Active Components

• Active electronic components are those that can control the flow
of electricity.

• Different Types of Printed Circuit Boards have at least one

active component.

• Examples − Diodes, Transistors, silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs)

etc.

Passive Components
• Passive electronic components are those that don’t have the
ability to control electric current by means of another
electrical signal.

• Passive components store and maintain energy in the form of voltage

or current.

• Examples − Resistors, Capacitors, Inductors, etc.

 Diode
• A semiconductor diode is a two terminal electronic component with a
PN junction.
• This is also called as a Rectifier.
 Formation of a Diode

If a P-type and an N-type material are brought close to each other, both of them join to form a junction, as shown in
the figure below.
A P-type material has holes as the majority carriers and an N-type material has electrons as the majority carriers. As
opposite charges attract, few holes in P-type tend to go to n-side, whereas few electrons in N-type tend to go to P-
side.

As both of them travel towards the junction, holes and electrons recombine with each other to neutralize and forms
ions. Now, in this junction, there exists a region where the positive and negative ions are formed, called as PN
junction or junction barrier

• The formation of negative ions on P-side and positive ions on N-side results in the formation of a
narrow charged region on either side of the PN junction.
• This region is now free from movable charge carriers.
• The ions present here have been stationary and maintain a region of space between them
without any charge carriers.

• As this region acts as a barrier between P and N type materials, this is also called as Barrier
junction.
• This has another name called as Depletion region
• There occurs a potential difference VD due to the formation of ions, across the junction called as
Potential Barrier as it prevents further movement of holes and electrons through the junction.

Biasing of a Diode
Forward Biased Condition
• When a diode is connected in a circuit, with its anode to the positive terminal and cathode to the
negative terminal of the supply, then such a connection is said to be forward biased condition.
• A diode conducts well in forward biased condition.
 Reverse Biased Condition
• When a diode is connected in a circuit, with its anode to the negative
terminal and cathode to the positive terminal of the supply, then such
a connection is said to be Reverse biased condition.
• .A diode cannot conduct in reverse biased condition.
 Application areas of diodes

• communication systems as limiters, clippers, gates;

• computer systems as logic gates, clampers;
• power supply systems as rectifiers and inverters;
• television systems as phase detectors, limiters, clampers etc
 Waveshaping circuits

• Along with resistors, the non-linear elements like diodes are used in
nonlinear wave shaping circuits to get required altered outputs.
• Either the shape of the wave is attenuated or the dc level of the wave is
altered.
• Clippers
• Clampers
• Voltage Multipliers

Clipper Circuits
• The Circuit which the waveform is shaped by removing or clipping a portion of
the input signal without distorting the remaining part of the alternating waveform.
• The clipping circuits consist of linear and non-linear elements like resistors and
diodes but not energy storage elements like capacitors.
• These clipping circuits have many applications as they are advantageous.

• The main advantage of clipping circuits is to eliminate the unwanted noise

present in the amplitudes.

• These can work as square wave converters, as they can convert sine waves into
square waves by clipping.

• The amplitude of the desired wave can be maintained at a constant level.

Positive Clipper

• The Clipper circuit that is intended to attenuate positive portions of the input
signal can be termed as a Positive Clipper.
• Among the positive diode clipper circuits, we have the following types −

• Positive Series Clipper

• Positive Series Clipper with positive Vr referencevoltage
• Positive Series Clipper with negative Vr
• Positive Shunt Clipper
• Positive Shunt Clipper with positive Vr
• Positive Shunt Clipper with negative Vr
 Positive Series Clipper

Positive Cycle of the Input

When the input voltage is applied, the positive cycle of the input makes
the point A in the circuit positive with respect to the point B. This makes
the diode reverse biased and hence it behaves like an open switch. Thus
the voltage across the load resistor becomes zero as no current flows
through it and hence V0 will be zero.

Negative Cycle of the Input

The negative cycle of the input makes the point A in the circuit negative
with respect to the point B. This makes the diode forward biased and
hence it conducts like a closed switch. Thus the voltage across the load
resistor will be equal to the applied input voltage as it completely
appears at the output V0.
Positive Series Clipper with positive Vr

Positive Shunt Clipper

 Positive Shunt Clipper with positive Vr

Positive Shunt Clipper with negative Vr

Negative Clipper

• The Clipper circuit that is intended to attenuate negative portions of the

input signal can be termed as a Negative Clipper.
• Among the negative diode clipper circuits, we have the following types.

• Negative Series Clipper

• Negative Series Clipper with positive Vr referencevoltage
• Negative Series Clipper with negative Vr
• Negative Shunt Clipper
• Negative Shunt Clipper with positive Vr
• Negative Shunt Clipper with negative Vr
 Negative Series Clipper

Negative Series Clipper with positive Vr

Negative Series Clipper with negative Vr

Negative Shunt Clipper

 Negative Shunt Clipper with positive Vr

Negative Shunt Clipper with negative Vr

Two-way Clipper/Combinational clipper

Clamper Circuit
• A Clamper Circuit is a circuit that adds a DC level to an AC signal.
• The positive and negative peaks of the signals can be placed at desired levels
using the clamping circuits.
• As the DC level gets shifted, a clamper circuit is called as a Level Shifter.
• Clamper circuits consist of energy storage elements like capacitors.
• A simple clamper circuit comprises of a capacitor, a diode, a resistor and a dc
battery if required.
• A Clamper circuit can be defined as the circuit that consists of a diode, a
resistor and a capacitor that shifts the waveform to a desired DC level without
changing the actual appearance of the applied signal.

Types of Clampers
• There are few types of clamper circuits, such as

• Positive Clamper
• Positive clamper with positive Vr
• Positive clamper with negative Vr
• Negative Clamper
• Negative clamper with positive Vr
• Negative clamper with negative Vr

Positive Clamper Circuit

 Clamper Applications

• A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three terminal circuit or device that amplifies
flow of current.
• It is solid state device that flows current in two terminals, i.e., collector and emitter
and controlled by third device known as terminal or base terminal.
• Unlike a normal p-n junction diode, this transistor has two p-n junctions.
• The Transistor is a three terminal solid state device which is formed by connecting two
diodes back to back.

Types of Bipolar Junction Transistors

NPN Junction Transistors

• In this transistor, a single p-type semiconductor layer is sandwiched between two n-type semiconductor layers.

PNP Junction Transistors

• In this transistor, a single n-type semiconductor layer is sandwiched between two p-type semiconductor layers.
npn Transistor

Terminals of Bipolar Junction Transistors

There are three terminals in bipolar junction transistors are explained below.
Emitter −
• This has a moderate size and is heavily doped as its main function is to supply a number of majority carriers,
i.e. either electrons or holes.
• As this emits electrons, it is called as an Emitter.
• This is simply indicated with the letter E.
Base − Base is middle layer in BJT which is thin compared to emitter and collector.
• Base is very lighted doped.
• Its main function is to pass the majority carriers from the emitter to the collector.
• This is indicated by the letter B.
Collector − It collects charge carriers.
• Its doped between emitter and base means moderately doped, but it is always greater than emitter and base
in size.
• This is indicated by the letter C.

Symbols of PNP and NPN transistors

The arrow-head in the above figures indicated the emitter of a transistor. As the collector of a
transistor has to dissipate much greater power, it is made large. Due to the specific functions of
emitter and collector, they are not interchangeable. Hence the terminals are always to be kept in mind
while using a transistor.
BJT operation modes
• A transistor is a combination of two diodes, we have two junctions here.
• As one junction is between the emitter and base, that is called as Emitter-Base junction
and likewise, the other is Collector-Base junction.
• There are three modes:
• Cut-off mode
• saturated mode
• active mode
• We need supply dc voltage to npn or pnp transistors in order to operate transistor in one
of these regions.
• Transistor operates in any of these regions based on polarity of dc voltage.
 The emitter base junction is always forward biased as the emitter resistance is very small. The collector base
junction is reverse biased and its resistance is a bit higher.A small forward bias is sufficient at the emitter
junction whereas a high reverse bias has to be applied at the collector junction.

Operation NPN Transistor

• Any transistor has three terminals, the emitter, the base, and the
collector.
• Using these 3 terminals the transistor can be connected in a circuit
with one terminal common to both input and output in three
different possible configurations.
• The three types of configurations are Common Base, Common
Emitter and Common Collector configurations.
• In every configuration, the emitter junction is forward biased and the
collector junction is reverse biased.

Common Base (CB) Configuration

Input Characteristics
• Input characteristics are obtained
between input current and input voltage
with constant output voltage.
• Here the input parameters are VEB and
IE ,output voltage VCB constant .
• when VCB=0, EBJ behaves like a forward
biased diode,and IE increases rapidly
with small increase in VEB.
• when VCB is increased keeping VEB
constant, the width of the depletion
layer between the Base and collector
increases.

Base-Width Modulation
• the width of the depletion layer between the
Base and collector increases.
• the effective base width decreases
• this reduces the resistance between the EBJ
causing more current to flow.
• therefore the curve shift towards left as VCB is
increased

• Early effect or base width modulation: The early

effect is the variation in the width of the base in a
bipolar transistor due to a variation in the applied
base-to-collector voltage. For example a greater
reverse bias across the collector- base junction
increases the collector-base depletion width.
Output Characteristics
• The output characteristics of
common base configuration
are obtained between
output current and output
voltage with constant input
current.
• the output parameters are
VCB and IC.
• it is found that for a constant
value of IE,IC is almost
independent of VCB.
Input Characteristics
• The input characteristics of common emitter
configuration are obtained between input current IB
and input voltage VBE with constant output voltage
VCE.
• when VCE=0, EBJ is forward biased and the juntion
behaves as a forward biased diode.
• when VCE is increased, bcoz of Base width modulation
effective base width decreases.
• thus the base current decreases, hence to get the
same value of IB as that for VCE=0, VBE should be
increased. therefore the curve shifts to the right as VCE
is increased.

Output characteristics
• The output characteristics of common emitter
configuration are obtained between the
output current IC and output voltage VCE with
constant input current IB.
• Due to EARLY Effect,as the effective base width
is less , there is less chance of recombination
in the base region and therefore most of the
es reach the collector and thus α increases.
• even for a small change in α, β variations
is large . hence the output chara shows a
larger slope.
the lines meet -VCE axis at -
VA, this is a parameter for
particular BJT. It is called
EARLY Voltage.
Common collector configuration
• In this configuration we use collector terminal as common for both
input and output signals.
• This configuration is also known as emitter follower configuration
because the emitter voltage follows the base voltage.
• This configuration is mostly used as a buffer.
• These configurations are widely used in impedance matching
applications because of their high input impedance.

Input characteristics of a common-collector

configuration
• The input characteristics of
a common-collector
configuration are obtained
between inputs current IB
and the input voltage VCB
at constant output voltage
VEC.

Output Characteristics
• The operation of the common collector
circuit is same as that of common
emitter circuit.
• The output characteristics of a common
collector circuit are obtained between
the output voltage VEC and output
current IE at constant input current IB.
• In the operation of common collector
circuit if the base current is zero then
the emitter current also becomes zero.
• As a result no current flows through the
transistor
Biasing in Amplifier circuits

• Biasing is the process of providing DC voltage which helps in the

functioning of the circuit.
• Inorder to produce distortion free o/p in amplifier circuits,the supply
voltages and resistances in the circuits should be properly selected.
• This will establish a set of dc voltages VCEQ and current ICQ to
operate the transistor in the active region.
• These voltages and current are called quiscent values which
determine the operating point of the transistor.
• The process of giving proper supply voltages and resistances for
obtaining the desired Q-pt is called biasing.

DC Load Line
• By using the above two cases draw the dc load line for output
characteristics.
• The dc load line is a graph of all values of IC and VCE.
• For common emitter configuration, the IC and VCE will be on output
characteristics
• If we plot using the above two cases, the line obtained is called the
dc load line.
• The operating point ‘Q’ is defined as a point for a particular value of
IC and the corresponding value of VCE.
• Q point should be exactly in the middle of the load line.
the Q-point is selected in such a way that irrespective of AC signal
swing, the transistor remains in the active region.

Operating Point in Transistor

• Definition: The point which is obtained from the
values of the IC (collector current) or VCE (collector-
emitter voltage) when no signal is given to the input is
known as the operating point or Q-point in a transistor.
• It is called operating point because variations of IC
(collector current) and VCE (collector-emitter voltage)
takes place around this point when no signal is applied
to the input.

Faithful Amplification
Transistor Biasing
• Transistor Biasing is the process of setting a transistors DC operating voltage or
current conditions to the correct level so that any AC input signal can be
amplified correctly by the transistor
• A transistor is biased in order to make the emitter base junction forward
biased and collector base junction reverse biased, so that it maintains in active
region, to work as an amplifier.
• The correct biasing point for a bipolar transistor, either NPNor PNP, generally
lies somewhere between the two extremes ofoperation with respect to it
being either “fully-ON” or “fullyOFF” along its load line.
• This central operating point is called the “Quiescent Operating Point”, or Q-
point for short.
Biasing methods

• Fixed Bias
• Fixed Bias with Emitter Resistor.
• Biasing with Collector feedback resistor
• Voltage divider bias

Fixed Bias

Fixed Bias with Emitter resistance

Biasing with Collector feedback resistor

Voltage divider bias

• This voltage divider biasing configuration is the most widely used
transistor biasing method, as the emitter diode of the transistor is
forward biased by the voltage dropped across resistor RB2
Approximate Analysis
Find operating point of BJT circuit shown in fig. Given β=50 and
check whether the Bjt is biased in Active region or not?
Bipolar junction transistors
SMALL SIGNAL ANALYSIS OF BJT
The Hybrid-π Model
 T model

• emitter, a large capacitor CE, usually in the range of microfarads or tens of microfarads is connected between
emitter and ground.
• This capacitor is required to provide a very low impedance to ground (ideally, zero impedance; i.e., in effect,
a short circuit) at all signal frequencies of interest.
• bypasses the output resistance of the current source I (and any other circuit component, hence CE is called a
bypass capacitor.
• In order not to disturb the dc bias currents and voltages, the signal to be amplified,shown as a voltage source
vsig with an internal resistance Rsig, is connected to the basethrough a large capacitor CC1. Capacitor CC1,
known as a coupling capacitor, is requiredto act as a perfect short circuit at all signal frequencies of interest
while blocking dc.
• The voltage signal resulting at the collector, vc, is coupled to the load resistance RL via another coupling
capacitor CC2. We shall assume that CC2 also acts as a perfect short circuit at all signal frequencies of
interest;
The Amplifier Frequency Response
• The boundaries of this useful frequency band or midband, are the
two frequencies fL and fH at which the gaindrops by a certain number
of decibels (usually 3 dB) below its value at midband.
• the amplifier bandwidth, or 3-dB bandwidth, is defined as the
difference between the lower ( fL) and upper or higher ( fH) 3-dB
frequencies
• The CE amplifier is used to obtain the bulk of the required voltage gain
in a cascade amplifier. It has a large voltage gain and a moderate input
resistance but a relatively high output resistance and limited high-
frequency response
• The CB amplifier has a very low input resistance and isuseful in a
limited number of special applications. It does,however, have an
excellent high-frequency response and thus can be combined with the
CE amplifier to obtain an excellent amplifier circuit.
• The emitter follower has a high input resistance and a low output
resistance. Thus, it is useful as a buffer amplifier to connect a high-
resistance signal source to a low-resistance load. Another important
application of the emitter follower is as the last stage (called the
output stage) of a cascade amplifier.

Why MOSFET?
• Compared to BJTs, MOSFETs can be made quite small (i.e., requiring a small
area on the silicon IC chip),
• manufacturing process is relatively simple
• operation requires comparatively little power.
• Can implement digital and analog functions utilizing MOSFETs with very few
or no resistors
• All of these properties have made it possible to pack large numbers of
MOSFETs (as many as 2 billion!) on a single IC chip to implement very
sophisticated, very-large-scale-integrated (VLSI) digital circuits such as those
for memory and microprocessors.

22 April 2020 2

Device Structure and Physical Operation

22 April 2020 3
 22 April 2020 4

• The transistor is fabricated on a p-type substrate, which is a single-crystal

silicon wafer that provides physical support for the device
• Two heavily doped n-type regions, indicated in the figure as the n+ source
and the n+ drain regions, are created in the substrate.
• A thin layer of silicon dioxide (SiO2) , which is an excellent electrical
insulator, is grown on the surface of the substrate, covering the area
between the source and drain regions.
• Metal is deposited on top of the oxide layer to form the gate electrode of
the device.
• Metal contacts are also made to the source region, the drain region.
• a three-terminal device, with the terminals being the gate (G), the source
(S), and the drain (D).
• voltage applied to the gate controls current flow between source and drain.
This current will flow in the longitudinal direction from drain to source in
the region labeled “channel region

22 April 2020 5

• The positive voltage on the gate causes, in the first instance, the free holes (which are positively
charged) to be repelled from the region of the substrate under the gate (the channel region).
These holes are pushed downward into the substrate, leaving behind a carrier-depletion region.

• The depletion region is populated by the bound negative charge associated with the acceptor
atoms. These charges are “uncovered” because the neutralizing holes have been pushed
downward into the substrate.

• the positive gate voltage attracts electrons from the n+ source and drain regions
(where they are in abundance) into the channel region. When a sufficient number of electrons
accumulate near the surface of the substrate under the gate, an n region is in effect created,
connecting the source and drain regions,

• Now if a voltage is applied between drain and source, current flows through this induced n
region, carried by the mobile electrons. The induced n region thus forms a channel for current
flow from drain to source and Correspondingly, the MOSFET is called an n-channel MOSFET
22 April 2020 6
• The channel is created by inverting the substrate surface from p type to n
type. Hence the induced channel is also called an inversion layer.
• The value of VGS at which a sufficient number of mobile electrons
accumulate in the channel region to form a conducting channel is called the
threshold voltage and is denoted Vt.
• The gate and the channel region of the MOSFET form a parallel-plate
capacitor, with the oxide layer acting as the capacitor dielectric. The positive
gate voltage causes positive charge to accumulate on the top plate of the
capacitor (the gate electrode). The corresponding negative charge on the
bottom plate is formed by the electrons in the induced channel.
• An electric field thus develops in the vertical direction. It is this field that
controls the amount of charge in the channel, and thus it determines the
channel conductivity and, in turn, the current that will flow through the
channel when a voltage vDS is applied. This is the origin of the name “field-
effect transistor” (FET).
22 April 2020 7

• Another name for the MOSFET is the insulated-gate FET or IGFET.

This name also arises from the physical structure of the device,
emphasizing the fact that the gate electrode is electrically insulated
from the device body (by the oxide layer). It is this insulation that
causes the current in the gate terminal to be extremely small.
• The voltage across this parallel-plate capacitor, that is, the voltage
across the oxide, must Exceed VT for a channel to form.
• The excess of Vgs over Vt is termed the effective voltage or the
overdrive voltage and is the quantity that determines the charge in
the channel.

22 April 2020 8

22 April 2020 9
• as we travel along the channel from source to drain, the voltage
(measured relative to the source) increases from zero to VDS.
• we find that the channel is no longer of uniform depth; rather,the
channel will take the tapered shape shown.

22 April 2020 10

22 April 2020 11

22 April 2020 12
22 April 2020 13

22 April 2020 14

PMOS

22 April 2020 15
 Complementary MOS or CMOS
• As the name implies, complementary MOS technology employs MOS
transistors of both polarities. Although CMOS circuits are somewhat more
difficult to fabricate than NMOS, the availability of complementary devices
makes possible many powerful circuit configurations.
• At the present time CMOS is the most widely used of all the IC
technologies.
• This statement applies to both analog and digital circuits. CMOS
technology has virtually replaced designs based on NMOS transistors
alone.
• Furthermore, by 2009 CMOS technology had taken over many applications
that just a few years earlier were possible only with bipolar devices.

22 April 2020 16

22 April 2020 17

li
n