of the engine
coolant by opening at a
certain temperature and
closing when the temperature
falls below the minimum
rated temperature of the
thermostat

FIGURE (a) When the engine is cold, the coolant flows through the bypass. (b)
When the thermostat opens, the coolant can flow to the radiator.
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Cooling System Operation And Diagnosis

FIGURE Coolant flows through a typical engine cooling system.

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Cooling System Operation And Diagnosis

FIGURE A radiator may be either a down-flow or a crossflow type.

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Cooling System Operation And Diagnosis

FIGURE Many vehicles equipped with an automatic transmission use a

transmission fluid cooler installed in one of the radiator tanks. 53
 Cooling System Operation And Diagnosis
METRIC RADIATOR CAPS
Most original equipment radiator caps are rated at about 14 to 16 PSI (97 to 110 kPa).

FIGURE The pressure valve maintains the system pressure and allows excess pressure
to vent. The vacuum valve allows coolant to return to the system from the recovery tank.
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 Cooling System Operation And Diagnosis
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION
▪ Excess pressure usually forces some coolant from the system through an overflow.
▪ Most cooling systems connect the overflow to a plastic reservoir to hold excess coolant while the system
is hot.
▪ coolant recovery system.

FIGURE The level in the coolant recovery system raises and lowers with engine temperature. 55
 Cooling System Operation And Diagnosis
OPERATION
▪ The water pump (also called a coolant pump) is driven by one of two methods.
▪ Crankshaft belt
▪ Camshaft

▪ Water pumps are not positive displacement pumps.

▪ The water pump is a centrifugal pump that can move a large volume of coolant without increasing the
pressure of the coolant.
▪ The pump pulls coolant in at the center of the impeller. Centrifugal force throws the coolant outward so that it
is discharged at the impeller tips

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 Cooling System Operation And Diagnosis
ELECTRONICALLY CONTROLLED
COOLING FAN
Two types of electric cooling fans used on
many engines include:
▪ One two-speed cooling fan
▪ Two cooling fans (one for normal cooling
and one for high heat conditions)

FIGURE A typical electric cooling fan assembly showing

the radiator and related components.
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 Cooling System Operation And Diagnosis
▪ The normal mixture is 50% antifreeze and 50% water.
▪ Ethylene glycol antifreeze contains:
• Anticorrosion additives
• Rust inhibitors
• Water pump lubricants
• COOLANT COMPOSITION All manufacturers recommend the
• use of ethylene glycol-based coolant, which contains:
▪ Ethylene glycol (EG): 47%
▪ Water: 50%
▪ Additives: 3%
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 Cooling System Operation And Diagnosis
▪ Anti-Freeze & Inhibiting Solutions:
• Antifreeze, usually ethylene glycol, is mixed with water to produce engine
coolant.
• Functions of Antifreeze:
• It prevents winter freeze up,
• prevents rust and corrosion,
• lubricates the water pump, and cools the engine.

• Caution!
• Plain water should never be used in a cooling system, If used the four
antifreeze functions just discussed will not be provided.
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 Coolant Testing
Normal coolant tests include:
• Visual inspection. Coolant should be clean and bright.
• Freeze/boiling point. A high freezing point or low boiling point indicates dilution
(too much water).
• pH. The wrong pH indicates buffer loss, which is used to help maintain the pH
level.

• HYDROMETER TESTING
▪ Coolant can be checked using a coolant hydrometer.
▪ The hydrometer measures the density of the coolant.
• Most coolant hydrometers read the freezing and boiling
points of the coolant.
• The higher the density, the more antifreeze concentration
in the water.
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Cooling System Operation And Diagnosis

▪ PURPOSE AND FUNCTION

Coolant flows through the engine, where
it picks up heat. It then flows to the
radiator, where the heat is given up to the
outside air. The coolant continually
recirculates through the cooling system

FIGURE Coolant circulates through the water jackets in the

engine block and cylinder head 61
 Cooling System Operation And Diagnosis
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION

• The design is based on heat output of the engine,

radiator size, type of coolant, size of water pump
(coolant pump), type of fan, thermostat, and system
pressure.
• The cooling system must allow the engine to warm up
to the required operating temperature as rapidly as
possible and then maintain that temperature.
• The cooling system keeps the head and cylinder walls
at a temperature that is within the range for maximum
efficiency.
• The cooling system removes about one-third of the
heat created in the engine. Another third escapes to
the exhaust system
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 Cooling System Operation And Diagnosis
LOW-TEMPERATURE ENGINE PROBLEMS

• Engine operating temperatures must be above a minimum temperature for proper

engine operation.
• If the coolant temperature does not reach the specified temperature as determined
by the thermostat, then the following engine-related faults can occur.
• indicates “coolant temperature below thermostat regulating temperature,” which is
usually caused by a defective thermostat staying open or partially open.
• The condensed moisture combines with unburned hydrocarbons and additives to
form carbonic acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrobromic acid, and hydrochloric
acid.
• To reduce cold engine problems and to help start engines in cold climates, most
manufacturers offer block heaters as an option.
• These block heaters are plugged into household current (110 volts AC) and the
heating element warms the coolant.
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 Cooling System Operation And Diagnosis
HIGH-TEMPERATURE ENGINE PROBLEMS
Maximum temperature limits are required to protect the engine. Higher than normal
temperatures can cause the following engine-related issues.
• High temperatures will oxidize the engine oil producing hard carbon and varnish.
• The varnish will cause the hydraulic valve lifter plungers to stick.
• Higher than normal temperatures will also cause the oil to become thinner (lower
viscosity than normal).
• Thinned oil will also get into the combustion chamber by going past the piston
rings and through valve guides to cause excessive oil consumption.
• The combustion process is very sensitive to temperature.
• High coolant temperatures raise the combustion temperatures to a point that may
cause detonation (also called spark knock or ping) to occur.
Overheating is one of the most common causes of engine failure.
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 Cooling System Operation And Diagnosis
▪ HEATER CORES PURPOSE AND FUNCTION
▪ Most of the heat absorbed from the engine by the cooling system is wasted.
▪ Heated coolant is passed through tubes in the small core of the heater.
▪ Air is passed across the heater fins and is then sent to the passenger
compartment.

FIGURE A typical heater core installed in a heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning

(HVAC) housing assembly. 65
 Heater Problem Diagnosis
▪ STEP 1
▪ If the engine is up to proper operating temperature, the upper radiator hose should be too hot
and also be pressurized.
▪ a. If the hose is not hot enough, replace the thermostat.
▪ b. If the hose is not pressurized, test or replace the radiator pressure cap
▪ c. If okay, see step 2.
▪ STEP 2
▪ With the engine running, feel both heater hoses. Both hoses should be too hot to hold.
▪ If both hoses are warm (not hot) or cool, check the heater control valve for proper operation (if
equipped).
▪ STEP 3
▪ If both heater hoses are hot and there is still a lack of heating concern, then the fault is most
likely due to an airflow blend door malfunction.

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 Cooling System Testing Visual Inspection
▪ Many cooling system faults can be found by performing a thorough visual
inspection.
▪ Items that can be inspected visually include:
✓ Water pump drive belt for tension or faults
✓ Cooling fan for faults
✓ Heater and radiator hoses for condition and leaks
✓ Coolant overflow or surge tank coolant level

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Cooling System Testing Visual Inspection

A visual inspection discovered that the corrosion had eaten away

many of the cooling fins, yet did not leak. This radiator was
replaced and it solved the overheating problem.

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 Cooling System Pressure Test
▪ A cooling system pressure test is used to quickly locate leaks. Low air pressure
is forced into the system. This will cause coolant to pour or drip from any leak in
the cooling system.
▪ A pressure tester is a hand-operated air pump used to pressurize the cooling
system for leak detection. It is one of the most commonly used and important
cooling system testing devices.

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 Cooling System Testing

If no leaks are found, then it's most likely

that there might be a problem with your
water pump or other components. The pressure should hold; if it drops, this indicates
a leak somewhere in the cooling system. 70
 Cooling System Operation And Diagnosis
▪ If the cooling system is free from leaks, the pressure should stay and not drop.
▪ If the pressure drops, look for evidence of leaks anywhere in the cooling
system, including:
1. Heater hoses
2. Radiator hoses
3. Radiator
4. Heater core
5. Cylinder head
6. Core plugs in the side of the block or cylinder head

➢ The pressure tester can also be used to test the radiator cap. An adapter is
used to connect the pressure tester to the radiator cap. Replace any cap that
will not hold pressure
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 Common Causes Of Overheating
➢ Overheating can be caused by defects in the cooling system, such as the
following:
1. Low coolant level
2. Plugged, dirty, or blocked radiator
3. Defective fan clutch or electric fan
4. Incorrect ignition timing (if adjustable)
5. Low engine oil level
6. Broken fan drive belt
7. Defective radiator cap
8. Defective thermostat
9. Defective water pump (the impeller slipping on the shaft internally)
10. Blocked cooling passages in the block or cylinder head(s)
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 Diagnostics – Cooling
Systematic testing
If the reported fault is loss of coolant, proceed as follows:
1. Check coolant level and discuss with customer how much is being lost.
2. Run the engine to see if it is overheating.
3. If the engine is not overheating, a leak would seem to be most likely.
4. Pressure-test the cooling system and check for leaks from hoses, gaskets and the
radiator.
5. Renew a gasket or the radiator, clips or hoses as required. Top up the coolant and
check antifreeze content.
6. Road-test the vehicle to confirm the fault is cured and that no other problems have
occurred.

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Cooling fault diagnosis

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Cooling fault diagnosis

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