Harish Kumar Sharma

Navneet Kumar Editors

Agro-Processing
and Food
Engineering
Operational and Application Aspects
Agro-Processing and Food Engineering
Harish Kumar Sharma • Navneet Kumar
Editors

Agro-Processing and Food

Engineering
Operational and Application Aspects
Editors
Harish Kumar Sharma Navneet Kumar
National Institute of Technology (NIT), Department of Processing and Food Engineering
(An Institute of National Importance) College of Agricultural Engineering and
Agartala, Tripura, India Technology, Anand Agricultural University
Godhra, Gujarat, India

ISBN 978-981-16-7288-0 ISBN 978-981-16-7289-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7289-7

# The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore
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Dedicated
to
the Almighty
and
Mrs. Meenu Sharma and Mrs. Shilpi Goyal
Preface

Agricultural production is on a rising trend across the globe, which is putting

pressure on agro-processing industries to timely handle the produce and keep it
safe for a longer duration. The agro-processing industries deal with various unit
operations from receiving harvested crop to the finished product. The textbook
entitled Agro-Processing and Food Engineering: Operational and Application
Aspects has been conceptualized with a view to cover the most relevant topics in
the area for graduating students. In the book, simple illustrations are used in every
chapter for easier understanding of the involved fundamentals, concepts, and pro-
cesses. A number of solved examples are also included in different chapters to
provide emphasis on problem solving. Efforts are made to simplify technological
aspects, mathematical derivations, etc. to the maximum extent so that young minds
could easily understand. Similar approaches are adopted in solved examples, so that
concepts can be better understood by students/academicians. Several unsolved
questions are also provided at the end of every chapter to review the progress
made by students/readers.
The text in the book starts from presenting a comprehensive production status of
different popular agricultural commodities. Further, the engineering properties of
food materials are presented. The knowledge of the properties remains essential in
clearing the understanding with respect to design, operation, and control of various
processing equipment and quality of finished products. Material handling systems
are used in agro-processing industry to increase the level of mechanization, which
improves the consistency and quality of the produce, and therefore the knowledge
with respect to designing of efficient material handling system becomes very
important to students. The moisture content of the agro-produce, which can be
optimally retained through drying/dehydration in cereals, pulses, and oilseeds,
assures safer storage for longer duration. The desired size of agro-produce can be
achieved by different milling equipment to obtain the material in the form of flour,
powder, etc.
The effective mixing is an important unit operation to cater to the need of
nutritious substitutes of existing food items and to create uniformity and homogene-
ity during the operation. The cleaning of grains is performed before other unit
operations, and grading of the finished product can be achieved using different
graders/separators to control the quality. The storage life of the foods can be
enhanced by using various traditional and modern storage structures. The processing
vii
viii Preface

can add value; therefore, processing of cereals, fruits and vegetables, oilseeds, and
pulses is covered and presented in such a way that the concepts and technological
aspects are easier to understand and beneficial to students and the scientific frater-
nity. The technical manpower involved in various capacities in agro-industries can
also get first-hand knowledge through the technological concepts and mechanisms
covered in the book.
All the chapters have been written by Teachers/Researchers, working in the field;
therefore, the concepts are made simpler and easier to understand. Efforts are made
to simplify every aspect; therefore, this handbook is expected to be unique for
students. However, feedback in any form from any corner shall be encouraged to
further strengthen the quality of the book in the time to come. Since the idea for
conceptualization of the book emerged out of the need of students on the various
topics covered in this book therefore it is anticipated that this book will cater to the
need of students, technicians, academicians, and researchers working in the area of
Agro-processing, Food Engineering, Agricultural Process Engineering, Food Tech-
nology, and allied fields.

Agartala, Tripura, India Harish Kumar Sharma

Godhra, Gujarat, India Navneet Kumar
Acknowledgments

The book was conceptualized 3 years before and is now presented in this form. For
this accomplished task, firstly, we wish to acknowledge the contributions of several
persons over the years for providing assistance in writing, organizing, and editing.
The editors would like to thank all the researchers of the globe for their meaningful
contribution and their findings, which helped us to understand and bring out this
manuscript for the scientific society.
We also like to extend our heartfelt thanks to the equipment manufacturers, Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Bureau of Indian Standards,
Food Safety and Standards Authority of India, and other organizations and
resources, which had provided assistance in the compilation and interpretation of
different concepts using the data.
The editors also express their gratitude to the parent organizations National
Institute of Technology, Agartala, India, Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering
and Technology, Longowal, Punjab, India, and College of Agricultural Engineering
and Technology, Anand Agricultural University, Godhra, Gujarat, India, for
providing the opportunity to interact with the students during deliberation of lectures
on similar subjects.
Thanks are also due to all our coauthors from various reputed organizations for
writing the chapters and complying to critical comments within the given time frame.
We also express our sincere thanks to Dr. Naren Aggarwal, Dr. Mei Hann Lee, and
Vaishnavi Venkatesh from Springer for helping us throughout the publication
process.
We greatly acknowledge the help of all the people including Unknown Reviewers
and our beloved Teachers, who helped us directly and indirectly during the course of
writing this manuscript. The natural support was unprecedented from all the
directions.
Last but not least, our special thanks are due to our family members, especially
Manishi, Kshitiz, and Kushagra, for their active contribution, constructive support,
encouragement, and patience during the writing and editing work over the last
several months.

Harish Kumar Sharma

Navneet Kumar
ix
Contents

1 Agro Processing: Scope and Importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Harish Kumar Sharma and Navneet Kumar
2 Engineering Properties of Foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Vivek Kumar, Harish Kumar Sharma, and Navneet Kumar
3 Material Handling and Transportation Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Ajay Patel, Shubhangi Thakre, Nilesh B. Kardile,
and Rachna Sehrawat
4 Design of Material Handling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Navneet Kumar and Harish Kumar Sharma
5 Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Navneet Kumar and Harish Kumar Sharma
6 Size Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Yogesh Kumar, Vijay Singh Sharanagat, and Kshitiz Kumar
7 Mixing and Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Monica Premi and Vishal Sharma
8 Cleaning and Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Farid G. Sayyad, Harish Kumar Sharma, and Navneet Kumar
9 Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Rajesh Kumar Vishwakarma, Navneet Kumar, Kalyani Sharma,
Yogesh Kumar, and Chandrasen Kumar
10 Processing of Cereals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Pragati Kaushal and Navneet Kumar
11 Processing of Pulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Chandrakala Ravichandran and Ashutosh Upadhyay

xi
xii Contents

12 Processing of Oilseeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483

Mandeep Kaur, Harish Kumar Sharma, and Navneet Kumar
13 Processing of Fruits and Vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
Aamir Hussain Dar, Navneet Kumar, Shafaq Shah, Rafeeya Shams,
and Mohsin Bashir Aga

Appendix A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
Editors and Contributors

About the Editors

Harish Kumar Sharma is a Professor at Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering &

Technology (SLIET) (Deemed University) and is currently working as Director of
NIT Agartala, and is founder Mentor Director of IIIT Agartala. Dr. Sharma is
involved in teaching Postgraduate students and has supervised 16 Ph.D. and 37 M.
Tech. students. He has published 193 papers in national/international journals/
proceedings in Food Engineering/Technology, authored/edited 8 books, two
proceedings, and two manuals published by reputed national and international
publishing houses. He has contributed 23 chapters in books published by national
and international publishing houses and visited different countries. Dr. Sharma has
successfully handled several projects and successfully transferred a technology on a
commercial scale. He has filed two patents and possesses two copyrights and
rendered technical assistance to different industries.

Navneet Kumar is an Associate Professor and Head of the Department of

Processing and Food Engineering at the College of Agricultural Engineering and
Technology, Anand Agricultural University, Godhra, Gujarat, India. He is involved
in teaching undergraduate and postgraduate students and has taught more than ten
food-process engineering subjects so far. He has guided several master’s students as
a supervisor and doctoral students as a member of the advisory committees.
Dr. Kumar has contributed more than 50 publications as research papers, review
papers, books, and book chapters. He has been awarded Fellow of Institution of
Engineers (FIE), Distinguished Service Certificate (ISAE), and best research paper
award in the field of food engineering (AFSTI). He also has delivered lectures/talks
on different aspects of food processing at various institutes across India. He is
currently working in drying, dehydration, mathematical modeling, storage stability,
traditional foods, and minimal processing.

xiii
xiv Editors and Contributors

Contributors

Mohsin Bashir Aga Department of Food Technology, Islamic University of Sci-

ence and Technology, Awantipora, Kashmir, India
Aamir Hussain Dar Department of Food Technology, Islamic University of Sci-
ence and Technology, Awantipora, Kashmir, India
Nilesh B. Kardile MIT ADT University, Pune, Maharashtra, India
Mandeep Kaur Amity Institute of Food Technology, Amity University Campus,
Sec-125, Gautam Buddha Nagar, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Pragati Kaushal Department of Food Science and Technology, Punjab Agricul-
tural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India
Chandrasen Kumar Food Corporation of India, New Delhi, Delhi, India
Kshitiz Kumar A D Patel Institute of Technology, Anand, Gujarat, India
Navneet Kumar Department of Processing and Food Engineering College of
Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Anand Agricultural University, Godhara,
Gujarat, India
Vivek Kumar Department of Food Technology, Faculty In-Charge Placement
Food Technology, Harcourt Butler Technical University (HBTU), Kanpur, Uttar
Pradesh, India
Yogesh Kumar ICAR-Central Institute of Post-Harvest Engineering and Technol-
ogy, P.O. PAU, Ludhiana, Punjab, India
Yogesh Kumar Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Longowal, Punjab, India
Ajay Patel Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, Delhi, India
Monica Premi School of Life Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education,
International Academy City, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Chandrakala Ravichandran Department of Food Processing Technology,
Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
F. G. Sayyad Polytechnic in Agricultural Engineering, Anand Agricultural Univer-
sity, Dahod, Gujarat, India
Rachna Sehrawat National Institute of Technology, Rourkela, Odisha, India
Shafaq Shah Division of Food Science and Technology, Sher-e-Kashmir Univer-
sity of Science and Technology, Jammu, Jammu & Kashmir, India
Rafeeya Shams Division of Food Science and Technology, Sher-e-Kashmir Uni-
versity of Science and Technology, Jammu, Jammu & Kashmir, India
Editors and Contributors xv

Vijay Singh Sharanagat National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship

and Management, Sonipat, Haryana, India
Harish Kumar Sharma National Institute of Technology (NIT), (An Institute of
National Importance), Agartala, Tripura, India
Kalyani Sharma Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidayalaya, Raipur, Chhattisgarh,
India
Vishal Sharma Bakery Ingredients Division-IFFCO, Al Quoz, Industrial Area 1,
Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Shubhangi Thakre Vasantrao Naik Marathvada Krishi Vidyapith, Parbhani,
Maharashtra, India
Ashutosh Upadhyay Department of Food Science and Technology, National Insti-
tute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship and Management (NIFTEM), Kundli,
Haryana, India
Rajesh Kumar Vishwakarma ICAR-Central Institute of Post-Harvest Engineer-
ing and Technology, P.O. PAU, Ludhiana, Punjab, India
Agro Processing: Scope and Importance
1
Harish Kumar Sharma and Navneet Kumar

Abstract

In this chapter, the importance of agro-processing industry is highlighted. The

agricultural production of various commodities from the leading countries of the
world during the last decade is presented. The chapter includes the status of cereal
industry, fruit and vegetable industry, fish industry, livestock industry, poultry
industry, sugarcane industry, pulse industry, tea industry, oilseed industry, spice
industry and dairy industry across the globe. The overall increase in the produc-
tion of cereals, fruits, vegetables, fish, livestock, sugarcane, tea, oilseeds, pulses
and spices has been observed during the last decade. The growth rate in the
production is also expected to increase in number of agricultural sectors in the
years to come to meet the increasing global demand. It will expand the agro-
processing industry and storage facilities in particular. The untapped contribution
of agro-processing industries in the economy of developing countries and
employment generation is also highlighted.

Keywords
Agro-processing industries · Cereals · Fruits and vegetables · Fish · Livestock and
poultry · Sugarcane · Pulses · Tea · Oilseeds · Spices · Dairy

H. K. Sharma (*)
National Institute of Technology (NIT), (An Institute of National Importance), Agartala, Tripura,
India
N. Kumar
Department of Processing and Food Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering and
Technology, Anand Agricultural University, Godhara, Gujarat, India

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 1

Ltd. 2022
H. K. Sharma, N. Kumar (eds.), Agro-Processing and Food Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7289-7_1
2 H. K. Sharma and N. Kumar

1.1 Introduction

The demand for agricultural commodities is mainly driven by the set of parameters,
viz. income, price, preference and population. Now, the use of agricultural
commodities is not limited to food only, but it has now been expanded to the
non-food uses too such as fuels, feed and other industrial applications. Therefore,
the expansion is expected towards the different processing units across the world in
the future. Processing involves all the activities that led to the transformation of basic
food material to be more usable, less prone to deterioration and easily handled so as
to make it a more useful product. Processing of produce involves different unit
operations to convert it into value-added form starting from harvesting to end use.
The growing urban population, working professionals and fast-pace life style has
resuled time constraints for the various household that eventually is popularising
numerous processed food products in different developing nations also. Therefore,
the agro-processing sector is one of the most important sectors to reach new levels of
growth and development. The conversion of basic food stuff to premium food
quality product has not only given stability to the processed food industries but
also benefited the farmers by increasing their income. However, the growth of the
food processing sector depends upon the production of the agricultural produce,
demand, export opportunities and policy of the government.
There are countries in which different corporations/agencies ensure procurement
of wheat, paddy, pulses, fruits, etc. directly from the farmers to provide higher
returns to them. Horticulture Produce Marketing and Processing Corporation
(J&K, India) procures apples from local orchards for the production of apple juice
concentrate without involving local dealers and suppliers, thus providing high direct
return to their yield. Higher returns are also attained as apples used for concentrate
production are generally not equally acceptable for direct consumption because of
the quality, and therefore it fetches lower price, if sold in the market for direct
consumption. Hence, producing juice concentrate adds value to the produce and
yields higher returns. Similar approach is needed for the entire cultivated segment to
boost up the income level of farmers.
The agriculture sector is considered as the backbone of growth and development
of a country. In India, more than 60% of land is occupied by the agro sector and leads
in the production of many commodities like tea, sugar, milk, fruits, vegetables, etc.
Such huge production is responsible for huge investments and employment genera-
tion. However, due to insufficient processing facilities, higher losses are observed.
Fruits and vegetables encounter the highest loss percentage of 5.8–18%. With the
advances in science and technology, rapid strides are needed in the food processing
sector to prevent such losses and convert basic crops into valuable products. This
sector requires more attention not only to strengthen the concern of the food security
but to promote industrialization, which can enhance rural, social and economic
development.
1 Agro Processing: Scope and Importance 3

1.2 Agro-Processing Industries

The agro industry is an enterprise that processes biomass. It is also referred to as an

establishment, which diversifies the food market by processing raw materials and
providing varieties of foods. Agro-processing industries are considered as the most
important setup to prevent post-harvest losses of agriculture produce as well as
livestock. As per the FAOSTAT database, the processing of barley for the produc-
tion of beer remains on the top among processed agricultural produce with 186.5 MT
in 2018, while the production of sugar remains on the second processed product with
a production of 182 MT [1] (Fig. 1.1).
The food processing industries are being promoted by concerned state/
department to:

• Provide hygienic, safe and quality products.

• Provide cost-effective nutritious foods to the people.
• Build a highly productive and competitive industry.
• Promote sensitization of food safety issues.
• Develop knowledge-based industry, which promotes value addition.
• Promote modernization of agriculture and bring the benefits of urbanization to the
food processing sector.

The status of different agro-processing industries is described as follows:

1.3 Cereal Industry

Cereal industries have developed very fast in the world as well as in India.
Consumers demand more benefits from standard foods. Therefore, cereal based
products like extruded snacks, breakfast cereals, biscuits etc. are produced from
basic agro products such as wheat, sorghum, oats etc. to provide not only nutrition-
ally rich products but also healthy and palatable to match busy life style. China is the
leading producer of cereals followed by the USA and India. Production of various
cereals is presented in Table 1.1, and the production is expected to increase further
by 1% annually for a time span of nearly 10 years. In the recent years, the supply of
the cereals has exceeded the consumption, which has led to the significant buildup of
stock and caused the reduction of prices in the international market as compared to
the previous decade.
The maximum production of maize remains on the first place with a production of
1148.5 million tonnes, while wheat and paddy remain on the second and third places
with a production of 765.8 and 755.5 million tonnes (503.9 million tonnes of milled
rice equivalent), respectively [2]. The world cereal production is projected to
increase to 3054 million tonnes by the year 2028 [3]. The largest growth is expected
in maize production followed by wheat, rice and then coarse grains. The world
average yield of the cereals is expected to increase by 1.1% annually, and mostly the
4 H. K. Sharma and N. Kumar

increase in the world production of cereals is mainly going to be in Asia, Latin

America, Africa and Eastern Europe [3].
Rice is a staple food in most of the states of India especially southern and eastern
regions. Tables 1.2 and 1.3 show the production of paddy (rice) and wheat. The
global rice production is expected to reach 583 million tonnes by the year 2029 [4].
India accounts production of white and brown rice, which is more than 20% of world
production and is considered as one of the largest producers. Indian paddy produc-
tion reached up to 177.6 million tonnes in 2019. Rice industries are considered as the
backbone of our staple food and have a significant contribution to food security.
India is one of the world’s best basmati rice producers and exported nearly 4.45 mil-
lion tonnes of basmati during 2019–2020 [5]. However, the consumption pattern of
rice is going to increase over the next 10 years. The utilization of rice is going to
expand nearly by 1.1% annually compared to 1.4% annually in the last decade.
The global rice production is projected to grow over the next 10 years. However,
the production in developed countries is going to increase marginally, whereas the
growth is going to be robust in the developing nations. Asia is going to contribute to
the majority of the production, and the highest growth is expected in India followed
by Indonesia, China, Vietnam and Thailand. The production in China is going to see
the growth at the slower pace than the previous decade due to decrease in area of
plantation. The production of paddy in different countries and the world is shown in
Table 1.2. The world rice trade is expected to grow by 2.3% annually, and nearly
75% of total export is traded by India, Thailand, Vietnam, Pakistan and the USA.
The largest import is expected in Africa, countries where the demand is going to be
higher than the production due to per capita consumption and population growth.

World, 2018 Beer of barley

Cotton lint
Cottonseed
Margarine, short
Molasses
Oil, coconut (copra)
Oil, cottonseed
Oil, groundnut
Oil, linseed
Oil, maize
Oil, olive, virgin
Oil, palm
Oil, palm kernel
Oil, rapeseed
Oil, safflower
Oil, sesame
Oil, soybean
Oil, sunflower
Palm kernels
Sugar Raw Centrifugal
Wine

Fig. 1.1 Pattern of processed agricultural production of the world during 2018
1 Agro Processing: Scope and Importance 5

Wheat production in India has seen a sharp increase from 6.46 million tonnes
(MT) in 1950–1951 from an area of 9.75 MH to more than 93 MT during 2011–2012
from an area of about 30 million hectares (MH). After China, India is the second
largest producer of wheat in the world (Table 1.3) with a share of nearly 12% in total
production of the world. Global wheat production is going to increase and is
expected to reach up to 839 million tonnes by 2029 [4]. The increase in production
by the developed nations is projected to add by 41 million tonnes in the year 2028,
whereas the production in developing countries is going to add 45 million tonnes.
India is further expected to increase its production by 15.5 million tonnes in the year
2028 [3]. The consumption of wheat is also going to increase globally. China, India,
Africa and the Middle East are projected to account for nearly two-thirds of the
increase in consumption [3]. The production of wheat-based alcohol is also projected
to grow in order to boost the production of alcohol.
The export of wheat is also expected to grow over the next 10 years. The Russian
Federation is expected to remain as the leading exporter of wheat, which may
account for 20% of the world wheat export by 2028 followed by EU and the USA.
The import of wheat is widespread across the world, but the top five importing
nations are Egypt, Indonesia, Algeria, Brazil and the Philippines [3].

1.4 Fruit and Vegetable Industry

India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables after China. Table 1.4
shows the production of fruits and vegetables across the globe. Fruits and vegetables
are highly perishable in nature because of high moisture content (70–95%). The
different processes such as pickling, dehydration, canning, bottling and other pres-
ervation techniques have been introduced to reduce the wastage of fresh fruits and
vegetables and to add value. However, the processing varies in different countries
depending upon the facilities and domestic patterns and policies. The USA processes
around 65% of the total production, whereas the Philippines and China process
around 78% and 23%, respectively. The processing in India is lesser than 3% and

Table 1.1 Production of Production, million tonnes

cereals in major producing
Year China, mainland USA India World
countries and the world [2]
2010 496.3 401.1 267.8 2460.5
2011 519.4 385.5 287.9 2581.6
2012 539.3 356.2 293.3 2556.1
2013 552.7 434.3 294.9 2759.2
2014 557.4 442.8 296.0 2809.4
2015 618.2 431.9 284.3 2833.6
2016 614.6 503.5 297.9 2917.4
2017 614.0 440.3 310.8 2966.0
2018 608.9 439.7 321.6 2912.3
2019 612.7 421.5 324.3 2979.0
6 H. K. Sharma and N. Kumar

Table 1.2 Production of Production, million tonnes

paddy in major producing
Year China, mainland India Indonesia World
countries and the world [2]
2010 195.8 144.0 59.3 694.0
2011 201.0 157.9 58.3 719.1
2012 204.2 157.8 59.7 727.7
2013 203.6 159.2 60.1 731.8
2014 206.5 157.2 59.1 730.8
2015 212.1 156.5 61.0 732.0
2016 211.1 163.7 59.4 739.5
2017 212.7 168.5 59.4 751.7
2018 212.1 174.7 59.2 762.8
2019 209.6 177.6 54.6 755.5

Table 1.3 Production of wheat in major producing countries and the world [2]
Production, million tonnes
Year China, mainland India Russian Federation USA World
2010 115.2 80.8 41.5 60.1 640.8
2011 117.4 86.9 56.2 54.4 696.9
2012 121.0 94.9 37.7 61.7 673.7
2013 121.9 93.5 52.1 58.1 710.4
2014 126.2 95.9 59.7 55.1 728.8
2015 132.6 86.5 61.8 55.8 742.0
2016 133.3 92.3 73.3 62.8 748.5
2017 134.2 98.5 86.0 47.4 772.3
2018 131.4 99.9 72.1 51.3 733.4
2019 133.6 103.6 74.5 52.3 765.8

does not contribute significantly in the world trade (<1%). But, the processing is
expected to grow and is projected to process 16.39 million tonnes by 2024 as
compared to 8.31 million tonnes in the year 2019 [6].
The production of fruits and vegetables has been consistently increasing for the
last two decades and is projected to have further growth due to the awareness
towards health, nutrition, availability and functional aspects. The fruit and vegetable
industry in Asia has a tremendous export potential due to a wide range of produce.
The short production cycle of vegetables allows farmers to have multiple cropping
and produce good volume. Asia produces nearly 74% of the world vegetable
production, and China produces more than 50% of the world production of
vegetables and produced 588.3 million tonnes of vegetables in the year 2019
(Table 1.4). The domestic consumption in developing countries is still low due to
the purchasing capacity and eating habits. Processed vegetables including dried
vegetables constitute the large share of export. However, the vegetables in frozen
form is going to see the future growth tremendously.
Even fruit and vegetable processing industries in a number of countries do not
receive standard quality produce due to inadequate availability of cold stores and
1 Agro Processing: Scope and Importance 7

cold chain transport, which in turn results in low-grade processed foods. However,
significant developments in technology involve efforts to reduce losses by better
understanding of harvesting, handling and preservation. Packaging of fruits and
vegetables has a significant role in the prevention of losses and increase of shelf
life. Much of the produce is produced in rural areas, and due to inadequate facilities
and lack of direct approach to the industries, producers receive much lower prices.
Keeping in view, the involvement of different government corporations in post-
liberalization era has helped the fruit and vegetable industry to improve upon the
value chain to a certain extent.
In developing countries, the food industry has been facing problems on different
fronts and need to work under the constraints of variation in the quality of raw
material and varied prices, inefficient techniques for handling and storage, lack of
research facilities, uncertainty in the availability of adequate quantity for processing,
high cost of energy, expensive and inadequate cold chain facilities and varied
processing conditions from one material to another. Research and Development in
future need to focus on these issues and cost effective value-added and diversified
products.

1.5 Fish Industry

Fisheries and aquaculture are one of the most important businesses in developing
countries because over 500 million people depend on it. The consistent growth of
production and utilization across the world can be observed from Table 1.5. The
production for produce from inland water increased from 7.5 to 63.4 million tonnes
in four decades, which is more than six times the initial inland production. It clearly
indicates the interest of the peoples in the inland fisheries and aquaculture, while
consistent growth can also be observed in marine production, but the growth rate is
comparatively lower; however, it still holds the lion share in the production statistics.

Table 1.4 Production of fruits and vegetables in major producing countries and the world [2]
Production, million tonnes
Fruits Vegetables
Year China India Brazil World China India USA World
2010 195.1 76.4 41.6 736.9 457.4 99.3 34.7 921.1
2011 204.5 76.1 44.2 761.9 475.4 105.7 34.0 954.3
2012 214.5 78.0 41.6 775.2 483.9 112.9 35.3 977.6
2013 221.5 85.3 41.0 806.4 493.4 119.6 33.6 996.5
2014 227.0 91.0 40.6 822.7 505.8 125.2 35.7 1032.6
2015 229.1 90.8 40.1 835.7 535.0 120.0 34.5 1059.1
2016 232.3 92.0 38.9 839.0 544.7 125.9 34.1 1078.9
2017 236.8 98.0 39.9 844.7 559.2 131.6 32.1 1099.5
2018 239.1 101.9 39.9 871.2 573.8 130.1 31.7 1106.1
2019 246.6 104.2 40.1 883.4 588.3 132.0 30.0 1130.2
8 H. K. Sharma and N. Kumar

The production of fish at the global level is projected to grow (1.1% annually) but
comparatively lesser than the previous decade (2.4% annually). The top capture
producers are China, Indonesia, Peru, India, the Russian Federation, the USA and
Vietnam, and the major aquaculture producers are China, India and Indonesia with a
total production of 47.6, 7.1 and 5.4 million tonnes, respectively, in 2018 [7].
In the world trade, the share of top five exporting nations, China, Vietnam,
Norway, the European Union and the Russian Federation, is expected to grow by
46% from the current share of nearly 45%. However, the fastest growth is forecasted
for Indonesia, and it is expected that it may capture the fourth position in the list of
exporting nations and in the world trade by 2028 [3]. In the last four decades, the
consumption pattern increased consistently in developing countries, whereas this
pattern is nearly invariable in developed countries on an average basis. In the recent
years, the growth of capture fisheries is not appreciable, but it is projected to increase
mainly due to the higher prices and better management in some parts of the globe.
The consumption of fish from aquaculture is expected to increase to 58% in the year
2028 from the current share of nearly 52% [3]. The non-food uses of the fisheries
also increased in the developing countries, whereas it decreased in the developed
countries. India has nearly 8118 km of marine coastline and 3827 fishing villages
along with 1941 traditional fish landing centres and is considered as one of the major
suppliers of fish in the world. With a total production of 12.39 million tonnes during
the year 2018 makes India as the third biggest producer of the fisheries (Table 1.6).
The lack of good management practices and the depletion of the stock of some
fisheries are seen as the prime concern at the global level.
The trade of fish meal is also going to increase in the next decade, and Peru is
going to be the major exporting nation for the fish meal followed by the European
Union and Chile. Likewise, trade in fish oil may also grow. In developing nations,
fish processing is mainly carried out for export purposes. The established fish
processing industries have their own fishing fleets. Preliminary processing involves
handling and storage under optimum conditions. Modern fish industries often have
facilities for automatic filleting and freezing of fresh fish. Facilities for processing of
fish are relatively small compared to production. Lack of efficient refrigerated
transport and unavailability of sufficient cold stores are highly responsible for
temperature abuse, which mainly contributes to losses. The efforts are needed to
further increase the fish production to meet the global demand. In addition,
innovations and commercialization are needed on the organized scale to isolate
and fraction out the functional constituents for medicinal uses.

1.6 Livestock Industry and Poultry Industry

The livestock and poultry sectors play an important role in the livelihood of rural
people and economy. India has the largest population of livestock in the world,
whereas it is the fifth largest producer of broiler. China is the leading producer of
eggs in the world followed by the USA and India. India produces almost 6.3 mil-
lion tonnes of meat and ranks fifth in the world production. However, only 1% is
 1

Table 1.5 Production and utilization of fisheries and aquaculture in the world [7]
Production, million tonnes Utilization, million tonnes
Human consumption Non-food uses
Inland Marine Developed Developing Developed Developing
Agro Processing: Scope and Importance

Year waters waters Total countries countries Total countries countries Total
1980 7.5 64.5 72.0 26.4 25.1 51.5 11.7 8.3 20.0
1990 14.1 83.7 97.8 28.5 42.0 70.5 11.9 15.4 27.3
2000 27.3 98.7 126.0 23.8 72.8 96.6 7.7 21.5 29.2
2010 46.8 98.1 144.9 23.0 103.6 126.6 5.2 13.1 18.3
2018 63.4 115.2 178.6 23.8 132.5 156.3 5.4 16.7 22.1
9
10 H. K. Sharma and N. Kumar

converted into value-added products as per Technology Exports Development

Organisations. Table 1.7 shows the production of eggs and meat, and the data
indicate that the growth rate of poultry population and average production is
comparatively higher as compared to livestock.
The global market for meat products is expanding, and therefore it is an opportu-
nity for the countries to increase their share in the world market. The major increase
in meat production was mainly observed in Australia, the European Union, the
Russian Federation and the USA, whereas minor increase was also observed in
Argentina, Mexico and India. The production of meat is expected to expand over this
decade, and major growth is speculated in the developing nations, which may
account for nearly 74%. The consumption of meat is also expected to increase,
though the growth rate may be a little lower than the previous decade. The consump-
tion of meat is already high in the developed countries and is expected to further
increase due to purchasing power and affordability.
The lower prices of pig meat and poultry make them a favourite in developing
nations, but the increase in income diversifies the range of products. However,
income is not only the parameter for the product consumption, but other factors
such as urbanization; environmental, cultural and health concern; and religious
beliefs also affect the consumption pattern of meat and meat products. Poultry
meat consumption is projected to increase irrespective of income and accounts a
major share. In the world trade, Brazil and the USA are the major exporting nations
and the export is further expected to increase in this decade, whereas the Asian
countries are going to be the major importing nations and the share may be around
56% of the global trade.
Major problem faced by meat industries is mainly due to temperature abuse while
transportation and storage. Meat industries in a number of countries have not
received much attention from policy makers and scientists. Efforts are needed to
further develop infrastructure for export of both fresh and processed meat and
poultry. The poultry sector has been growing continuously across the world.

1.7 Sugarcane Industry

In the recent years, the demand of sugar has been slowed down due to the potential
concern of health from the excessive consumption of sugars and lesser growth rate of
the world population. Brazil produced about 752.9 million tonnes of sugar crops in
the year 2019 and tops the world, while India ranks second with a production of
405.4 million tonnes (Table 1.8). The sugar production of the world is projected to
increase over the next 10 years. The sugar consumption is going to increase over the
next 10 years mainly in developing countries. The main demand is projected in Asia
and Africa in the coming years. Sugar-rich processed products, mainly the confec-
tionery and soft drinks, are expected to rise in demand in the urban markets of Asia
and Africa.
The largest consumption of sugar, especially in Asia, is expected in India
followed by China, Indonesia and then Pakistan, whereas the highest consumption
 1

Table 1.6 Capture production of major producing countries and the world [7]
Capture production, million tonnes Aquaculture production, million tonnes
Year China Indonesia Peru India World China India Indonesia Vietnam World
2010 14.81 5.39 4.30 4.69 87.12 35.51 3.79 2.30 2.68 57.74
2011 14.99 5.75 8.25 4.31 91.62 36.61 3.67 2.72 2.85 59.79
Agro Processing: Scope and Importance

2012 15.18 5.86 4.85 4.87 88.63 38.14 4.21 3.07 3.08 63.48
2013 15.35 6.12 5.85 4.64 89.73 40.34 4.55 3.97 3.21 66.95
2014 16.12 6.46 3.57 4.98 90.38 42.30 4.89 4.25 3.34 70.51
2015 16.39 6.69 4.82 4.84 91.66 43.75 5.26 4.34 3.46 72.77
2016 15.79 6.54 3.80 5.18 89.64 45.82 5.70 4.90 3.57 76.50
2017 15.37 6.74 4.16 5.53 93.12 46.82 6.18 5.51 3.82 79.54
2018 14.65 7.22 7.17 5.32 96.43 47.56 7.07 5.43 4.13 82.10
11
12 H. K. Sharma and N. Kumar

in Africa is projected in Egypt and sub-Saharan countries. The consumption of sugar

in developed countries is declining due to negative health effect such as diabetes,
weight gain, heart diseases, tooth decay, etc. The countries are coming forward to
impose taxes on calorific sugar products to reduce the consumption. Mexico is the
first to do it. To nullify the effect of this tax, companies are replacing sugar with
artificial sweeteners.
The sugarcane industry not only converts sugarcane into premium product sugar
but also utilizes many of its by-products including molasses, press cake and green
top. These are utilized for the preparation of pulp, paper, particle board, feed,
medium, alcohols, acetic acid, sorbitol and many other valuable products.
Table 1.8 shows the scenario of the sugar industry over the past two decades and
establishes that the world production is almost consistently increasing. In the
Russian Federation, the demand of sugar is expected to grow due to higher demand
of alcoholic products.
Sugarcane industries need better infrastructure and better transportation facilities
to transport sugarcane from the agriculture field to industry. A comprehensive
system for the timely payment of raw material to farmers is also needed to be
evolved.

1.8 Pulse Industry

India is the leading producer of pulses followed by Canada and Myanmar

(Table 1.9). Canada and Myanmar and Australia do not possess adequate processing
facilities of the pulses because of the consumption pattern in these countries. These
countries do not have consumption of pulses to the larger extent; therefore, attempts
have not been made to develop the processing facilities. India requires almost
22.0 million tonnes of pulses to meet the increasing demand. Storage of pulses is
always an issue, and these are normally stored in gunny bags or in small tin
containers. As per the research findings, pulses need to be stored in air-tight
containers at 20–22
C for long-time storage. Table 1.9 shows the production of
pulses in India and across the globe. In the last two decades, the production of pulses
increased on an average basis, though it is not the preferred crop for the farmers due
to the lesser productivity and lack of assured market. India not only is the largest
producer but also consumes diverse range of pulses, which are the main source of
proteins in the diet especially for the vegetarian people. The lesser production of
pulses as compared to the growth of population changed the ratio of demand and
supply in the last two decades and resulted in higher prices and lesser per capita
consumption. The improvement in the yield of the pulses and more focus to bring out
value-added acceptable and economically viable products for the consumers can
further increase the demand and reduce the cost.
 1

Table 1.7 Production of eggs and meat in major producing countries and the world [8]
Production, million tonnes
Eggs Meat
Year China, mainland USA India Indonesia World China, mainland USA Brazil World
2010 27.6 5.4 3.4 1.4 69.5 79.2 42.0 23.6 294.4
2011 28.1 5.5 3.5 1.3 70.9 79.4 42.5 24.3 299.0
Agro Processing: Scope and Importance

2012 28.6 5.6 3.7 1.4 72.6 83.3 42.6 24.6 307.1
2013 28.8 5.8 3.8 1.5 74.3 85.1 42.8 25.4 314.0
2014 28.9 6.0 4.1 1.6 75.8 86.4 42.8 26.0 319.7
2015 30.5 5.8 4.3 1.7 78.2 86.0 43.3 26.6 325.3
2016 31.6 6.0 4.6 1.8 80.3 85.2 44.6 27.0 329.1
2017 35.6 6.4 4.8 5.0 89.4 85.8 45.8 27.7 335.7
2018 36.0 6.5 5.2 5.1 85.1 87.1 46.8 28.1 343.6
2019 37.8 6.7 5.8 5.1 88.3 76.3 48.1 28.6 337.2
13
 14

Table 1.8 Production and processing of sugar crops in major producing countries and the world [1, 2]
Production, million tonnes
Sugar crops Processed raw sugar
Year Brazil India China, mainland Thailand World Brazil India China, mainland Thailand World
2010 717.5 292.3 120.1 68.8 1907.2 39.9 11.4 20.6 6.9 155.2
2011 734.0 342.4 125.2 96.0 2069.6 37.6 12.5 26.6 9.7 169.5
2012 721.1 361.0 134.9 98.4 2097.4 40.2 14.2 28.8 10.2 177.8
2013 768.1 341.2 137.5 100.1 2147.7 39.5 14.5 27.7 10.0 179.0
2014 736.1 352.1 133.6 103.7 2158.0 37.3 14.7 26.6 11.2 179.9
2015 750.3 362.3 112.2 94.1 2117.5 35.2 11.7 30.5 11.0 173.9
2016 768.6 348.4 111.8 94.1 2160.8 40.5 9.6 27.4 9.3 177.5
2017 758.6 306.1 113.8 93.1 2150.4 36.7 10.2 22.2 10.7 177.9
2018 747.1 379.9 119.4 135.1 2205.2 28.0 11.4 34.3 15.4 182.2
2019 752.9 405.4 121.7 131.0 2228.7 – – – – –
H. K. Sharma and N. Kumar
1 Agro Processing: Scope and Importance 15

Table 1.9 Production of Production, million tonnes

pulses [2] in major produc-
Year India Canada Myanmar World
ing countries and the world
2010 17.2 5.4 5.1 72.0
2011 17.6 4.3 5.0 70.3
2012 16.8 5.3 5.3 74.7
2013 18.9 6.6 5.7 78.9
2014 20.0 6.2 6.1 78.9
2015 17.3 6.1 6.2 79.1
2016 18.1 8.3 6.5 87.8
2017 23.7 7.1 6.6 95.7
2018 25.5 6.3 6.7 92.3
2019 21.5 7.0 6.9 88.4

1.9 Tea Industry

Tea is the most popular beverage in the world after water. China is the largest
producer of tea with a production of 2.8 million tonnes in the year 2019 followed by
India and Kenya (Table 1.10).
According to FAO, the tea sector is going to observe the compound annual
growth rate of nearly 4 to 5.5% in a time span of 2017 to 2024 [9]. The tea industry
is considered to provide employment on the large scale, and therefore it is labour-
intensive. Material, energy and employee are the major parameters which contribute
to the cost among the inputs. To make the industry more competitive, energy and
employee cost need to be reduced. The automation and modernization of the
industry and application of non-conventional sources of energy can bring down
the cost. The tea industry also generates indirect employment in the different sectors
such as warehouses, transportation and manufacturing of aluminium foil, tin plates,
cardboard paper, tea chest, fertilizers, insecticides, etc. The establishment of tea
parks, proper exhibition and connectivity with the tourism industry will help this
industry to grow further in rapid pace. In addition, the innovative value-added
products such as proven functional tea may again catalyse the growth of tea industry.

1.10 Oilseed Industry

The oilseeds remain as the major source of fat and is one of the essential constituents
in the human diet. The body requires about 44-77 g of fat per day based on the 2000
calories a day, which is provided by oilseeds and animals. Indonesia is the leading
producer of oilseeds with a production of 264.1 million tonnes in the year 2019
followed by Brazil, the USA, Malaysia, China and India (Table 1.11). India ranks
sixth in the world production of oilseeds. Soybean, cottonseed, groundnut, sun-
flower, safflower, coconut, rapeseed and mustard are the popular oilseeds.
Table 1.11 shows the production of oilseed across the world with a total production
16 H. K. Sharma and N. Kumar

Table 1.10 Production of Production, million tonnes

tea [2] in major producing
Year China India Kenya World
countries and the world
2010 1.5 1.0 0.4 4.6
2011 1.6 1.1 0.4 4.8
2012 1.8 1.1 0.4 5.0
2013 1.9 1.2 0.4 5.3
2014 2.1 1.2 0.4 5.5
2015 2.3 1.2 0.4 5.8
2016 2.3 1.3 0.5 5.8
2017 2.5 1.3 0.4 6.0
2018 2.6 1.3 0.5 6.3
2019 2.8 1.4 0.5 6.5

Table 1.11 Production of oilseeds in major producing countries and the world [2]
Production, million tonnes
Year Indonesia Malaysia USA Brazil China, mainland India World
2010 165.5 83.8 104.9 76.4 66.8 59.5 833.9
2011 177.1 93.7 97.6 84.7 68.9 60.8 876.6
2012 187.2 95.7 98.8 75.6 69.6 58.3 866.5
2013 200.6 95.7 103.2 89.9 67.6 63.3 940.6
2014 199.3 96.2 121.5 96.0 67.4 58.7 965.5
2015 202.6 99.0 121.4 106.6 63.9 52.0 980.7
2016 209.0 87.0 132.7 104.9 63.6 58.7 990.4
2017 255.6 102.5 138.0 123.3 68.6 59.9 1101.8
2018 259.5 99.1 137.0 128.3 70.2 62.5 1099.2
2019 264.1 99.8 115.1 127.0 75.3 64.8 1101.3

of 1101.3 million tonnes in 2019. The increase in oilseeds is continuous in all the
major oilseed-producing countries; however, Brazil observed about 66% growth and
stands on the first place in the increase in production during 2010–2019 followed by
Indonesia with 60% growth, whereas about 32% production growth was observed in
the whole world. Indonesia and Malaysia remain as the main suppliers of palm oil in
the world and dominate the vegetable oil market [2].
India is the biggest importer of edible oil in the world and is expected to maintain
a high per capita consumption. Therefore, the import is expected to increase sub-
stantially along with the major growth of the domestic oilseed production.
Generally, groundnut, rapeseed, mustard, linseed, sesame and castor are grown as
the main oil-bearing crops; however, other crops, viz. soybean, sunflower and
coconut, also significantly contribute in oil production. Despite the significant
contribution in oilseed production, there are countries which cannot fulfil the
demand, and hence they import a substantial amount of oil. To meet the demand,
the usage of supplementary resources for the production of oil can be an option.
Supplementary sources of vegetable oil may include rice bran oil, cottonseed oil,
1 Agro Processing: Scope and Importance 17

corn oil, etc., and these supplementary sources can be used for consumption to meet
the demand.
The protein meal output is also expected to expand globally in this decade but
comparatively at a lesser rate than the last decade and is projected to reach 400 Mt.
by the year 2028. The protein meal is mainly dominated by the soybean, and it
accounts for nearly two-thirds of the protein meal production of the world. Argentina
is the largest exporter of the meal, whereas the European Union, China, the USA,
Brazil, Argentina and India are going to be the lead players in the production of
meal, and these countries are projected to have a share of 75% of the total world
production.

1.11 Spice Industry

India is the major producer of spices and mainly produces cardamom, pepper,
ginger, turmeric, bean stew, cumin, celery, coriander, fennel, garlic, dill seed, chilli,
tamarind, clove, fenugreek, ajwain and nutmeg among several others. Spices are the
essential components of diet for numerous people in the world. India is the largest
producer and consumer of spices in the world. The country produces nearly 75 of the
109 varieties listed by ISO (International Organization for Standardization). In
addition, it is the major exporter of spices across the globe and accounts half of
the world trade. To develop this industry, functional spice parks are now established
to enable processers and exporters to forge a closer and lasting relationship with
spice growers. Table 1.12 shows the production of spices in major countries and the
world.
In the year 2019, a total of 110 million tonnes of spices and spice products were
exported to the USA, China, Hong Kong, Vietnam, Bangladesh and several other
countries. India contributes around 35% ginger production, 30% pepper production
and 90% turmeric production of the world.
Spices can be used in different applications such as sauces, dressings, bakery
products, beverages, frozen foods and several other packaged foods and food
products. Besides, spices are also used in the cosmetic industry. Sage and rosemary
herbs are generally used for essential oils, which find applications in perfumes.
Perfume industry incorporates spices such as cinnamon, vanilla, clove, etc. for the
different fragrances. The food sector is the promising potential buyer of the spices,
and the spice market is expected to grow nearly at the rate of 5% per annum till the
year 2025. Seed spices are used in Unani and Ayurvedic medicines since long, but
their potential effects and mechanism need to be explored and developed to cure
different diseases and infections. As the demand is increasing, the production of
spices and related industries is now being set up in different other countries also. The
functional and medicinal uses of spices are proven based on the scientific aspects;
therefore, their application can be propagated in the world over in all the culinary
foods.
18 H. K. Sharma and N. Kumar

1.12 Dairy Industry

India is the world’s largest milk producer, whereas the USA and China contribute to
the milk production as the second and third largest countries across the globe. The
world milk production, mainly of 81% cow’s milk, 15% buffalo milk and the rest 4%
percent from other milch animals such as sheep, goat, camel, etc., grew nearly by
1.6% to 880 million tonnes in 2018.
The world production of milk is expected to grow at the rate of nearly 1.7%
annually. India and Pakistan are the important milk producers and are expected to
contribute a major share in the world market in the coming 10 years. Currently, in
India, the production is consistently increasing, but it does not have a large impact on
the world trade due to the high domestic demand. Major countries, such as the
European Union, New Zealand and the USA, are the major dairy product exporters,
and their production increased by 0.8%, 3.2% and 1.1%, respectively, in the year
2018. In addition, Australia and Argentina are also exporting milk products interna-
tionally and expected to grow over the next 10 years.
The European Union, the second largest producer, is expected to have grown
slowly as compared to the world average. This industry is well versed and has
diversified its market offering products like cheese, yogurt, ghee, butter,
concentrated milk, dry powders and several other processed products. Less than
30% of the milk is processed into the different commercial products. Butter and
cheese have the better demand considerably. Cheese consumption especially in
North America and Europe has got a major market share. WMP and SMP, which
are mainly used in a number of applications such as bakery product, different liquid
milks, infant formula, confectionery, etc., are largely traded and mainly used for the
trades.
North Africa, the Middle East, South East Asia, developed countries and China
are the major importers of dairy products. China is one of the major importers of
dairy products. The developed nations import good amount of cheese and butter. The
relatively higher prices of milk fat may lead to the substitution by the vegetable fat,
which may bring variation in the production of milk fat and demand in the interna-
tional market. Likewise, the role of plant-based dairy substitute such as soy, rice,
almond-based drinks, etc. has increased in the recent years in different regions. But,
there are different views regarding their wider acceptability and health aspects,
which may create uncertainty on the long-term impact of these substitutes in the
milk and milk product demands.
India is self-reliant in terms of the production and consumption of milk, but there
are regions such as South East Asian countries, the Middle East and Africa where the
demand for the milk and milk products is expected to grow faster than the produc-
tion, which will lead to the increase in import of dairy products. Transport of liquid
milk is expensive; therefore, the demand is expected to be meted out with the milk
powders. The milk powders are largely produced across the globe due to the
application in various food products.
Indian dairy industry has successfully developed a direct link between producers
and ultimate users by procuring milk from the producer in rural areas and then
 1

Table 1.12 Production of spices and condiments in major producing countries and the world [2]
Production, million tonnes
Pepper Vanilla
Year Ethiopia Vietnam Brazil Indonesia World China, mainland Indonesia Madagascar Mexico World
2010 265 105 52 84 682 1300 2600 2742 395 8257
2011 307 112 45 87 723 799 3500 2791 362 8602
2012 407 120 43 88 817 432 3100 2929 390 8052
2013 289 125 42 91 720 335 2600 3021 463 7600
2014 204 152 42 87 662 286 2000 3139 420 7081
2015 323 177 52 82 829 566 2000 2922 482 7218
2016 425 216 54 86 971 812 2326 2888 513 7780
2017 347 253 79 88 983 554 2481 3191 515 7995
2018 329 263 102 89 1039 458 2356 3169 495 7738
Agro Processing: Scope and Importance

2019 374 265 109 89 1103 379 2329 3217 522 7715
Cinnamon Cloves
Year China, mainland Indonesia Sri Lanka Vietnam World Indonesia Madagascar Sri Lanka Tanzania World
2010 63 88 16 21 191 98 10 4 9 128
2011 66 90 16 24 199 72 12 4 9 103
2012 69 90 16 27 204 100 15 4 7 131
2013 70 92 16 29 209 110 17 4 7 143
2014 71 91 17 30 213 122 21 6 9 166
2015 75 92 20 33 223 140 22 6 9 184
2016 76 92 25 35 231 140 23 8 9 190
2017 78 92 25 37 236 113 25 7 9 164
2018 81 90 24 39 238 131 24 6 9 180
2019 83 90 25 41 243 135 23 4 9 182
(continued)
19
Table 1.12 (continued)
20

Nutmeg, mace and cardamoms Anise, badian, fennel and coriander

Year Guatemala India Indonesia Nepal World India Iran Mexico Syria World
2010 23 16 16 5 67 420 66 46 41 827
2011 26 16 20 6 75 537 62 53 48 954
2012 35 18 25 6 93 537 53 54 52 924
2013 38 17 28 7 98 546 40 65 48 908
2014 38 21 33 5 107 584 66 54 28 1004
2015 35 22 34 5 107 546 63 69 28 1082
2016 35 38 33 6 125 632 63 80 28 1166
2017 36 43 33 7 132 1529 64 133 116 2153
2018 38 43 44 7 146 1503 66 127 142 2073
2019 38 38 44 8 142 1448 68 101 83 1971
Spices nes (bay leaves, dill seed, fenugreek seed,
Ginger saffron, thyme, turmeric)
Year China, mainland India Nepal Nigeria World India Ethiopia Turkey Indonesia World
2010 365 385 211 162 1719 1.5 0.2 0.1 0.1 2.3
2011 420 702 216 460 2366 1.7 0.2 0.2 0.1 2.6
2012 460 756 255 380 2464 1.5 0.2 0.2 0.1 2.4
2013 390 683 235 497 2445 1.5 0.3 0.2 0.1 2.6
2014 470 655 276 168 2302 1.5 0.3 0.2 0.1 2.6
2015 496 760 243 413 2753 1.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 2.3
2016 550 1109 272 775 3624 1.5 0.3 0.2 0.1 2.7
2017 546 1070 280 835 3519 1.6 0.3 0.2 0.1 2.7
2018 570 1762 284 700 4081 1.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 2.6
2019 581 1788 298 691 4081 1.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 2.8
H. K. Sharma and N. Kumar
1 Agro Processing: Scope and Importance 21

Table 1.13 Production of milk in major producing countries and the world [8]
Production, million tonnes
Year China, mainland India Pakistan USA World
2010 41 122 35 88 724
2011 41 128 37 89 742
2012 42 133 38 91 759
2013 40 138 39 91 768
2014 42 147 40 93 794
2015 36 156 42 95 803
2016 35 165 43 96 814
2017 35 176 52 98 855
2018 35 188 54 99 880
2019 36 188 56 99 883

transporting it to district units and finally processing. Table 1.13 shows the produc-
tion of milk. Though the production of milk is steady, still the processing of milk at
the organized scale in developing countries is a challenge. In addition, the value
addition is needed, and more focus on the value-added products will further expand
this industry in the future.
In general, the overall increase in the production of cereals, fruits, vegetables,
fish, livestock, sugarcane, tea, oilseeds, pulses and spices was observed during the
last decade. The growth rate in the production is also expected through increase in
the area under cultivation and productivity level [10, 11] in the years to come to meet
the increasing global demand. This will expand the agro-processing sector and
storage facilities in particular. The agro-processing industries also contribute in the
economy, employment generation to the rural youths, as a source of foreign
exchange through export, human resource development through training and crea-
tion of stable markets for raw, intermediate and finished products [12]. Bakeries,
breweries, soybean processing, rice processing, wheat milling units, pulse milling,
poultry processing, tea/coffee processing, sauces, pickles, traditional sweets and
snacks are the major processing units. The agro-processing industry is the untapped
sector in a number of developing countries and the countries which are the leading
producers of the different agricultural produces.

1.13 Exercise

1. Discuss the importance of the agro-processing sector in the development of a

nation with a view to mitigate the challenge of population growth.
2. What is the status of cereal production in the major producing countries in the
world? Explain the various types of major cereal processing units.
3. What is the importance of pulses in agricultural production? Despite the substan-
tial production of pulses in Canada, Myanmar and Australia, why has the
processing industry not taken shape in these countries?
22 H. K. Sharma and N. Kumar

4. Discuss the significance of spices in agro-processing sectors. What are the

production patterns of spices in the world? Discuss in brief.
5. Which are the leading producers of milk? How dairy processing units performed
during the last decade? Which are the major exporting nations of milk and milk
products? Why is the export share of the largest milk-producing country compar-
atively much lesser?
6. What is the status of the fruit and vegetable industry across the world? Why is the
processing of fruits and vegetables at all needed? What are the problems faced by
the fruit and vegetable industry?
7. Illustrate briefly the status of the following:
(a) Tea industry.
(b) Fish industry.
(c) Sugarcane industry.
(d) Livestock and poultry industry.
(e) Oilseed industry.

References
1. Crops processed—The Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database
(FAOSTAT). (2021). Food and Agricultural Organizations of the United Nations. http://
www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QD.
2. Crops—The Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT).
(2021). Food and Agricultural Organizations of the United Nations.
3. OECD/FAO. (2019). OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2019–2028. OECD/Food and Agricul-
ture Organization of the United Nations. https://doi.org/10.1787/agr_outlook-2019-en
4. OECD/FAO. (2020). OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2020–2029. FAO/OECD. https://doi.
org/10.1787/1112c23b-en
5. Press Information Bureau. (2020). Press release of APEDA workshop on “Opportunities in
Export of Organic Basmati Rice, Value Addition and Product Diversification” on 15 December
2020 at 5:39 PM, Release ID: 1680808. https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID¼1680
808.
6. Research and Markets. (2020). Fruit and vegetable processing industry in India 2020.
Netscribes (India).
7. FAO. (2020). FAO yearbook. Fishery and aquaculture statistics 2018. FAO. https://doi.org/10.
4060/cb1213t
8. Livestock Primary—The Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database
(FAOSTAT). (2021). Food and Agricultural Organizations of the United Nations. http://www.
fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QL.
9. Mordor Intelligence. (2018). Tea market growth, trends and forecasts (2019–2024). https://
www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/tea-market
10. Spice Production in India. (2011). Commodity inside yearbook. Joint endeavour of MCX and
PwC (pp. 270–276). Agriculture Commodities Databank. www.mcxindia.com. www.pwc.com/
in/en.DOV:6-12-13
11. Edgerton, M. D. (2009). Increasing crop productivity to meet global needs for feed. Food, and
Fuel, Plant Physiology, 149(3), 7–13.
12. https://www.ascecuba.org/asce_proceedings/role-and-importance-of-the-agricultural-
processing-sector-in-the-cuba-of-the-future/#:~:text¼Many%20economists%20believe%20
the%20agricultural,%3B%20(2)%20providing%20income%20and.
Engineering Properties of Foods
2
Vivek Kumar, Harish Kumar Sharma, and Navneet Kumar

Abstract

In this chapter, the concept related to various engineering properties like geomet-
rical, frictional, rheological, textural, optical, and thermal and their application
during different stages of food processing have been discussed. Methods and
instruments involved for the measurement of all these properties and their
importance in relation to food quality and safety are also explained. Geometrical
and frictional properties of foods have great importance in food characterization,
handling, processing, and monitoring of quality food products. These properties
affect the chemical and physical characteristics of foods at micro and macro levels
during processing and storage. Water activity and its measurement methods are
also discussed in brief. Rheological properties are related with the flow and
deformation of food systems. The chapter also explains the rheology of solid
and liquid foods along with rheological models. Texture profile analysis of food is
also briefly explained for easier understanding. Optical parameters are one of the
important quality indicators of foods. The spectral sensitivity, tristimulus value,
and chromaticity coordinates are discussed. Various color measurement systems
like Munsell, Hunter, CIELAB, etc. are also explained. For accurate calculation
of energy balance during heating and cooling process, it is important to know the

V. Kumar (*)
Department of Food Technology, Harcourt Butler Technical University (HBTU), Kanpur, Uttar
Pradesh, India
H. K. Sharma
National Institute of Technology (NIT) (An Institute of National Importance), Agartala, Tripura,
India
N. Kumar
Department of Processing, Food Engineering College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology,
Anand Agricultural University, Godhra, Gujarat, India

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 23

Ltd. 2022
H. K. Sharma, N. Kumar (eds.), Agro-Processing and Food Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7289-7_2
24 V. Kumar et al.

behavior of thermal data of foods in terms of specific heat, thermal conductivity,

and thermal diffusivity. The determinations of different thermal properties are
illustrated with diagrams and solved examples.

Keywords

Size · Shape · Volume · Density · Porosity · Frictional properties · Water activity ·

Rheological properties · Textural parameters · Colour · Thermal properties

Engineering properties of foods are useful in the design and development of various
agricultural machineries for different unit operations such as cleaning, grading,
drying, dehydration, milling, handling, transportation, and storage. The properties
are also used to monitor the safety and quality of different foods. The broad
categories of engineering properties useful for handling of grains and other agricul-
tural commodities during different unit operations are physical properties, rheologi-
cal properties, thermal properties, optical properties, surface properties, etc. Basic
information on these properties is of great importance and helps the engineers, food
scientists, and processors toward efficient processing and equipment development.
Some of the physical properties usually encountered in handling of different foods
are described.
The major physical properties of foods consist of shape, size, density, volume,
porosity, and surface area which are important for the measurement of bulk or
individual units of the material. Size and shape are the important parameters to
control the quality of different agro-based commodities and play a significant role in
different unit operations such as dehydration/drying, screening, separation, etc. The
measurement of surface area is important in fruits and vegetables to estimate the
respiration rate, spray coverage, color evaluation, and heat and mass transfer in
various heating and cooling processes. Surface area measurement can be done with
planimeter, coating method, and peeling method and by image analysis.

2.1 Size

Size is an important property of foods. For the powders, particle size is critical as it
affects the viscosity and solubility during reconstitution. Agro-produce size deter-
mination is important for sorting of fresh produce into different size groups which
has different market prices. The different sizes of produces require different
packages for their better protection during transportation. For the production of
uniform quality of the processed foods, grading of agro-produce is necessary in
the food processing industry.
2 Engineering Properties of Foods 25

2.1.1 Methods of Size Measurement

2.1.1.1 Projected Area Method

The projection of food material is captured along three mutually perpendicular axes
using image capturing devices. The following dimensions are defined in this method
(Fig. 2.1):

1. The maximum diameter/longest dimension of the maximum projected area is

referred to as the major diameter or length.
2. The maximum diameter/longest dimension of the minimum projected area or
minimum diameter/smallest dimension of the maximum projected area is referred
to as the intermediate diameter or width.
3. The minimum diameter/smallest dimension of the minimum projected area is the
minor diameter or thickness.

2.1.1.2 Micrometer Measurement

The characteristic dimensions can be determined by micrometer or caliper. The
diameters (inside and outside), depth of the holes, and distance between the parallel
surfaces can be measured. Micrometer is often used as an inspection instrument to
measure distances between surfaces (Fig. 2.2a). Vernier caliper is a measuring tool
and is used for measuring linear dimensions (Fig. 2.2b). Both micrometer and
vernier caliper are available in digital form to get more accurate and precise
measurement.

l
t
w
Projected
area

Maximum Minimum
projected area projected area

Fig. 2.1 Dimensions of food material

Fig. 2.2 (a) Micrometer. (b) Caliper

26 V. Kumar et al.

2.1.1.3 Measurement of Particle Size of Particulate Foods

Particle size of particulate foods is important for separation and grading processes
and can be evaluated by using sieve systems, settling rate methods, and an electri-
cally charged orifice. Particle size analyzer is commonly used for powders to
determine its particle size and the distribution pattern in a lot.

2.2 Shape

Shape is an important parameter especially in grading of foods and in controlling the

quality of different foods. The shape is generally expressed in terms of aspect ratio
and sphericity.

2.2.1 Sphericity

Sphericity is defined as the ratio of irregular solid volume to the sphere volume that
has a diameter equal to the major diameter of the solid so that it can circumscribe [1]
(Fig. 2.3). The degree to which a particle approaches the shape of sphere is referred
to as sphericity. The volume of the smallest circumscribed sphere of a given radius
can be easily calculated by the mathematical equation/formula, and the liquid
displacement method can be used to determine the volume of irregular solid,
described in the volume section of this chapter.

13
Volume of irregular solid
Sphericity ðΦÞ ¼
Volume of smallest circumscribed sphere

In case food material resembles with triaxial ellipsoid with three intercepts a, b,
and c, wherein a is the largest intercept (Fig. 2.4), the volume of triaxial ellipsoid is
given by:

Fig. 2.3 Sphericity based on Smallest

volume circumscribed
circle

Food sample
D (Irregular
shape)
2 Engineering Properties of Foods 27

Fig. 2.4 Intercepts of triaxial

ellipsoid
c

a
b

Fig. 2.5 Sphericity based on Smallest

diameter of an irregularly circumscribed
shaped food circle
Food sample
(Irregular
D shape)
Largest
Inscribed
d circle

π
Volume of triaxial ellipsoid ¼ abc
6

The volume of the smallest circumscribed sphere can also be calculated using a as
the diameter of the circumscribed sphere as:

π
Volume of the smallest circumscribed sphere ¼  a3
6
The sphericity of food material with triaxial ellipsoid shape can be represented as:

π 13
abc ðabcÞ =3
1

Sphericity ðΦÞ ¼ 6
π ¼
6a
3 a

Sphericity can also be defined as the ratio of the largest inscribed circle diameter
(d) to the smallest circumscribed circle diameter (D) (Fig. 2.5) [2]:
28 V. Kumar et al.

d
Sphericity ðΦÞ ¼
D

Q1. The average values of three mutually perpendicular intercepts of sapota are
4.0, 7.0, and 3.8 cm. Estimate the sphericity of the fruits.
Solution:
a ¼ 7.0 cm, b ¼ 4.0 cm, and c ¼ 3.8 cm

ðabcÞ =3 ð7:0  4:0  3:8Þ =3 4:74

1 1

Sphericity ðΦÞ ¼ ¼¼ ¼ ¼ 0:68

a 7:0 7:0

2.2.2 Aspect Ratio

The aspect ratio (Ra), which expresses the shape of a material, is the ratio of length
(a) to width (b) of the material/sample [2]:

a
Aspect ratio ¼
b
Q2. The average values of three mutually perpendicular intercepts of grain seeds
are 11.0, 4.0, and 3.5 mm. Estimate the sphericity and aspect ratio of the grains.
Solution:
a ¼ 11.0 mm, b ¼ 4.0 mm, and c ¼ 3.5 mm

ðabcÞ =3 ð11:0  4:0  3:5Þ =3 5:36

1 1

Sphericity ðΦÞ ¼ ¼¼ ¼ ¼ 0:49

a 11:0 11:0
a 11:0
Aspect ratio ¼ ¼ ¼ 2:75
b 4:0

2.2.3 Radius of Curvature

The radius of curvature (ROC) is very useful for the conveyors design. ROC is
generally used to determine how easily the object will roll.
In a device to measure ROC, there is a metal base that has indicator and holes;
pins are placed into the holes (Fig. 2.6). The sample is placed between the two pins,
and when both the pins come in contact with the surface, the needle of the indicator
is pushed, and the sagittal height (S) is recorded. ROC can be calculated as:
2 Engineering Properties of Foods 29

Fig. 2.6 Radius of curvature

measurement device

ðD=2Þ2 þ S2
Radius of curvature ¼
2S
where D and S are the spacing between the pins (m) and sagittal height (m),
respectively.
The minimum and the maximum ROC for smaller objects of relatively uniform
shape can be calculated using intermediate diameter (H ) and major diameter (L ) by
the following formula:

H
ROCmin ¼
2
2
H 2 þ L4
ROCmax ¼
2H

2.2.4 Roundness

Roundness refers to the edges of a solid and sharpness of the corners and can be
defined as the ratio of the average ROC of the corners to the largest inscribed circle
radius (Fig. 2.7a).
30 V. Kumar et al.

r2
r1 Ac

R
Ap

r5 r3

r4

Fig. 2.7 Roundness based on (a) ROC of corners. (b) Projected area

P
N
ROC=N
i¼1
Roundness ¼
R
where ROC is the radius of curvature (m), R is the radius of the largest inscribed
circle (m), and N is the total number of corners.
Roundness can also be defined as [1] (Fig. 2.7b):

Ap
Roundness ¼
Ac
where Ap is the largest projected area of the object at rest position (m2) and Ac area of
the smallest circumscribing circle.

2.3 Volume

The three-dimensional space occupied by an object is referred to as volume. The SI

unit of the volume is the cubic meter. The volume of liquid is also measured in terms
of liters and gallons. Volume is an important property to determine space or
containers needed for transportation, packaging, and storage.

2.3.1 Types of Volume

2.3.1.1 Solid Volume

The volume of solid material, which excludes all interior pores that are filled with air
(closed pores) (Fig. 2.8a), is referred to as solid volume, which can be measured by
gas displacement method.
2 Engineering Properties of Foods 31

Through Pores
pore
Closed Voids
pores

Blind pore
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.8 Food materials with (a) pores and (b) void spaces

Table 2.1 Volume of various regularly shaped samples

Shape Volume
Cube V ¼ a3, where a is the side of cube
Cuboid V ¼ l  w  h, where l, w, and h are the length, width, and height, respectively
Sphere V ¼ (4/3) πr3, where r is the radius of sphere
Cylinder V ¼ πr2h, where r is the radius and h height of cylinder
Cone V ¼ (1/3) πr2h, where r is the radius and h height of cone
Prism V ¼ A  h, where A and h are the area of the base and height, respectively

2.3.1.2 Apparent Volume

It refers to the volume, which includes all interior pores (Fig. 2.8a). Apparent volume
of regularly shaped samples is determined from the characteristic dimensions,
whereas solid or liquid displacement method can be the choice for irregularly shaped
sample.

2.3.1.3 Bulk Volume

It is the volume of the substance, when stacked in bulk. The substance may include
all pores and void volume outside the boundary (Fig. 2.8b). Bulk volume can be
measured by determining the volume of the bulk sample by keeping the material in a
container.

2.3.2 Measurement of Volume

2.3.2.1 Estimation of Volume of Regularly Shaped Samples

The volume of regularly shaped samples can be determined from its characteristic’s
dimensions (Table 2.1). The volume of irregularly shaped samples can be experi-
mentally measured by solid, liquid, or gas displacement methods. Recently, the
technique has been developed to determine the volume of some food products such
as melon, lemon, and peaches by MATLAB using image processing tools.
32 V. Kumar et al.

2.3.2.2 Determination of Volume by Solid Displacement Method

It is the best method to determine the volume of baked goods. In this method,
rapeseeds are filled in a known volume of glass container (V1) through tapping, and
then the surface is smoothened through the ruler (Fig. 2.9). The container is emptied,
and food samples are kept in the empty container. The rapeseeds are poured into the
container, which occupy and fill the remaining space of the container (V2). The
difference in the volume of rapeseeds indicates the volume of the sample (V1  V2).

2.3.2.3 Liquid Displacement Method

It is generally used to determine the volume of solid samples which does not absorb
liquid (generally water). In this method, a known volume of water (V1) is poured in a
graduated cylinder or beaker (Fig. 2.10). The food sample is then placed in water and
immersed completely, which results in the rise of water volume (V2). Food sample
volume is determined by calculating the difference of volumes (V2  V1).

2.3.2.4 Gas Displacement Method

This method is useful for the accurate estimation of volume of porous solids. The
method consists of pycnometer system having two airtight chambers, having equal
volumes, V1 and V2. These chambers are connected with small diameter tube
(Fig. 2.11). The sample to be measured is placed in the second chamber. All valves
are closed except the valve 1 to supply gas in the first chamber. When the desired
pressure is reached, valve 1 is closed, and the equilibrium is attained. After recording
the equilibrium pressure, valve 2 is opened to fill gas in the empty spaces of the
second chamber. The mass of gas (mt) is divided into one, which fills the first
chamber (m1), and the other that fills the empty space of the second chamber (m2).
If the system is isothermal, then:

Fig. 2.9 Volume of food sample by solid replacement method

2 Engineering Properties of Foods 33

Fig. 2.10 Liquid

displacement method of
volume measurement

V2

V1

Pressure Gas
Gas gauge
Valve 1 Valve 2 Valve 3

Sample

Chamber 1 Chamber 2

Fig. 2.11 Gas displacement method of volume measurement

P1 V 1 ¼ P2 V 1 þ P2 V E

where VE is the empty space volume in the second chamber.

34 V. Kumar et al.


P1  P2
VE ¼ V2  VS ¼ V1
P2

where Vs is the solid volume, which can be calculated as:


P1  P2
VS ¼ V2  V1
P2

2.4 Density

The density of a substance is represented as mass per unit volume and plays an
important role in the characterization and quality assessment of foods. Density data
is used for various food processing operations such as centrifugation, sedimentation,
pneumatic transport of powders, and pumping of liquids. The moderate changes in
temperature and pressure hardly affect the density of solids and liquids, whereas the
density of gases is influenced by the change in pressure and temperature. The density
of gases increases with the increase in pressure, whereas it decreases with the
increase in temperature.

2.4.1 Solid Density

Solid density is determined from the measured weight and volume. The volume of
samples (irregularly shaped) can be measured by displacement methods. The meals,
grains, and powders are bulk solids and made up of small particles. But, the
individual small particles may vary in size and weight over a large range. Therefore,
density is expressed in different forms.

2.4.1.1 True Density

In the case of composite material or a pure substance, true density is referred. For the
known composition, true density can be calculated as:

1
ρT ¼ P
n
mi
ρi
i¼1

where mi and ρi are the mass fraction and density of ith constituent, respectively.
The true density of fresh fruits and vegetables varies in the range of 865–1067
kg/m3 and 801–1095 kg/m3, respectively, whereas the density of frozen fruits and
vegetables is less than the fresh and reported as 625–801 kg/m3 and 561–977 kg/m3,
respectively [3].
2 Engineering Properties of Foods 35

2.4.1.2 Particle Density (PD)

It refers to the particle density, which includes the volume of solids and closed pores.
It excludes externally connected pores (Fig. 2.8a). It is very useful for the characteri-
zation of individual grains or seeds. PD can be obtained by dividing the weight of the
sample from the volume. Considering the negligible diffusion of liquid in the seeds
during measurement, liquid displacement technique can also be the choice.
In most of the cereals, pulses, fruits, and vegetables, the presence of closed pores
is limited or negligible; therefore, particle density is invariably used as true
density [4].

2.4.1.3 Apparent Density

It refers to the density, which includes all internal pores. This type of density is very
useful for characterizing the intact material like grain bulk, bread loaf, baked cake,
etc. Apparent density is generally estimated by dividing the sample weight by
apparent or external sample volume.

2.4.1.4 Bulk Density (BD)

It refers to the density of a material, when stacked or packed in bulk. It includes both
internal and external pores of the material. BD depends upon a number of factors
such as size, geometry, solid density, surface properties, and the measurement
technique. The ratio of weight and bulk volume is used to calculate the bulk density.
The apparent density depends on the composition and structure of food material.
The bulk density depends on the method of packing of food material, and it changes
with the number of tapping, pressure, and vibration.

2.4.2 Liquid Density

The maximum density of water is 1000 kg/m3 at 4  C. The density decreases as the
temperature of water rises above 4  C. The density also increases with the addition of
solid matter in the water except fat. Therefore, density data can be used for the
determination of purity of substances.
The specific gravity at standard temperature of liquid is often more convenient to
measure, which can be determined as:

mass of liquid density of liquid

Specfic gravityðTempÞ ¼ ¼
mass of equal volume of water density of water

The specific gravity can be measured using pycnometers and hydrometers. The
pycnometer (density bottle) is available in different standard volumes. For the
measurement of specific gravity, the clean, dried, and empty bottle is taken and
filled to the top with liquid, and the cap is put back. Let the excess liquid flow out,
and then clean and weigh the bottle accurately. The specific gravity (SG) at standard
temperature can be calculated as:
36 V. Kumar et al.

Fig. 2.12 Hydrometer

measurement of liquid density

w3  w1
SGðTempÞ ¼
w2  w1
where w1 is the weight of empty bottle and w2 and w3 are the weights of bottle filled
with water and liquid sample, respectively.
The hydrometer can also be used for measuring liquid density, and it works on the
principle that it displaces its own weight of liquid upon dipping. It has a graduated
stem that is extended from a tubular-shaped bulb. Hydrometer is placed in the beaker
containing the liquid sample (Fig. 2.12).
The length to which the hydrometer sinks depends upon the liquid density. The
hydrometer sinks more in the liquid of lower density. The ratio of hydrometer weight
to displaced liquid volume can provide the liquid density at standard temperature:

W
Density of liquid ¼
Ax þ V
where W is the hydrometer weight (kg), A is the stem cross-sectional area (m2), x is
the length of the stem immersed (m), and V is the volume of the bulb (m3).
Hydrometers of different density ranges are available for various applications. In
density hydrometer, lactometer is commonly used for determining the density of the
2 Engineering Properties of Foods 37

milk. The scale of lactometer varied in the range of 25–35 as the bovine milk density
falls in the range of 1025–1035 kg/m3 [5]. Oleometer is used for measuring specific
gravity of oils. The nomenclature of some other hydrometers are based on their
specific application other than density such as alcoholmeter for measuring percent
alcohol by volume, Brix saccharometer for measuring percent sucrose by weight in a
solution, and salometer for measuring percent salt by weight in a solution.

2.5 Porosity

Porosity of foods may characterize the microstructure of dried and intermediate

moisture foods. Porosity refers to the volume of the void space by air in the solid
foods. It is an important physical parameter in different processes such as baking,
frying, drying, extrusion, etc. Porosity data may be useful in mass and heat transfer
calculations of various drying and dehydration processes.
It can be expressed as:

Volume of void space

Porosity ðεÞ ¼
Total volume

2.5.1 Measurement of Porosity

2.5.1.1 Direct Method

Porosity is calculated from the difference of bulk volume of the sample and volume
of the sample without voids. This method is applicable only for the soft material in
which force does not exist in any form on the surface of solid particles.

2.5.1.2 Optical Microscopic Method

The microscopic view of the random section of the sample can be used to determine
the porosity. This method is useful for the samples that have uniform porosity
throughout the sample. Pore size distribution and area fraction of pores can be
determined by using image analysis technique.

2.5.1.3 Density Method

The measured densities can be used to calculate porosity.

Apparent Porosity
Apparent porosity (ɛapp) or internal porosity is the ratio of volume of internal pores to
the total volume of the sample [6] and can be expressed as:
38 V. Kumar et al.

Volume of all internal pores

εapp ¼
Total volume of sample
 
Apparent density ρapp
εapp ¼1
True density ðρT Þ

Internal porosity includes three kinds of pores, namely, blind pores that are closed
from one end (εBP); closed pores, which are closed from all sides (εCP); and open
pores that are open from both ends (εCP) (Fig. 2.8a).

εapp ¼ εCP þ εBP þ εOP

Bulk Porosity
Bulk porosity (ɛbulk) or external porosity is the ratio of the volume of external pores
to the total bulk volume when packed and can be expressed as:

Volume of all external pores

εbulk ¼
Total bulk volume of stacked sample

Bulk density ðρbulk Þ

εbulk ¼ 1 
True density ðρT Þ

Then, total porosity (ɛTOT) is the sum of the internal and external pore volume
fraction when the material is packed bulk and represented as:

εTOT ¼ εapp þ εbulk

Therefore, the total porosity can be expressed as:

εTOT ¼ εCP þ εBP þ εOP þ εbulk

2.6 Frictional Properties

Frictional properties include coefficient of frictions and angle of repose, which are
important in the designing of bulk handling systems and storage structures. In
addition, frictional properties also play an important role in the designing of hoppers,
conveyors, trough, chutes, and bins. The important properties are discussed as
follows.
2 Engineering Properties of Foods 39

2.6.1 Angle of Repose

Angle of repose is used to characterize the bulk solid foods like grains, seeds,
powders, etc. When granular solids are piled on the plane surface, the sides make
an angle with the horizontal, which is referred as the angle of repose. Major factors,
such as grain size and shape, moisture, density, friction between the particles, surface
roughness, etc., can affect the angle of repose.
Smooth surface and round-shaped grains have low angle of repose, whereas very
fine and sticky materials have high value of angle of repose. This property is
determined by placing a square-shaped box having top and bottom sides open, on
a flat surface. The box is filled with the sample, and gradual lifting of the box allows
accumulation of the sample and formation of conical heap on the surface (Fig. 2.13).
Freely flowable materials have angle of repose lesser than 30 , whereas extremely
non-flowable/cohesive/sticky materials have angle of repose >55 [7].

2.6.2 Coefficient of Frictions

This physical property is very useful to check the pressure of cereal grain against
silos and bin walls.

2.6.2.1 Coefficient of External Friction

The coefficient external of friction is characterized by the friction between the grains
and surface of machine or storage structure. The apparatus for the determination of
coefficient of external friction has a box/frame for keeping the material (Fig. 2.14).
The box remains open from the bottom so that grains can remain in contact with the
surface of the test material. Initially, weights are kept on the pan to initiate the
movement of the empty box. The test is again performed after filling the material in
the box, and the following expression is used to estimate the coefficient of
external friction:

Fig. 2.13 Explanation of angle of repose

40 V. Kumar et al.

Surface Filled box

Empty box
Pulley

M1 M2 Thread/ rope

Weights

Fig. 2.14 Apparatus for the estimation of coefficient of external friction

Frame (filled Filled box

Empty box with grain)
Pulley
M1 M2
Grains Thread/ rope

Weights

Fig. 2.15 Apparatus for the estimation of coefficient of internal friction

M2  M1
Coefficient of external friction, μ0 ¼
M
where M is the mass of the sample in the box (g), M1 mass kept on the weighing pan
to cause the sliding of the empty box (g), and M2 mass kept on the weighing pan to
cause the sliding of the filled box (g).

2.6.2.2 Coefficient of Internal Friction

The coefficient of internal friction is characterized by the friction among the grains.
The apparatus for the determination of coefficient of external friction is modified by
fixing a frame on the sliding surface for keeping the grains and making an even
surface (Fig. 2.15). The box remains open from the bottom as mentioned in the
external friction so that grains can remain in contact with the surface of evenly
spread grains in the frame. Initially, weights were kept on the pan to initiate the
movement of the empty box. The test is again performed after filling the material in
the box, and the following expression is used to estimate the coefficient of internal
friction:
M2  M1
Coefficient of internal friction, μ ¼
M
2 Engineering Properties of Foods 41

where M is the mass of the sample in the box (g), M1 mass kept on the weighing pan
to cause the sliding of the empty box (g), and M2 mass kept on the weighing pan to
cause the sliding of the filled box (g).

2.7 Water Activity

Water is one of the major constituents of foods responsible for its quality and safety.
It is considered as the root cause for the growth of microorganisms and initiation of
many chemical and biochemical reactions responsible for the perishability of foods.
However, the different foods having the same water content may differ in perish-
ability, which may be due to the varied proportion of free and bound water in the
foods. Many techniques like drying, dehydration, and addition of water binding
compounds like salt, sugar, gums, etc. are used to decrease the amount of free water
and simultaneously increase the amount of solute matter to decrease the perishabil-
ity. Therefore, the presence of free water is the major cause of the deterioration of
foods.
Water activity (aw) of foods refers to the amount of free water available for the
growth of microorganisms and other chemical, biochemical, and enzymatic
reactions responsible for the deterioration of foods. It is a more reliable indicator
as compared to water content to judge the perishability of foods. The term aw is
defined as the ratio of partial pressure of the water of the sample ( p) to that of vapor
pressure of pure water ( p0) at constant temperature.

p
Water activity ðaw Þ ¼
p0

In other words, water activity can also be defined as the percent equilibrium
relative humidity (ERH) surrounding the product at a specific temperature. Besides
water activity, other factors like oxygen concentration, solute concentration, type of
solute, pH, etc. also influence the rate of many degradative reactions. It also indicates
the energy status of the water in a food system. Dissolved solutes like salt and sugar
bind water through ionic interaction, dipole-dipole interaction, and hydrogen bonds.
The chemical groups of undissolved components of foods like proteins and starches
bind with water through ionic bonds, dipole-dipole forces, van der Waals forces, and
hydrogen bonds. These factors bind the water and reduce its energy level to make it
unable to escape out in vapor form and as a result exert no partial pressure and show
zero water activity.
As per the definition of water activity, it is determined at a particular temperature
as it is a temperature-dependent parameter. The change in temperature affects the
binding of water, dissociation of water, solubility of salts in water, and their physical
state. Water activity is affected by all these factors, but their effect is product
specific.
42 V. Kumar et al.

2.7.1 Water Activity Measurement Methods

Water activity is generally expressed in between 0 in dry bones and 1.0 in pure
water, but most of the foods are ranged in between 0.2 (dried foods) and 0.99 (moist
fresh foods). In practice, aw is typically quantified as the equilibrium relative
humidity (ERH). Commercial instruments are divided into two categories. One is
based on chilled mirror dew point technology, whereas the other is based on relative
humidity (RH) using sensor that alters its electrical resistance. The approaches differ
in terms of ease of use, accuracy, repeatability, measurement speed, calibration
stability, and linearity. Water activity measurement can be done in the lab using a
variety of procedures and devices based on colligative properties, isopiestic transfer,
hygrometers, etc.

2.7.1.1 Dew Point Method

In this method, a sample is equilibrated with the headspace in a closed chamber
having a mirror and a condensation detecting device at dew point. The RH of the air
in the chamber is equal to aw of the sample at equilibrium. Precisely, mirror
temperature is controlled by thermocouples, and the point at which condensation
first emerges is detected to observe the change in reflectance by photoelectric cell. In
addition, both sample and mirror temperatures are measured at the same time. The
use of both temperatures eliminates the necessity of equilibrium conditions and
minimizes the computation time to less than 5 min. The mirror style of instruments
has the disadvantage of the mirror becoming coated with dust. Another problem of
this method is that confectionary products containing propylene glycol cannot be
evaluated for water activity since the propylene glycol will condense on the mirror.
Highly dry substances (aw < 0.03) equilibrate at such a slow rate that measurements
can take much longer than the standard 5 min.

2.7.1.2 Capacitive Sensor Method

Some water activity measuring instruments are based on capacitance sensors. These
instruments use a hygroscopic polymer sensor and related circuitry to generate a
signal that is proportional to the ERH and thus the water activity (as ERH/100). The
ERH of the ambient air is measured by the sensor, and it is equivalent to sample
water activity only if both the sample and sensor are at constant same temperature.
Capacitive devices are capable to measure aw in the range of 0 to 1.00 with a
resolution of 0.005 and an accuracy of 0.015. Capacitance sensors are less costly,
but they aren’t always as precise or quick as the chilled mirror dew point method.
These sensors require more time of about 30–90 min to attain constant relative
humidity level.

2.7.1.3 Vapor Pressure Method

In this technique, vapor pressure is measured, and aw is calculated as the ratio of
vapor pressure of sample to the vapor pressure of pure water at constant temperature.
The schematic diagram of this method is shown in Fig. 2.16. A sample of 10–50 g is
placed in the sample flask and connects to the tube. About 10–15 g of silica gel or
2 Engineering Properties of Foods 43

Stopcock Stopcock
No. 1 No. 2 Stopcock
No. 3

h Sample
Liquid flask
Nitrogen
Vacuum trap Grains
pump
Desiccant Silica gel/
flask CaSO4
Fig. 2.16 Schematic diagram of the vapor pressure method

CaSO4 is placed in the desiccant flask. The sample flask is isolated by closing the
stopcock no. 3, and the system is completely evacuated to a pressure of less than
200 mmHg (0.263 atm.) by opening all stopcocks/valves [8]. The sample flask is
also allowed for the evacuation of air for 1–2 min. Thereafter, stopcock nos. 2 and
3 are closed. The equilibrium time of about 40 min is given, and then pressure
exerted by the sample is noted as h1 in the manometer. The sample flask stopcock
no. 1 is closed, and the desiccant flask valve 2 is opened to absorb water vapor. After
reaching equilibrium, the pressure exerted by volatiles and gases is noted as h2 in the
manometer. Then, water activity is calculated by the following expression:

ð h1  h2 Þ
aw ¼ ρg
p0

where h1 and h2 are the difference in manometer heights for the pressure exerted by
the sample and desiccant and po, ρ, and g are the vapor pressure of pure water,
density of oil filled in the manometer, and gravitational acceleration, respectively.
Sample size, equilibration time, temperature, and volume can all have an impact
on this technique. This technique is incompatible with biological materials that have
active respiration or materials that have a high concentration of volatiles.

2.7.1.4 Freezing Point Depression Method

This method is the most appropriate for liquid foods having water activity above
0.85. It is a more suitable method for the samples having large amount of volatile
constituents that mainly cause error in the vapor pressure method [9]. In the
two-phase mixture of ice and solution, the vapor pressure of ice and concentrated
solution is the same at equilibrium, and the water activity is solely dependent on
temperature. Therefore, the water activity of the solution at below freezing tempera-
ture is calculated as:
44 V. Kumar et al.

Vapor pressure of ice

aw ¼
Vapor pressure of water

2.7.1.5 Thermocouple Psychrometer Method

Here, wet bulb temperature depression is used to evaluate the water activity of the
sample. In the chamber where the sample is equilibrated, a thermocouple is inserted.
The thermocouple is then sprayed with water before this water can evaporate,
causing the temperature to drop. The temperature decrease is proportional to the
rate of water evaporation from the thermocouple’s surface that is a function of RH in
equilibrium with the sample.

2.7.1.6 Isopiestic Method

The sample in this method is equilibrated with the dried reference sample such as
microcrystalline cellulose in the evacuated desiccators at 25  C, and change in
weight in the reference sample is recorded. Following that, the water content of
the reference material is determined, and the water activity is calculated using the
standard sorption isotherm of the reference sample. This method is economical and
easy to perform but not suitable for highly perishable foods as the equilibrium
adjustment time is very long.
In the recent times, water activity analyzers are very popular and precise and
render ease in operation. The determination of water activity of foods is mainly
carried out by using these digital meters in the laboratories and industries.

2.7.2 Water Activity Analyzer

The different instruments, based on different techniques, are available today in the
market that may have different ranges of water activity. An instrument, having a
range of water activity, 0.030–1.000 with a resolution of 0.0001 [10], based on the
dew point or capacitance principles is illustrated as follows:
The instrument has two parts, i.e., sample block and top block, which are joined
by hinging arrangement. The diagram of one such dew point-based water activity
analyzer is presented in Fig. 2.17. Both the blocks have provision for controlling the
temperature of the sample. A mirror is provided in the top block to precisely control
the temperature using a thermoelectric cooler. The sample is placed in the cup for
the measurement of water activity. The exact point of condensation is appeared on
the mirror, which is sensed by a photo detector cell. The thermocouple attached to
the mirror provides the value of condensation temperature. The signal is then sent to
the processor, and the water activity is displayed on the panel. A fan in the sample
chamber reduces the time to reach equilibrium.
In the case of capacitance-based instrument, a capacitance humidity sensor is
suspended in the headspace, which has polymer material-based electrodes to sense
the humidity changes. The sensor is provided to measure the specific capacitance,
which is sent to the processor to determine the water activity. The aw of the sample
2 Engineering Properties of Foods 45

Fig. 2.17 Water activity

analyzer Top block
Latch
Thermopile
Capacitance sensor
filter
Mirror
Fan
O - ring

Sample block
Photoelectric sensor
Sample cup

maintains the equilibrium with the RH of the air enclosed in the chamber. The
accuracy of dew point-based apparatus is better. It may also be equipped with
moisture content determination feature.

2.8 Rheological Properties of Foods

Rheology is the science that deals with the deformation or flow behavior of material.
The knowledge of rheological properties is useful in the designing of mechanical
handling systems of agricultural product. In liquid foods, the knowledge of flow
behavior is essential to calculate the size of pipe and power requirement of the pump
for transporting it from one point to another point. Rheological properties play an
important role in the quality control and development of different foods. Rheology
can be classified on the basis of physical state of the material as shown in Fig. 2.18.

2.8.1 Rheology of Solids

Rheology of solid foods can be better understood by thorough study of stress-strain

relationship. The applied stress depends on the area of specimen and is categorized
as normal stress and shear stress. The force applied perpendicular to the plane per
unit area is called normal stress. It may be tensile or compressive stress depending
upon the stretch ability or compressibility of the materials [6] (Fig. 2.19). The
resultant strain is called normal strain and defined as the change in length per unit
length in the same direction of applied stress. The shear stress or tangential stress is
the tangential force acting on the surface, and the resultant shear strain is the change
in the angle formed between two planes.
46 V. Kumar et al.

Newtonian Pseudo -
plastic
Viscous
Time Dialatant
Fluids independent
(Flow)
Plastic
Non-
Newtonian
Time Thixotropic
dependent
Rheopectic
Hookean
Foods
Elastic
Non-Hookean
Solids
(deformation) Visco-plastic
Inelastic Visco-elastic
Plastic

Fig. 2.18 Rheological classification of foods

F
A F
F F
A A
F
F
F
A
A F F A
F

F
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.19 Types of stresses. (a) Normal stress (tensile and compression). (b) Shear stress (drag-
ging). (c) Bulk stress (compression)

When a stress is applied, immediately produced strain is proportional to the

applied stress. In the compression of a food sample, the behavior of stress-strain
curve is shown in Fig. 2.20. During the unloading of stress, the amount of strain that
is recovered due to the elastic component of food sample is known as elastic strain,
while the unrecovered strain due to the plastic nature of food sample is known as
plastic strain. The fraction of elastic and plastic strain is known as degree of elasticity
and degree of plasticity, respectively. The solid materials that recover completely
after the removal of stress is known as purely elastic solid or Hookean solid. The
magnitude of stress-to-strain ratio is called modulus. For Hookean solids, depending
upon the method of applying stress, three types of moduli can be defined (Table 2.2).
Poisson’s ratio (μ) can be calculated by the ratio of the strains, in perpendicular
and in the direction of the applied force [6].
2 Engineering Properties of Foods 47

e total
0.5 e plastic e elastic
0.4
Stress

0.3 Loading

0.4
Unloading
A
0.1 B

0.0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Strain, mm/mm

Fig. 2.20 Stress-strain curve for the compression of food

Table 2.2 Modulus of Hookean solids

Stress Strain
Modulus type type Expression
Modulus of elasticity: It is referred to as Young’s (E) Normal Normal E ¼ σ/ε
modulus and can be defined as the ratio of normal (σ) (ε)
stress to normal strain
Modulus of rigidity: It is referred to as shear (G) Shear (τ) Shear G ¼ τ/γ
modulus and can be defined as the ratio of shear (γ)
stress to shear strain
Bulk modulus: It can be defined as the ratio of (K ) Pressure Volume K ¼ ΔP/
pressure applied from all the directions to (ΔP) (ΔV ) ΔV
volumetric strain

Change in width per unit width ΔD=D

μ¼ ¼
Change in length per unit length ΔL=L

If the volume change does not occur in the material, when it is stretched or
compressed, Poisson’s ratio of such material is 0.5. The material, that can be
compressed without any change in diameter due to the presence of large amount
of air in the structure, Poisson’s ratio is zero [5].

2.8.2 Viscoelastic Behavior

Some foods that exhibit properties of both, fluids and solids, i.e., viscous properties
and elastic properties, are known as viscoelastic foods. Many food materials like
48 V. Kumar et al.

Viscous fluid Viscoelastic fluid

Recoil
Outward Vortex Inward vortex Viscous fluid Viscoelastic fluid
Weissenberg effect Stress relaxation test

Fig. 2.21 (a) The Weissenberg effect and (b) recoil phenomenon of viscous and viscoelastic foods

dough, cheese, cream, and gel products are the common examples of viscoelastic
foods. When stress is applied to such foods, these may start deforming continuously,
and when stress is removed, the strain is not immediately reduced to zero as happens
in the elastic materials.
The two most common phenomena observed in viscoelastic foods are the
Weissenberg effect and recoil phenomenon (Fig. 2.21). The Weissenberg effect
can be easily observed during the mixing of cake batter. When the batter is agitated,
the batter climbs on the rotating rod, and vortex is formed outward to the batter
(Fig. 2.21a). However, the same type of vortex is formed inward to the batter in the
case of viscous fluids. The recoil phenomenon of viscoelastic food can be observed
by sudden stop of flow. Fluid particles move back due to tensile force, but viscous
fluid particles resist their flow to move back and try to remain in position when the
motion is stopped [11]. Due to the opposite action of tensile force and viscous force,
a gap or coiling occurs between the particles (Fig. 2.21b).
The tests (1) stress relaxation test, (2) creep test, and (3) oscillatory test can be
performed to study the viscoelastic behavior of food.

2.8.2.1 Stress Relaxation Test

In this test, the materials are deformed to a fixed strain. The stress needed to keep this
strain decreases with respect to time. The behavior of different types of material is
represented in Fig. 2.22. The figure showed that ideal viscous materials relax
instantaneously, and stress becomes zero, but ideal elastic materials required the
same amount of stress to maintain constant strain. Viscoelastic materials relax
gradually but not to zero; a minimum equilibrium stress (σ c) is required depending
on the amount of elastic component present in the solid material. But the minimum
equilibrium stress is zero in the viscoelastic liquid materials. Higher mobility of
liquid molecules causes quick recovery than the solid molecules.
2 Engineering Properties of Foods 49

Strain
0
Ideal elastic
material
Stress

Viscoelastic solid

σc
Viscoelastic liquid
0
Ideal viscous material
Time

Fig. 2.22 Stress relaxation curve for elastic, viscous, and viscoelastic foods

2.8.3 Rheological Models

The three most common basic mechanical models, viz., Hookean, dashpot, and
friction, generally show ideal elastic, ideal viscous, and ideal plastic behavior of
the materials (Table 2.3). In these models, ideal elastic material is represented by
spring element, and the deformation produced in the elastic materials is proportional
to the applied force. When applied force is removed, the spring extension recovers
completely. Ideal viscous material or Newtonian liquid is represented by dashpot,
and the rate of deformation is proportional to the applied force. Another characteris-
tic of material is the ideal plastic behavior, which is represented by friction element.
The rheological behavior of viscoelastic material is complex and can be better
understood by combinations of basic mechanical models and properties of both
elastic and viscous components. The three most common combined models of
viscoelastic materials are the Maxwell, Kelvin-Voigt, and Burger model. In these
models, the behavior of viscoelastic materials is represented by springs and dashpots
in different ways. In the Maxwell model, both elements are connected in series,
whereas in the Kelvin model, these are connected in parallel. The Burger model is
the series combination of the Kelvin-Voigt and Maxwell models [1].
The Maxwell model is used to study stress relaxation with time in a sample,
subjected to a constant applied strain. The Kelvin-Voigt model is used to study strain
increasing behavior with time in a sample, subjected to a constant applied stress. In
the Maxwell model, the deformation consists of two parts; one is purely viscous,
whereas the other is purely elastic.
Although both the Kelvin-Voigt and Maxwell models represent the viscoelastic
foods, both models react differently in creep and relaxation (Fig. 2.23). In creep test,
when a constant load is applied, a final steady-state deformation is obtained in the
Kelvin-Voigt model, whereas the Maxwell model results in a continuing flow
because the viscous element is not limited by the spring element. The Kelvin-
50 V. Kumar et al.

Table 2.3 Rheological models and their symbols

Rheological model Material type Stress Symbol
Hookean Ideal elastic τ ¼ Gγ

Dashpot Ideal viscous τ ¼ μγ

Friction Ideal plastic τ ¼ τ0 + kγ

Maxwell Viscoelastic τ ¼ τ0exp(t/λrel)

Kelvin-Voigt Viscoelastic τ ¼ Gγ + μγ

Voigt model recovers completely but not instantly, when the load is removed;
however, the Maxwell model does not show recovery completely but instantly. No
stress relaxation is shown in the Kelvin-Voigt model, whereas the Maxwell model
shows [1].

2.8.4 Texture

The measurement of texture is mainly based on the stress-strain relationship and is

an important parameter to measure and understand the quality of solid foods. During
mastication, food breaks into smaller parts and makes it more digestible. Various
sensory receptors in the mouth transmit the perceived information to the brain. This
information is integrated with the stored information in the memory and gives the
2 Engineering Properties of Foods 51

Fig. 2.23 Behavior of creep test curve for the Maxwell and Kelvin-Voigt models

overall impression of the texture of the food. Texture is a quality parameter, which is
closely associated with the mechanical and structural properties of foods.
Dr. Szczesniak [12] introduced five independent mechanical parameters and three
dependent parameters. Hardness, cohesiveness, adhesiveness, springiness, and vis-
cosity are the five independent parameters, and fracturability/brittleness, gumminess,
and chewiness are the three dependent parameters. Texture can be affected by the
different compositional, processing, and storage parameters besides geometrical
parameters.
Texture analysis plays an important role in controlling the quality along with
process and product development and correlates the sensory characteristics of foods.
The most common methods for analyzing the textural properties of foods are based
on the sensory and instrumental method-based parameters. The instrumental mea-
surement method can further be divided into three groups [13]:

• Fundamental: It measures the basic rheological parameters like viscosity, elastic-

ity, etc. of the food item.
• Empirical: It measures the parameters that are not defined appropriately, but have
a crucial role in the food texture like the hardness and consistency.
• Imitative: It measures all important parameters related to texture of food just like
human action of chewing in mouth or squeezing by hands.

2.8.4.1 TPA and Texture Analyzer

Texture profile analysis (TPA) is the measurement and description of the textural
attributes/characteristics that are perceived/measured in foods. Various instruments
are used like tenderometer to measure tenderness or maturity, penetrometer to
measure hardness or consistency, and texture analyzer to determine different
mechanical parameters. TPA is commonly referred to as the double compression
52 V. Kumar et al.

Drive
system

Moving arm

Probe

Insulated
vessel
Food
sample
Lower Base

Fig. 2.24 Texture analyzer

test or the two-bite test. Now, the texture analyzer has become very common and
replaced the sensory attributes with the mechanical parameters (Fig. 2.24). It can
quantify various parameters in only one experiment. Now, hardness, cohesiveness,
springiness, and resilience are the primary recommended TPA characteristics. TPA
determination may not be appropriate in a number of products, such as hard candy,
almonds, caramel, etc., because all the primary attributes are not needed in these
products.
The texture analyzer has a number of operational parameters, which must be
selected appropriately to conduct the correct test. The pre-speed test is the speed,
which represents the movement of probe and arm downward till it touches the upper
surface of the sample. As soon as it touches the surface, the data recording is
triggered, and plotting of stress with time can be observed. The probe moves at the
test speed to the specified distance or strain. After reaching at the specified distance,
the probe/arm moves up at the test speed till the original condition. It holds for
waiting time and presses the sample again at test speed for the second compression.
The probe/arm moves to the original position at post-test speed, once the second
compression is over. The following operational settings may be selected [14]:

1. Selection of probe: In the case of flat probe used for compression, the diameter of
probe should be more than the sample size. However, smaller diameter probe may
be selected for penetration to study the sample behavior. The puncture, knife, and
Kramer shear probes should not be used for TPA as it does not imitate the
mastication process.
2 Engineering Properties of Foods 53

FirstFirst Wait Second Second

150 Compression Withdrawal Compression Withdrawal

Peak Force
125 “Hardness”

100 Fracturability
Force (N)

75
A1 A2

50
A5
A6
25 A3 A4

Distance 1 Distance 2
Time (sec)

Fig. 2.25 A representative graph of texture profile analysis (TPA)

2. Speed of compression and withdrawal: Generally, the compression and with-

drawal test speed should remain the same for maintaining the uniformity during
texture profile analysis test.
3. Strain or travel distance: The strain may be selected from 25 to 90%. The strain
should be kept according to the mastication process of food item selected for the
study.
4. Wait timing: The wait time implies the time duration needed after the completion
of the first compression and withdrawal to regain its original height before the
second compression. It should be selected according to the nature of the product.
5. Sample preparation: The sample for the texture profile analysis should be
prepared according to the requirement of texture analyzer. The sample size,
shape, and temperature affect the TPA test; therefore, these should be adequately
maintained while testing.

A representative texture profile analysis graph of a food is presented in Fig. 2.25.

The texture profile analysis provides the following parameters to characterize the
food material:
1. Hardness: It is represented by the peak force obtained during the first compres-
sion. Usually, the peak is obtained at the maximum strain or deepest compression
level. The unit of hardness is Newton (N).
2. Fracturability: It is the amount of force required to make the first fracture in the
food material during the first compression. The fracturability is represented in
Newton (N).
54 V. Kumar et al.

3. Cohesiveness: The cohesiveness of the material is expressed as the area under the
second compression and withdrawal (A2) divided by the area under the first
compression and withdrawal (A1) on force and time diagram. It represents the
resistance offered in the second compression with respect to the first compression.

A
Cohessiveness ¼ 2
A1
4. Springiness: It represents the property of the material to spring back after the first
compression is over. It is measured as the ratio of the distance measured during
the second compression for reaching at the maximum stress to the distance
measured to reach at the maximum stress during the first compression on the
time axis of TPA graph.

Distance 2
Springiness ¼
Distance 1
5. Gumminess: This provides information regarding the characteristics of semi-solid
foods. It is estimated by multiplying hardness and cohesiveness. The gumminess
is represented in Newton (N).

Gumminess ðN Þ ¼ Hardness  Cohessiveness

6. Chewiness: This characteristic is used for solid products and can be estimated by
multiplying hardness, cohesiveness, and springiness. The chewiness is
represented in Newton (N).

Chewiness ðN Þ ¼ Hardness  Cohessiveness  Springiness

7. Resilience: It is the property of the product, which indicates the material’s ability
to regain its original height. It can be measured in single compression test by
dividing the area under the first withdrawal (A4) by the area under the first
compression (A3). The speed of the compression and withdrawal must remain
the same for the estimation of resilience.

A
Resilience ¼ 4
A3
8. Adhesiveness: After the completion of the first compression and withdrawal, the
negative force, generated during wait period, is referred to as adhesiveness. It is
represented by the area under the negative force (A6). The adhesiveness is
represented in Newton-seconds (N s).

2.8.5 Rheology of Liquid Foods

Liquid foods flow under gravity and hold the shape of its container. Flow properties
are important to understand the structure, quality control, and sensory evaluation of
foods. A flow characteristic is related with the viscous behavior of liquids, and the
same is illustrated in Fig. 2.26. Consider a liquid film of thickness y between the two
flat plates of area A. At time t ¼ 0, the force F is applied in the lower plate and set it in
motion with the velocity V. With the passage of time (t ¼ t), the linear distribution of
velocity profile is obtained between the plates (Fig. 2.26). The force per unit area,
2 Engineering Properties of Foods 55

At t = 0 At t = t

Y Y

V V
F
Fig. 2.26 Viscosity profile of Newtonian fluid between two parallel plates

needed to keep the motion of the lower plate, is directly proportional to the velocity
gradient.

dv  
τ ¼ μ Newton’ s law of viscosity
dy
where τ is the shear stress (N/m2) and μ is the viscosity (Pa s). The negative sign
indicates that velocity decreases with the direction of momentum.
Viscosity is referred to as the internal resistance to flow under the applied shear
force. It is the fluid property which depends on temperature. Most of the fluid
viscosity decreases with temperature due to the decrease of cohesive force between
the liquid molecules. Based on the rheological behaviors of liquid foods, classifica-
tion is made into three groups, viscous, plastic, and time-dependent fluid.

2.8.5.1 Viscous Fluid

Viscous fluids are continuously deformed with applied stress and can be categorized
into Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids. Newtonian fluids follow Newton’s law of
viscosity, and viscosity of the fluids remains constant and is independent of the shear
rate. Therefore, the relation between shear stress and shear rate is a straight line
passing from the center. Non-Newtonian fluids follow the power law, and relation-
ship between shear stress and shear rate is not a constant [15]. The viscosity of these
fluids is not constant and depends on the applied shear force and time, and therefore
the term apparent viscosity is used.

n
dv
τ¼k
dy

where k is the apparent viscosity or consistency and n is the flow behavior index. The
value of n is less than 1 for shear-thinning fluids, and n is greater than 1 for shear-
thickening fluids.

2.8.5.2 Shear-Thinning (Pseudoplastic) Fluids

In shear-thinning fluids, the apparent viscosity decreases with the increase in shear
rate (Fig. 2.27). The breakdown of the structure of food during shearing action is the
main cause of this flow behavior [16]. The shear-thinning fluids showed the convex
downward curve on a shear stress-shear rate diagram (Fig. 2.27). Fruit and vegetable
56 V. Kumar et al.

Bingham
Apparent viscosity, Pa.s

Shear – thickening
(Dilatant)

Newtonian

Shear – thinning
(Pseudoplastic)

Shear rate, 1/s

Fig. 2.27 Apparent viscosity of time-independent fluids [18]

products such as concentrated fruit juices, paste, and puree are the major examples of
shear-thinning foods. The shear-thinning behavior of cake batter is observed with the
increase of fat and emulsifier [17].

2.8.5.3 Shear-Thickening (Dilatant) Fluids

In shear-thickening fluids, the apparent viscosity increases with the increase in shear
rate (Fig. 2.27). This behavior might be due to the building of structural molecules of
fluid with the shear [16]. The shear-thickening fluids represent the concave curve on
a shear stress-shear rate diagram (Fig. 2.27). The most common example of shear-
thickening fluids is the cornstarch suspension. Shear-thickening behavior is
observed to a greater extent in the waxy starches like barley, maize, rice, and potato
than the normal rice, wheat, and maize starches [19]. The greater extent of
shear-thickening behavior of waxy starches might be due to the higher fraction of
amylopectin contents. The shear-thickening fluids that exhibit increase in apparent
viscosity along with volume expansion are called dilatant fluids.

2.8.5.4 Plastic Fluids

These fluids are categorized as Bingham plastic and non-Bingham plastic. No flow
occurs until a minimum yield stress is applied in the Bingham plastic fluids
(Fig. 2.28). Once the yield stress is exceeded, flow occurs like a Newtonian fluid.
Tomato paste, tomato ketchup, and mayonnaise are the good examples of this kind
of fluids. Non-Bingham plastic fluids also require minimum yield stress to start their
flow but behave like non-Newtonian fluids beyond the yield stress. Rice flour-based
batter is the best example of non-Bingham plastic fluids.

2.8.5.5 Time-Dependent Fluid

The apparent viscosity of some fluids changes with time under constant shear rate.
These fluids are classified into two categories, thixotropic and rheopectic [6]. A
thixotropic fluid undergoes a decrease in apparent viscosity with time (shear thinning
2 Engineering Properties of Foods 57

Stress

Stress
Shear rate Shear rate
Bingham plastic Non-Bingham plastic
Stress

Stress

Shear rate Shear rate

Newtonian Non-Newtonian
Fig. 2.28 Shear stress versus shear rate curve of different fluids

Fig. 2.29 Time-dependent Thixotropic Rheopectic

behavior of fluids

Time- independent
Stress

Time at constant shear rate, s

with time) at a constant shearing action (Fig. 2.29). Thixotropic behavior is com-
monly observed in gelatin, salad dressings, bael (Aegle marmelos) sherbet, curd, egg
white, and shortening. After the removal of applied shear, this behavior may be
irreversible, reversible, or partially reversible.
58 V. Kumar et al.

A rheopectic fluid showed the opposite behavior as the thixotropic fluids, in that
the fluid’s apparent viscosity increases with time (shear thickening with time) as the
constant shear rate is applied (Fig. 2.29). Starch-milk-sugar pastes exhibit time-
dependent flow behavior but showed thixotropic behavior at pasting temperature
range of 85–95  C, while at low pasting temperature of 75  C, it exhibits rheopectic
behavior [20].

2.9 Colors

Color is one of the important food properties, which plays a vital role in creating
stimulation among the consumers to buy or consume. The natural colors are the best
choice; however, permitted synthetic colors are added to make the food attractive.
The red, blue, and violet colors can be derived from anthocyanins present in
raspberries, beetroot, and red cabbages, while the green color is from chlorophylls
present in leaves or stems. Carrots, apricots, and tomatoes are also good sources of
yellow, orange, and red colors.

2.9.1 Color Models and Space

A color model is defined as a mathematical model for describing the color of material
with a combination of three or more values of specific color, viz., red, green, and
blue. The color models are used to prepare a set of colors based on the individual
color values and specific conditions. The developed set of resulting colors is known
as color space. A number of color systems are used for the identification of color in
food processing industries. The popular color spaces used to describe the color of
food materials are CIE (International Commission on Illumination), Hunter, and
Munsell color systems.

2.9.1.1 Spectral Sensitivity

A human eye has blue, green, and red receptor/cones to identify any color; therefore,
all the colors can be represented in terms of blue, green, and red. These colors are
needed to formulate any specific color. The variation spectral sensitivity of these
color components is represented by xλ, yλ, and zλ color-matching functions for blue,
green, and red color receptors, respectively (Fig. 2.30). The higher sensitivity xλ, yλ,
and zλ functions are observed in short wavelength (420–440 nm), middle wavelength
(530–540 nm), and long wavelength (560–580 nm) regions. The long, medium, and
short (LMS) color space uses sensitivity of peaks from all three types of cones of the
human eye.

2.9.1.2 Standard Observer

The observed view is an important criterion due to the distribution of receptors in the
eye, which affects the tristimulus value. The standard observer/standard colorimetric
observer considers 2 angle for an average chromatic response received by the
2 Engineering Properties of Foods 59

2 xλ

Spectral sensitivity 1.5

yλ
zλ
1.0

0.5

0.0
400 500 600 700
λ, nm
Fig. 2.30 Spectral sensitivity curves corresponding to the human eye

2°viewing angle

50 cm

10° viewing angle

Fig. 2.31 Standard 2 and supplementary standard 10 views

human eye. These color values were captured as standard user using 2 field of view
from a distance of 50 cm from the source (Fig. 2.31). The additional supplementary
standard is also used at 10 field of view [21].

2.9.1.3 Tristimulus Values

The tristimulus values are used as the amounts of three primary colors in an additive
color model in the three color spaces. These are represented as X, Y, and Z, and the
values observed by 2 standard are known as tristimulus values (CIE) (2 XYZ
tristimulus values), which can be estimated from xλ, yλ, and zλ using the following
expression.

Z780
X¼K Sλ xλ Rλ dλ
380
60 V. Kumar et al.

Z780
Y¼K Sλ yλ Rλ dλ
380

Z780
Z¼K Sλ zλ Rλ dλ
380

100
K¼
R
780
Sλ yλ dλ
380

where K normalizing factor for tristimulus values for representing Y value as 100 for
perfect white diffuser, Sλ relative spectral power distribution of the illuminant, which
is defined as the ratio of spectral concentration at a given wavelength (Sλ) to the
concentration of a reference wavelength (Sλ0).

Sλm
Sλ ¼
Sλ0
xλ, yλ, zλ color-matching functions for CIE 2 standard observer, Rλ spectral reflec-
tance of specimen.

2.9.1.4 Chromaticity Coordinates

The color can be represented into (1) brightness and (2) chromaticity. The chroma-
ticity defines the hue and saturation, but it does not consider lightness (light/dark
color). The xyz chromaticity coordinates are calculated using XYZ tristimulus
values:

X
x¼
XþY þZ
Y
y¼
XþY þZ
Z
z¼ ¼1xy
XþY þZ
The xy chromaticity diagram can be plotted, which represents the colors with two
derived parameters. These parameters x and y represent the normalized values of all
three tristimulus values. The pure colors are available along the edges of the
diagram. Other colors are being produced by the mixing of pure color in various
proportions, which can be represented on the chromaticity diagram. In case two
colors are mixed in equal intensities, the resulting color is represented by the middle
value of the line joining the colors. In case the intensity of one color is higher than
2 Engineering Properties of Foods 61

the other color, the resulting color is shifted toward the higher-intensity color
according to the proportion.

2.9.1.5 Hunter L, a, b Color Scale

The Hunter L, a, b color scale came into practice during the year 1950 to overcome
the problem for an apt identification of color based on XYZ values. The scale has
more uniformity than XYZ color scale. The color difference can be easily estimated
by identifying the coordinates of different colors. The Hunter L, a, b color scale can
be represented in a cubical coordinate system, which has originated at the center of
the horizontal base (lower face) of the cube (Fig. 2.32).
The axis, which represents lightness and darkness, is represented by central
vertical axis. The axis starts from “L ¼ 0” value which indicates black color and
ends vertically at the top of face “L ¼ 100,” which indicates white color. The “a
value” on the positive side indicates red color, while negative “a value” represents
green color. The remaining horizontal axis indicates yellow and blue colors for
positive and negative “b values,” respectively.
The values of L, a, and b can be represented by the following expressions [22].
rffiffiffiffiffi
Y
L ¼ 100 
Yn
!
X=X n  Y=Y n
a ¼ Ka pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Y=Y n

Fig. 2.32 Hunter L, a, b L = 100

color scale

+b

-a
+a

-b

L=0
62 V. Kumar et al.

!
Y=Y n  Z=Z n
b ¼ Kb pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Y=Y n

The X, Y, and Z represent CIE tristimulus values, while Xn, Yn, and Zn indicate
tristimulus values for the illuminant. The value of Yn is 100.0, and Ka and Kb are the
chromaticity coefficients and can be obtained from the illuminant specification
provided by the manufacturer, e.g., the values of Xn, Zn, Ka, and Kb for D65
illuminant are 95.02, 108.82, 172.30, and 67.20, respectively, for 2 standard
observer.
The change in color by adding any ingredient or due to the processing of
ingredients or combination of both can be identified by observing the change in
“L,” “a,” and “b” values as ΔL, Δa, and Δb values. The tolerance limit for a specific
raw material or processed produce may be decided by giving consistent quality to the
consumers, e.g., the redness of the product is specified by “a value,” which can be
controlled by operating parameters, ingredients, and processing conditions. The
desired/ideal value of the sample may be considered as standard. These values are
calculated according to the following expression:

ΔL ¼ Lsample  Lstandard

Δa ¼ asample  astandard

Δb ¼ bsample  bstandard
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ΔE ¼ ΔL2 þ Δa2 þ Δb2

The positive values of ΔL, Δa, and Δb of processed samples indicate that samples
are lighter, redder, and yellower from the standard. Similarly, the negative values of
ΔL, Δa, and Δb of processed samples indicate that samples are darker, greener, and
bluer, respectively, from the standard.

2.9.1.6 CIELAB Color Scale

The scale was recommended by the International Commission on Illumination,
Austria, in 1976 with a view to provide standard for maintaining the uniformity in
color values. Its representation is similar to the Hunter Lab color scale and is
represented in cubical coordinate system, which has originated at the center of the
horizontal base (lower face) of the cube (Fig. 2.33). The Hunter L, a, b scale
indicates more contraction in yellow region and overexpansion in blue region,
while CIELAB is designed for more uniformity, but small overexpansion in yellow
region occurs. The CIELAB provides better approximation especially in very dark
colors [23].
The CIELAB scale is as meaningful as the Hunter L, a, b scale; however,
CIELAB values for “L*,” “a*,” and “b*” are estimated using cube roots in place of
square roots in the Hunter L, a, b scale. The values of L*, a*, and b* can be
represented by the following expressions [24].
2 Engineering Properties of Foods 63

Fig. 2.33 CIELAB color L*= 100

scale

+b*

- a*
+a*

-b*

L*= 0

Case I: All values of X/Xn, Y/Yn, and Z/Zn > 0.008856

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
L ¼ 116 3 Y=Y n  16
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
a ¼ 500 3 X=X n  3 Y=Y n
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
b ¼ 200 3
Y=Y n  3 Z=Z n

Case II: Any value of X/Xn, Y/Yn, and Z/Zn  0.008856

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
L ¼ 903:3 3 Y=Y n

a ¼ 500 ½ f ðX=X n Þ  f ðY=Y n Þ

where: pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
If f(X/Xn) > 0.008856, then f ðX=X n Þ ¼ 3 X=X n
If f(X/Xn) < 0.008856, then f ðX=X n Þ ¼ 7:87 XXn þ 116 16
p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
If f(Y/Yn) > 0.008856, then f ðY=Y Þ ¼ Y=Y n
3

If f(Y/Yn) < 0.008856, then f ðY=Y n Þ ¼ 7:87 YYn þ 116 16

b ¼ 200 ½ f ðY=Y n Þ  f ðZ=Z n Þ

where: pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
If f(Z/Zn) > 0.008856, then f ðZ=Z n Þ ¼ 3 Z=Z n
If f(Z/Zn) < 0.008856, then f ðZ=Z n Þ ¼ 7:87 ZZn þ 116
16
64 V. Kumar et al.

The X, Y, and Z represent CIE tristimulus values, while Xn, Yn, and Zn indicate
tristimulus values for the illuminant. The value of Yn is 100.0. The Xn and Zn indicate
tristimulus values for the illuminant and can be obtained for the illuminant source,
e.g., the values of Xn and Zn for D65 illuminant are 95.02 and 108.82, respectively,
for 2 standard observer.
The change in color by adding any ingredient or due to the processing of
ingredients or combination of both can be identified by observing the “L*,” “a*,”
and “b*” values. The desired/ideal value of sample may be considered as standard.
The changes in “L*,” “a*,” and “b*” values can be obtained as:

ΔL ¼ L sample  L standard

Δa ¼ a sample  a standard

Δb ¼ b sample  b standard

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ΔE  ¼ ΔL 2 þ Δa 2 þ Δb2

CIELCh Color Scale

The CIELCh/CIEHLC color scale has similar color space as in CIELAB, but
cylindrical coordinates are used in place of rectangular coordinates. The change in
chroma, ΔC*, and hue angle, ΔH*, can be estimated using the following expression
[24]:

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Chroma, C  ¼ a2 þ b 2

ΔC  ¼ C  sample  C  standard

b
Hue angle, H ¼ tan 1
a
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ΔH ¼ ΔE 2  ΔL 2  ΔC 2

The specific correction factors were applied to non-uniformities for estimating the
total color difference in CIE94 standard by incorporating compensation for light-
ness, chroma, and hue. Similarly, for handling the perceptual uniformity effectively,
hue rotation and correction factors for the compensation of natural color were also
added for estimating the total color difference in the CIEDE2000 standard.

2.9.1.7 Munsell Color System

The Munsell color system has a series of color charts. It defines Munsell hue (H ) as a
measure of hue, Munsell value (V ) as a measure of lightness, and Munsell chroma
(C) as a measure of saturation.
2 Engineering Properties of Foods 65

2.9.1.8 Other Color Spaces

The CIELUV color space is also used for the measurement of color and defined as
uniform color spaces in the year 1976. It uses L*, u*, and v* values for representing
the color. Similarly, the CIE 1976 UCS diagram was also developed in the year
1976, which uses u0 and v0 values and provide uniform color spacing in
measurements at same luminance. It is extensively used in computer graphics.

2.9.2 Estimation of Important Color Parameters

2.9.2.1 Browning Index

It is an important characteristic of food, which is changed with respect to processing
and storage. The quality of product can be accessed by estimating the change in
browning of food material. It can be estimated using the following expression [25]:
 
X  0:31
Browning index, BI ¼  100
0:17
ða þ 1:75  L Þ
X¼
ð5:645  L þ a  3:012b Þ

2.9.2.2 Whiteness Index

This index represents the measurement of white color of food products. This may be
used for the discoloration of product during drying. The whiteness also remains an
important factor for cheese, flours, breads, etc. The whiteness index can be estimated
using the following expression [26]:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Whiteness index, WI ¼ 100  ð100  L Þ2 þ a 2 þ b 2

2.9.2.3 Yellowness Index

The yellowness of the product may occur due to the degradation of food product due
to light, processing, and exposure to some chemicals. The yellowness index can be
estimated using the following expression [26]:

142:86  b
Yellowness index, YI ¼
L
66 V. Kumar et al.

2.9.3 Color Measurement Working Principle

The instrument used for measuring the color is known as colorimeter/chromameter.

There are two principles, which are commonly employed for the measurement of
colors of food samples.

2.9.3.1 Colorimeter with 8 Illumination

The portable colorimeter generally uses 8 illumination (8 /D) sphere principle. The
sphere is illuminated by the incident light, which undergoes through refraction and
reflection and becomes uniform. The detector is placed at an angle of 8 from the
center axis to receive the reflected light from the sample. The integrating sphere is an
integral part of the colorimeter and affects the accuracy of color measurement. A
good-quality integrating sphere assures the accuracy as well as lower maintenance of
the instrument (Fig. 2.34). The equipment may have 2 or 10 viewing angle
according to the standard or supplementary standard [20].

Fig. 2.34 Colorimeter with 8°

8 illumination

Detector

Lens

Integrating sphere

Light source

Food sample
2 Engineering Properties of Foods 67

Detector

Light source
45°

Food sample

Fig. 2.35 Colorimeter with 45 annular ring illumination

2.9.3.2 Colorimeter with 45 Annular Illumination

The colorimeter can have 45 annular ring illumination (45 /0) as the light source
illuminates the energy from all directions and makes an angle 45 to the sample. The
reflected light from the sample is captured by the detector. The detector is kept at the
central axis, which receives the reflected rays (Fig. 2.35). The received spectral light
provides signal to the electronic circuit for processing and displays CIELAB L*, a*,
and b* values, which can also be stored using data logger or attached computer.

2.10 Thermal Properties

Thermal properties of food play an important role in various food processing

operations. Either the heat is given to the food material in processing operations
like drying, evaporation, thermal processing, cooking, and extrusion, or heat is
extracted from the food material in refrigeration or freezing. A number of thermal
properties exist, which affect the rate of heat transfer. However, thermal conductiv-
ity, specific heat, and thermal diffusivity are the most important properties, which are
used in designing of various thermal processing operation and storage structures.

2.10.1 Thermal Conductivity

The flow of heat in a food material through conduction is dependent on the thermal
conductivity of food. Generally, the metals show higher thermal conductivity due to
68 V. Kumar et al.

Fig. 2.36 Heat transfer

through flat surface

T1 T2

Q A
L

the presence of free-moving electrons, which vibrate faster and freely flow through
the metal lattices to transfer the energy. That is why, the metals are utilized in the
manufacturing of heat transfer surfaces in a variety of thermal processing equipment.
Non-metals have lower thermal conductivity, which are also used to act as insulators
in the manufacturing of cabinets for refrigeration units and ovens to minimize the
loss of energy.
Fourier’s law of heat transfer is applied to estimate the heat transfer through
conduction, which is also utilized to estimate the thermal conductivity of material in
steady-state condition.

T2  T1
Q ¼ k  A 
L
where Q is the rate of heat transfer (W), k thermal conductivity (W/mK), A cross-
sectional area normal to the direction of flow, m2, T1 temperature of the surface on
the higher side (K), T2 temperature of the surface on the lower side (K), and
L thickness of the material along the flow of heat (Fig. 2.36).
The negative sign indicates the direction of heat flow as heat always moves from
higher temperature to lower temperature.

2.10.1.1 Prediction of Thermal Conductivity Using Compositional

Criteria
The structure and composition of the foods affects the thermal conductivity of food.
It can be estimated using the water content of the food using the following expres-
sion [27]:

k ¼ k w X w þ k s ð1  X w Þ

where Xw is the mass fraction of water and kw and ks are the thermal conductivity of
water (0.591–0.598 W/m K at 20  C) and solids (approximately 0.259 W/m K),
respectively.
2 Engineering Properties of Foods 69

Table 2.4 Constants for the determination of thermal conductivity of different components in food
[28, 29]
S. no. Component ak bk ck
1. Water 6.7306  106 0.0017625 0.57109
2. Ice 1.0154  104 0.0062489 2.2196
3. Protein 2.7178  106 0.0011958 0.1788
4. Fat 1.7749  107 0.0027604 0.1807
5. Carbohydrate 4.3312  106 0.0013874 0.2014
6. Fiber 3.1683  106 0.0012497 0.1833
7. Ash 2.9069  106 0.001401 0.3296

The composition of food material in terms of carbohydrate, protein, fat, fiber, ash,
and water is used for the thermal conductivity estimation of food. It can be estimated
for the different components/constituents on the basis of temperature using the
following expression in the range of 40 to 150  C [28]:

k ¼ ak t 2 þ bk t þ c k

where k is the thermal conductivity of different components (W/mK), t is the

temperature of food material ( C); and ak, bk, and ck are the constants based on
different components (Table 2.4).
The composition of known and popular foods can be estimated using the proxi-
mate composition from Food Data Central or Other Standards [30]. The thermal
conductivity is usually estimated according to the mass fractions of material using
the following expression:
k ¼ X w kw þ X i k i þ X p kp þ X f k f þ X c k c þ X fi kfi þ X a k a

where X and k represent the fraction of components and thermal conductivity of

components and subscripts w, i, p, f, c, fi, and a represent water, ice, protein, fat,
carbohydrate, fiber, and ash, respectively.
Q3. If the food grain contains various constituents according to the following
table, (1) estimate the thermal conductivity of grain at 20  C. (2) If the food grain is
heated from 20  C to 60  C, estimate the increase in the thermal conductivity of
grain. Consider the loss of moisture during heating as negligible.

Component Water Protein Fat Carbohydrate Ash

Percentage (%) 13.1 12.61 1.54 71.18 1.57

Ans. The thermal conductivity of components at 20  C is calculated as:

k ¼ ak t 2 þ bk t þ c k
70 V. Kumar et al.

k ¼ ak  202 þ bk  20 þ ck

Putting the values of constants from table:

kw ¼ 6:7306 x 106  202 þ 0:0017625  20 þ 0:57109 ¼ 6:0365  101

k p ¼ 2:7178 x 106  202 þ 0:0011958  20 þ 0:1788 ¼ 2:0163  101

k f ¼ 1:7749 x 107  202  0:0027604  20 þ 0:1807 ¼ 1:2452  101

k C ¼ 4:3312 x 106  202 þ 0:0013874  20 þ 0:2014 ¼ 2:2742  101

k a ¼ 2:9069 x 106  202 þ 0:001401  20 þ 0:3296 ¼ 3:5646  101

The thermal conductivity of the food at 20  C is calculated as:

k ¼ 0:131  kw þ 0:1261  k p þ 0:0154  k f þ 0:7118  k c þ 0:0157  ka

Temp. k at 20  C Proportion
S. no. Component ( C) (W/mK) (%) k (W/mK)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) ¼ (4)  [(5)/
100]
1 Water 20 6.0365  101 13.1 7.9078  102
2 Ice – – –
3 Protein 2.0163  101 12.61 2.5425  102
4 Fat 1.2542  101 1.54 1.9315  103
5 Carbohydrate 2.2742  101 71.18 1.6187  101
6 Fiber – – –
7 Ash 3.5646  101 1.57 5.5964  103
Total 100.00 0.273905488

The thermal conductivity of the grain at 20  C is 0.273905488  0.274 w/mK.

Similarly, conductivity of various components is calculated for 60  C as:

kw ¼ 6:7306 x 106  602 þ 0:0017625  60 þ 0:57109 ¼ 6:5261  101

k p ¼ 2:7178 x 106  602 þ 0:0011958  60 þ 0:1788 ¼ 2:4076  101

k f ¼ 1:7749 x 107  602  0:0027604  60 þ 0:1807 ¼ 1:4437  102

k C ¼ 4:3312 x 106  602 þ 0:0013874  60 þ 0:2014 ¼ 2:6905  101

k a ¼ 2:9069 x 106  602 þ 0:001401  60 þ 0:3296 ¼ 4:0320  101

2 Engineering Properties of Foods 71

Similarly, the thermal conductivity of the grain at 60  C is estimated as

0.3139157  0.314 w/mK. Therefore, the increase in thermal conductivity ¼
0.314  0.274 ¼ 0.04 w/mK.
It can be noted from the estimated value that the thermal conductivity increases
for water, protein, carbohydrate, and ash per unit mass of individual constituent with
the increase in temperature. Generally, increase in thermal conductivity in cereals is
observed with the increase in temperature due to the predominating presence of
carbohydrates, whereas the thermal conductivity of fat decreases with the increase in
temperature. The decrease in the thermal conductivity of edible oil with the increase
in temperature has been reported [31].

2.10.1.2 Determination of Thermal Conductivity Under Steady State

The thermal conductivity determination under steady state requires more time to
determine to establish the equilibrium; however, the determination offers advantages
of being simpler, higher precision, and ease of controlling environmental conditions.
Some of the methods are discussed as follows.

Longitudinal Heat Flow Method

This method works on the principle of Fourier’s law. It is suitable for the food
materials, which can be kept in slab/slice form. A heat source is used to maintain the
constant temperature of hot plate, while other cold plate is placed in a heat sink
(Fig. 2.37). The electric power is switched on for heating the hot plate to maintain the
higher temperature. The guard plates around the samples are placed to avoid lateral
heat transfer. The temperatures of hot and cold plates are noted after maintaining the
steady-state condition, i.e., temperature difference between both the plates (T1  T2)

Insulated plates
Hot plate with
heating coil
Sample
Gourd plates
Cold plate

Insulated
vessel

Heat sink

Fig. 2.37 Longitudinal heat flow apparatus

72 V. Kumar et al.

becomes constant. The following equation is used for the determination of thermal
conductivity (k):

QL
k¼
A  ðT 1  T 2 Þ

where Q, L, T1, T2, and A are the heat transfer rate (W), sample thickness
(m) temperatures of hot and cold plates ( C), and cross-sectional area of sample
(m2). The heat transfer rate in terms of electrical energy is estimated by measuring
the electricity consumption using voltmeter and ammeter display provided in the
apparatus.

Radial Heat Flow Methods

Concentric Cylinder Method

It is suitable for liquid material, which is filled between two concentric cylinders.
The outer cylinder is heated by heaters placed at the outer cylinder, and coolant flows
through the inner cylinder (Fig. 2.38). The temperature is noted after establishing the
steady-state condition (temperature difference between the surface of outer cylinder
and inner surface of inner cylinder (T1-T2) becomes constant). The conductivity (k)
can be estimated using the following expression:
 
Q ln r2=r1
k¼
2πLðT 1  T 2 Þ

where Q, r1, r2, T1, T2, and L are the heat transfer rate (W), outer cylinder radius (m),
inner cylinder radius (m), temperatures of surface of outer cylinder and inner surface
of inner cylinder ( C), and length of cylinder (m2). The heat transfer rate in terms of

Fig. 2.38 Concentric

cylinder apparatus

r2 r1

L
2 Engineering Properties of Foods 73

electrical energy is estimated by measuring electricity consumption using voltmeter

and ammeter display provided in the apparatus.
The concentric cylinder with central heating source may also be used for the
determination of thermal conductivity of sample by comparing with the standard
sample of known thermal conductivity.

Sphere with Central Heating Source Method

It is used to measure the thermal conductivity of granular material. A central heating
source is placed at the center of sphere, and the granular material is filled in the
spherical cavity. The heat source is switched on till the steady state is maintained.
The temperature difference between the inner and outer surface of the sample (T1-T2)
becomes constant at steady state and is noted for the estimation of thermal conduc-
tivity (k, W/mK) using the following expression:
 
Q 1
r1  r12
k¼
4π ðT 1  T 2 Þ

where Q, r1, r2, T1, and T2 are the heat transfer rate (W), outer central heater radius
(m), outer sphere radius (m), and temperatures of surface of sample at inner surface
and outer surface ( C).

2.10.1.3 Determination of Thermal Conductivity Under Unsteady State

The thermal conductivity determination of a food material under unsteady state
requires less time in comparison to steady-state methods. Some of these methods
are thermal conductivity probe method, point heat source method, comparative
method, etc.

Thermal Conductivity Probe Method

The thermal conductivity probe is popular in estimating thermal conductivity in
unsteady state. It requires small sample and takes less time. The probe is made up of
stainless steel, which has a heating wire inside to heat the probe (Fig. 2.39). The heat
generated during the heating of the probe is transferred to grains surrounding the
probe. A thermocouple is placed inside the probe, which is used to measure the
temperature at different times.

The thermal conductivity can be expressed as:

Seal
Heating wire

SS probe
Thermocouple

Fig. 2.39 Thermal conductivity probe

74 V. Kumar et al.

2 
Q  ln t2=t1 I  R ln t2=t1
ΔT ¼ ¼
4πk 4πk
The expression can be written as:

2:3  I 2  R log t2=t1

k¼
4πΔT
where I, R, t1, t2, and ΔT are the electrical current (A), electrical resistance of wire
(Ω/m), heating time at first observation (s), heating time at second observation (s),
and temperature difference between the observations ( C).

2.10.2 Specific Heat

It is defined as the amount of energy required to raise the temperature by 1  C of 1 kg

of material. The expression of heat transfer during the increase in temperature is
expressed as:

Q ¼ m Cp ΔT

or

Q
Cp ¼
mΔT
where Q is the amount of energy required (J), Cp specific heat (J/kg  C), m mass of
the material (kg), and ΔT temperature difference.
The specific heat of food mainly depends upon the moisture content. The specific
heat of the food material can be estimated using the following expression [32]:

Cp ¼ 837:36 þ 3349 X w

where Cp is the specific heat (J/kgK) and Xw is the mass fraction of water.
Similar approach for considering the composition of food material in terms of
water, protein, fat, carbohydrate, fiber, and ash is used for the estimation of specific
heat. The specific heat of different components on the basis of temperature can be
estimated using the following expression in the temperature range of 40 to 150  C
[33]:

C ¼ ac t 2 þ bc t þ c c

where C is the specific heat of different components (J/kg K); t is the temperature of
food material ( C), and ac, bc, and cc are the constants based on different components
(Table 2.5).
2 Engineering Properties of Foods 75

Table 2.5 Constants for the determination of specific heat of different components in food [28]
S. no. Component ac bc cc
1. Watera 9.9516  101 5.3062 4.0817  103
Waterb 5.4731  103 0.090864 4.1762  103
2. Ice 0.00 6.0769 2.0623  103
3. Protein 1.3129  103 1.2089 2.0082  103
4. Fat 4.8008  103 1.4733 1.9842  103
5. Carbohydrate 5.9399  103 1.9625 1.5488  103
6. Fiber 4.6509  103 1.8306 1.8459  103
7. Ash 3.6817  103 1.8896 1.0926  103
a
For temperature range of –40 to 0  C
b
For temperature range of 0 to 150  C

The composition of food material is estimated using the proximate analysis, or

composition of standard materials can be obtained from FoodData Central or other
standards [30]. The specific heat of food material is estimated according to the
fractions of material using the following expression:
Cp ¼ X w Cw þ X i C i þ X p Cp þ X f C f þ X c Cc þ X fi Cfi þ X a C a

where X and C represent fraction of components and specific heat of components and
subscripts w, i, p, f, c, fi, and a represent water, ice, protein, fat, carbohydrate, fiber,
and ash, respectively.
Q4. If the food grain contains various constituents according to the following
table, (1) estimate the specific heat of grain at 20  C. (2) If the food grain is heated
from 20  C to 60  C, estimate the increase in specific heat of grain. Consider the loss
of moisture during heating as negligible.

Component Water Protein Fat Carbohydrate Ash

Percentage (%) 13.1 12.61 1.54 71.18 1.57

Ans. The specific heat of components at 20  C is calculated as:

C ¼ ac t 2 þ bc t þ c c

C ¼ ac  202 þ bc  20 þ cc

Putting the values of constants from table:

C w ¼ 5:4731  103  202  0:090864  20 þ 4:1762  103 ¼ 4:1766  103

Cp ¼ 1:3129 x 103  202 þ 1:2089  20 þ 2:0082  103 ¼ 2:0319  103

C f ¼ 4:8008 x 103  202 þ 1:4733  20 þ 1:9842  103 ¼ 2:0117  103

76 V. Kumar et al.

CC ¼ 5:9399 x 103  202 þ 1:9625  20 þ 1:5488  103 ¼ 1:5857  103

Ca ¼ 3:6817 x 103  202 þ 1:8896  20 þ 1:0926  103 ¼ 1:1289  103

The specific heat of the food at 20  C is calculated as:

C ¼ 0:131  C w þ 0:1261  C p þ 0:0154  C f þ 0:7118  Cc þ 0:0157  C a

Temp. Proportion Specific heat (J/kg

S. no. Component ( C) C (%) K)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) ¼ (4)  [(5)/100]
1 Watera 20 4.3736  – –
103
Waterb 4.1766  13.1 5.4713  102
103
2 Ice 2.1838  – –
103
3 Protein 2.0319  12.61 2.5622  102
103
4 Fat 2.0117  1.54 3.0981  101
103
5 Carbohydrate 1.5857  71.18 1.1287  103
103
6 Fiber 1.8807  – –
103
7 Ash 1.1289  1.57 1.7724  101
103
Total 100.00 1980.735268

a
For temperature range 40 to 0 C
b
For temperature range 0 to 150  C

The specific heat of grain at 20  C is 1980.73528  1980.74 J/kg K ¼ 1.98

kJ/kg K.
Similar to the specific heat of grain at 20  C, specific heat is calculated at 60  C as:

Cp ¼ 0:131  Cw þ 0:1261  Cp þ 0:0154  C f þ 0:7118  C c þ 0:0157  Ca

Similarly, the values obtained for Cw, Cp, Cf, Cc, and Ca at 60  C are 4.1905 
10 , 2.0760  103, 2.0553  103, 1.6452  103, and 1.1927  103, respectively.
3

The specific heat of the grain at 60  C is 2032.140678  2032.14 J/kg K ¼ 2.03

kJ/kg K. Therefore, the increase in specific heat ¼ 2.03  1.98 ¼ 0.05 kJ/kg K.

2.10.2.1 Measurement of Specific Heat

In this, the known quantity of sample (m2) is kept in a cup (m1). The temperature of
the cup along with the sample is raised by several degrees (Ti). Thereafter, the known
quantity (m3) of water maintained at specific lower temperature (Tw) is added in the
2 Engineering Properties of Foods 77

m1 m2 m1+ m2 m1+m2
+m3

Ti Tw Tf Tf

Fig. 2.40 Determination of specific heat. m1 mass of the cup (kg), Cp1 specific heat of the cup (J/kg
K), m2 mass of food sample (kg), Cp2 specific heat of food sample (J/kg K), m3 mass of water (kg),
Cp3 specific heat of water (J/kg K), Ti initial temperature of sample and cup (K), Tw initial
temperature of water (K), Tf final temperature of sample, cup, and water (K)

cup and kept in the insulated surroundings for negligible heat loss (Fig. 2.40). At
equilibrium, the cup is filled with sample, and water reaches at a final temperature
(Tf). The final temperature of sample is noted, and specific heat of material is
estimated using the energy balance.
The energy balance equation can be written as:
     
m1 cp1 T i  T f þ m2 cp2 T i  T f ¼ m3 cp3 T f  T w
   
m3 cp3 T f  T w  m1 cp1 T i  T f
cp2 ¼  
m2 T i  T f

2.10.3 Thermal Diffusivity

Thermal diffusivity is a measure of the ability of material to conduct heat. It is a

material specific to characterize unsteady-state heat conduction. It is estimated by
dividing the thermal conductivity by the product of density and specific heat. The
high value of diffusivity indicates higher heat transfer rates.

k
α¼
ρ Cp

where α is the thermal diffusivity of different components (m2/s), k thermal conduc-

tivity (W/mK), ρ density (kg/m3); and Cp specific heat of the sample (J/kgK).
78 V. Kumar et al.

Table 2.6 Constants for the determination of thermal diffusivity of different components in food
[33]
S. no. Component aα bα cα
1. Water 2.4022  1012 6.2477  1010 1.3168  107
2. Ice 9.5037  1011 6.0833  109 1.1756  106
3. Protein 1.4646  1012 4.7578  1010 6.8714  108
4. Fat 3.8286  1014 1.2569  1011 9.8777  108
5. Carbohydrate 2.3218  1012 5.3052  1010 8.0842  108
6. Fiber 2.2202  1012 5.1902  1010 7.3976  108
7. Ash 1.2244  1012 3.7321  1010 1.2461  107

The thermal diffusivity of food can be determined by considering the composition

of food material in terms of carbohydrate, protein, fat, fiber, ash, and water. The
thermal diffusivity of different components is estimated using the following expres-
sion in the temperature range of 40 to 150  C [33]:

/¼ a/ t 2 þ b/ t þ c/

where α is the thermal diffusivity of different components (m2/s), t is the temperature

of food material ( C), and aα, bα, and cα are the constants based on different
components (Table 2.6).
The composition of food material is estimated using the proximate analysis, or the
composition of standard materials can be obtained from FoodData Central or other
standards [30]. It can be estimated according to the fractions of the material using the
following expression:
/¼ X w /w þ X i /i þ X p /p þ X f / f þ X c /c þ X fi /fi þ X a /a

where X and α represent the fraction of components and thermal diffusivity of

components and subscripts w, i, p, f, c, fi, and a represent water, ice, protein, fat,
carbohydrate, fiber, and ash, respectively.

2.10.4 Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC)

The differential scanning calorimeter is a prevalent method to determine the specific

heat of samples. For measuring the specific heat, a cylindrical or similar shaped
sample is kept in a sample pan, while the other end is connected to a sink maintained
at constant temperature. The sample is heated at a specific rate. The heat flow is
observed with respect to change in temperature, which is proportional to the specific
heat. The thermal scan for an empty pan is done to obtain a base line. Again, thermal
scans for standard and food sample are performed. The deflection of food material
and sample from base line is estimated from the thermogram, which is proportional
to the amount of energy needed to maintain the temperature. The following equation
can be used to estimate the specific heat of the sample:
2 Engineering Properties of Foods 79

d  m0
Cp ¼  C0p
d0  m
where Cp and Cp0 are the specific heat of samples and standard, d and d0 are
the deflection value (W) of sample and standard in thermogram, and m and m0 are
the mass of sample and standards, respectively. For measuring thermal conductivity,
the sample gets heated for a specific time and temperature. The difference in heat
flow can be obtained from the thermogram, and thermal conductivity is calculated
based on Fourier’s equation.

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Material Handling and Transportation
Devices 3
Ajay Patel, Shubhangi Thakre, Nilesh B. Kardile,
and Rachna Sehrawat

Abstract

In this chapter different material handling and transportation devices are

discussed. The principle, importance, and selection criteria of material handling
and transportation devices are also explained. Conveyor systems are used to
move a large quantity of materials at a quicker pace and lower cost than manual
labor. Conveyors generally utilized for transportation of solid and semi-solid
materials can be powerless or powered conveyors and both have their own pros
and cons. Cranes, hoist, and trucks are also utilized to transport material required
for movement in agriculture sector and food processing industries. For fluid
transportation different types of pumps are used and are broadly classified
under two categories, i.e., positive displacement pump (reciprocating pumps
and rotary pumps) and centrifugal pump. Other liquid handling devices, viz.
valves, pipes, and pipes fitting and joint are discussed with schematic diagrams
and figures. During transportation of solid, semi-solid, or liquid material the
hygienic considerations for proper material handling operation are of utmost
importance and should be given proper consideration to avoid contamination
issues. The chapter presents the overall picture of the material handling and

A. Patel
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India
S. Thakre
Vasantrao Naik Marathvada Krishi Vidyapith Parbhani, Parbhani, India
N. B. Kardile
MIT ADT University Pune, Pune, India
R. Sehrawat (*)
National Institute of Technology, Rourkela, Odisha, India
e-mail: [email protected]

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 81

Ltd. 2022
H. K. Sharma, N. Kumar (eds.), Agro-Processing and Food Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7289-7_3
82 A. Patel et al.

transportation systems used in food processing operations with schematic

diagrams.

Keywords

Material handling devices · Powerless conveyors · Powered conveyors · Fluids

transportation · Valves · Pipes and pipe fitting joints · Hygienic considerations

3.1 Introduction

3.1.1 Principles of Material Handling Devices

Conveyor systems are used to move a large quantity of materials at a quicker pace
and lower cost than manual labor. In a food manufacturing unit, about 30% of its
labor is required for material handling [1]. Conveyors can be installed conveniently
anywhere to move material of all shapes, sizes, and weights. Conveyors can be used
in a variety of ways in a food processing plant such as:

• Transporting raw materials into silos, bins, and other storage devices.
• Moving out the same raw materials out of storage devices for further processing
into the industries.
• To transport the finished product from the production line to the packaging line.
• Finally, to move packaged products from the packaging line to the shipment area.

There are many types of conveyors available commercially, which are used in the
manufacturing process. About 80 different types of conveyor system have been
described by the Conveyor Equipment Manufacturers Association (CEMA), situated
in Naples, Florida (www.cemanet.org) [2]. CEMA embodies American
manufacturers and designers and provides engineering standards as well as
specifications required for design aspects and safety of different types of the con-
veyor systems.

3.1.2 Importance of Material Handling Devices

Efficient material handling is related to five elements: movement, time, place,

quantity, and space. Effective material handling is movement in the most efficient
way at the correct place in the required quantity with the maximum economy of
space [3].
The advantages of material handling and transportation (solids and fluids) are
uncountable in food processing. The handling methods are required in view of bulk
transport of the materials and also to ensure hygiene. The advantages of the handling
devices may:
3 Material Handling and Transportation Devices 83

• Help to organize your products and materials.

• Transport material for packaging and processing.
• Provide better utilization of labor, equipment, and space.
• Reduce handling costs.
• Improve working condition and operational errors.
• Improve customer service.
• Minimize the distance moved, by adopting the shortest routes.
• Improve the utilization of men, machines, and storage space.
• Reduce the material wastage and damage.
• Improve control and rotation of stock.

This results in higher productivity, improved product quality, reduced damage,

and errors.

3.1.3 Selection Criteria for Conveyor Systems

The purchaser should review the following key points for the selection of the
conveying system prior to procurement:

• Type of product, material to be conveyed. The properties such as bulk density,

particle size, terminal velocity, abrasiveness, moisture content, fluidity, dustiness,
flammability, explosiveness, the flowability of the material should be taken into
consideration.
• Type of material to be handled (liquid, semi-solid, and solid)
• Source from which material is being transported (Such as silos, bulk bag, etc.)
• Place where the material to be moved (such as a mixer, feeder, mill, etc.)
• Orientation at which material to be conveyed (horizontally, vertically, the route
with bends)
• The amount of material to be conveyed per unit time, per unit area.
• To avoid handling damage, the material strength should be known (whether
fragile, delicate, hard, etc.)
• Area for cleaning and maintenance of conveying systems.

3.2 Powerless Material Handling Devices

3.2.1 Gravity Conveyors

Gravity conveyor does not require any external power to operate, utilizes gravity
force to transport materials in a downward direction. In an inclined runway, a gravity
chute conveyor is used to move articles with the required weight to move down-
wards unassisted and is unpowered as shown in diagrammatic representation of top
view of typical gravity roller conveyor in Fig. 3.1. This conveyor is multipurpose
and cost-effective. It transports large amount of material quickly in a downward
84 A. Patel et al.

Fig. 3.1 Line diagram showing top and side view of typical gravity roller conveyor

direction with less efforts and expenses and mostly used in case of a material having
a firm or flat surface at the bottom. It can be used where the natural flow of gravity is
present and also over a level line where the movement of material can be accom-
plished by pushing and hence it can be utilized in both applications, i.e. fixed and
portable.

3.2.2 Functions and Design Considerations

Gravity roller conveyors are used to divert spurs on automatic sorting lines, transfer
lines between order packing, and dispatch areas to move picking bins and containers,
etc. The optimum decline angle that suits the type and weight of the load being
handled is the most important parameter for better efficiency of gravity roller
conveyor. Load must be at rigid bases and their length should cover at least three
carrying rollers as shown in Fig. 3.1. To decelerate and halt bins/boxes at the end of
the decline, rollers can be replaced with a static brake plate, or electrically or
pneumatically operated brakes [4].

3.2.3 Advantages

• Economical.
• No operational cost as it uses the natural flow of gravity for its operation.
• Ease of installation and environmentally friendly.
• Negligible maintenance requirement.
• Low operational noise levels.
• Complete systems possible with or without powered sections.
3 Material Handling and Transportation Devices 85

In comparison with motor-driven conveyor systems, a system using gravity roller

conveyors is a highly efficient and energy saving alternative. Gravity roller
conveyors can be integrated into high speed powered conveyor systems which can
considerably reduce the project cost.

3.3 Powered Conveyors

3.3.1 Roller Conveyors

Roller conveyors design can be as a straight or curved. These power operated roller
conveyors can be classified based on their driving mechanism. The following are the
types of roller conveyor:

3.3.1.1 Belt Driven Roller Conveyors

These can be controlled via a programmable logic controller (PLC) for high flexibil-
ity and speed. Through the division into drives, the product is separated and
transported easily The belt driven conveyor consist of power drive pulley to move
the material in forward direction as shown in Fig. 3.2. Contact rollers are mounted
over the drive belts to convey the material. This offers many advantages to transport
and sorting applications in a limited space.

3.3.1.2 Toothed Belt Driven Roller Conveyors

Roller conveyors with toothed belt drive are appropriate for the transportation of
boxes as shown in Fig. 3.3. Pressing the belt against the rollers and with single motor
material can be transported to a large distance. These are well suited for on-off or
transit transport due to modular design.

Fig. 3.2 Belt driven roller conveyors

86 A. Patel et al.

Fig. 3.3 Toothed belt driven roller conveyors

Fig. 3.4 Chain driven roller conveyors

3.3.1.3 Chain Driven Roller Conveyors

It is utilized in case of the transportation of heavy crates. To achieve sturdy
construction mostly stainless steel is used but depends on the requirement as well
(Fig. 3.4).

3.3.2 Belt Conveyor

It is an unending belt moving between two or more pulleys and the drive pulley is
responsible for the continuous movement of the belt over the pulleys. The belt and its
load may ride over an immobile flat surface, but usually, idlers are used to reduce
friction, between the belt and flat surface and to increase the wrap contact area. Most
belts are made from solid woven rubber and stitched. The drive pulley is typically
equipped with motors to rotate the whole belt conveyor. Generally, three idlers set
are typically used, one horizontal and two side idlers, which may be tilted at angles
3 Material Handling and Transportation Devices 87

Fig. 3.5 Trough and Surcharge angle of belt conveyor

up to 45
to form a trough as shown in Fig. 3.5. Belt speed is an important parameter
for transporting material, which can vary with variations of belt width.
It is an effective conveying system but a comparatively costly way of conveying
material in the bulk. Due to the absence of relative motion between grain and belt
surface, the grain damage is negligible, therefore widely utilized in conditioning and
processing seed. It is also used in flour mills, feed processing mills, oil and fats mills,
starch mills, mines, and chemicals, etc. Mostly belt conveyors are used for large
conveying capacities and grains can be transported to a large distance in belt
conveying system. One of the limitations is the low angle of elevation (below
15–20
) [5], although it can be overcome by equipping the belt with cups or ribs,
which may be used to increase the elevation angle.
Capacity is directly proportional to the cross-sectional area and speed of the belt.
The cross-sectional area depends upon the type of roller. Among the three rollers, the
center rollers are kept horizontal whereas the remaining two are kept at an inclined
position or trough angle (20
to 45
angle), as can be seen in Fig. 3.5. For paddy, it is
found that a trough angle of 20
is well suited as surcharge angle of 20
is formed by
paddy. For less capacity, flat belts may be used. Belt width is based on power
requirements, speed of conveyor, and angle of inclination.
The power requirement for this conveyor is driven by the need [6]:

• To overcome the frictional forces related to the movement of the belt

• To adjust the speed as per the required capacity
• To lift the material if there is any elevation
88 A. Patel et al.

The capacity of belt conveyor can be calculated using the following equation:

3  
m   m
Capacity ¼ Area of crosssection m2  belt speed  60 ð3:1Þ
h min

Horsepower (hp) requirement for belt conveyor

 
t 0:48 þ 0:01L
hp ¼ Capacity of belt coveyor  ð3:2Þ
h 100
where L is the length of the belt conveyor.

Example 1 What will be the horsepower required for operating a belt conveyor
whose capacity is 80 t/h. and its length is 120 m.
Solution:

Belt conveyor capacity ¼ 80 t=h

Length ¼ 120 m

Therefore,
 
t 0:48 þ 0:01L
hp ¼ Capacity of belt coveyor 
h 100
 
t 0:48 þ 0:01  120 m
hp ¼ 80 
h 100
hp ¼ 1:344:

3.3.3 Chain Conveyors

These conveyors are durable, sturdy, rugged, and utilized to carry the products along
the process line. It can be used to transport heavy material that could not be moved
over the roller conveyor. Most commonly utilized to move heavy racks, boxes,
pallets, big containers, and any article with a sturdy or flat bottom surface. These
systems can be seen in numerous warehouses and distribution centers where it is
needed to handle heavy and large items.

3.3.4 Vibratory Conveyor

For conveying the particulate and granular ingredients, vibratory conveyor system is
most effective and efficient. It has wide applications in the manufacturing process
involving the particulate material [7]. In vibratory conveyor, the process of material
conveyance takes place due to recurrent micro-displacements of particles.
3 Material Handling and Transportation Devices 89

True natural frequency conveyors are equipped with mechanical drives while the
electromagnetic conveyors are equipped with electromagnetic drives.
Frame-mounted drives and spring arm assemblies are used to dispense energy to
the frequency and electromagnetic conveyors, which produce a diagonal, harmonic
motion that results in the forward movement of the product. Mechanical drives are
used in traditional vibratory conveyors which generates a high amplitude,
low-frequency movement. On the other hand, electromagnetic shakers at higher
frequencies generate lower conveying pan amplitudes, which make them ideal for a
wide variety of products.
Vibratory conveyors are naturally cleaner and are made of stainless steel which
remains in contact with products as compared to belt conveyors. The latest vibratory
shaker with a drive system requires low maintenance. Specific applications of
vibratory conveyors are given below:

• For dewatering purposes, as shaking may cause loosening the bond between
surface moisture and agricultural product such as potato, green beans, carrots,
leafy greens, apples, and guava, etc.
• For sizing purposes of specific produce. A series of sieves with different sizes can
be fitted from top to bottom and different size material can be collected from each
level.
• For hand sorting of a wide range of products such as grapes in the wine
production line, apple in the juice production line, etc. for a thorough inspection.
• For removal of dust, husk and other impurities from grains and blower can be
attached to remove dust efficiently.

A vibratory conveyor is useful, where product orientation is important such as

feeding to cutter/slicer which ultimately improves the effectiveness of the operation.

3.3.4.1 Conveying Principles

Sliding A crankshaft mechanism is used to move the deck horizontally with
asymmetric forward and backward motions. Along with the deck, the trough surface
also moves horizontally with a product that always remains in contact with the
surface and is conveyed forward relative to the deck by a stick-slip drag.

Throwing During conveying, when vertical component of acceleration is higher

than gravity force then the material is forced to perform ballistic flight as the product
loses contact with the surface.

Ratcheting In this new transport mechanism, granular particulates can be conveyed

horizontally with the vertical vibratory system.

3.3.4.2 Design Limitations

• It is not suitable for a wide range of materials to be transported.

• It is not a positive type of conveyor; conveying speed may vary with the
product type.
90 A. Patel et al.

• Limitation in the degree of slope for conveying.

• The requirement of a solid foundation, supporting structure, is required for
maintaining the unbalanced forces.
• Limitation in length of conveyor per drive.

3.3.5 Pneumatic Conveying

In a pneumatic conveying system, dry bulk materials or powders are transported by

using ambient air from one point to another. Transportation of products is due to the
collective force of pressure and the airflow in an enclosed conveying pipeline
[8]. Positive displacement blowers or vacuum pumps are used to generate pressure
and airflow. Therefore, the capacity and distance to be conveyed can be adjusted by
manipulating the pressure differential and airflow. Pneumatic conveyors are utilized
in different manufacturing plants because of the effectiveness and to ensure that
materials are transported safely.
These systems are reasonable and economical as compared to other mechanical
systems. As this conveyor works in an enclosed loop, it protects conveyed material
from insects, rodents, and other foreign matters. The pneumatic conveying systems
can be classified as a dilute phase and dense phase conveying systems. In both types
of systems, material can be conveyed either by pressure or a vacuum.

3.3.5.1 Dense Phase Pneumatic Conveying Technique

In this technique, the bulk material to be transported is not generally suspended in
the air. The material can be transported by either pushing (pressure) or pulling
(vacuum) particles. In dense phase conveying, the materials are transferred at low
velocity and high pressure. According to the operating principle, it is further
classified into two main types of dense phase conveying technique, which are
described below:

Dense Phase Pressure Conveying

It can be used to convey rough-surfaced and fragile materials at extremely low
speeds over the long distances. The materials commonly conveyed by this method
are candies, cereal, cocoa beans, and glass particles. Firstly, the material is loaded
into a pressure vessel. Once the vessel is filled, air inlet valve and material vent are
closed. With the help of a blower, compressed air is pushed into the vessel. This
compressed air pushes the material out from the vessel into the conveying line to the
desired place. Once all the material in the vessel and line is conveyed completely, the
cycle/process can be started again. To boost the conveying, the jets or air injectors
can be fixed over the length of the conveying line as shown in Fig. 3.6.

Dense Phase Vacuum Conveying (DPVC)

It can be used to convey rough-surfaced and fragile materials at low speed over a
short distance. DPVC is commonly used to unload materials in a fluidized state and
the material is transported by vacuum. The vacuum pump is used to create a vacuum,
which sucks the material from the source and discharge to the destination.
3 Material Handling and Transportation Devices 91

Fig. 3.6 Dense Phase

Fig. 3.7 Dilute phase

3.3.5.2 Dilute Phase Pneumatic Conveying

In this technique, the bulk material to be transported is generally suspended in the air
(Fig. 3.7). The material can be transported by either pushing (pressure) or pulling
(vacuum) particles. In dilute phase conveying, materials are transferred at high
velocity and low pressure. According to the operating principle, it can be further
classified into the following two main types of dilute phase conveying techniques.
92 A. Patel et al.

Dilute Phase Pressure Conveying

It is generally used for dry materials, which are nonabrasive and resilient with a low
bulk density over long distances. Plastic grains, sugar, and flour are a few examples
of the materials that can be conveyed by this method. At the start of the system, a
positive displacement blower is fixed which supplies low-pressure air in a high
volume. Next to the blower, the material is feed from the feeder. As the materials
enter into the line from the feeder, the blower pushes and suspends the particles from
where they are conveyed to the desired place as shown in Fig. 3.7.

Dilute Phase Vacuum Conveying (DPVC)

It can be used to convey rough-surfaced and fragile materials over long distances at
high speed. DPVC is generally used to unload materials in a fluidized state. It can be
used to convey materials from rail cars and multiple trucks to a silo or single
location. A DPVC system uses a positive displacement vacuum pump to create
negative pressure which ultimately pulls material from a storage hopper. By
controlling the vacuum through a vacuum relief valve the quantity of the material
to be conveyed can be controlled.

3.3.6 Screw Conveyor (SC)

SC is a mechanism in which rotating helical screw blade usually rotates inside a

U-shaped or circular tube to move bulk materials [5] (Fig. 3.8a). It consists of helical
flights, i.e., screw mounted over a cylindrical shaft. Bulk materials move along the
bottom of the rotating blade, which is why it does not remain fill completely. The
distance between two screw flights is known as pitch which may be constant with in
the conveyor or may vary depending upon the application. In this system, the bulk
material conveyed can be well controlled by adjusting the rotation of the helix. They
are widely utilized in a variety of unit operations and have wide applications in the
transportation of bulk agriculture materials (i.e., mixing grain in storage, and
loading-unloading of grains from the bin), and in food manufacturing units [9]. It
is mostly used for transporting free-flowing materials. Screw conveyors give good
throughput control, have a simple design, high efficiency, require less maintenance,
and are cost-effective. But they are not suitable for long-distance transportation due
to high power consumption. The size of conveyors may vary from 75 to 400 mm and
1 to 30 m in diameter and length, respectively.
The increase in rotational speed and screw diameter clearance (Figure 3.8b)
significantly increases specific power requirement of a designed screw conveyor.
Similarly, the net power requirement can be enhanced significantly with an increase
in screw rotational speed and decreased with an increase in screw diameter clear-
ance. Enhancing both parameters, i.e., screw rotational speed and diametric clear-
ance significantly reduces volumetric efficiency of the conveyor.
3 Material Handling and Transportation Devices 93

Fig. 3.8 (a) Screw Conveyor Shaft. (b) Screw Conveyor side view

Advantages of Screw Conveyor systems:

• Completely closed from dusty, corrosive environmental conditions.

• Ideal for conveying free-flowing dry powdered materials to semi-solid bulk
materials.
• Cost-effective because of the low maintenance required as compared to the belt
conveyor system.
• It has multiple inlets and discharges points for effectively distributing the
materials at different locations.

Theoretical conveyance capacity and power can be calculated by the following

equation [10]

3 h i 
m π
Capacity ¼ ðscrew diameterÞ2  ðshaft diameterÞ2 m2
h 4
 pitch ðmÞ  rpm ð3:3Þ
94 A. Patel et al.

3
m
hp ¼ Capacity of conveyor  conveyor length ðmÞ
h


kg
 bulk material weight  material factor ð3:4Þ
m3

Example 2 If the screw diameter is 3 m, shaft diameter, 1 m and its pitch length is
3 m with a running speed of 1 rpm, what will be the capacity of a screw conveyor?
Solution:

screw diameter ¼ 3 m

Pitch length ¼ 3 m

Therefore,

 h i 
m3 π
Capacity ¼ ðscrew diameterÞ2  ðshaft diameter Þ2 m2  pitch ðmÞ  rpm
hr 4
 
¼ 0:78 32  12  3  1
¼ 18:8 m3 = min Or 0:314 m3 =s

3.3.6.1 Types of Screw Conveyors

Horizontal Screw Conveyors (HSC)

HSC are extensively used and preferred to transport bulk materials from one place to
another. Another advantage is the availability of different sizes (diameters and
length), configurations as well as the range of materials to be used for
construction [11].

Inclined Screw Conveyors (ISC)

ISC generally operate below 45
angle to the horizontal position. Above 45
angle,
an ISC is considered a vertical screw conveyor. With an increase in the degree of
inclination, conveying efficiency decreases and horsepower requirements increase
due to the effect of gravity. Conveying efficiency is affected by the angle of
inclination, screw pitch, type of screw conveyor trough, and the characteristics of
the specific bulk material. It is recommended to design screw conveyors, having
lowest possible degree of inclination to attain maximum efficiency.

Shaftless Screw Conveyors

Shaftless helix is used in this design which results in smooth movement of bulk
materials without any clogging. To handle bulk materials with high moisture,
shaftless screw conveyor is the best solution. The following are the advantages of
shaftless screw conveyors.
3 Material Handling and Transportation Devices 95

• Good for handling sticky and sluggish bulk materials.

• Very flexible and can be shifted according to plant layout.
• Less wear and tear because of the elimination of internal bearings.

Vertical Screw Conveyors

The vertical screw conveyors are at an inclination (over 45
angle) from the
horizontal surface or completely vertical. Due to the compact design, cost-
effectiveness of screw conveyors, installation in a variety of processing industries
is easier for conveying bulk material.
Advantages of vertical screw conveyors are as follows.

• They are considered well suited for conveying the dry to semi-fluid commodities.
• They can handle material with capacities up to 6000 cubic feet/h.
• Bulk material can be elevated up to 30 feet.
• Completely enclosed design to prevent dust, corrosion, or hazardous
environment.

3.3.7 Hydraulic Conveying

Hydraulic conveying is emerging as a widely adopted method due to the capability

to transfer material over long distances with higher capacity. It also does not have the
limitations of other conveying systems. As it has a large capacity and transport
product with minimum wear and tear, demand for hydraulic conveying systems in
the food and petrochemical industries is increasing. Earlier this conveying system
was mostly used for coal transportation.
Hydraulic conveying also involves transporting of solid material in the moving
liquid (Fig. 3.9). It is operated as a closed loop system [12] and for the separation
sediments and fines from water, high-duty filter units are used to achieve the highest
purity. After hydraulically carrying the material, centrifugal or fluidized-bed driers
are used to dry the commodity depending upon the properties of the product.
Advantages of hydraulic conveying are:

• The purity of product is maintained. It also renders minimum abrasion to the

product as it flows through the water.
• The system can convey commodities over long distances and has huge capacities
nearly unlimited.
• The process saves energy up to 60–80% as compared to other conveyors for the
same capacity.
• Low noise emission.
• Even small diameters of pipe are required for high capacities.
96 A. Patel et al.

Fig. 3.9 Hydraulic

conveying system

3.3.8 Bucket Elevators

Food elevators are designed to transfer food materials efficiently by many systems in
continuous movement in a vertical direction. The bucket elevator is used to elevate
the variety of bulk material in the food processing industry. It lifts the solid food
material either vertically or inclined. It consists of steel or malleable iron buckets
carried on an endless belt or on a chain. The bucket elevators carry the material in a
closed system. The free-flowing solids are fed at the bottom continuously by means
of some feeding arrangement into the bucket under the feeding movement point. As
the bucket moves upward, the bottom bucket occupies the position of feeding point,
thus it render continuous movement.

Centrifugal Discharge Elevator It is used in grain processing facilities at the farm

level since a long time. The centrifugal force is used in this elevator for the free
discharge of the product. The food grains are collected into the bucket and discharge
through spout mounted at the elevator head.

Continuous Discharge Elevator It is used for the removal of the sticky and
hygroscopic food product. Generally, it handles the food material at a slower
speed to reduce the losses. Furthermore, it can be a positive discharge elevator and
flight elevator.

In the case of a positive discharge elevator, the buckets are used for lifting
crunchy and soft food products where the structure and texture are important
parameters for their quality. These elevators work by double-strand chain by
which is held in place by two pins and because of this bucket can easily turn around
a point. The bucket is mechanically turned for emptying but because of this, the
3 Material Handling and Transportation Devices 97

Fig. 3.10 Bucket elevators

bucket position goes parallel to the floor and upright. Flight elevators are used for
all-purpose lifting food materials whose shapes like gooseneck to straight and
curved, but particularly used for elevating granular/powdery material.
Belt speed is the important parameter, and it is generally in the range of
1.5–1.8 m/s. The speed of the belt is dependent upon the speed of head pulley.
The discharge of the grains becomes difficult, if the belt speed is too low and the
buckets are not fed well, if the speed is too high. When grain is thrown at the top of
the head pulley (Fig. 3.10), at this point the gravity and centrifugal force are
balanced.where,
W is the weight of grain (kg); V is the tangential belt velocity (m/min); β is the
angle from top dead center; r is the radius of pulley (m), and F is the centrifugal
force (kg).
The capacity of bucket elevator [14]

3
m  
Capacity ¼ Bucket capacity m3
h
 
m
 number of bucket per meter of belt belt speed
min
 60 ð3:5Þ

Theoretical horsepower (hp) requirement for bucket elevator [14]


kg
hp ¼ Capacity of bucket elevator  lift of elevator ðmÞ  factor ð3:6Þ
min
98 A. Patel et al.

Factor ¼ 1.2 and 1.5 for elevators loaded on the bottom side and upside
respectively.

Example 3 What will be the capacity of a bucket elevator if the capacity of each
bucket is 0.60 m3 and there are four buckets in the 1-meter length of belt and its
speed is 1.2 m/min
Solution:

Bucket elevator capacity ¼ 0:60 m3

Number of buckets ¼ 1

3
m  
Capacity ¼ Bucket capacity m3
hr
 
m
 number of bucket per meter of belt belt speed  60
min
¼ 0:60  4  1:2  60 ¼ 172:8 m3 =h

3.4 Other Movable Material Handling Devices

3.4.1 Cranes

Harvested crops, grains as well as foods that are manufactured in the industry have to
move from one place to another place. Therefore, it should be ensured that food
cannot be contaminated or damaged during transportation.
Cranes are the mechanical devices that are used for lifting and lowering a load,
also for horizontal movement, where the hoisting mechanism is applied. There are
various types of cranes such as manually or power-operated. They are exempted
from stackers, hoist trolleys, lift trucks, power shovels, backhoes, or excavators [10].

3.4.2 Hoist

Hoists are commonly used for loading or unloading heavily loaded material. The
overhead-traveling cranes are used for the storage of big bags filled with cane sugar.
The important characteristics of space-saving of cranes make them easy for installa-
tion in any production line.
The cranes have an important task in the beverage industry as well as in large
scale dairy industry for the lifting of heavy cartons. The heavyweight pallets are
lifted by cranes from one place to another. Also, it provides convenience for
transportation of packed beverages and packaged food which ultimately saves
labor energy.
3 Material Handling and Transportation Devices 99

Table 3.1 Different types of trucks used in industries

S.
No. Type Details
1 Hand Hand trucks are commonly called a dolly. They have l-shaped and
trucks box-moving handcarts with handles at one end. On the base side, they have
wheels and a ledge for the objects.
2 Pallet jacks Pallet jacks are a simple form of a forklift. They are used for lifting and
moving pallets in a warehouse.
3 Pallet They can be operated manually or automatically.
trucks
4 Walkie Walkie stackers or straddle stackers are known as pedestrian walk-behind
stackers pallets with a mast to lift pallets to heights
5 Platform Platform trucks are the same as a two-wheeled dolly and contain an
trucks extended deck.
6 Order These are electrically operated lift trucks mainly used for filling single
picker customer demand. It picks up piece-part rather than unit loads or full
pallets.
7 Side loader Side loader loads and unloads automatically, like a forklift from the side of
the machine rather than the front

3.4.3 Trucks

Forklifts (powered industrial trucks) are used for the movement of large materials or
large capacity of materials on the floor of the company. They are used effectively for
loading and unloading big materials onto delivery trucks [10]. Conveyors are
replaced by these industrial trucks where minimum flow volume is processed.
Following are the examples of industrial trucks as shown in Table 3.1.

3.5 Transportation of Fluids

Pumps, valves, and pipework are mainly used for the transportation of liquid food
materials from lower to higher level as well as from one place to another place. The
fluids are pumped to increase the potential energy or kinetic energy of the fluids by
various types of mechanical pumps. The fluid quantities are regulated through valves
or measured by means of various measuring instruments. The fluid may easily pass
through bends, elbows, and T-joints in the pipeline which may be smooth or rough.

3.5.1 Pumps

Pumps are generally used for displacement of liquid food material for transportation
against gravity and friction or increasing the kinetic energy or pressure energy of the
fluids.
In the food industry, centrifugal pumps are commonly used and the criteria for
selection of a particular pump include the following:
100 A. Patel et al.

• Product type, based on rheology

• Temperature, pressure, and product flow rate
• Type of mixing devices (impeller)
• Speed and size of the motor
• Seal type on pump outer body and motor shaft
• Type of couplings and other fittings

3.5.1.1 Classification of Pumps

Wide varieties of pumps are designed for different applications. The different types
of pumps, used for fluid transportation are mainly classified under two categories,
i.e., positive displacement pump (reciprocating pumps and rotary pumps) and
centrifugal pump (Fig. 3.11) [13].

Reciprocating Pumps
These types of pumps transport the liquid linearly through piston or plunger. The
movement of liquid in a closed stationary cylinder is carried out by piston or plunger.
Reciprocating pumps consist of a piston pump, plunger pumps, and diaphragm
pumps. Mechanical efficiency of these pumps with small and large capacity varies
from 40 to 50% and 70 to 90%, respectively. They are more commonly used as
metering devices because the volumetric efficiency is almost constant with increase
in discharge pressure. Only slight drop could be observed due to leakage.

Piston Pump
It is also a positive displacement pump in which a high-pressure seal reciprocates
with the piston. This pump consists of piston-cylinder arrangement in which liquid
material is collected by inlet check valve into cylinder by the withdrawal of piston.
Liquid is then forced out through discharge check valve on delivery stroke [14]. On
forward stroke, the fluid filled inside the cylinder is compressed which in turn opens
the delivery valve for the delivery of liquid on the return stroke. They can develop
maximum discharge pressure up to 50 atm.

Fig. 3.11 Different types of pumps

3 Material Handling and Transportation Devices 101

Plunger Pump
Plunger pump is a type of reciprocating pump and mostly used for discharge of high-
pressure liquid. The construction and working principle are similar to a single-acting
piston pump with a plunger in place of a piston. A cylinder with small diameter has a
plunger fitted into it. The plunger pump is single acting and driven by a motor and
contain check valves in the discharge line which develop pressure up to 1500
atmosphere.

Diaphragm Pump
It uses combination of the reciprocating action of a rubber, thermoplastic, and
suitable valves for the pumping of liquid [14]. The outputs of this pump are always
low with the upper limit being approximately 500 ppm. They can pump against
pressure, 100 atmospheres. Instead of a plunger or piston moving in a cylindrical
chamber as in the case of reciprocating pumps, the diaphragm just vibrates, and
sucks the fluid in one direction of vibration and delivers in the other direction of
vibration as shown in Fig. 3.12. The diaphragms are made of some flexible materials
(plastic, rubber, or some soft material of metal alloys). These pumps can be used for
fluids that are toxic or non-corrosive in nature [13].

Rotary Pumps
Rotary pump is also positive displacement pump where rotary motion is applied
instead of reciprocating motion as shown in Fig. 3.12 These pumps are designed
with very small clearances between and stationery and rotating parts to minimize
leakage. To maintain this clearance, it is designed to operate at relatively low speeds.
Hence, valve arrangements like reciprocating pumps are not needed in rotary. In this,
two gears, which adjust each other, create rotary motion in opposite direction. They
are used for transporting liquid with moderate viscosity.

Spur Gear Pump

Spur gear pump utilizes two intermeshing gears (Fig. 3.13) enclosed in a casing with
close clearance. The actual working is caused through the toothed gears. The fluid

Fig. 3.12 Diaphragm pump

102 A. Patel et al.

Fig. 3.13 Spur gear pump

Fig. 3.14 Internal gear pump

enters through suction point, i.e., the inlet and is carried by the spaces in between
gear and casing and is forced out toward the outlet. Short circuit of flow is prevented
by the close intermeshing of the gears at the center. The regulation of flow is affected
by the volume of the cavity between the teeth, gears speed, and fluid quantity that
slips back to the inlet [13].

Internal Gear Pump

It creates flow by a gear having external-cut teeth within it and meshed with a gear
with internally-cut teeth, as shown in Fig. 3.14. The liquid forcefully pumps out the
3 Material Handling and Transportation Devices 103

discharge port when gears come out of mesh on the inlet side. The inlet volume is
separated by a crescent-shaped partition which discharges volume between the two
gears. These pumps can be used for many industrial applications such as handling of
oils and viscous chemicals.

Centrifugal Pump
In this pump, centrifugal force is used to enhance the fluid pressure. The pump
consists of an impeller driven by motor which revolves inside the casing. Fluid
enters at the center of impeller rotation and due to the creation of centrifugal force
fluid is moved toward impeller periphery. At this stage fluid experience maximum
pressure and is moved toward the exit opening at the casing side as shown in
Fig. 3.15. These types of pumps are commonly applied to move liquids through a
piping system having low viscosity, e.g., supply of water, large discharge through a
smaller opening, processing of milk in a dairy plant and for fruit juices. Discharge
through these pumps is steady. These are not preferred to transport highly viscous
product as high velocity is not achieved due to high viscous forces.

3.5.2 Valves

Valves are electro-mechanical or mechanical devices which are used to regulate the
movement of flowing materials (gases, powders, and liquids) through tubes or pipes
or from tanks or containers. Two varieties of valves are designed, such as on–off
varieties and another which causes the very smooth flow of media through pipes for
better control. On–off varieties are used for either allowing or preventing the flow of
fluid.

Fig. 3.15 Centrifugal Pump

104 A. Patel et al.

3.5.2.1 Butterfly Valves

These valves are more demandable due to their important characteristic such as easy
construction, lightweight, and compact. Butterfly valves have a face-to-face dimen-
sion which makes them smaller and consists of a pivoting disc that is closed to a
food-grade seal [15]. They can sustain pressures up to 1 MPa. A schematic repre-
sentation is shown in Fig. 3.16.

3.5.2.2 Single and Double Seat Valves

Single and double seat valves contain inside stainless steel ball which is moved into a
respective seat using an actuator [15]. These valves are more compatible to pressure
up to 0.5 MPa. The double seat valves find their application in CIP because they
permit two fluid streams to pass through the valve without mixing.

3.5.2.3 Diaphragm Valves

These valves use a flexible diaphragm to stop the fluid flow by “pinching” method.
Also, they have an elastomer membrane or stainless steel bellows which prevent the
product from valve shaft contact. These valves are used, where high-temperature
fluid passes through pipes and these can sustain product pressures of 0.4 MPa.

3.5.2.4 Ball Valves

These valves have important characteristics such as good shut-off capabilities. This
is because of a simple quarter-turn (90
) which opens or closes the valve easily. The
size of the valve (Fig. 3.17) path is as big as that of the pipe itself. The pressure is
very low and the flow of slurries or suspension is easier [15].

Fig. 3.16 Butterfly valves

Lever

Pivoting disc
3 Material Handling and Transportation Devices 105

Fig. 3.17 Ball valve

Nut

Stem
Body Ball

3.5.2.5 Other Valves

These include the following:

• Safety valves: They are applied where large amount of pressure is generated in
pressure vessels.
• Vacuum valves: They prevent the vessel from collapsing under unwanted vac-
uum created during transportation.
• Modulating valves: These valves are used to allow the accurate control of product
throughputs.
• Sampling valves: These valves are used especially in the fermenter or in biomass
production equipment for safe sampling during an ongoing process without
contamination [15].

3.5.3 Pipes

The flow of fluid through pipes is an interesting phenomenon with varying velocity
profile. Pipes generally are those which have large diameters and higher wall
thickness. The diameter ranges at least start from ¼ inch (6 mm) and goes up to
25.4 mm. Since the wall thicknesses are high, they have a definite length, usually
10 ft. (3.048 m) or 20 ft. (6.096 m). Some important practices that need to know
about fluid flow in pipelines are as follows [13]:

• The fluid pipeline should be straight as far as possible to reduce pressure drop
during fluid flow.
• The direction of the flow of fluids should be indicated in the pipelines.
• Standard notation of coloring should be painted on the pipes containing different
fluids.
• The pipes should be joined with coupling or union joints, with a gasket so that
dismantling is easier in case of blockage and leakage.
106 A. Patel et al.

• The valves and other accessories should be approachable and should be kept in a
vertical position as far as possible.

3.5.4 Pipe Fitting and Joints

Pipe fitting and joints are the parts of piping which help in changing the direction of
flow of liquid like tees and elbows. The reducers are used to convert the pipe, which
increases the flow of liquid (Fig. 3.18). Couplings are used to connect the different
components and caps are used to stop the flows [13]. Types of pipe fittings like
elbow, tee, union, coupling, cross, cap, and nipple are summarized as under:

3.5.4.1 Elbow
It is used for connecting to more pipe fittings and available in standard degree of 45

and 90
. These elbows give the flexibility to change the pipe direction.

3.5.4.2 Bend
Bends are used for fluid movement where pigging is required. They have a long
radius which changes the smooth direction of the fluid and due to this pipeline
inspection gauge (PIG) flow control is possible. Bend creates very less pressure drop
in flowing fluid.

3.5.4.3 Tee
Tees mainly applied for the collection of the liquid from the running pipe. They are
small pipe having a 90
branch at the center such as equal/straight tee and reducing/
unequal tee.

3.5.4.4 Reducers
Reducers are used to change the size of pipe at one end so that we can attach another
pipe with having a small diameter. They are available in two forms like concentric
reducer and eccentric reducer.

3.5.4.5 Union
They are alternative to flanges connection generally in low-pressure small-bore
piping, where dismantling of the pipe is more often needed. Unions can be threaded
or socket weld type. Union consists of three pieces, a nut, a male end and a female
end. The nuts provide the necessary pressure to seal the joint, when the male and
female ends are joined.

3.5.4.6 Coupling
They are commonly used for connecting the same diameter pipes and sometimes for
joining the leakage or broken pipes. Coupling can be either compression or slip
coupling. Compression coupling is common and it is used between two pipes which
prevents leakage. Slip coupling can be installed easily and it contains two pipes,
3 Material Handling and Transportation Devices 107

Fig. 3.18 Different types of pipe fitting

108 A. Patel et al.

which are arranged as one into other. The inner pipe can slide up to certain length
[13]. Hence, slip coupling can fix long length damaged pipe.

3.5.4.7 Nipple
Nipple consists of small male pipe having both sides’ threads through which two
other fittings can be connected. They are applied in low-pressure piping for joining
pipe, hoses, and valves.

3.6 Hygienic Considerations During Material Handling

Material handling is a typical transport operation where hygiene plays a very

important role. The contamination problem is common in batch or continuous
process. To avoid the contamination issues in entire processing operation care
must be taken. The possible source of contamination to occur is dirty raw material,
foreign bodies hopping on the food materials, enzymatic action causing degradation
of the raw materials, etc. The hygienic considerations for proper material handling
operation are as follows:

• Transport the raw materials in as pure form as possible. If the raw materials are
dirty, they need to clean at the farm level or the processing plant.
• Material and equipment parts coming in contact with the food materials should be
rust –free.
• The surface comes in contact with the food material that should be smooth and
polished. The pitches and crevices on any rough surface are potential source of
undesirable microorganisms.
• The equipment and machinery used in material handling should be routinely
cleaned at periodic intervals.
• The equipment design of food conveying machines should be smooth, easy to
clean; otherwise, there is a deposition of dust on the surface which causes the
hazard. If scratches or cuts are present on equipment, then it can create problems
for cleaning surfaces.

3.7 Exercise

1. What is the importance and need of material handling and transportation devices
in different unit operations?
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages associated with powerless material
handling devices?
3. What are the differences between dense and dilute phase pneumatic conveying
techniques?
4. What are requirements for using pump in food industry? Classify different types
of pumps used for fluid transportation.
3 Material Handling and Transportation Devices 109

5. What are the differences between positive displacement pump and

centrifugal pump?
6. Discuss the mechanism of spur gear rotary pump.
7. State the application of valves in food industry and classify them.
8. What are the different types of pipe fittings used in various unit operations in
food industries?
9. What will be the horsepower required for operating a belt conveyor whose
capacity is 40 t/h. and its length is 6000 cm. [Answer: 0.432]
10. What will be the capacity of a screw conveyor, if the screw diameter is 200 cm
and the shaft diameter is 1 m and its pitch length is 200 cm and running speed is
1 rpm? [Answer: 4.68 m3/min]
11. What will be the capacity of a bucket elevator if the capacity of each bucket is
0.60 m3 and there are four buckets in the one-meter length of belt and its speed is
150 cm/min. [Answer: 288 m3/h].

References
1. Aremu, O. (1988). Design and construction of belt conveyor machine. Unpublished HND II
thesis submitted to the Mechanical Engineering Department.
2. CEMA. (2019). Conveyor Equipment Manufacturers Association. https://cemanet.org/.
3. Brennan, J. G., Butters, J. R., Cowell, N. D., & Lilley, A. E. V. (1990). Food engineering
operations (3rd ed., pp. 17–63). Elsevier Applied Science.
4. Kharage, A. B., Nelge, B., & Dhumal, K. (2015). Analysis and optimization of gravity roller
conveyor using ansys. International Journal of Engineering Sciences & Research Technology,
4, 296–301.
5. Bern, C., Quick, G. & Herum, F. (2019). Harvesting and postharvest management, Ed. by
Sergio O. Serna-Saldivar, Elsevier Inc. in cooperation with AACC International, 109–145.
6. Bucklin, R., Thompson, S., Montross, M., & Abdel-Hadi, A. (2013). In M. Kutz (Ed.), Grain
storage systems design (pp. 123–175). Myer Kutz Associates, Inc..
7. Despotovic, Z., Sinik, V., Jankovic, S., Dobrilovic, D., & Bjelica, M. (2015). Some specific of
vibratory conveyor drives. In V International Conference Industrial Engineering and Environ-
mental Protection.
8. Blocker and Wallace. (2019). How pneumatic conveying system works: Design and
Applications.https://www.blockerandwallace.com/How-Pneumatic-Conveying-Systems-
Work-Design-Applications-blog.html#
9. Olanrewaju, T. O., Jeremiah, I. M., & Onyeanula, P. E. (2017). Design and fabrication of a
screw conveyor. Agricultural Engineering International: CIGR Journal Open access, 19(3),
156–162.
10. Sahay, K. K., & Singh, K. K. (2001). Unit operations of agricultural processing (2nd ed.,
pp. 289–315). Vikas Publishing House Private Limited.
11. KWS (2019). Types of Screw Conveyors. https://www.kwsmfg.com/
12. Zeppelin Materials Handling GmbH. (2019). Hydraulic Conveying Systems made by Zeppelin.
http://www.zeppelin-industry.com/
13. Rao, D. G. (2014). Fundamentals of food engineering (pp. 108–123). PHI Learning Private
Limited.
14. McCabe, W., Smith, J., & Harriott, P. (1993). Transportation and metering of fluids in unit
operations of chemical engineering (pp. 42–62). Mc-Graw-Hill Book.
15. Fellows, P. (2000). Food processing technology (2nd ed., pp. 534–540). Woodhead Publishing
Limited and CRC Press LLC.
Design of Material Handling Systems
4
Navneet Kumar and Harish Kumar Sharma

Abstract

The chapter deals with the concepts related to the design of material handling
equipment. A systematic design of belt conveyor, which includes the types of
conveyors, class and selection of belt conveyors, capacity of conveyor, speed of
belt, driving forces and power requirements, is discussed. The design of length,
capacity and power requirements is explained through worked examples. The
design of bucket conveyors that includes selection of type, capacity, estimation of
chain or belt tension, spacing between the buckets and power requirements is also
illustrated. In the screw conveyor design, the calculation/selection of capacity,
inclination and power requirement is also explained. The important information
required in designing the conveyors, viz. classification of materials on the basis of
handling characteristics, mechanical properties of agricultural produce and speci-
fication of screw conveyor, are also included. The design of the conveyors
provides basic understanding to design an effective material handling system,
which on the other hand improves the efficiency of agro-processing operations.

Keywords
Belt conveyor design · Bucket elevator design · Screw conveyor design

N. Kumar (*)
Department of Processing and Food Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering and
Technology, Anand Agricultural University, Godhara, Gujarat, India
H. K. Sharma
National Institute of Technology (NIT), (An Institute of National Importance), Agartala, Tripura,
India

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 111
Ltd. 2022
H. K. Sharma, N. Kumar (eds.), Agro-Processing and Food Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7289-7_4
112 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

4.1 Introduction

The material handling systems play an important role from the receiving section to
the packaging and transportation of finished food products. The general cost during
handling and transportation influences the processing cost of food material. The
movement/transportation route also plays an important role in handling cost. An
efficient material handling system eventually reduces the cost per unit volume of
processed product and assures timely supply of material safely in all the unit
operations till the dispatch of the final product.
The efficient and effective design in material handling is needed for the enhance-
ment of productivity. It also contributes to minimizing the cost involved in handling.
Some of the most important considerations for designing material handling
systems are:

1. The idle time for the system should be made negligible by designing the continu-
ous flow of material.
2. Simple mechanisms should be designed to ensure the lower cost of equipment.
3. Application of gravity flow should be exploited up to the maximum extent to
minimize the cost involved in the operation of motors.
4. The dead mass of machine to the mass of food material to be conveyed should be
minimum.

4.2 Belt Conveyor

The belt conveyor components are designed to meet the demand of material to
convey. Nomenclature of various parts of bucket elevator is presented in Fig. 4.1.
The designed capacity and dimension of components should be accurately moni-
tored during the fabrication to ensure efficient operations. Major components/speci-
fication in designing the belt conveyors are capacity, speed of operation, dimension
of rollers, belt tension, power requirement, idlers’ spacing, diameter of pulley,
motor, type of driving unit, pulley location and arrangement, mode of control and
indented application.

Feeding chute

Loading skirts
Food material Conveyor belt
Discharge chute

Head
Tail pulley Conveying Return idlers pulley
Gravity take-up

Fig. 4.1 Nomenclature of belt conveyor

4 Design of Material Handling Systems 113

4.2.1 Types of Belt Conveyors

The belt conveyor is of two types: (1) flat conveyor and (2) troughed conveyor.
These can be arranged in horizontal (flat), inclined or declined orientation. Some-
times, curvature is provided vertically. The troughed conveyors usually have more
than one roller, i.e. two, three and five rollers. The troughed angle may vary from
15 to 45
, while the maximum 15
troughed angle is used in troughed conveyors
with two rollers only. The return rollers usually have troughing angle of about 0, 10
and 15
.

4.2.2 Selection of Belt Conveyors

The flat belt conveyors are used for handling material at a lower capacity and low
speed. These are preferred for the material having smaller lumps with a higher angle
of repose. These can work up to an inclination of 6
and are not preferred for the
downward motion. The troughed belt conveyors are used for higher capacity and
higher speed, handling the presence of bigger lumps, with or without vertical
curvature in flow path and for inclination or declination travel path.

4.2.3 Design of Belt Conveyor

The configuration and layout of conveyor should be finalized initially. The material
to be conveyed should be kept in two broad categories:

1. Classified material – The ratio of the largest lump size (amax) to the lowest lump
size (amin) should remain lesser or equal to 2.5. These materials are defined by
amax and amin values.
2. Non-classified material – The ratio (amax/amin) of the largest lump size (amax) to
the lowest lump size (amin) should remain greater than 2.5. These are defined by
complete sieve analysis.

Where ‘a’ indicates the largest (diagonal) dimension of any lump. The average
lump size can be estimated by taking the mean of maximum and minimum
values [1].
A material can be classified according to the size, flowability and other
characteristics as given in Table 4.1 [2]. The code of the material is used to represent
the characteristics of material, e.g. Code C represents granular material (maximum
lump size 0.5–10 mm), Code CI represents granular material (0.5–10 mm) with
medium bulk density (0.6–1.6 t/m3) and Code CI2 represents granular material
(maximum lump size 0.5–10 mm with medium bulk density (0.6–1.6 t/m3) and
free-flowing characteristics (angle of surcharge 10
and angle of repose between
20 and 30
).
114 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

Table 4.1 Classification of materials on the basis of product handling characteristics [2]
S. no. Description Parameter value/limitations Class
Characteristics: Lump size (amax)
1. Dusty material Up to 0.05 mm A
2. Powdered material (fine sand) 0.05–0.50 mm B
3. Granular material (grain) 0.5–10 mm C
4. Small-sized lumpy (crushed) 10–60 mm D
5. Medium-sized lumpy 60–200 mm E
6. Large lump material 200–500 mm F
7. Especially large lump size (such as stone, Over 500 mm G
boulder, etc.)
Characteristics: Bulk density
8. Light material Up to 0.6 t/m3 H
9. Medium Over 0.6 to 1.6 t/m3 I
10. Heavy Over 1.6 to 2.0 t/m3 J
11. Very heavy Over 2.0 to 4.0 t/m3 K
Characteristics: Flowability
(measured as the angle of surcharge and angle of Angle of Angle of
repose) surcharge repose
12. Very free flowing (uniform, very small 5
0
 θ  20
1
rounded particles)
13. Free flowing (rounded, dry particles) 10
20 < θ  30
2
14. Average flowing (irregular, granular or 20
30 < θ  35
3
lumpy material)
15. Average flowing (common material) 25
35 < θ  40
4
16. Sluggish (irregular, fibrous and interlocking 30
40
< θ 5
material)
Abrasiveness
17. Non-abrasive – 6
18. Abrasive – 7
19. Very abrasive – 8
20. Very sharp Can cut belt covers 9
Miscellaneous characteristics
21. Aerates and develops fluid (or dual – L
operating) characteristics
22. Contains explosive dust – M
23. Sticky – N
24. Contaminable – P
25. Degradable – Q
26. Gives off harmful fumes/dust – R
27 Highly corrosive – S
28 Mildly corrosive – T
29. Hygroscopic – U
30. Oil/chemicals May affect rubber products W
31. Packs under pressure – X
32. Very light and fluffy May be swept by wind T
33. Elevated temperature – Z
4 Design of Material Handling Systems 115

Table 4.2 Material properties of several produce and maximum inclination [2]
Average bulk Angle of Maximum inclination
S. no. Material density, kg/m3 repose, degree recommended
1. Barley 600 23 10–15
2. Buck wheat 640–672 25 11–13
3. Clover seeds 768 28 15
4. Corn shelled 720 21 10
5. Corn meal 600–640 35 19
6. Dry cottonseed 290–400 35 19
7. Dry delinted 400 29 16
cottonseed
8. Cottonseed meal 560–640 35 22
9. Flax seed 720 21 12
10. Fuller’s earth raw 560–640 35 20
oil filter
11. Linseed meal 680 34 20
12. Oats 416 21 10
13. Rice, hulled or 720–768 20 8
polished
14. Rye 704 23 8
15. Coarse common 720–800 30–45 18–22
salt, dry
16. Fine common 1120–1280 25 11
salt, dry
17. Soybean, 510–580 35 15–18
cracked
18. Soybean, whole 720–800 21–28 12–16
19. Soybean cake 640–688 32 17
20. Soybean meal, 640 32–37 16–20
cold
21. Starch 720 24 12
22. Wheat 720–768 28 12

4.2.3.1 Width of Conveyor Belt

The width of belt may be selected according to the maximum uniform-sized material
or maximum dimension of unsized material. The belt width varies from 300 to
2000 mm for maximum uniform-sized lumps of 75–500 mm and maximum unsized
lumps of 100 to 1020 mm. The specific size of belt width may be selected from the
standards [3].
The width of belt can also be decided according to the capacity required, angle of
surcharge and troughing angle. The larger value of belt width required for conveying
the lump size and the capacity is selected for belt conveyor.
116 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

4.2.3.2 Conveyor Inclination

The maximum inclination for various agricultural produces is provided in Table 4.2.
The angle of surcharge is assumed to be the angle of pile surface from the horizon-
tal at rest and is considered about 15–20
lesser than the angle of repose [2].

4.2.3.3 Width of Material on Conveyor Belt

The belt width is decided based on lump size and the capacity of the equipment. The
standard widths of belt are 300, 400, 500, 600, 650, 800, 1000, 1200, 1400, 1600,
1800 and 2000 mm [3]. The width of material on the belt can be estimated using the
following expressions:

if B < 2 m then ! b ¼ 0:9 B  0:05

if B > 2 m then ! b ¼ B  0:25

where B is the width of belt in mm and b width of material on the belt.

Q.1. What will be the width of material on the belts having width of the belt
600, 1400, 2200 and 2400 mm?
Answer: In the case of width of belt less than 2 m:
B ¼ 600 mm ¼ 0.60 m
b ¼ 0.9 B  0.05 ¼ 0.9  0.6  0.05 ¼ 0.49 m
B ¼ 1400 mm ¼ 1.40 m
b ¼ 0.9 B  0.05 ¼ 0.9  0.1.4  0.05 ¼ 1.21 m
In the case of width of belt greater than 2 m:
B ¼ 2200 mm ¼ 2.20 m
b ¼ B  0.25 ¼ 2.20  0.25 ¼ 1.95 m
B ¼ 2400 mm ¼ 2.40 m
b ¼ B  0.25 ¼ 2.40  0.25 ¼ 2.15 m

4.2.3.4 Roller Diameter

Rollers are used to support the belt and facilitate free rotation of belt (Fig. 4.2). The
width of the roller is designed to cover the belt width and should be selected
correctly. The roller diameter can be estimated using the following expression [4]:

Fig. 4.2 Belt conveyor roller

D
4 Design of Material Handling Systems 117

v  1000  60
D¼
πN
where D is the diameter of the roller (mm), v speed of the belt (m/s) and N number of
revolutions per minute.

4.2.3.5 Length of Conveyor Belt

The length of conveyor belt can be estimated using centre-to-centre distance
between the end pulleys, i.e. the length of belt conveyor and the diameter of pulleys
(Fig. 4.3). The pulley dimensions are designed to minimize the stresses on the belt.

π
L ¼ 2C þ ðD1 þ D2 Þ
2
where L is the length of the belt (mm), C is the distance between centres of pulleys
and D1 and D2 are the diameters of pulleys.
In the case of inclined belt at an angle θ, the conveyor length (Y) can be estimated
as (Fig. 4.4):

D1
D2

Fig. 4.3 Dimension of belt in conveyor

Fig. 4.4 Measurement of

inclined conveyor length

X
118 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

X
Y¼
cos θ
where X is the horizontal distance between the centre of rollers and θ angle of
inclination.
The belt length can be measured along the internal surface of the endless
non-tensioned belt [5]. The net length of endless belt is calculated by subtracting
the product of thickness of belt and π.
Net length, L1 ¼ L  π  t

where L1 is the net length, m; L measured length, m; and t thickness of belt, m.

Q.2. The length of a conveyor is 5 m, and the diameters of rollers on extreme ends are
0.4 m and 0.5 m, respectively. Estimate the length of belt required for the installation.
Answer:

π π
L ¼ 2C þ ðD1 þ D2 Þ ¼ 2  5 þ  ð0:5 þ 0:4Þ ¼ 11:41 m
2 2
Q.3. The length of a conveyor is 4.5 m, and the diameters of rollers on extreme
ends are 0.3 m and 0.5 m, respectively. Estimate the minimum length of space
required for the installation of belt conveyor at an angle of 30
.
Answer: The length of conveyor (Y) is equal to the addition of distance between
the pulley centers (C) and radius of both the pulleys.

1 1
Y ¼ C þ ðD1 þ D2 Þ ¼ 4:5 þ  ð0:3 þ 0:5Þ ¼ 4:90 m
2 2
X ¼ Y  cos θ ¼ 4:90  cos 30 ¼ 4:24 m

Q.4. The length of a conveyor is 8 m, and the diameters of rollers on extreme ends
are 0.35 m and 0.45 m, respectively. If the thickness of belt is 5 mm, estimate the
length of belt required for the installation of belt conveyor at an angle of 25
.
Answer:

π π
L ¼ 2C þ ðD1 þ D2 Þ ¼ 2  8:0 þ  ð0:35 þ 0:45Þ ¼ 17:26 m
2 2
Net length, L1 ¼ L  π  t ¼ 17:26  π  0:005 ¼ 17:24 m

Net Length of belt ¼ 17:24 m

4.2.3.6 Conveyor Pulley Diameter

Pulleys are fabricated in a vast range of sizes. The choice of pulley takes into
consideration the wrap angle (180
), speed of belt, medium of belt strain, tension
of belt, width of belt and type of splice of conveyor belt. The minimum diameter of
pulley is decided based on the ply separation or actual fractures in the belt. The
diameter of pulley can be taken from standard value [6]. Generally, the belts are
4 Design of Material Handling Systems 119

made of cotton, polyamide, and polyester. The thickness of belts varies from 1.2 to
20.0 mm, 1.1–20.0 mm, and 0.9–18.5 mm for cotton, polyamide, and polyester belts
respectively. The driving and snub pulley diameters range from 200 to 1600 mm,
which can be selected according to the requirement and as per the specification
provided in IS 8531:1986 [6].

4.2.4 Capacity of Belt Conveyor

4.2.4.1 Cross-Sectional Area of Single Horizontal Roller Belt Conveyor

In the case of flat belt, if the angle of surcharge is θ (Fig. 4.5),

h 2h 1
tan θ ¼ ¼ OR h ¼  b  tan θ
b=2 b 2

Now, the area of triangle formed:

1 1 1 1
A¼  b  h ¼  b   b  tan θ ¼  b2  tan θ
2 2 2 4
where b is the width of material on the belt, m, and θ is the dynamic angle of
repose/surcharge.
The heap of grains forms a curvature on the belt of conveyor. The cross-sectional
area can be measured using curvature of repose. In practice, for simplicity in
calculations, it is assumed that the shape formed is triangular.
Q.5. The width of the conveyor belt is 1400 mm, and the angle of surcharge of
grain is 25
. Estimate the cross-sectional area of grains on the belt, if single roller
belt conveyor is used.
Answer: The width of belt is less than 2 m, therefore:
B ¼ 1400 mm ¼ 1.40 m b ¼ 0.9 B  0.05 ¼ 0.9  1.4  0.05 ¼ 1.21 m

1 1
A ¼  b2  tan θ ¼  1:212  tan 25 ¼ 0:171 m2
4 4

Fig. 4.5 Cross-sectional area

of material on single roller
belt conveyor
θ h
A

b
B
120 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

4.2.4.2 Cross-Sectional Area of Triple Roller Troughed Belt Conveyor

Troughing angle is another important factor for the determination of belt capacity
(Fig. 4.6). The belts are troughed to allow more material for transportation. The
trough angle varies between 15 and 45
, and most common trough angle is 35
for
standard three idler rollers with equal length. The angle of surcharge also affects the
cross-sectional area. The angle of surcharge depends on the friction between the
material and the conveying belt and method of loading material on the belt.
In the case of flat belt, tan θ ¼ b=2
h
¼ 2bh OR h ¼ 12  b  tan θ.
Let b be the length of material on the belt, L ¼ length of roller and a ¼ length of
material covered on inclined belt on each side.

b¼Lþ2a
bL
a¼
2
Let the angle of inclination of roller be λ; then:

bL
h1 ¼ a  sin λ ¼  sin λ
2
bL
c ¼ a  cos λ ¼  cos λ
2
1
Area of part C ¼  ðL þ ðL þ 2cÞÞ  h1
2
1
ΔC ¼  ð2L þ 2cÞ  h1
2



1 bL bL
¼  2L þ 2   cos λ   sin λ
2 2 2


1 bL
¼  ð2L þ ðb  LÞ  cos λÞ   sin λ
2 2

Angle of repose/
surcharge
B θ h2
c
C
λ h1
a a
Angle of
inclination L

Fig. 4.6 Cross-sectional area of material on triple roller troughed belt conveyor
4 Design of Material Handling Systems 121

1
ΔC ¼  ð2L þ ðb  LÞ  cos λÞ  ðb  LÞ  sin λ
4
Let the dynamic angle of repose/surcharge be θ.

1
h2 ¼  ðL þ 2cÞ  tan θ
2
1
Area of part B ¼  ðL þ 2cÞ  h2
2
1 1
ΔB ¼  ðL þ 2cÞ   ðL þ 2cÞ  tan θ
2 2
1
ΔB ¼  ðL þ 2cÞ2  tan θ
4
1
ΔB ¼  ðL þ ðb  LÞ  cos λÞ2  tan θ
4
Total cross sectional area = ΔB þ ΔC
1 1
¼  ð2L þ ðb  LÞ  cos λÞ  ðb  LÞ  sin λ þ  ðL þ ðb  LÞ  cos λÞ2
4 4
 tan θ

where L is the length of roller, b width of material on the belt, θ dynamic angle of
repose/surcharge and λ angle of inclination.
Q.6. The width of the conveyor belt is 2200 mm, and the angle of surcharge of
grain and troughing are 25
and 30
, respectively. Estimate the cross-sectional area
of grains on the belt, if three rollers of 750 mm for troughed belt conveyor are used.
Answer: The width of the belt is greater than 2.0 m, therefore:
B ¼ 2200 mm ¼ 2.20 m b ¼ B  0.25 ¼ 2.20  0.25 ¼ 1.95 m

1
ΔB ¼  ðL þ ðb  LÞ  cos λÞ2  tan θ
4
1
¼  ð0:75 þ ð1:95  0:75Þ  cos 30Þ2  tan 25 ¼ 0:39 m2
4
1
ΔC ¼  ð2L þ ðb  LÞ  cos λÞ  ðb  LÞ  sin λ
4
1
¼  ð2  0:75 þ ð1:95  0:75Þ  cos 30Þ  ð1:95  0:75Þ  sin 30
4
¼ 0:387 m2

Total cross sectional area ¼ ΔB þ ΔC ¼ 0:39 þ 0:387 ¼ 0:777 m2

122 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

4.2.4.3 Estimation of Belt Conveyor Capacity

The capacity of belt can be estimated by multiplying the cross-sectional area of the
material on the belt with velocity and bulk density. The belt capacity (kg/s) can be
estimated as:

BC ¼ A  v  ρ

where BC is the belt capacity (kg/s), A cross-sectional area of grains (m2), v velocity
of moving belt (m/s) and ρ bulk density of grains (kg/m3).
The equation can be written in terms of tonnes/h:

60  60
BC ¼ A  v  ρ 
1000
BC ¼ 3:6  A  v  ρ

where BC is the belt capacity, tonnes/h.

The quantity of conveying material is dependent on the cross-sectional area of the
material conveyed over the belt. The belt should be sufficiently wide to handle the
size of lump of materials.
Q.7. The width of the conveyor belt is 600 mm, and the angle of surcharge of
grain is 25
. Estimate the belt capacity in tonnes per hour, if single roller belt
conveyor is used. The speed of conveyor and bulk density of material are 0.05 m/
s and 750 kg/m3, respectively.
Answer: The width of the belt is less than 2 m, therefore:
B ¼ 600 mm ¼ 0.60 m b ¼ 0.9 B  0.05 ¼ 0.9  0.60  0.05 ¼ 0.49 m

1 1
A ¼  b2  tan θ ¼  0:492  tan 25 ¼ 0:028 m2
4 4
BC ¼ A  v  ρ ¼ 0:028  0:05  750 ¼ 1:05 kg=s ¼ 1:05  3:6
¼ 3:78 tonnes=h

Q.8. The width of the conveyor belt is 1400 mm, and the angle of surcharge of
grain and troughing are 25
and 30
, respectively. Estimate the belt capacity in
tonnes per hour, if three rollers of 483 mm for troughed belt conveyor are used. The
speed of conveyor and bulk density of material are 0.05 m/s and 750 kg/m3,
respectively.
Answer: The width of the belt is less than 2 m, therefore:

B ¼ 1400 mm ¼ 1:40 m b ¼ 0:9 B  0:05 ¼ 0:9  1:4  0:05 ¼ 1:21 m

4 Design of Material Handling Systems 123

1
ΔB ¼  ðL þ ðb  LÞ  cos λÞ2  tan θ
4
1
¼  ð0:483 þ ð1:21  0:483Þ  cos 30Þ2  tan 25 ¼ 0:151 m2
4
1
ΔC ¼  ð2L þ ðb  LÞ  cos λÞ  ðb  LÞ  sin λ
4
1
¼  ð2  0:483 þ ð1:21  0:483Þ  cos 30Þ  ð1:21  0:483Þ  sin 30
4
¼ 0:147 m2

Total cross sectional area ¼ ΔB þ ΔC ¼ 0:151 þ 0:147 ¼ 0:298 m2

BC ¼ A  v  ρ ¼ 0:298  0:05  750 ¼ 11:175 kg=s ¼ 11:175  3:6

¼ 40:23 tonnes=h

4.2.5 Speed of Belt

The speed of belt can be estimated as:

v¼πDN

where v is the speed of belt, m/s; D diameter of pulley, m; and N number of rotations
per second. The belt speed should also be checked from the manufacturer
specifications/standards for standard width of belts, and higher value from either
estimated or standard value is selected. The speed of belt affects the loading,
discharge, transfer arrangements and maintenance of belts.

4.2.6 Driving Force in Belt Conveyor

The peripheral force required for driving the pulley can be estimated considering
various resistances, which are offered during movement of belt [3]. Total force on
driving pulley TE (N ) can be estimated using the following expression:

T E ¼ R þ RS þ RSp1 þ RSp2 þ RSL

where R is the main resistance (N ), RS secondary resistance (N ), RSp1 special main

resistances (N ), RSp2 special secondary resistances (N ) and RSL slope resistance (N ).
124 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

4.2.6.1 Main Resistance (R)

It includes rolling resistance for carrying material return idlers and belt advancement
resistance due to impression of idlers in belt and can be estimated using following
expression:

R ¼/ f  L  g ½M c þ M r þ ð2M B þ M G Þ cos δ

where:
α ¼ numerical coefficient dependent on length, L
¼ Total resitance without slope&special resistance
Main resistance can be obtained from standards [3]
f ¼ artificial friction coefficient
¼ 0.012 for belt conveyors under no load conditions.
¼ 0.20 for considering as basic value at normal capacity installations
¼ 0.30 for material with high internal friction coefficients, troughing angle above
30
, belt speed over 5 m/s, poorly aligned installations, etc.
g ¼ acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
L ¼ conveyor length (distance between centres)
Mc and Mr ¼ mass of revolving idler parts along the carrying side and return side
of the conveyor, respectively, kg/m.
MB ¼ mass of belt, kg/m.
MG ¼ mass per metre of handling material, kg/m.
¼ ρQV  1000
ρ ¼ bulk density of material, tonnes/m3
Q ¼ volumetric conveying capacity, m3/s.
V ¼ belt speed, m/s
δ = slope angle from horizontal line in the moving direction
Q.9. A belt conveyor of 12 m length has 12 and 6 rollers of 650 g each on carrying
side and return side, respectively. The width of the conveyor belt is 600 mm, and the
angle of surcharge of grain is 25
. Estimate the belt capacity in tonnes per hour, if
single roller belt conveyor is used. The speed of conveyor and bulk density of
material are 0.05 m/s and 0.750 t/m3, respectively. The conveyor belt moves at an
angle of 10
from the horizontal line (assume α ¼ 4.8, f ¼ 0.20 and mass of
belt ¼ 2.0 kg/m).
Answer: The width of the belt is less than 2.0 m, therefore:
B ¼ 600 mm ¼ 0.60 m b ¼ 0.9 B  0.05 ¼ 0.9  0.60  0.05 ¼ 0.49 m

1 1
A ¼  b2  tan θ ¼  0:492  tan 25 ¼ 0:028 m2
4 4
Belt Capacity, m3 =s ¼ A  v ¼ 0:028  0:05 ¼ 0:0014 m3 =s
4 Design of Material Handling Systems 125

Total number of rollers on conveying side

Mc ¼  Mass of one roller
Length of belt
12
¼  0:65 ¼ 0:65 kg=m
12
Total number of rollers on return side 6
Mr ¼  Mass of one roller ¼  0:65
Length of belt 12
¼ 0:325 kg=m

M B ¼ 2:0 kg=m
ρQ 0:750  0:0014
MG ¼  1000 ¼  1000 ¼ 21 kg=m
V 0:05
R ¼/ f  L  g ½mc þ mr þ ð2M B þ M G Þ cos δ

R ¼ 4:8  0:20  12  9:81  ½0:65 þ 0:325 þ ð2  2:0 þ 21Þ cos 10

¼ 2878:96 N

4.2.6.2 Secondary Resistance (RS)

It includes frictional and inertial resistances due to acceleration, friction on side
walls, pulley bearing resistances and wrapping of belt on pulley and can be estimated
using following expression:

RS ¼ Rs þ Rsks þ Rw þ Rb

where:
(1) RS
¼ inertial and frictional resistance (N), between the handled material and the belt, at
the loading point and in the acceleration area

RS ¼ Q  1000  ρ  ðV  V o Þ

V0 ¼ handled material (in the direction of belt motion) conveying speed compo-
nent, m/s
(2) RSks ¼ frictional resistance (N) in acceleration area, between handled material
and the skirt plate

μ2  Q2  1000  ρ  g  l2
RSks ¼ VþV 0 2
2  bl 2

μ2 ¼ coefficient of friction between skirt plates and material (depends on material

of belt and material to be conveyed – measured experimentally).
126 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

l2 ¼ distances from the point of separation to the points situated on the tangent
line from which ordinates are to be drawn, m.
bl ¼ inter-skirt plate width, m.
(3) Rw ¼ wrap
 resistance between  t belt and pulley, N
Rw ¼ 9B  140  þ 0:01  B  D – for fabric belt
T av

Rw ¼ 12B  200 þ 0:01  TBav  Dt – for steel cord belt

B ¼ belt width, m.
Tav ¼ average tension at the pulley, N.
T ¼ belt thickness, m.
D ¼ diameter of pulley, m.
(4) Rb ¼ pulley bearing resistance except drive pulley, N

d
Rb ¼ 0:005   RV
D
Rv ¼ vector sum of two belt tensions: (1) the force acting on the pulley and (2) the
forces due to the revolving parts of the pulley, N.
d ¼ shaft diameter inside bearing, m.
D ¼ pulley diameter, m.

4.2.6.3 Special Main Resistances (Rsp1)

It Includes Drag Resistance Due to Tilt of Idler, Friction against the Complete Chute
Flaps and Skirt Plates and Can Be Estimated Using the Following Expression

Rsp1 ¼ Rt þ Rsk

where:
(1) Rt ¼ resistance due to idler tilting, N
Rt ¼ g  C1  μ0  L1  (MB + MG) cos δ  sin i
– for idlers with three equal rollers
Rt ¼ g  μ0  Ll  (MB)  cos τ  cos δ  sin i
– for return idlers with two rollers
g ¼ acceleration due to gravity, m/s2.
C1 ¼ coefficient depending upon trough angle.
μo ¼ coefficient of friction between belts and carrying idlers.
L1 ¼ length of installation equipped with tilted idler, m.
MB ¼ mass of belt per metre, kg/m.
MG ¼ mass of handled material on conveyor per metre, kg/m.
δ ¼ conveyor slope angle from horizontal line in the moving direction.
τ ¼ troughing angle of return idlers.
i ¼ tilt angle of idler axis w.r.t. a plane normal to the longitudinal axis of the belt
for self-alignment (limited to 2
–3
).
(2) Rsk ¼ resistance due to friction between skirt plates and handled material, N
4 Design of Material Handling Systems 127

μ2  Q2  1000  ρ  g  lsk
Rsk ¼
V 2  bl 2
μ2 ¼ coefficient of friction between skirt plates and material.
Q ¼ volumetric conveyor capacity, m3/s.
ρ ¼ bulk density of material, tonnes/m3.
g ¼ acceleration due to gravity, m/s2.
lsk ¼ length of installation equipped with skirt plates excluding loading area, m.
V ¼ belt speed, m/s.
bl ¼ inter-skirt plate width, m.

4.2.6.4 Special Secondary Resistances (Rsp2)

The special secondary resistance includes friction with belt and pulley cleaners,
friction against the chute flaps and skirt plates, resistance due to inverting return
stand, and installation of discharge plough and trippers. It can be estimated using the
following expression:

Rsp2 ¼ Rbe þ Rp

where:
(1) Rbe ¼ frictional resistance due to belt cleaners, N

Rbe ¼ A1  ρ  μ3

A1 ¼ contact area between belt and belt cleaner, m2

ρ ¼ bulk density of material, tonnes/m3
μ3 ¼ coefficient of friction between belt cleaner and belt
(2) Rp ¼ resistance (N) at the discharge plough due to friction

Rp ¼ B  K a

B ¼ belt width, m
Ka ¼ scrapping factor, N/m (normally 1500 N/m)

4.2.6.5 Slope Resistance (Rsl)

It includes resistances offered due to lifting or lowering the material and trippers and
can be estimated using the following expression:

Rsl ¼ mG  H  g

where:
MG ¼ mass per metre of handling material, kg/m
H ¼ lift of conveyor between loading and discharge end, m
g ¼ acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
128 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

4.2.7 Power Requirement

(1) Operating Power Requirement at Drive Pulley.

The requirement of power (kW) to operate driving pulley can be estimated using
the driving force and speed of the belt and can be expressed as:

TE  V
PoP ¼
1000
where:
TE ¼ total force on driving pulley, N
V ¼ belt speed, m/s
(2) Absorbed Power Requirement
The power requirement (kW) may be added with additional force required for
considering drive pulley loss and can be modified as:
T E  V ðRWd þ Rbd Þ  V
PA ¼ þ
1000 1000
where:
Rwd ¼ wrap resistance (N ) between belt and pulley for driving pulley.
Rbd ¼ pulley bearing resistance (N ) to drive pulley.
Rwd ¼ wrap resistance
 between belt and drive pulley, N
Rwd ¼ 9B  140  þ 0:01  TBav  Dt – for fabric belt
Rwd ¼ 12B  200 þ 0:01  TBav  Dt – for steel cord belt
B ¼ belt width, m
Tav ¼ average tension at the drive pulley, N.
T ¼ belt thickness, m
D ¼ diameter of pulley, m
Rbd ¼ pulley bearing for drive pulley, N

d
Rbd ¼ 0:005   RV
D
d ¼ shaft diameter inside bearing, m
D ¼ pulley diameter, m
Rv ¼ vector sum of the two belt tensions: (1) the force acting on the drive pulley
and (2) the forces due to the mass of the revolving parts of the drive pulley, N.
(3) Motor Output Power.
The power requirement (kW) for motor shaft can be estimated using the effi-
ciency of various transmission elements and can be expressed as:

PA
PM =
η
where η is the efficiency of various transmission elements.
4 Design of Material Handling Systems 129

Q.10. A belt conveyor of 10 m length has eight and four rollers of 500 g each on
carrying side and return side, respectively. The width of the conveyor belt is
1400 mm, and the angle of surcharge of grain is 25
. Estimate the belt capacity in
tonnes per hour, if single roller belt conveyor is used. The speed of conveyor and
bulk density of material are 0.05 m/s and 0.750 t/m3, respectively. The conveyor belt
moves at an angle of 10
from the horizontal line (assume α ¼ 4.8, f ¼ 0.20 and mass
of belt ¼ 2.0 kg/m). Calculate operating power of the conveyor. The diameters of
drive pulley and shaft are 20 cm and 5 cm, respectively. The fabric belt of 5 mm
thickness is used in the conveyor. If the average tension of drive pulley and sum of
all belt tensions are 50 N and 75 N, respectively, calculate the absorbed power
requirement and motor output power at 80% efficiency.
Answer: The width of the belt is less than 2.0 m, therefore:
B ¼ 600 mm ¼ 0.60 m b ¼ 0.9 B  0.05 ¼ 0.9  0.60  0.05 ¼ 0.49 m

1 1
A ¼  b2  tan θ ¼  0:492  tan 25 ¼ 0:028 m2
4 4
Belt Capacity, m3 =s ¼ A  v ¼ 0:028  0:05 ¼ 0:0086m3 =s
Total number of rollers on conveying side
Mc ¼  Mass of one roller
Length of belt
8
¼  0:50 ¼ 0:40kg=m
10
Total number of rollers on return side 4
Mr ¼  Mass of one roller ¼  0:50
Length of belt 10
¼ 0:20 kg=m

M B ¼ 2:0 kg=m
ρQ 0:750  0:0086
MG ¼  1000 ¼  1000 ¼ 128:25 kg=m
V 0:05
R ¼/ f  L  g ½mc þ mr þ ð2M B þ M G Þ cos δ

R ¼ 4:8  0:20  10  9:81  ½0:40 þ 0:20 þ ð2  2:0 þ 128:25Þ cos 10

¼ 12262:19 N

¼ 122.62 kN
TE  V
PoP ¼
1000

12262:19  0:05
PoP ¼ ¼ 0:613 kW
1000
130 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

h i
T t
Rwd ¼ 9B  140 þ 0:01  av 
B D
 
50 0:005
Rwd ¼ 9  1:4  140 þ 0:01   ¼ 44:213 N
1:4 0:2

d
Rbd ¼ 0:005   RV
D
0:05
Rbd ¼ 0:005   75 ¼ 0:094 N
0:2
T E  V ðRWd þ Rbd Þ  V
PA ¼ þ
1000 1000
ð44:213 þ 0:094Þ  0:05
PA ¼ 0:613 þ ¼ 0:615 N
1000
PA 0:615
PM = = = 0:769 kW
η 0:80
The programmer controllers are generally used for controlling the time of opera-
tion, conveyor speed, individual drive speed, balancing of load, etc.

4.3 Bucket Elevator

The bucket elevator can be used to move various bulk materials in an upward
direction. Vertical elevators are operated by centrifugal force. This makes the
materials flow into the discharge chute when it runs at high speed. Centrifugal
bucket elevator has the spaced buckets with rounded bottoms. These buckets are
organized on elevator either close to each other or arranged apart. Bucket elevator
consists of flat chain on which the small bucket is bolted. The rubber belt and plastic
bucket may also be used. Pulleys, which are driven by electric motor, are arranged
on the top and bottom having specified diameter. The elevator permits the materials
sent to chosen bin.

4.3.1 Types of Bucket Elevator

Bucket elevators are primarily fabricated in three different discharge configurations,

viz. continuous, centrifugal and positive discharge elevators. The designs provide
continuous vertical conveying. Each style performs differently with choice between
the three options depending largely on the specific requirements of material.
4 Design of Material Handling Systems 131

4.3.1.1 Centrifugal Bucket Elevator (CBE)

The CBEs are better suited for faster, smoother handling applications where degra-
dation/aeration of material is not a concern (Fig. 4.7). This type of material handling
is typically used for free-flowing/powdered material. It is often used for wheat, rice,
corn and other grains. In this elevator, self-loading mechanism is provided for
scooping material from a hopper because it passes through the boot section. When
buckets pass over the head pulley, then buckets discharge material by ‘throwing’ it
into the discharge chute by centrifugal force. It operates at higher speeds and
accommodates greater capacities. Therefore, these elevators are preferred choice at
shipping terminals and other high-volume settings. These conveyors use type A1,
A2, A3 and A4 buckets as per IS 7167:1974 [7].

4.3.1.2 Positive Discharge Elevators

The construction of positive discharge elevators is similar to centrifugal discharge
elevator except installation of a sprocket for pushing the belt and buckets towards the
centre of elevator (Fig. 4.8). This assures the complete discharge of materials from
the buckets due to complete overturning. These are suitable for elevating lighter,
dusty or sticky products, which are difficult to discharge in centrifugal bucket
elevator. These conveyors also use type A1, A2, A3 and A4 buckets as per IS
7167:1974 [7].

4.3.1.3 Continuous Bucket Elevator

This elevator operates at slower speeds. It offers gentle handling for materials, which
are fragile or susceptible to aeration. They are the preferred choice in applications
like potash and other fertilizers where degradation/attrition is the main concern.
Continuous bucket elevators are suitable choice for handling materials which are
either abrasive or varying in particle size (Fig. 4.9). The handling material is to be fed
from a chute into buckets while passing through the boot section. Buckets are
arranged and designed in a way that the back of bucket may serve as a discharge
surface for the preceding bucket by making the way for grain to discharge in chute
via gravity.

Fig. 4.7 Centrifugal bucket

elevator
132 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

Fig. 4.8 Positive discharge

elevators

Fig. 4.9 Continuous bucket

elevator

4.3.2 Selection for the Type of Bucket Elevator

The bucket elevators should be selected on the basis of properties of material to be

conveyed like stickiness, bulk density and size (Appendix A: Table 1). The buckets
are fixed on belts or chains. Belt-type bucket elevators (BTBE) provide a cost-
effective way for applications like sand handling (a centrifugal belt-type elevator
with nylon buckets provides a highly effective as well as economic option in such
settings). These are preferred choice when noise is a concern. BTBE are less costly
and remain less durable in comparison to chain-type bucket elevators. BTBE are
lesser fit for demanding applications like at mine sites and not recommended for hot
and combustible material. Further, since large particles might become wedged
between bucket and belt and may cause of damage to belt, therefore, the belt-type
elevator is best suitable for smaller particle sizes (i.e. roughly 1/400 ).
Chain-type bucket elevators (CTBE) are suitable for high-capacity operation,
handling higher-temperature (greater than 200
C) material or potentially combusti-
ble materials, but remain costlier in comparison to BTBE. This is also suitable for
materials of larger particle size. Elevators having larger buckets typically use a dual-
chain design. The belt or chains are used to transmit the power as well as carry the
bucket. An electric motor is installed at the top to drive the belts, which load the
material in the bucket available at the bottom section/boot of the conveyor. The
screw and nut assembly are used to control the tension and alignment of the belt.
4 Design of Material Handling Systems 133

The characteristics of the materials, which affect the capacity of elevator, are
geometry of bucket and speed at which the handling material is being operated. The
angle of detachment is known as angle at which the material leaves the bucket. The
basic criterion for designing the bucket is given as follows:

• Design of the bucket should be at an angle of 45
.

• For high capacity, tulip-shaped high curvature bucket is considered.
• The deeper buckets should not be preferred in centrifugal bucket elevator for
complete discharge of material from the bucket.
• The required size of bucket may also be selected from the given standard size
from the manufacturer specifications/standards.

4.3.3 Design of Bucket Elevator

4.3.3.1 Capacity
The capacity of bucket elevator can be estimated using the following expression [7]:

F  C  ρ  3600  V  104
T¼
100  S
where T is the bucket elevator capacity, tonnes/h; F constant of percentage filling;
C capacity of one bucket, litres; V belt/chain speed, m/s; ρ material bulk density,
kg/m3; and S bucket spacing, m. The recommended values of capacity of buckets, C,
can be selected from IS 6833:1973 [8], while the constant of percentage filling, F;
belt speed, V; and spacing, S, can be selected from IS 7167:1974 [7].
Q.11. Estimate the capacity of a bucket elevator, which has buckets with 0.5 litre
capacities and fitted with 0.2 m distance to elevate wheat (bulk density 800 kg/m3).
The speed of the belt is 2 m/s. Consider the percentage filling constant as 0.8.
Answer: We know that

F  C  ρ  3600  V  104
T¼
100  S
0:8  0:87  800  3600  2  104
T¼ ¼ 20:04 t=h
100  0:2

4.3.3.2 Selection of Buckets

The selection of the bucket is also based on the type of the material to be handled and
the type of elevator. However, the types of buckets are specific to the types of
elevators, viz. A-type buckets are used in centrifugal or positive discharge elevators,
while B-type buckets are used for continuous discharge elevators (Appendix A:
Table 2). The capacity of the bucket for various-sized buckets varies between 0.71
and 48.6 litres per bucket, and detailed specification of size is mentioned in IS 6883:
1973 [8]. The manufacturer should consider the type of bucket, length, projection,
134 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

thickness of material and method of fixing as per the specification of buckets for
designing a bucket conveyor.

4.3.3.3 Selection of Casing and Take-Ups

The dimension of casing should be selected from the given standard dimensions
[9]. The take-ups are the arrangements for adjusting the tightness of belt using nut
and bolt arrangements. These take-ups in casing of bucket conveyor are provided to
make adjustments in distances between shaft centres to balance the elongation that
occurred during wearing of belt and for necessary maintenance. The take-ups can be
installed at the head or boot shaft. Installation at the head shaft provides advantage of
storage of material for some time. It also minimizes the possibility of deterioration of
material quality accumulated in the boot section and restricts the mixing of material
during reuse of bucket conveyor for different material. It is also recommended for
the handling of spherical-shaped material and unapproachable locations of the
loading pits. The installed take-ups at the boot shaft provide advantages of easier
adjustment of tension and increase the possibility of automatic take-up operations.

4.3.3.4 Selection of Chain and Belt

The chains are preferred for heavy-duty material handling processes and for the hard,
hot, lumpy or corrosive material, which may affect the material of the belt. The belts
are generally used for handling the grains, free-flowing material and abrasive
material. The belts can run on a faster speed in comparison to chain. Any chain
from bushed chains, bushed pintle chains, bushed roller chains and combination may
be used in bucket elevators, while suitability and long working life of chain depend
on the judicious selection.

4.3.4 Estimation of Tension in Chain/Belt

Tension due to chain/belt mass (N ):

T a ¼ Elevator height  mass of chain=belt per unit length  g

where ‘elevator height’ and ‘mass of chain/belt per unit length’ are used in metre
(m) and kilogramme per metre (kg/m), respectively.
Tension due to bucket mass (N ):

Elevator height  mass of one bucket

Tb ¼ g
Spacing between the buckets

where ‘elevator height’, ‘mass of one bucket’ and ‘spacing between the buckets’ are
used in metre (m), kilogramme (kg) and metre (m), respectively.
4 Design of Material Handling Systems 135

Tension due to mass of material in buckets (N):

Elevator height  mass of material filled in one bucket

Tw ¼ g
Spacing between the buckets

where ‘elevator height’, ‘mass of filled material in one bucket’ and ‘spacing between
the buckets’ are used in metre (m), kilogramme (kg) and metre (m), respectively.
Tension due to mass of pick-up of the material (N):

Height factor ðHoÞ  mass of material filled in one bucket

Tf ¼ g
Spacing between the buckets

where height factor (Ho) represents the pick-up force in metre, Ho ¼ 10 m for
centrifugal and positive discharge elevator and Ho ¼ 3 m for continuous-type
elevators, while ‘mass of filled material in one bucket’ and ‘spacing between the
buckets’ are used in kilogramme (kg) and metre (m), respectively.
The maximum tension in chains (N ) can be estimated using the following
expression:

Tm ¼ Ta þ Tb þ Tw þ T f

In the case of bucket elevators with belt, the ratio of mass of material loaded in
buckets to mass of belt and empty buckets is high; the additional tension should be
applied at the boot pulley for effective head pulley drive. Maximum tension in this
case can be estimated as:

Mass of material filled in one bucket ðkgÞ

T m ¼ ð1 þ K Þ 
Spacing between the buckets ðmÞ
 ðElevator height þ Height factorÞ  g

where ‘mass of filled material in one bucket’ is in kilogramme (kg) and ‘spacing
between the buckets’, ‘elevator height’ and ‘height factor’ are used in metre (m).
Where k is 0.97 for bare pulley drive and screw powered take-up, 0.80 for lagged
pulley drive and screw take-up, 0.64 for bare pulley drive with gravity take-up and
0.50 for lagged pulley and gravity take-up.
The maximum value obtained for Tm from the above-mentioned equations should
be considered for the selection of belts for the conveyor.
Q.12 A centrifugal bucket conveyor has A1 buckets, which has buckets with 0.87
litre capacity and has a mass of 0.60 kg of each bucket and spaced at 0.3 m. The
length of bucket is 150 mm. Estimate various stresses in the chain, if the height of
elevator is 6 m. The mass of the chain is 3.5 kg/m. The elevator is used to lift the
grain with a bulk density of 850 kg/m3.
136 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

Answer:

T a ¼ Elevator height  mass of chain per unit length  g ¼ 6  3:5  9:81

¼ 206:01 N

Elevator height  mass of one bucket 6  0:6

Tb ¼ g¼  9:81 ¼ 117:72 N
Spacing between the buckets 0:3
Elevator height  mass of material filled in one bucket
Tw ¼ g
Spacing between the buckets
6  ð0:00087  850Þ
¼  9:81 ¼ 145:09 N
0:3
Height factor  mass of material filled in one bucket
Tf ¼ g
Spacing between the buckets
10  ð0:00087  850Þ
¼  9:81 ¼ 241:82 N
0:3
T m ¼ T a þ T b þ T w þ T f ¼ 206:01 þ 117:72 þ 145:09 þ 241:82 ¼ 710:64 N

4.3.5 Selection of Plies in Belt

The number of plies in the belt can be estimated using the following expression:

Maximum tension
Number of plies ¼
Width of Belt ðcmÞ  Working tension per ply ðN=cmÞ

The minimum number of plies is dependent on the type of material and projection
of the buckets used. The light powdery/free-flowing material, heavy and lump-free
material, coarse materials and sticky materials have 4–6, 4–7, 5–8 and 7–10 plies,
respectively, for the projections of buckets from 100 to 250 mm [7].

4.3.6 Sprocket Diameter and Speed of Elevators

The centrifugal discharge depends on the size of sprocket and speed of bucket for
efficient loading of material and discharge. The recommended diameters for head
sprocket and boot sprocket and speed of centrifugal discharge bucket elevators are
500–760 mm, 355–585 mm and 1.55 m/s, respectively. The recommended diameters
for head sprocket, boot sprocket and snub sprocket and speed of positive discharge
bucket elevators are 625–780 mm, 425–635 mm, 300–445 mm and 0.61 m/s,
respectively. The recommended diameters for head sprocket, boot sprocket, and
snub sprocket of continuous-type bucket elevators may range between 500–735 mm,
445–560 mm, 300–445 mm respectively, while the recommended speed of the
elevator should remain between 0.5–0.9 m/s.
4 Design of Material Handling Systems 137

4.3.7 Spacing between Buckets

The spacing between buckets is dependent on bucket length and chain speed. The
specification of diameters of sprocket/pulley is also provided in IS 7167:1974
[7]. The recommended bucket spacing for centrifugal discharge bucket elevators,
positive discharge elevators and continuous-type bucket elevators are 320–630 mm,
500–630 mm and 150–480 mm, respectively [7].

4.3.8 Power Requirement

The power requirement at the head shaft can be estimated using the following
expression:

Te  V
Power requirement at head shaft ðkWÞ ¼
10
where Te is the effective tension, kN, and V belt/chain speed, m/s. The effective
tension can be estimated using the following expression:

Mass of material in one bucket

T e ¼ ðElevator height þ Height factor Þ  g
Spacing between the buckets

where ‘mass of filled material in one bucket’ is in kilogramme (kg) and ‘spacing
between the buckets’, ‘elevator height’ and ‘height factor’ are used in metre (m).

Power requirement at head shaft

Motor output, kW ¼
Efficiency of the drive

Q.13 A centrifugal bucket conveyor has A1 buckets, which has buckets with 6.5
litre capacity. The length of bucket is 350 mm which are spaced at 500 mm. Estimate
the power requirement at the head shaft, if the height of elevator is 11 m. The
elevator is used to lift the grain with a bulk density of 850 kg/m3. The speed of the
belt is 1.15 m/s. If motor efficiency is 75%, estimate the motor output required to
operate the bucket elevator.
Solution: We know that

The mass of material in one bucket ¼ volume of bucket  material density

¼ 6:5  850=1000 ¼ 5:525 kg

T e ¼ ðElevator height ðmÞ þ Height factor ðmÞÞ

Mass of material in one bucket ðkg Þ
 g
Spacing between the buckets ðmÞ

We know that Ho ¼ 10 m for centrifugal and positive discharge elevator

138 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

5:525
T e ¼ ð11 þ 10Þ   9:81 ¼ 2276:4N ¼ 2:276 kN
0:50
T e  V 2:276  1:15
Power requirement at head shaft ðkWÞ ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:262 kW
10 10
Power requirement at head shaft 0:262
Motor output, kW ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:35 kW
Efficiency of the drive 0:75

4.4 Screw Conveyor

A screw conveyor (SC) comprises a circular or U-shaped tube in which a helix

rotates (Fig. 4.10). The grains are pushed along the bottom of the tube by helix,
which leads to easier unpacking of the tube. SC is generally used to transport and/or
elevate stuff at controlled and steady rate and in many bulk materials’ handling
applications like agriculture (i.e. conveying of grains from transport vehicles to
storage bins, mixing of grain in storage and movement of grains from bin to central
unloading point), chemicals as well as food processing. SC size varies from 100 to
1250 mm in diameter, and its length varies from less than 1 m to more than
30 m [10].

4.4.1 Design Consideration

The cost, availability of material, resistance to corrosion, and resistance to wear are
important parameters for designing a screw conveyor. The techno-economic viabil-
ity and portability are also important factors for the users. For agricultural materials,

Inlet Trough/ housing

Pitch Screw Shaft

Flow of material

Outlet

Fig. 4.10 Schematic diagram of screw conveyor

4 Design of Material Handling Systems 139

physical properties of materials/grains to be conveyed are also important to be

selected.

4.4.2 Design Calculations

The nomenclature of various components is presented in Fig. 4.11, which are

required to determine the capacity, selection of size and other parameters.

4.4.2.1 Nominal Size of Screw Conveyor

It represents the diameter of helical screw (D) in millimetres. The increase in
nominal diameter increases the capacity of screw conveyor. The standard sizes are
presented in Table 4.3 [10, 11], which may be selected according to the requirement.

4.4.2.2 Pitch of Screw

The pitch (S) is usually kept equal to the nominal size/diameter of the helical screw
(D). However, it may vary from 0.75 to 1.0 times of nominal size of screw [12]. The
pitch of screw varies from 80 to 1000 mm and can be selected from IS 5563:
1985 [10].

4.4.2.3 Shaft Diameter

The solid or tubular shafts may be used for mounting the helical screw. The shaft
provides the power to helical screw; therefore, it should be adequately strong to
handle the torque generated. The shaft may be hollow or solid. Generally, its
diameter (d) is also selected according to the nominal size of the screw (Table 4.3).

4.4.2.4 Trough Height and Width

The height (a) of screw is measured from the centre of the shaft till the outer casing
of the screw. It is also dependent on the nominal size of the screw. The width of the
trough (c) also depends on the nominal size of screw and can be obtained from
Table 4.3.

4.4.2.5 Radial Clearances

Radial clearances between the outer periphery of helical screw and the interior of the
trough are kept for easier movement of the screw. The radial clearance is generally in
the range of 5–10 mm, 5–15 mm and 5–20 mm for nominal helical screw, having a

S c

a
D d

Fig. 4.11 Nomenclature of various parts of screw conveyor

 140

Table 4.3 Specification of screw conveyors [10, 11]

Radial
Nominal diameter Tubular shaft Solid shaft Trough height Trough width clearances, Recommended screw
S. no. (D), mm diameter (d ), mm diameter (d ), mm (a), mm (c), mm mm speed, rpm
1 100 33.7 30 63 120 5–10 23.6 to 150.0
2 125 33.7 30 75 145 5–10 23.6 to 150.0
3 160 42.4 35 90 180 5–10 23.6 to 150.0
4 200 48.3 40 112 220 5–10 23.6 to 150.0
5 250 60.3 50 140 270 5–10 23.6 to 118.0
6 315 76.1 60 180 335 5–10 19.0 to 118.0
7 400 76.1/88.9 60/70 224 420 5–15 19.0 to 95.0
8 500 88.9/114.3 70/80 280 530 5–15 19.0 to 95.0
9 630 114.3/139.7 80/90 355 660 5–15 15.0 to 75.0
10 800 139.7/152.4 90/100 450 830 5–20 –
11 1000 152.4/193.7 100/110 560 1040 5–20 –
12 1250 193.7 110 710 1290 5–20 –
N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma
4 Design of Material Handling Systems 141

diameter up to 400 mm, –800 mm and 800–1250 mm, respectively [10]. It is selected
based on the properties of the material and working conditions.

4.4.2.6 Guarding
The guarding shall be provided for the revolving screw, rotating shafts, coupling,
chains, gears, pulleys and driving belts. Minimum clearance between the guard and
moving parts in relation to the size of opening in guards of different materials
(perforated metal, woven wire or similar material) can be chosen from the specified
standard values [10]. Size of opening, up to 10 mm, 10–13 mm, 13–30 mm and
30–38 mm, may have the minimum clearance of 25, 65, 100 and 130 mm,
respectively [10].

4.4.2.7 Conveying Velocity

The conveying velocity of the material can be estimated by multiplying the pitch of
the screw (s) with the revolutions per minute (n), and it can be expressed as [11]:

sn
V¼
60
where V is the conveying velocity, m/s; s screw pitch, m; and n revolutions per
minute (rpm).

4.4.3 Capacity of Screw Conveyor

The SC capacity depends upon the nominal diameter of screw, diameter of shaft,
pitch of the shaft and rotating speed of the screw. The theoretical conveyance
capacity of the screw conveyor can be expressed as [11]:

π  2
Q¼ D  d 2  s  n  60
4

Q ¼ 47:2 D2  d2  s  n

where Q is the capacity of conveyor, m3/h; D nominal diameter of screw, m;

d diameter of shaft, m; s screw pitch, m; and n revolutions per minute (rpm).

4.4.4 Effect of Inclination on Capacity of Screw Conveyor

The screw conveyors may also be used in conveying the material in inclined position
(Fig. 4.12). About 10 to 50% decrease in capacity is observed during the inclination
from 5 to 25
. The correction factor ‘C’ is taken as 1.0, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6 and 0.5 with
an inclination of 0, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25
, respectively [11].
A supply chute with variable gate is used to load and unload the material from the
screw conveyor and maintain the continuous supply. The product is usually
142 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

Fig. 4.12 Inclined screw conveyor

discharged from the terminating end of the conveyor; however, intermediate deliv-
ery point can also be provided to allow multiple point exit of the material.
Q.14. The dimensions of screw are measured, and it is observed that screw’s
diameter, pitch and shaft diameter are 31.5, 31.5 and 6 cm, respectively. The
conveyor is operated at a speed of 100 rpm. Calculate the forward velocity and
capacity of the screw conveyor. If the conveyer is reinstalled at an angle of 15
from
horizontal, calculate its revised capacity.
Solution:
Given: D ¼ 31.5 cm ¼ 0.315 m; d ¼ 6 cm ¼ 0.06 m; s ¼ 31.5 cm ¼ 0.315 m;
n ¼ 100 rpm

s  n 0:315  100
V¼ ¼ ¼ 0:525 m=s
60 60

Q ¼ 47:2  0:3152  0:062  0:315  100

Q ¼ 47:2  ð0:0992  0:0036Þ  0:315  100

Q ¼ 47:2  ð0:0956Þ  0:315  100

Q ¼ 142:2 m3 =h

The angle of conveyer during reinstallation ¼ 15
, which indicates correction

factor ¼ 0.7

Q ¼ 142:2  0:7 ¼ 99:52 m3 =h

Q.15. A screw’s diameter and shaft diameter are 25 and 5 cm, respectively. If the
pitch is equal to the screw diameter and 105 m3/h capacity is required for the
designed capacity, estimate the approximate rpm for the purpose.
Solution:
4 Design of Material Handling Systems 143

Given: D ¼ 25 cm ¼ 0.25 m;
d ¼ 5 cm ¼ 0.05 m;
p ¼ D ¼ 0.25 m; Q ¼ 105 m3/h

105 ¼ 47:2  0:252  0:052  0:25  n

105 ¼ 47:2  ð0:0625  0:0025Þ  0:25  n

105 ¼ 47:2  ð0:06Þ  0:25  n

n ¼ 105=0:708

n ¼ 148:3

n  150 rpm

Answer: The screw speed must be kept at 150 rpm for conveying material at a
flow rate of 105 m3/h.

4.4.5 Power Requirement

The power requirement for conveying the material is dependent on the mass of
material handled, the flow rate and the type of material to be conveyed. The material
factor for wheat, paddy, barley and corn is 0.4, while it is 0.5 and 0.7, respectively,
for soybean and peanut. The theoretical power requirement for conveying the
material in screw conveyor can be expressed as [11]:

QLρF
P¼
4560
where P is the theoretical power requirement, hp.; L conveyor length, m; Q conveyor
capacity, m3/h; ρ bulk density of material, kg/m3; and F material factor. In the case of
theoretical power requirement less than 5.0 hp., to reduce downtime, minimize loss
of production and overcome unforeseen conditions, it is multiplied with a correction
factor to estimate the actual power requirement. The correction factor values are
2.00, 1.50, 1.25 and 1.10 for theoretical power values of less than 1.0, 1.0 to 2.0, 2.0
to 4.0 and 4.0 to 5.0, respectively.
Q.16. A screw’s length, diameter, pitch and shaft diameter are 300, 40, 40 and
6 cm, respectively. The conveyor is operated at a speed of 30 rpm. Calculate the
capacity for conveying paddy (material factor ¼ 0.4, bulk density ¼ 650 kg/m3) and
power requirement of the screw conveyor.
Solution:
Given: L ¼ 300 cm ¼ 3.0 m; D ¼ 40 cm ¼ 0.40 m; d ¼ 6 cm ¼ 0.06 m;
p ¼ 40 cm ¼ 0.40 m; n ¼ 30 rpm
144 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma


Q ¼ 47:2  0:402  0:062  0:40  30

Q ¼ 47:2  ð0:16  0:0036Þ  0:40  30

Q ¼ 47:2  ð0:1564Þ  0:40  30

Q ¼ 88:58 m3 =h

Theoretical power requirement:

QLρF
P¼
4560
88:58  3:0  650  0:4
P¼
4560
P ¼ 15:15 hp

Since it is greater than 5.0 hp, the actual power requirement is also equal to
15.15 hp.

4.5 Exercise

1. Estimate the capacity of a bucket elevator elevating grains with a bulk density of
820 kg/m3, which have buckets with 0.55 litre capacity and fitted with 0.3 m
distance. The speed of the belt is 2 m/s. Consider the percentage filling constant as
0.7.
[Ans: 7.58 tonnes/h]
2. Estimate the capacity of a bucket elevator elevating seeds with a bulk density of
780 kg/m3, which have buckets with 0.45 litre capacity and fitted with 0.25 m
distance. The speed of the belt is 2.5 m/s. Consider the percentage filling constant
as 0.75.
[Ans: 7.90 tonnes/h]
3. A centrifugal bucket conveyor has A1 buckets, which is of 1.53 litre capacity
and has a mass of 0.65 kg of each bucket and spaced at 0.3 m. The length of bucket is
170 mm. Estimate various stresses in the chain, if the height of elevator is 6.5 m. The
mass of the chain is 3.5 kg/m. The elevator is used to lift the grains having a bulk
density of 800 kg/m3.
[Ans: Ta ¼ 223.18 N, Tb ¼ 138.16 N, Tw ¼ 260.16 N, Tf ¼ 400.3 N,
Tm ¼ 1021.74 N].
4. A centrifugal bucket conveyor has A3 buckets, which is of 1.07 litre capacity
and has a mass of 0.39 kg of each bucket and spaced at 0.28 m. The length of bucket
is 130 mm. Estimate various stresses in the chain, if the height of elevator is 8 m. The
mass of the chain is 2.5 kg/m. The elevator is used to lift the grain with a bulk density
of 750 kg/m3.
4 Design of Material Handling Systems 145

[Ans: Ta ¼ 196.2 N, Tb ¼ 109.3 N, Tw ¼ 224.93 N, Tf ¼ 281.16 N,

Tm ¼ 811.60 N].
5. A centrifugal bucket conveyor has A1 buckets, which has buckets of 6.0 litre
capacity. The length of the bucket is 350 mm and is spaced at 300 mm. Estimate the
power requirement at the head shaft, if the height of elevator is 10 m. The elevator is
used to lift the grain with a bulk density of 750 kg/m3. The speed of the belt is
1.10 m/s. If motor efficiency is 70%, estimate the motor output required to operate
the bucket elevator.
[Te ¼ 2.94 kN, P ¼ 0.46 kW].
6. The screw’s diameter, pitch and shaft diameter of a screw conveyor are 29.3,
29.3 and 10 cm, respectively. The conveyor is operated at a speed of 80 rpm.
Calculate the forward velocity and capacity of the screw conveyor. If the conveyer
is reinstalled at an angle of 10
from horizontal, calculate its revised capacity.
[Q ¼ 83.91 m3/h, Revised Q ¼ 67.13 m3/h].
7. The dimensions of screw are as follows: screw’s diameter ¼ 31.5 cm,
pitch ¼ 30 cm and shaft diameter ¼ 6 cm. The conveyor is operated at a speed of
60 rpm. Calculate the forward velocity and capacity of the screw conveyor. If the
conveyer is reinstalled at an angle of 20
from horizontal, calculate its revised
capacity.
[Q ¼ 81.24 m3/h, Revised Q ¼ 48.75 m3/h].
8. A screw’s diameter and shaft diameter are 30 and 6 cm, respectively. If the
pitch is equal to the screw diameter and 150 m3/h capacity is required for the
designed capacity, estimate approximate rpm for the purpose.
[N ¼ 123 RPM].
9. A screw’s length, diameter, pitch and shaft diameter are 250, 30, 32 and 6 cm,
respectively. The conveyor is operated at a speed of 35 rpm. Calculate the capacity
for conveying paddy (material factor ¼ 0.4, bulk density ¼ 680 kg/m3) and power
requirement of the screw conveyor.
[P ¼ 6.81 hp].

References
1. Ray, S. (2008). Introduction to material handling. New Age International (P) Limited.
2. Indian Standards. (1997). Classification and codification of bulk materials for continuous
material handling equipment, IS 8730:1997. Indian Standard Association.
3. Indian Standards. (2000). Selection and design of belt conveyors —Code of practice, IS 11592:
2000. Indian Standard Association.
4. Rulmeca (2021). Technical information. Project and Design Criteria for Belt conveyors. https://
rulmecacorp.com/Conveyor_Idler_Roller_catalog/Pages_9-66_%20from_Complete_Idler_
Roller_Catalog.pdf
5. Indian Standards. (1994). Conveyors and elevator textile belting – Specification , IS 1891 (part
1): 1994. Indian Standard Association.
6. Indian Standards. (1986). Specification for pulleys for belt conveyors, IS 8531: 1986. Indian
Standard Association.
7. Indian Standards. (1974). Code for selection and use of bucket elevators, IS 7167: 1974. Indian
Standard Association.
146 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

8. Indian Standards. (1973). Specification for bucket and bucket elevators, IS 6883: 1973. Indian
Standard Association.
9. Indian Standards. (1973). Specification for casing for bucket elevators, IS 7054: 1973. Indian
Standard Association.
10. Indian standard. (2005). Specification for screw conveyor for industrial use, IS: 5563–1985.
Indian Standards Institution.
11. Sahay, K. M., Singh, K., & Reddy, B. S. (2004). Material handling equipment. In A. C.
Varshney, P. S. Tiwari, S. Narang, & C. R. Mehta (Eds.), Data book for agricultural machinery
design. Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering (ICAR).
12. Chitroda, R., Panchal, C., Panchal, T., & Nakrani, H. (2018). Design, analysis and development
of algorithm for screw conveyor. International Journal for Scientific Research & Development,
6(1), 781–783.
Drying
5
Navneet Kumar and Harish Kumar Sharma

Abstract

Drying is a popular technique to preserve the agricultural produce. In this chapter,

the importance of drying for the enhancement of shelf life is highlighted. The
basic concepts related to state of water are discussed. The material balance
calculation is explained by using worked examples. The mechanism of drying,
concept of moisture content and equilibrium moisture content are also presented.
Various models used in the estimation of equilibrium moisture content are also
explained through worked examples. The methods for determination of moisture
content are also provided using simple schematic diagrams of instruments/equip-
ment, wherever possible. The psychometrics involved in drying operation is
discussed using simple worked examples. The governing heat and mass transfer
rules are also presented. The drying rate viz. constant drying rate, falling rate
periods are explained. Various models used for thin layer drying and estimation
of effective diffusivity and activation energy are also discussed. The working of
various dryer used in the industry is also elaborated. The effect of drying on
agricultural produce and the advanced drying technologies reported by various
researchers are also incorporated to acquaint the students with the recent
developments and ignite their minds for further research in drying.

N. Kumar (*)
Department of Processing and Food Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering and
Technology, Anand Agricultural University, Godhra, Gujarat, India
H. K. Sharma
National Institute of Technology (NIT) (An Institute of National Importance), Agartala, Tripura,
India

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 147
Ltd. 2022
H. K. Sharma, N. Kumar (eds.), Agro-Processing and Food Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7289-7_5
148 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

Keywords

Drying concepts · Moisture content · Equilibrium moisture content · Heat

requirements · Psychrometrics · Constant rate drying · Falling rate drying · Thin
layer drying · Dryers · Advanced drying technologies

Drying is a popular technique since time immemorial to preserve the crop/food for
longer duration. Several methods are available for drying viz. contact drying, forced
convection drying, thin layer drying, etc. Drying methods are selected on the basis of
properties of food material, viz. moisture content, shape, size, nutritional values of
crops to get the desired properties of food material. According to Food and Agricul-
ture Organization (FAO), wastage of foods is about 1.3 billion tonnes per year,
which amounts to loss of resources as huge as 1/3 of the food produced globally
[1]. Food security can be enhanced not only by increasing production but also with
the reduction of post-harvest losses. Therefore, the emphasis is given on drying and
storage of agricultural produces for food security.
The appropriate method of harvesting followed by proper transportation, suitable
drying technology and adequate storage facilities are essential for the reduction of
losses. Quantitative and qualitative deterioration in harvested crop do occur sepa-
rately or simultaneously. This represents the real loss, which is not limited to the
weight loss of the food, but also it includes the loss generated by dust, presence of
insects, foreign materials and many more. The quality loss includes presence of
various undesired contaminants, damaged kernels, rodent’s hairs and pesticides with
the produce, which lowers the price of the product. The loss of crop may be
enumerated as loss of mass of food over a length of time. The viability of seed is
also one of the prime criteria for accessing the germination behaviour, which is also
affected during post-harvest processing and storage. The loss of nutritional and
biochemical parameters may also be considered as loss of quality.
Drying of fruits and vegetables is one of the vital unit operations after harvesting
for prolonged storage of the perishables, which reduces the moisture from the
products to a predetermined safe limit [2]. The process of drying of high moisture
foods remains a complicated process due to the occurrence of heat and mass transfer
simultaneously [3]. Sometimes, drying up to standard moisture content is the need of
process to get the highest yield with good quality attributes. Over drying of produce
increases the shelf life; however, it may raise quality issues in deterioration of
product quality.
Dehydration generally refers to expulsion of moisture to the maximum possible
level or bone-dry condition, whereas drying refers to removal of excess undesirable
moisture. Drying protects the grains from the attack of insects, moulds and other
microorganisms by lowering the water activity and increasing the hardness of
products. Harvesting of crops at higher moisture content and subsequent drying to
safe moisture levels lead to the better storage stability and yield of the grains. For
example, if paddy is harvested at 20–22% moisture and later on dried to 14%
moisture content, it has a potential of increasing rice yield by 10% as compared to
5 Drying 149

harvested paddy at 14% moisture content. Therefore, in modern agriculture, the

importance of timely drying is immense.
Drying refers to the removal of free water from food products; however, dehy-
dration refers to a process of reducing moisture of food to very low levels. The
former requires less energy for decreasing the moisture content and application of
heat to raise the temperature and faster evaporation of water; however, the later
includes more energy, higher flow rates along with more control on temperature and
humidity to remove the water to the lowest possible extent.

Benefits of Drying
Drying of produce provides several benefits like:

1. It allows the longer storage of produce without appreciable loss in quality.

2. It permits farmers to produce quality-enriched value-added product.
3. It reduces the cost of transport.
4. It permits proper planning of available resources like land, labour, etc.
5. It permits uninterrupted availability of the produce throughout the year and also
confers advantage of getting higher value during off season.
6. It makes material more suitable for handling in food processing industries.
7. It enhances specific properties, viz. free-flowing nature by reducing cohesion.
8. It eliminates additional undesired moisture, which may otherwise accelerate the
corrosion of machinery and storage structures.

Limitations of Drying
The limitations of the drying are:

1. There are more chances of damage of crystals in case of crystalline product.

2. Shrinkage of material and loss of flavour, colour and texture of food material.
3. Loss in nutrient composition of food material.
4. Energy loss in drying operations.

5.1 Basic Concepts

5.1.1 States and Phases of Water

Water is tasteless, odourless and colourless in its pure form. The states and phases
are two terms, which are generally used interchangeably for water. The state of water
refers to the form of water at a given temperature and pressure, e.g. ice in solid state,
water in liquid state and vapour in gaseous state, whereas phase of water refers to the
region in which water has uniform physical and chemical properties. Water is
available in liquid state at normal temperature and pressure. When solidification of
water takes place, its molecules move farther apart at normal pressure, which makes
ice to have lesser density as compared to water and show the phenomenon of
floatation over the water in liquid state.
150 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

Fig. 5.1 Phase diagram of

water

Solid Comp. Supercritical

Pressure, atm.
phase fluid fluid
Critical pressure
217.75 Liquid
phase Critical point

0.0060 Gaseous
Triple point phase
Vapour
0.01 373.99
Temperature, °C

This phenomenon may be attributed to the arrangement of molecules with a low

packing efficiency, which describes more space utilization by atoms. The packaging
density refers to the ratio of volume occupied within the Van der Waals envelope and
to the volumetric space used to contain the molecule. Four straight tetrahedrally
oriented hydrogen bonds bound all the water molecules by keeping hydrogen of one
molecule adjacent to another oxygen atom of other water molecules. The water
volume goes up by about 9% during freezing at 0
C under normal atmospheric
pressure. If pressure is increased, which lowers the melting point, it can result in
more increase in volume [4]. The expansion in volume of water during freezing
remains responsible for the tissue damages in perishables during freezing under
normal pressure condition.
Water remains as a fluid at normal temperature (0–100
C). This is the form of
water, which is the main part of life cycle. This form of water is used for day-to-day
purposes including drinking, washing, etc. and used as ingredients in various
processed foods. The density of water is maximum at 4
C, and it decreases with
the increase in temperature. Water is also available in the form of vapour, which is
present in the air. After getting the energy from the ambience or through boiling, the
liquid particles evaporate in the form of water vapour. At normal pressure, steam is
created at 100
C. The steam is used for heating, pasteurization, sterilization and
other unit operation in the food processing industry.
The variation of pressure–temperature of water can be observed from the phase
diagram of water (Fig. 5.1). The diagram depicts phase boundaries or equilibrium
lines between all three phases of water, and the line dividing the solid and liquid
phase has negative slope (dotted lines). This shows the unusual property of water
having lower density in solid state.
The application of additional pressure can also change the state of water near to
the melting point. The liquid phase has shorter distance among water molecules in
5 Drying 151

comparison to solid state. A very rapid movement of water molecules in vapour

starts at critical point (temperature of 373.99
C). The gas phase cannot be liquified
above critical temperature even at very high pressure. The pressure applied at critical
temperature to make the vapour in liquid state is known at critical pressure. The
value of critical pressure is 217.75 atm. The point of intersection of critical tempera-
ture and critical pressure is known as critical point.
The boundary line between liquid and gaseous phases of water ends at critical
point. When the temperature and pressure are increased further, the gaseous and
liquid phases of water cannot be distinguished, and the state is known as supercriti-
cal. In water, the critical point occurs at around Tc ¼ 374
C and pres-
sure ¼ 217.75 atm. at density ρc ¼ 322 kg/m3 [5].
The triple point of water refers to specific temperature and pressure at which
water is available in all three states, i.e. solid, liquid and gaseous states. If the
temperature and pressure are less than the triple point, water available in solid
form directly sublimates to gaseous phase without the intermediate phase of liquid
as water.
In the solid and liquid phases, boundary has positive slope (solid lines) for most
of the substances, indicating closeness between the molecules with the increase in
pressure, thereby increase in intermolecular forces. Therefore, molecules at higher
temperatures have ample energy to break the intermolecular forces and transform
into liquid phase. Similarly, the liquid at higher temperatures changes its phase to
vapour due to availability of sufficient energy. Water is one of the several exceptions
to the rule because of its specific properties.

5.1.2 Vapour Pressure of Water

The vapour pressure of water can be defined as the pressure at which water vapour
maintains thermal equilibrium with its condensed state (water/ice). The partial
pressure of water vapour can be expressed as the amount of pressure exerted by
vapour in air (mixture of vapour and gasses). It remains as the function of tempera-
ture and may be related to the propensity of molecules to convert from liquid to gas.
The saturated vapour pressure is generally the vapour pressure of a closed system
having vapour and liquid in equilibrium.
Following empirical equations were developed for relating saturation vapour
pressure to temperature of moist air:
For liquid water at temperature(t) > 0
C
n

o
t t
Ps ðt Þ ¼ 0:61121 exp 18:678  ð5:1Þ
234:5 257:14 þ t
For ice at temperature(t) < 0
C
152 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

100 1.0
a b
90 0.9
80 0.8
70 0.7
Pressure, kPa

60 0.6

Pressure, kPa
50 0.5
40 0.4
30 0.3
20 0.2
10 0.1
0 0.0
0 50 100 -100 -50 0
Temperature, °C Temperature, °C

Fig. 5.2 Vapour pressure/temperature curve for (a) water and (b) ice

n

o
t t
Ps ðt Þ ¼ 0:61115 exp 23:036  ð5:2Þ
333:7 279:82 þ t
where Ps(t) and t are the vapour pressure in kPa and air temperature in
C,
respectively.
Boiling starts on the creation of equal vapour pressure with respect to total
pressure exerted on water vapour surface. Normally, boiling temperature of water
is considered as 100
C at atmospheric pressure. Water may boil at higher or lower
temperatures depending upon the corresponding pressures [6]. The saturation vapour
pressure and temperature curves (Fig. 5.2) indicate lower boiling points at lower
pressures, which could be utilized in various processes according to retaining
nutrients along with sensory characteristics.

5.2 Drying

Drying refers to decrease in moisture of food product by the action of removing

water through vaporization of water from a suspension, solution, or high moisture
food to reduce the moisture content up to prescribed limits for the enhancement of
shelf life. The important aspect of drying is to provide heat to the food product for
removal of water through evaporation and to transfer vapours to the ambience. The
material balance of drying/dehydration process has two components, i.e. water and
air, which are represented in Fig. 5.3:
The diagram of drying or dehydration process represents the loss of mass of food
material which remains equal to amount of vapour (moisture) taken away by the hot
air. The following equation can represent the mass transfer during drying:
5 Drying 153

Air Wet air (W)

Hot air (A)

(V)

Fresh food Food material Dried food

material
material (F) (P)

Fig. 5.3 Material balance of drying/dehydration process

(V)

Tomatoes (F = 500 kg) Dried tomatoes (P)

Water=80% of F Food material Water=10% of P
Solid=20% of F Solid=90% of P

Fig. 5.4 Material balance diagram

Total material balance : A þ F ¼ W þ P ð5:3Þ

Food sub  system : F ¼ V þ P ð5:4Þ

Air sub  system : A þ V ¼ W ð5:5Þ

Q.1 How much mass reduction of the 500 kg tomatoes would result, if these were
dried from 80% to 10% moisture content using hot air dryer?

Solution
Let the amount of dried tomatoes and amount of water evaporated are P and V,
respectively (Fig. 5.4).

Total material balance : F ¼ V þ P

Component balance for Solid:

0:20  500 ¼ 0:90  P → P ¼ 111:1 kg

By keeping the value of F and P in Total material balance:

500 ¼ V þ 111:11 → V ¼ 388:9 kg

154 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

Start of drying Removal of Removal of

process moisture from moisture by
the surface liquid and
vapour diffusion
Fig. 5.5 Distribution of moisture during drying of food material

Answer The tomato mass was reduced by 388.9 kg.

During drying operation, heat is transferred through conduction, convection or

radiation mode to the food material to evaporate the moisture available at surface of
food. However, migration of internal moisture to drying surface occurs simulta-
neously (Fig. 5.5). Heat provided by drying medium accelerates the evaporation
process. The movement of water molecules from higher to lower concentration also
occurs due to diffusion, which is considered as the main driving factor for drying or
dehydration.
The following factors alone or in combinations may be used to describe the
drying behaviour.

1. Liquid diffusion: It is generally occurred at a temperature below the boiling point

of liquid, and movement of water occurs from inner most part to the surface of the
food material due to concentration gradient of water within food.
2. Vapour diffusion: The water is vaporized within the food material, and migration
of vaporized water from the food to outer surface takes place, which moves
further to the ambience due to concentration difference of vapours in the food
material.
3. Surface diffusion: Process involving the motion (movement) of water molecules
at the food material surfaces.
4. Capillary flow: Process of moving water through small interstices may be due to
capillary action or hydrostatic pressure.
5 Drying 155

5.3 Moisture

Perishable foods are rich in moisture and nutrients and are therefore prone to
microbial attack. Low-moisture foods do not permit the growth of microorganisms;
therefore, measurement of moisture is a good indicator of the storage stability of the
product. Moisture present in the food material also affects the economical values of
the product; therefore, food moisture analysis has a significant role in agro and food
processing industries.
Sometimes, the amount of water present in specific food products remains legal
requirement according to the regulations. The texture and appearance of food are
also dependant on the moisture content of food, which are considered as major
quality factors. The storability and quality of the processed food products could also
be predicted by estimating moisture content.
According to the convention, moisture contents of grains are usually measured on
wet basis, which considers mass of water available per unit mass of wet grains/food
product. It is represented as x% (wb). The alternative method for representation
considers mass of moisture present in food per unit mass of dry grains/food product
and represented as x% (db), which is the mass of moisture per unit mass of
completely dried grain. Usually, the moisture content is represented on wet basis.
The moisture content on wet basis (wb) in food is the amount of moisture present
in the food to the total amount of material. It can be represented by the following
formula:

Amount of water present in food, g

Moisture contentðwbÞ, % ¼  100 ð5:6Þ
Total amount of food, g

The moisture content on dry basis (db) in food is the amount of water present in
the food to the amount of dry material. It can be represented by the following
formula:

Amount of water present in food, g

Moisture contentðdbÞ, % ¼  100 ð5:7Þ
Amount of dry material in food, g

Conversion of Dry Basis to Wet Basis

Let total mass of sample ¼ M, mass of water present ¼ Mw and mass of solid
content ¼ Ms.
As we know,

Amount of water present in food, g

Moisture contentðwbÞ, % ¼  100
Total amount of food, g
Mw
MoisturecontentðwbÞ, % ¼  100
M
We also know that,
156 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

M ¼ Mw þ Ms

Therefore, the equation can be written as:

Mw
Moisture contentðwbÞ, % ¼  100
Mw þ Ms
By inverting, the equation can be written as:

1 Mw þ Ms
¼
Moisture contentðwbÞ, % Mw  100
100 Mw þ Ms
¼
Moisture contentðwbÞ, % Mw

100 Mw Ms
¼ þ
Moisture contentðwbÞ, % Mw Mw
100 Ms
¼1þ
Moisture contentðwbÞ, % Mw

100 Ms
1¼
Moisture contentðwbÞ, % Mw

100  Moisture contentðwbÞ, % Ms

¼
Moisture contentðwbÞ, % Mw

By inverting again,

Moisture contentðwbÞ, % Mw
¼
100  Moisture contentðwbÞ, % Ms

Mw Moisture contentðwbÞ, %
¼
Ms 100  Moisture contentðwbÞ, %

Multiplying with 100 on both sides,

Mw Moisture contentðwbÞ, %
 100 ¼  100
Ms 100  Moisture contentðwbÞ, %

Moisture contentðwbÞ, %
Moisture contentðdbÞ, % ¼  100 ð5:8Þ
100  Moisture contentðwbÞ, %

Similarly, expression for moisture content on wet basis can be written as:
5 Drying 157

Fig. 5.6 Variation in dry 20

Moisture content (db), g/g of dry matter

basis with respect to wet basis
moisture contents 18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.0 0.5 1.0
Moisture content (wb), g/ g of wet
material

Moisture contentðdbÞ, %
Moisture contentðwbÞ, % ¼  100 ð5:9Þ
100 þ Moisture contentðdbÞ, %

The following conversion table for moisture content conversion may also be used
from wet basis (% wb) to dry basis (% db)and vice versa. A variation of dry basis
with respect to wet basis moisture content can be observed in Fig. 5.6.

Wet basis % Dry basis % Wet basis % Dry basis %

1 1.0 50 100.0
5 5.3 55 122.2
10 11.1 60 150.0
15 17.6 65 185.7
20 25.0 70 233.3
25 33.3 75 300.0
30 42.9 80 400.0
35 53.8 85 566.7
40 66.7 90 900.0
45 81.8 95 1900.0
158 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

Q.2 In an experiment, a fruit having 85 g mass was dried in a tray dryer till all the
water evaporated. The final mass of the fruit was 20 g. Calculate the moisture content
of the fruit on wet and dry basis.

Solution
Given : M ¼ 85 g and Ms ¼ 20 g

Now, Mw ¼ M  Ms ¼ 85  20 ¼ 65 g
Amount of water present in food, g
Moisture contentðwbÞ, % ¼  100
Total amount of food, g
65
Moisture contentðwbÞ, % ¼  100 ¼ 76:47%
85
Amount of water present in food, g
Moisture contentðdbÞ, % ¼  100
Amount of dry material in food, g
65
Moisture contentðdbÞ, % ¼  100 ¼ 325%
20
Alternatively,

76:47 76:47
Moisture contentðdbÞ, % ¼  100 ¼  100 ¼ 324:98%
ð100  76:47Þ 23:53
 325%

5.3.1 Determination of Moisture Content

The determination of moisture content of agricultural produce may be performed by

several methods based on various factors like the form of water present, relative
amount of water, duration of measurement, accuracy, cost of equipment, number of
samples handled, etc. Broadly, these methods can be sub-grouped into two groups
based on the measurement of moisture in the food.

5.3.1.1 Direct/Primary Methods

Moisture content is determined by removing the moisture present in the sample and
then by measuring mass and estimating the weight loss of the sample. These methods
provide precise results, but the test duration is longer. These are quite popular in
laboratory rather than field work. Following methods are used to remove the
moisture from the samples using convection, microwave, and infrared radiation.

Air Oven
A hot air oven with a provision to control the temperature in the heating space up to
150  1
C, a digital weighing scale for measuring the mass, thermal resistance
5 Drying 159

containers, or petri-dishes are required for determination. In case of low moisture

products, viz. cereals, pulses, etc. having moisture less than 13%, 2–3 g of samples
should be ground without creating much heat during grinding to avoid any loss of
water at this stage. The samples are then kept in hot air oven and temperature should
be set as per the requirement of the sample. After reaching the desired temperature,
1–2 h is required for the removal of moisture. Thereafter, samples should be
transferred to desiccators to cool down and avoid absorption of moisture from the
ambience. At least three replications are required for the determination of moisture.
In case of measuring the moisture of unground sample, about 25–30 g samples is
needed, and it should be kept at 100
C in hot air oven. About 72–96 h is required to
remove the moisture completely. Thereafter, the samples should be transferred to
desiccators, and the mass of dried sample is measured for the estimation of moisture
contents [7].
For the determination of moisture content in dehydrated vegetables, about 5 g of
ground sample is generally kept at 105  1
C for 2 h [8]. The drop in the mass of
grain is measured as the amount of moisture present in the sample and can be
estimated using Eqs. (5.1) and (5.2).

Vacuum Oven
About 2–3 g of ground cereals is kept in an oven at 25 mm Hg vacuum and is
generally dried at 100
C for 72 h [7]. The material having high moisture like
vegetables or heat-sensitive food materials can be kept in vacuum oven at a lower
temperature of 85
C for 635 mm of Hg for 4 h for the removal of complete moisture
[9]. The vacuum maintained should be released slowly for avoiding bubbling up of
samples. After releasing the air into the oven, the vacuum is released followed by
cooling in desiccators to ambient temperature [10].

Brown–Duvel Fractional Distillation

Distillation separates the mixture of liquids into different fractions, which differs in
boiling point (Fig. 5.7). Fractional distillation of water takes place while heating the
samples in oil with higher boiling points. About 100 g sample is added to 150 ml
mineral oil in a flask. In this method, mineral oil is heated in the flask, and moisture
determination may be completed within 30 min, which can be observed by discon-
tinuation of flow through condenser. The moisture is evaporated, condensed in a
condenser, and collected in a graduated cylinder. The amount of water can be
measured. The method remains useful for the determination of moisture for volatile
oil containing spices and herbs, which are dissolved in organic solvents.

Infrared Moisture Meter

Water is directly removed from the energy provided by an infrared bulb. It is mainly
used for powders. The apparatus consists of infrared bulb, counter balanced pan,
weighing chain and balance (Fig. 5.8). The infrared bulb is fixed on the opening
cover, and the height of the bulb can be adjusted. A pre-calibrated scale for
estimating moisture in percentage is placed inside the apparatus. A knob is provided
to adjust the scale, which is adjusted to ‘zero’, before starting the measurement. The
160 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

Fig. 5.7 Brown–Duvel

fraction distillation apparatus

Condenser
Flask

Burner

Graduated
cylinder

Handle Measuring
display

Indicator
adjustment
knob
Power
control knob

Fig. 5.8 Infrared moisture meter

moisture content reading can directly be observed after the complete evaporation of
moisture from the sample.

5.3.1.2 Indirect/Secondary Methods

The methods are used to measure various properties of food, which varies with
alteration in moisture content of food materials. Intermediate variable is measured
5 Drying 161

and then converted into moisture content. The calibration curve/charts are prepared
for the application of indirect measurements. These methods also provide fairly
accurate results in a shorter period.

Chemical Method
Calcium carbide (CaC2) is used to measure the grain moisture content. It reacts with
the moisture present in the sample, which produces calcium hydroxide along with
acetylene gas.
The predetermined amount of well-ground food powder is filled in an airtight
bottle along with calcium carbide and metallic balls (Fig. 5.9). The bottle is shaken
well for proper mixing of the ingredients. As a result of this, acetylene gas is
produced, and the pressure generated in the bottle provides the deflection in the
moisture gauge attached to the bottle. The moisture meter used in this chemical
method is also known as rapid moisture meter due to faster measurements. The
chemical reaction can be given as:

CaC2 þ 2H2 O ! CaðOHÞ2 þ C2 H2 ð5:10Þ

Electrical Resistance Method

The moisture content of the agricultural and food materials may be determined using
electrical resistance or conductance of materials as these properties vary with the
change in moisture. These properties can also be used for the estimation of mechani-
cal stress and germination of agricultural produce. Conductivity can be estimated by
measuring the resistance of materials of known volume by passing specific current at

Fig. 5.9 Rapid moisture Dial gauge

meter

Air tight
bottle

Cap tightening
knob
162 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

specific voltage difference. It can be obtained by passing the electric current in a unit
length (L ) of material through a unit cross-sectional area (A) and with resistance (R)
of the food sample, and it remains inverse of electrical resistivity and can be
represented as [11].

σ ¼ L=AR ð5:11Þ

The moisture analyser measures the electrical resistance of grains at a specific

temperature and compaction level. These are calibrated for various grains and
provide the moisture content directly.

Dielectric Method
The dielectric material has the capacity to store energy during the application of
external field. The difference in storage of charge can be observed and quantified by
placing the food material between the parallel plates of capacitor. The grains are
filled in the chamber, and high-frequency current is passed for the estimation of
capacitance (Fig. 5.10), which correlates with the moisture of the grain. The degree
of compaction and grain temperature are important consideration, while measuring
the moisture content.

Near-Infrared Method
Near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy method works on the principle of absorbing near-
infrared light due to the presence of molecular bonds at specific wavelengths. The
‘O-H’ bond in water absorbs the wavelengths at about 970–1940 nm and is propor-
tional to the amount of moisture present in the samples. The light strikes samples and
detector measures the absorbance of light by the food sample or transmittance of
light through the sample (Fig. 5.11). The detector generates the signals, which are
processed according to the amount of moisture present to a specific value into a
digital display. The value can be observed directly in percentage or any other
specified unit. The sample requirement is about 100–200 g, which is placed in a

Fig. 5.10 Moisture

measurement using dielectric
methods

+ + + + + + + + +

- - - - - - - - - -
5 Drying 163

Fig. 5.11 Moisture

measurement using NIR Internal reference beam
method
Infrared wheel
Halogen lamp

Detector
External beam

round sample dish (ɸ ¼ 140 mm) in the instrument, and the direct result is shown in
percent (g/100 g).
NIR also remains useful in quantitative estimation of food elements along with
moisture and requires calibration for specific component. The calibration curve
prepared using known concentrations of samples make the machine to understand
the concentration of unknown samples. After completing the calibration, the instru-
ment has a capability to measure moisture content along with fat and protein
simultaneously. The repeatability ranges about 0.32–0.36%, for moisture content.

5.4 Equilibrium Moisture Content

The equilibrium moisture content (EMC) can be defined as the moisture content of
food material in equilibrium with the ambient air at a specific temperature and
relative humidity, and the food material neither loses nor gains moisture at this
condition. In this condition, the vapour pressure of the bound moisture of the food
material becomes equal to the vapour pressure of the ambient air. The bound water is
referred as the chemically and physically attached water to solid matrix and has
lower vapour pressure in comparison to pure liquid at the same temperature. Hence,
free moisture is the amount of available moisture in a food above equilibrium
moisture content (Fig. 5.12). The EMC of food material is also lowered with the
rise in temperature at specific relative humidity.
164 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

Bound moisture Unbound moisture

100%
Relative humidity, %

Equilibrium
moisture
content

Free moisture content

0
Moisture content, db

Fig. 5.12 Types of moisture based on bonding and availability

5.4.1 Estimation of Equilibrium Moisture Content

The equilibrium moisture content can be determined using static, dynamic or

empirical relations. The food material is kept at specific set of temperature and
relative humidity and allowed to gain/lose moisture to establish equilibrium with the
ambiance.
Usually, the food material is kept in incubators at a specific temperature and
relative humidity. However, food takes many days or weeks to reach its equilibrium
moisture content in static condition. The food material with higher moisture gets
sufficient chances to be get affected by moulds, when samples are kept at higher
relative humidity. Whereas, in dynamic method, the food is kept in small closed
containers/desiccators, and humidity and temperature are controlled. The containers
are kept at specific temperature and humidity. The relative humidity may also be
maintained by keeping the different concentration of acids (sulphuric/nitric/
hydrochloric) or salt solutions. Generally, salt is preferred due to its stability, less
expansive, less dangerous, and corrosive in comparison to acids.
A number of relationships between relative humidity and equilibrium moisture
content have been established by various researchers using theoretical/empirical/
semi-theoretical approach. Henderson (1952) as well as Chung and Pfost (1967)
models are popular for the estimation of equilibrium moisture content of grains,
which can be expressed ass:
Henderson’s equation:

1  rh ¼ exp ðcTM e n Þ ð5:12Þ

Chung and Pfost’s equation:

5 Drying 165

A
lnðrhÞ ¼ exp ðBM e Þ ð5:13Þ
RT
The Chung and Pfost’s equation remains valid in between 20% and 90% relative
humidity.
Where RH ¼ relative humidity, decimal; T ¼ absolute temperature, K; Me ¼ equi-
librium moisture content, % db; R ¼ universal gas constant (8.315 J/Kmol); c &
n ¼ constants for Henderson’s equation; A & B ¼ constants for Chung and Pfost’s
equation.

Q.3 The grains are kept at a temperature of 35
C and 40% relative humidity. The
coefficients of Henderson’s equations ‘c’ and ‘n’ are 1.2  106 and 1.7, respec-
tively. Estimate the equilibrium moisture content of grain on dry and wet basis.

Solution


t ¼ 35 C


T ¼ 273 þ 35 ¼ 308 K

rh ¼ 40% ¼ 0:40

1  rh ¼ exp ðcTM e n Þ
 
1  0:40 ¼ exp 1:2  106  308  M e 1:7
 
0:60 ¼ exp 1:2  106  308  M e 1:7

ln ð0:60Þ ¼ 1:2  106  308  M e 1:7

0:5108 ¼ 1:2  106  308  M e 1:7

0:5108
¼ M e 1:7
1:2  106  308
1382:1 ¼ M e 1:7

M e ¼ ð1382:1Þ1=1:7

M e ¼ 70:37%, db

Moisture contentðdbÞ, %
Moisture contentðwbÞ, % ¼  100
100 þ Moisture contentðdbÞ, %
70:37
Moisture contentðwbÞ, % ¼  100 ¼ 41:30%
100 þ 70:37
166 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

Q.4 A food material is kept at a temperature of 40
C and 75% relative humidity.

The coefficients of Chung and Pfost’s equation ‘A’ and ‘B’ are 1.2  105 and 0.25,
respectively. Estimate the equilibrium moisture content of food on dry and wet basis.

Solution


t ¼ 40 C


T ¼ 273 þ 40 ¼ 313 K

rh ¼ 75% ¼ 0:75
A
ln ðrhÞ ¼ exp ðBM e Þ
RT
1:2x105
ln ð0:75Þ ¼ exp ð0:25  M e Þ
8:315  313
0:2877 ¼ 46:1078  exp ð0:25  M e Þ
0:2877
exp ð0:25  M e Þ ¼ ¼ 0:00624
46:1078
0:25  M e ¼ ln ð0:00624Þ

0:25  M e ¼ 5:0767

M e ¼ 20:31%, db

Moisture contentðdbÞ, %
Moisture contentðwbÞ, % ¼  100
100 þ Moisture contentðdbÞ, %
20:31
Moisture contentðwbÞ, % ¼  100 ¼ 16:88%
100 þ 20:31

Q.5 A set of two experiments were conducted to estimate the coefficients of

Henderson’s equation ‘c’ and ‘n’ for a specific grain and values are given in the
following table:

Experiment Temperature, Relative humidity, Equilibrium moisture content, %

number C % db
1 45 55 11
2 50 70 14

Solution
Experiment 1:
5 Drying 167

t ¼ 45 C


T ¼ 273 þ 45 ¼ 318 K

rh ¼ 55% ¼ 0:55

1  rh ¼ exp ðcTM e n Þ

1  0:55 ¼ exp ðc  318  11n Þ

0:45 ¼ exp ðc  318  11n Þ

ln ð0:45Þ ¼ c  318  11n

ln ð0:45Þ
¼ c  11n ð5:14Þ
318
Experiment 2:


t ¼ 50 C


T ¼ 273 þ 50 ¼ 323 K

rh ¼ 70% ¼ 0:70

1  0:70 ¼ exp ðc  323  14n Þ

0:30 ¼ exp ðc  323  14n Þ

ln ð0:30Þ ¼ c  323  14n

ln ð0:30Þ
¼ c  14n ð5:15Þ
323
Dividing Eq. (5.14) with Eq. (5.15):

ln ð0:45Þ c  11n
= ln ð0:30Þ ¼
318
c  14n
323

n
11
0:674 ¼
14
0:674 ¼ ð0:7857Þn

ln ð0:674Þ ¼ n  ln ð0:7857Þ

0:1713 ¼ n  ð0:1047Þ
0:1713
n¼ ¼ 1:6359
0:1047
Keeping the value of n in Eq. (14):
168 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

ln ð0:45Þ
¼ c  111:6359
318
0:7985
¼ c
318  111:6359
0:7985
c¼ ¼ 4:97 3 10 2 5
16070:94

5.5 Heat Requirements

5.5.1 Sensible Heat

The temperature of food material remains in equilibrium with the ambience. The
amount of heat transfer depends upon specific heat of the food material, which is
defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg material by
1
C. The amount of heat required can be represented as

Q ¼ m  Cp  ΔT ð5:16Þ

where Cp is the specific heat of the material in kJ/kg
C.

5.5.2 Latent Heat

The energy required to vaporize the water depends upon its temperature. The latent
heat of vaporization refers to the extent of energy needed for evaporating 1 kg of
water, whereas latent heat of sublimation provides the energy needed to convert from
ice to vapour.

Q¼mλ ð5:17Þ

where λ is the latent heat of vaporization in kJ/kg.

Q.6 Tomatoes containing 94% moisture content are kept at 100
C for drying up to
12% moisture content. The amount and initial temperature of tomatoes are 50 kg and
21
C, respectively. Estimate the amount of required energy at atmospheric pressures
for the following set of conditions: (1) The latent heat of vaporization is 2257 kJ/kg
at 100
C and specific heat capacities of the tomatoes and water can be taken as 2.02
and 4.186 kJ/kg
C, respectively. Estimate the amount of energy requirement/kg
water removed too. (2) If the tomatoes are dried at 58
C under 20 kPa abs saturation
pressure in place of 100
C and atmospheric pressure, estimate the energy needed for
removal of moisture per unit mass of tomatoes. The latent heat of vaporization at
20 kPa is 2358 kJ/kg. (3) If the tomatoes are freeze dried at 0
C, then estimate the
amount of energy needed per kg of raw material at 0
C. The latent heat of
sublimation is 2838 kJ/kg.
5 Drying 169

Solution
1. CASE I: Initial moisture ¼ 94%;

Amount of water present in tomatoes, kg

Moisture content ðwbÞ, % ¼  100
Total amountoftomatoes, kg
Amount of water present in food, kg
94 ¼  100
50
Now, the amount of water present in tomatoes ¼ 47 kg

Amount of dry matter ¼ Total amount of tomatoes  Amount of water present

¼ 50  47 ¼ 3 kg

Case II: Final moisture ¼ 10%,

Amount of water present in tomatoes, kg

Moisture content ðwbÞ, % ¼  100
Total amount of tomatoes, kg

Amount of water present in tomatoes, kg ðwÞ

12 ¼  100
3 þ Amount of water present in tomatoes, kg ðwÞ

12  ð3 þ wÞ ¼ w  100

36 þ 10  w ¼ w  100

36 ¼ w  90
36
w¼ ¼ 0:4 kg
90
The amount of water available in the final product ¼ 0:4 kg

The amount of water that must be evaporated

¼ Initial amount of water  final amount of water ¼ 47  0:4 ¼ 46:6 kg

Energy needed for 50 kg of tomatoes

¼ Energy needed to increase temperature up to 100 C
þ Latent heat ðvaporizationÞ

¼ 50  ð100  21Þ  2:02 þ 46:6  2257

¼ 7979 þ 105176 ¼ 113155 kJ

170 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

Energy needed per kg of water removed

¼ Energy needed=Amount of water evaporated

¼ 113155=46:6 ¼ 2428 kJ=kg

2. Energy required for tomatoes in vacuum drying ¼ Heat needed to increase

temperature up to 58
C + latent heat (vaporization)

¼ 50  ð58  21Þ  2:02 þ 46:6  2358

¼ 3737 þ 109882:8 ¼ 113619:8 kJ

Energy needed per kg water of removed = 2438 kJ=kg

3. Energy needed for tomatoes in freeze drying ¼ Latent heat (sublimation)

¼ 46:6  2838 ¼ 132250:8 kJ

Energy=kg water removed = 2838 kJ=kg

5.6 Psychrometrics

The temperature and humidity of drying air are of prime importance for deciding the
capacity of a dryer. Psychrometry deals with thermodynamic properties of moist air
and is used in the analysis of humid air conditions and several food processes. In case
of lower humidity air, moisture is taken away from the material and is added to the
air gradually till saturation. The droplets are formed due to further addition of
moisture, and the pressure exerted by water vapours equalizes with saturation vapour
pressure at that temperature.
The constituent gases exert total pressure, wherein pressure exerted by any
specific constituent gas is termed as partial pressure of specific constituent gas.
This partial pressure relates to the number of moles available in the system
(Fig. 5.13). The total pressure of gases is equal to partial pressure generated by all
the gases. According to the Dalton’s law:

PTotal ¼ Pgas A þ Pgas B þ . . . :: þ Pgas n ð5:18Þ

The mole fraction and partial pressure of gas can be determined as:
5 Drying 171

B A A B A
A A A A A B B B B B
B B B
A A
A B A B
A A A B B B A B A
A B B
B
A B B A A A
A B B B
A B A
A B B A A B
A B A
A A B B B
B B B A A B

Gas A + Gas B = Gas A + Gas B

Pressure 150 mm Hg Pressure 250 mm Hg Pressure = 400 mm Hg

Fig. 5.13 Pressure exerted by gases

moles of gas A
Mole fraction of gas A ¼ ð5:19Þ
Total moles of gas

Partial pressure of gas A ¼ mole faction of gas A  PTotal ð5:20Þ

The absolute humidity is represented in kg water/kg of dry air can be written as:

18  Pwater
Absolute humidity, H ¼ ð5:21Þ
29 ðPTotal  Pwater Þ

The relative humidity (RH) can be represented by following equation.

Pwater
RH ¼  100 ð5:22Þ
PSaturation

Q.7 The total pressure and humidity of wet air are 124 kPa and 0.04 kg/kg,
respectively. (1) Calculate partial pressure exerted by vapours. (2) If the saturation
pressure remains 12.5 kPa, estimate relative humidity. (3) If the temperature of air is
65
C, estimate relative humidity. (4) What should be the partial pressure and
relative humidity at 65
C and at dew point.

Solution
1. Molecular weight of air and water are 29 and 18, respectively,

moles of water
mole fraction of water ¼
Total moles of air and water
mass of water=mol:wt:of water
Mole fraction of water ¼
ðmass of air=mol:wt:ofwater þ mass ofwater=mol:wt:ofwaterÞ
172 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

0:04=18
Mole fraction of water ¼ ¼ 0:0605
ð1=29 þ 0:04=18Þ

Hence, vapour pressure ¼ 0:0605  124 ¼ 7:5 kPa

2. Relative humidity ¼ P/Ps ¼ 7.5/12.5 ¼ 0.600 ¼ 60%.

3. Ps at 65
C ¼ 25.04 (from steam table)

Relative humidity ¼ P=Ps ¼ 7:502=25:04 ¼ 0:2996 ¼ 29:96%

4. The pressure will remain the same at 65
C ¼ 25.04 kPa; and relative
humidity ¼ 100%.

Q.8 The humidity of air is 0.03 kg/kg at total pressure of 100 kPa, estimate partial
vapour pressure and relative humidity in case of saturation vapour pressure at 70
C
is 31.2 kPa.

Solution
The molecular weight of water and air are 18 and 29, respectively.

Mole fraction of A ¼ Moles of A=ðMoles of AþMoles of BÞ

where Moles ¼ Mass/Molecular weight

Mole fraction of water ¼ 0:03

18 =ð1:00þ0:03Þ ¼ 0:046
29 18

The partial pressure of water ¼ 0.046  100 ¼ 4.6 kPa

Pw 4:6
RH ¼  100 ¼ ¼ 14:74%
PS 31:2

The drying process invariably needs air for the removal of moisture, and the
capacity of moisture removal is dependent on temperature and humidity of drying
air. The change in the properties of air during drying can be studied using
psychrometry. Important terminology related to psychrometrics is discussed below:

5.6.1 Dry Bulb Temperature

The thermometer reading under ambient conditions provides dry bulb temperature.
These values are represented on the horizontal axis, and the dry bulb line remains
parallel to the vertical axis (Fig. 5.14).
5 Drying 173

Fig. 5.14 Schematic view of

psychrometric chart indicating
dry and wet bulb temperature

Wet bulb temperature Æ

Dry bulb temperature

Fig. 5.15 Dry and wet bulb

apparatus

Dry
bulb Wet
bulb

5.6.2 Wet Bulb Temperature

The wet bulb temperature of air indicates the temperature of air in completely
saturated ambient condition. It is represented by the uppermost curved axis
(Fig. 5.14). It is interesting to note those dry and wet bulbs are equal at 100%
relative humidity due to complete saturation of the surrounding air.

Measurement of Dry and Wet Bulb Temperatures

The dry and wet bulb temperatures can be measured by using dry and wet bulb
thermometer apparatus (Fig. 5.15). The dry bulb temperature is the normal ambient
temperature, which is measured by a thermometer, whereas wet bulb thermometer
remains covered with a cotton wick, which remains constantly dipped in water on the
other end to provide capillary water to rise up to bulb of thermometer and maintain
saturation condition. The apparatus is generally hanged in rooms/storage structures,
174 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

where the measurement is to be taken. Similar set of thermometers are fixed on a

rotating arm, which rapidly maintains the equilibrium with the ambiance by rotating
swiftly. The rotating apparatus is known sling phychrometer. The dry and wet bulb
temperatures are used as input for estimating the relative humidity of the ambiance
using phychrometic chart.

5.6.3 Dew Point Temperature

Dew point is the temperature, at which dew formation takes place. It can be obtained
by cooling the air till it becomes saturated. The temperature at which the water
vapour present in air starts condensing in the form of dew is termed as dew point
temperature. The condensation of water vapours occur as the ambient air comes in
contact with the surface, which is colder than air, and as a result, dew is formed on
the wind screen of car during cool weather outside. Dew point temperature is
temperature shown along the line of 100% relative humidity line or curved axis
and the value of dew point temperature can be obtained by drawing a horizonal line
towards the saturation curve.

5.6.4 Humidity

Humidity refers to the amount of water present in the ambient air. It is represented in
two ways, namely absolute and relative humidity.

5.6.4.1 Absolute Humidity/Humidity Ratio

It is the amount of mass of water vapour per unit mass of dry air. The unit is
represented by kg of water per kg of dry air. This is also designated as humidity of
air, which is similar to the moisture content of food material on dry basis. Absolute
humidity/humidity ratio can be noted from right side vertical axis in a psychrometric
chart.

5.6.4.2 Relative Humidity

The relative humidity refers to the ratio of the partial pressure of the water vapour
(Pw) to the partial pressure of saturated water vapour (Ps) at the same temperature
(Fig. 5.16). The relative humidity values can be obtained from the curved lines.

5.6.5 Measurement of Humidity

The dry and wet bulb temperature thermometers are used to estimate humidity using
psychrometric chart. The hygrometers are also used to measure the humidity.
5 Drying 175

Relative humidity ------->

<- Humidity ratio

Fig. 5.16 Schematic view of psychrometric chart for humidity ratio and relative humidity

Fig. 5.17 Hair hygrometer

Humidity scale

Hairs Pointer

5.6.5.1 Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometers

The difference in temperature of both the bulbs is known as wet bulb depression,
which can be used as input to psychrometric chart for the estimation of relative
humidity. The dry bulb and wet bulb temperature lines at known values are drawn
(Fig. 5.14) till it interests themselves. Relative humidity value can be obtained by
measuring the value on relative humidity lines (Fig. 5.16).

5.6.5.2 Hair Hygrometers

The property of hairs to expand/contract with the relative humidity makes use of
hairs in hygrometers. The variation in length of a properly treated hair is about 2.5%,
with a change of relative humidity. A bundle of hairs starts shrinking/expanding with
the change in humidity, which is attached to the lever for displacement of indicator
on the dial to indicate relative humidity on humidity scale (Fig. 5.17). These are
considered as reasonable instruments for normal ambient conditions.
176 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

5.6.5.3 Electrical Resistance Hygrometers

These instruments work on the principle of varying surface electrical resistance of
some materials (e.g. aluminium oxide) with the change in relative humidity of
ambient air.

5.6.5.4 Dew Point Meter

The apparatus cools down the temperature of ambient air until condensation starts.
Plotting the data in psychrometric chart also provides the value of relative humidity.

5.6.5.5 Specific Volume

Specific volume indicates the volume occupied by a unit mass of dry air, in m3/kg. It
is reciprocal of air density. Specific volumes are indicated along the horizontal axis
in a psychrometric chart and lines representing the constant volume appear to be
slanting towards left at higher angle (Fig. 5.18).

5.6.5.6 Enthalpy
Enthalpy, h, is the amount of energy (kJ) of air per kg of dry air. It can be measured at
the scale provided above the wet bulb scale at saturation, which can be measured
along with wet bulb lines by crossing the curve axis till the enthalpy scales.

Q.9 The wet and dry bulb temperatures were measured as 15 and 20
C, respec-
tively, in a storage room. Estimate specific volume, enthalpy and relative humidity of
the air.

Solution
Draw a vertical line at 20
C and draw a line at 15
C along the wet bulb line. The
point of interaction of both the lines should be marked (Fig. 5.19).

<-Specific volume lines

Enthalpy lines --------------Æ

Fig. 5.18 Schematic view of psychrometric chart for enthalpy and specific volume
5 Drying 177

Relative humidity line Æ

42 kJ/kg
of dry air 60%
Enthalpy wet --------------Æ 15 0.84 m /kg3

Bulb lines
<- Humidity ratio

<- Specific volume line

Dry bulb line Æ

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Fig. 5.19 Schematic view of psychrometric chart for Q.9

1. Relative humidity can be found at the curves ¼ 60%

2. Enthalpy along with the constant wet bulb line ¼ 42 kJ/kg of dry air
3. Specific volume along with sp. volume lines ¼ 0.84 m3/kg

Q.10 The storage room is maintained at 20
C dry bulb and 15
C wet bulb
temperatures. The dry bulb temperature of air increased to 40
C through heating.
Estimate the heat transfer rate and humidity of air to flow 500m3/h air.

Solution
For a drying operation, air is being heated up before sending it to drying chamber.
Since the amount of water is added/removed during drying, the humidity also
remains constant at the raised heated dry bulb temperature of 40
C.
Initial condition of air:
By locating the point on psychrometric chart at WBT ¼ 15
C and DBT ¼ 20
C;
following information can be extracted:

RH ¼ 60%; Enthalpy ¼ 42 kJ=kg, Specific volume ¼ 0:84 m3 =kg

Now, Mass flow rate ¼ 500m3 =h ¼ 500=0:84 ¼ 595:24 kg=h

Final condition of air:

By locating the point on psychrometric chart again at WBT ¼ 21.5
C;
DBT ¼ 40
C; following information can be extracted:

RH ¼ 18%; Enthalpy ¼ 62 kJ=kg, Sp:volume ¼ 0:899 m3 =kg

Now, rate of heating required ¼ ð62  42Þ ¼ 20 kJ=kg ¼ 20  595:24 kJ=h

178 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

¼ 11904:8 kJ=h ¼ 11904:8=3600 kJ=s ¼ 3:31 kW

Q.11 The air is heated at 50
C and 10% relative humidity and sent to a dryer. The
exit temperature of is 35
C. Calculate the required volume of drying air to evaporate
the water at a rate of 40 kg/h.

Solution
Initial condition of air:
By locating the point on psychrometric chart at DBT ¼ 50
C; RH ¼ 10%;
following information can be extracted:


WBT ¼ 23:77 C; Sp:volume ¼ 0:927 m3 =kg; Enthalpy ¼ 70 kJ=kg; Humidity
¼ 0:0077 kg=kg

Final condition of air:

The drying process draws the moisture from food and humidification of air takes
place, since the addition of energy of air and vapour remains the same; therefore, this
process will follow constant energy lines, i.e. wet bulb lines. Therefore, following
the same WBT value, 23.77
C and exit DBT of 35
C, the parameters for final
condition is:
By locating the point on psychrometric chart again at WBT ¼ 23.77
C;
DBT ¼ 35
C; following information can be extracted:

RH ¼ 39%; Enthalpy ¼ 70 kJ=kg; Sp:volume ¼ 0:893 m3 =kg; Humidity

¼ 0:0139 kg=kg

Water loss ¼ 0:0139  0:0077 ¼ 0:0062 kg=kg of air

The amount of moisture removed per kg of air ¼ 0:0062 kg=kg of air:

The requirement of drying air for removal of 40 kg water=hour ¼ 40=0:0062

¼ 6451:61 kg=h

¼ 6451:61  0:927 m3 =h ¼ 5980:64 m3 =h

5.7 Heat Transfer in Drying

The drying employs heating of food material to provide energy to the food materials
for the evaporation of moisture. Heat transfer may take place through any or
combination of the modes of heat transfers. The rate of drying is governed by the
transfer of heat to the water present in the food materials to provide necessary latent
heat for vaporization. Generally, one heat transfer mode dominates in various drying
processes. In case of contact drying, conduction dominates, which can be expressed
by Fourier’s law of heat conduction (Fig. 5.20). The temperature difference between
5 Drying 179

Fig. 5.20 Conduction

through a solid wall Ti

Ts
q

Fig. 5.21 Convective drying

Ta

Ts

the heat transferring surface (Ti – Ts) along the distance (L ) is termed as temperature
gradient (Ti – Ts)/L, and the rate of heat transfer (q) is proportional to the temperature
gradient and cross-sectional area.

ðT i  T s Þ
q / A 
L
where negative sign indicates positive direction of heat flow, and the equation can be
given as:

K A ðT i  T s Þ
q¼ ð5:23Þ
L
where: q ¼ rate of heat transfer, J/s; K ¼ thermal conductivity of food material,
J/m s
C; A ¼ cross-sectional area of heat transfer, m2; Ti ¼ dryer temperature,
C;
Ts ¼ surface temperature of food,
C; L ¼ length of material, m.
The heat transfer rate using overall heat transfer coefficient (U ) in J/m2 s
C by
conduction in various surface can be modified as:

q ¼ U A ðT i  T s Þ ð5:24Þ

In case of natural or forced hot air convective drying, the Newton’s law of cooling
is applied (Fig. 5.21), which states that the rate of heat transfer is proportional to the
temperature difference of food material and drying air and the rate of heat transfer
can be given as:
180 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

q ¼ hs A ð T a  T s Þ ð5:25Þ

where: hs ¼ surface heat transfer coefficient, J/m2 s
C; Ta ¼ drying air temperature,

C.
In case of forced hot air drying, case hardening of food surface takes place, which
restricts the heat transfer rate due to poor conductivity of food materials.

5.8 Mass Transfer in Drying

Mass transfer occurs during drying due to difference in concentration/partial

pressures. The mass transfer is governed by Fick’s law of diffusion, which refers
to the proportionality between diffusion flux or rate of mass transfer with the
concentration gradient. Following equations represents the diffusion flux and mass
transfer rates:

ΔC
J ¼ D ð5:26Þ
Δx
where J, D, ΔC and Δx are diffusion flux, mol/m2s, diffusion coefficient or diffusiv-
ity, m2/s, concentration difference, mol/m3 and distance between the particles, m.

dw=dt ¼ k0g  A  ΔY ð5:27Þ

where: w ¼ mass being transferred, kg; t ¼ duration of mass transfer, s; k’g ¼ mass-
transfer coefficient, kg/m2s; A ¼ Area for mass transfer, m2; ΔY ¼ Difference in
absolute humidity, kg water/kg dry matter.
The phenomenon of mass transfer remains complex due to movement pattern of
moisture migration from food, which starts with the removal of moisture from the
surface of the material initially. As the surface moisture diminishes, the moisture
removal from deep inside the food material starts and continues till the end of drying
and moisture moves along with drying air. Therefore, correlation between initial
moist surface and the ambient should be established for diffusion first, wherein heat
and mass transfer also take place simultaneously. The heated air remains major
medium of heat transfer.

5.9 Drying Rates

The rate of drying is usually governed by the heat transfer and mass transfer
simultaneously. Generally, drying of food is divided into constant rate and falling
rate drying periods. The former drying proceeds in high moisture foods till critical
moisture content at constant rate, while later drying starts with drop in drying rate. In
initial phase of drying, moisture removal occurs from whole surface, which starts
5 Drying 181

Critical moisture content

B A

Moisture content
Rate of drying

C
B
C D
D

Moisture content Time

Fig. 5.22 Drying rate curves

reducing with the end of constant rate drying, and as a result rate of vaporization of
water per unit time decreases.
Figure 5.22 represents a usual behaviour of food moisture content with drying
time and drying rate. Constant rate drying is represented by A–B. The moisture is
continuously being evaporated from food surface, which remains saturated with
water, and the rate of removal of water is governed by diffusion of moisture from
food surface through a stationary air film, which remains in contact with the drying
air. The constant rate period also depends on the amount of moisture available on the
food surface, air temperature, air humidity and speed of moisture movement from
inner part of food to the surface. The water remains available at the surface for
maintaining saturation through the transportation of moisture from inner side till the
level of critical moisture content.
The critical moisture content demarcates constant rate period and falling rate
period and can be identified as point B in the Fig. 5.22. Thereafter, the drying rate fall
gradually as drying proceeds till the section (BC), which is termed as first falling rate
period. The availability of drying surface for removing the moisture starts decreas-
ing, which influences the drying rate during first falling rate drying. The movement
from innermost part to surface remains at higher rates for supplying moisture for
keeping surface of food saturated. The coefficients of heat and mass transfer, area
available for drying and relative humidity of air remain driving factors to govern rate
of drying during the period.
The drying proceeds further, and food surface is no longer remain in saturation,
the temperature of food surface become more than the wet bulb temperature. The
temperature of the material continues to increase till attaining the dry bulb tempera-
ture of drying air and approaches to the end of drying process. It is characterized as
second falling rate period by CD section (Fig. 5.22). The moisture diffusion within
food starts. The materials with higher moisture content than critical moisture content
182 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

exhibit both drying periods, i.e. constant and falling rate periods. However, the
material with lower moisture content than critical moisture content observes, only
falling rate drying. The movement of moisture during drying is a combination of
vapour diffusion, cycle of vaporization and condensation, osmotic pressure and
capillary forces.

5.10 Constant Rate Drying

The moisture evaporation from food surface occurs during constant rate period. The
heat supplied during this period, by the drying air, is utilized as latent heat for
conversion of water to vapours and usually no increase in temperature of food is
observed. The evaporation rate of moisture is influenced by heat transfer rate from
the food surface as transferred heat is involved in conversion of water to vapour and
no variation in temperature of food material takes place. The rate of water removal is
also a mass transfer process. The difference between partial vapour pressure of
material and drying air remains major thrust for drying. Drying rates can be
estimated experimentally/predicted theoretically. It may be used to assess drying
times for designing of a dryer. However, the rate of drying changes because of
continuous decrease in moisture content of food material as drying progresses;
however, change in ambience temperature and relative humidity also change,
which may be assumed as constant to simplify the problem [6].

5.10.1 Estimation of Rate of Drying During Constant Rate Period

In case of constant rate of drying, mass of water removal is Δw for time ‘Δt’, then:
Rate of removal of moisture at constant rate,

Δw dw
Rc ¼ ¼ ¼ constant ð5:28Þ
Δt dt
Let Mo and Mc are initial and critical moisture contents of food material on dry
basis, w is dry matter of food in kg.
The moisture lost from initial to critical moisture content in time ‘t’ per unit
mass ¼ Mo – Mc

ðM o  M c Þ
Constant drying rate, Rc ¼
t
ðM o  M c Þ
t¼
Rc
5 Drying 183

ðM o  M c Þ
Total drying time, t ¼
ðdw=dtÞconst:

The removal rate of moisture from the food material, taken away by the drying air
at constant rate can be represented by Eq. (5.29). Let A, k'g, ΔY are area for mass
transfer, m2, mass-transfer coefficient, kg/m2s and difference in absolute humidity
kg water/kg dry matter.
Constant rate of drying may be used to calculate the drying rate on the basis of A,
K'g and ΔY:

Rc ¼ k0g  A  ΔY ð5:29Þ

Q.12 Calculate the rate of moisture removal and the rate of heat energy utilization
from the food available food surface of 3m2 at 30
C with temperature and humidity
of drying air 45
C and 30%, respectively. The mass-transfer coefficient may be
taken as 0.014 kg/m2s.

Solution
Using psychrometric chart, at 45
C and 30% relative humidity,

Absolute humidity ¼ 0:0182 kg=kg

Using psychrometric chart again, at 30
C and 100% relative humidity,

Absolute humidity ¼ 0:0272 kg=kg

Driving force ¼ 0:0272  0:0182 ¼ 0:009 kg=kg

Rate of water evaporated ¼ k0 g  A  ðYs  YaÞ

¼ 0:014  3  0:009 ¼ 0:000378 kg=s

Using steam table at 30 C, latent heat ¼ 2429:8 kJ=kg

Heat energy required per square metre ¼ 0:000378  2429:8

¼ 0:9185 kJ=s ¼ 0:9185kW  1:0 kW

Q.13 Calculate the rate of moisture removal, the rate of heat energy utilization and
the heat transfer coefficient for available food surface of 3m2 at 30
C with
temperature and humidity of drying air 45
C and 30%, respectively. The mass-
transfer coefficient may be taken as 0.014 kg/m2s.

Solution
Using psychrometric chart, at 45
C and 30% relative humidity,
184 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

Absolute humidity ¼ 0:0182 kg=kg

Using psychrometric chart again, at 30
C and 100% relative humidity,

Absolute humidity ¼¼ 0:0272 kg=kg

Driving force ¼ 0:0272  0:0182 ¼ 0:009 kg=kg

Rate of water evaporated ¼ k0 g  Ax ðYs  YaÞ ¼ 0:014  3  0:009

¼ 0:000378 kg=s
∘
Using steam table at 30 C, latent heat ¼ 2429:8 kJ=kg

Heat energy required per square metre ¼ 0:000378  2429:8

¼ 0:9185 kJ=s ¼ 0:9185 kW ¼ 918:5 W

Temperature difference ¼ 45  30 ¼ 15 C

q ¼ h AΔt

918:5 ¼ h  3  15


h ¼ 918:5=ð3  15Þ ¼ 20:41 J=m2 s C

Q.14 The slices of potatoes were dried with drying air at 65
C, 10% RH and with
25 kg/s rate. If the rate of evaporation from the potatoes remains 0.15 kg/s, estimate
the temperature and relative humidity of the outgoing air.

Solution
Using psychrometric chart, at 65
C and 10% relative humidity,

Absolute humidity of air ¼ 0:0157 kg=kg

Evaporated water added in the drying air ¼ 0:15=25 ¼ 0:006 kg=kg

Humidity of leaving air ¼ 0:0157 þ 0:006 ¼ 0:0217 kg=kg

Locate the point of drying air at 65
C and 10% RH, follow the wet bulb line till
humidity reaches to 0.0217 kg/kg and dry bulb temperature is 50
C and 30% RH.

5.11 Falling Rate Drying

The drying rate remains the highest owing to the availability of free water at the
surface of food material initially, however, drying surface decreases while falling
rate period starts and expulsion of moisture from the interior of food takes place. The
5 Drying 185

constituents and complexity of food describe the drying behaviour of the food
material. At depleting moisture contents, drying rates remains very low.

5.11.1 Material with One Falling Rate and Drying Curve Passes
through Origin

The rate of drying of these materials from initial moisture content (Mo) to the critical
moisture content (Mc) depicts a constant rate (Rc), represented by A to B (Fig. 5.23).
After reaching the critical moisture content (B), rate of drying then reduces in a linear
relationship until almost all the moisture is removed (C), whereas equilibrium
moisture content (D) of the material remains lower than the final drying rate at
specific drying conditions.
The drying times needed to reach at a moisture content (M) in drying are:
During constant rate period, rate of drying:

dm
Constant rate, Rc ¼  ð5:30Þ
dt
where negative sign represents the loss of moisture during drying. The total time for
constant rate drying:

mo mc
Total time in constant rate, t c ¼ ð5:31Þ
RC
Falling rate period, rate of drying:
As the rate of drying does not remain constant during the falling rate, the rate of
drying will be proportional to the ratio of instantaneous moisture to the critical
moisture. The rate of drying remains equal to Rc at critical moisture content, and it

Fig. 5.23 A typical graphical representation drying rate versus moisture content having single
falling rate period
186 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

reduces with the reduction of moisture below critical moisture and falling rate drying
starts.

dm Rc
Falling rate ¼  ¼ m
dt mC
dm mC
  ¼ dt
m Rc
Zt Zm
m dm
dt ¼  c
RC m
tc mc

mc m
t  tc ¼  ln c
RC m
mc m
t ¼ tc þ  ln c
RC m
mo mc mc m
t¼ þ  ln c ð5:32Þ
RC RC m

Q.15 A sample of carrot pomace with 75% moisture content (wb) has a unit water
activity at moisture content higher than 1.25 kg water/kg dry matter. The pomace is
being dried at a rate of 0.17 kg/kg dry matter per min. Estimate drying time required
to reach at 10% moisture content on wet basis.

Solution
Rc ¼ 0:17 kg=kg dry matter per min

mc ¼ 1:25 kg water=kg dry matter

Initial moisture content, wb ¼ 85%

Moisture content ðwbÞ, %

Moisture content ðdbÞ, % ¼  100
100  Moisture content ðwbÞ, %
85
Initital moisture contentðdbÞ, % ¼  100
100  85
85
Initital moisture contentðdbÞ, % ¼  100
15
Initital moisture content ðdbÞ, % ¼ 567:78% ¼ 5:68 kg water=kg dry matter

Final moisture content, wb ¼ 10%

5 Drying 187

10
Final moisture content ðdbÞ, % ¼  100
100  10
10
Final moisture content ðdbÞ, % ¼  100
90
Final moisture content ðdbÞ, % ¼ 11:11% ¼ 0:11 kg water=kg dry matter
mo mc mc m
t¼ þ  ln c
RC RC m
5:68  1:25 1:25 1:25
t¼ þ  ln
0:17 0:17 0:11
5:68  1:25 1:25 1:25
t¼ þ  ln
0:17 0:17 0:11
t ¼ 26:06 þ 17:87 ¼ 43:93 min

5.11.2 Materials with More Falling Rate Periods

Most food materials exhibit behaviours of having more than one falling rate period.
In these cases, drying performed at constant rate Rc from the initial moisture content
(Mo) to the critical moisture content (Mc) representing as A to B similar to single
falling rate drying period (Fig. 5.24). In this case, the drying rate in first falling rate
period deviates from the origin in a plot of drying rate and moisture content. In case
of first falling rate period, the drying starts from mc1 with a projected residual

Fig. 5.24 A typical graphical representation drying rate versus moisture content having two falling
rate period
188 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

moisture content of mr1. However, due to the occurrence of second falling rate
period, the first falling rate ceases at C with moisture content mc2. Thereafter, second
falling rate starts from C and continues till D until almost all the moisture content is
removed with a projected residual moisture content mr2, whereas equilibrium mois-
ture content (E) of the material remains lower than the final moisture content (mr2) at
specific drying conditions.
During first falling rate period, the first falling rate drying starts from mc1 and
continues till reaching at mc2, and residual moisture mr1 remains in the material,
therefore, the rate of drying:

dðm  mr1 Þ Rc
Falling rate ¼  ¼  ðm  mr1 Þ
dt mC1  mr1
Drying time during constant rate and first falling rate period, as Eq. (5.8) is
modified as first falling rate drying performed between mc1 to mc2 with respective
residual moisture mr1, and critical moisture content may be used as mc ¼ mc1  mr1,
instantons moisture content may be replaced as m ¼ mc2 – mr1 as the first falling rate
ended at mc2.
Time in constant drying and first falling rate can be estimated as

mo mc1 mC1  mr1 m  mr1

t1 ¼ þ  ln C1
RC RC mc2  mr1
Similarly, drying time needed in the second falling rate period

mC2  mr2 m  mr2

t2 ¼  ln C2
RC m  mr2
Total drying time:

mo mc1 mC1  mr1 m  mr1 mC2  mr2 m  mr2

t¼ þ  ln C1 þ  ln C2 ð5:33Þ
RC RC mc2  mr1 RC m  mr2

Q.16 The slices of apples at 5.3 g water/g dry matter are kept in forced convection
dryer at 0.163 g water/g dry matter per min drying rate till critical moisture content of
2.5 g water/g dry matter and from Tdb ¼ 75
C and Twb ¼ 40
C for the first 40 min
till reaching up to residual moisture content of 0.35 g water/g dry matter. The
material was dried at Tdb 70
C and Twb ¼ 45
C for the remaining drying process
up to 0.15 kg water/kg dry matter with critical and residual value of 1.0 and 0.10 kg
water/g dry matter, respectively.

Solution
The total drying times includes constant rate followed by the first and second falling
rate periods:
5 Drying 189

5:3  2:5 2:5  0:35 2:5  0:35 1  0:1 1  0:1

t¼ þ  ln þ  ln
0:163 0:163 1  0:35 0:163 0:15  0:1
t ¼ 17:18 þ 13:19  1:20 þ 5:52  2:89

¼ 17:18 þ 15:83 þ 15:95 ¼ 48:96 min

5.11.3 Thin Layer Drying

Thin layer drying process may be analysed using Newton’s law of cooling by
replacing the temperature with moisture content, which uses a constant ‘k’ as
suggested by Lewis [12], and can be represented as

dM  
¼ k M  M eq ð5:34Þ
dT
The moisture content depends upon time, and Eq. (5.20) can be simplified as:

M  Me
MR ¼ ¼ exp  ðk:t Þ ð5:35Þ
Mo  Me
where MR is moisture ratio and M, Mo, and Me are instantaneous moisture content,
initial moisture content, and equilibrium moisture content, respectively.
Page [13] introduced thin layer drying equation as:

MR ¼ exp ðk:t n Þ ð5:36Þ

where ‘n’ is a parameter, which depends on the material and drying temperature.
An analogous methodology to Lewis [12] model has been reported by Henderson
and Pebis [14]

MR ¼ a: exp ðk:t Þ ð5:37Þ

and the logarithmic model [15]

MR ¼ a: exp ðk: t Þ þ c ð5:38Þ

where a and c are model constants.

Henderson [16] considered liquid diffusion and presented classical solution for
thin layer drying by two-term exponential model:

MR ¼ a: exp ðk0 :t Þ þ b: exp ðk 1 :t Þ ð5:39Þ

Wang and Singh [17] employed following model for drying of rough rice:
190 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

MR ¼ 1 þ a:t þ b:t 2 ð5:40Þ

Following simplified/modified equation was used by Diamante and Munro [18]

on hot air thin layer drying of sweet potato slices:
  
MR ¼ a: exp c t=L2 ð5:41Þ
  n 
MR ¼ a: exp c t=L2 ð5:42Þ

where L is half thickness of the sample.

Approximation model based on diffusion applied for grapes drying by Yaldiz
et al. [19]:

MR ¼ a: exp ðk:t Þ þ ð1  aÞ exp ðk:a:t Þ ð5:43Þ

Verma et al. [20] applied and recommended the following model for thin layer
drying of rice:

MR ¼ a: exp ðk:t Þ þ ð1  aÞ: exp ðg:t Þ ð5:44Þ

Midilli et al. [21] applied the following model for thin layer drying of
pistachio nuts:

MR ¼ a: exp ðk:t n Þ þ b:t ð5:45Þ

Hii et al. [22] also suggested a model for thin layer drying of cocoa:

MR ¼ a: exp ðk:t n Þ þ c: exp ðg:t n Þ ð5:46Þ

where a, c, k, g are model constants.

The moisture ratio, MR ¼ (M  Me)/(M0  Me) may be modified to M/M0 by
neglecting equilibrium moisture content due to longer time elapsed in drying. The
appropriateness of mathematical models can be tested using reduced chi-square,
correlation coefficient and root mean square error. The experimental and predicted
moisture contents are also used for the validation of the models.

5.11.4 Calculation of Effective Diffusivities

The falling rate period also used Fick’s diffusion equation for characterizing the food
product. The Crank [23] model is used for the estimation of diffusivity assuming
uniform initial moisture distribution.

Case I: For Slab or Plane Sheet

Considering effective diffusivity (Deff) and half-thickness of slab (m), moisture ratio
can be represented as:
5 Drying 191

 
8 X1 1 ð2n þ 1Þ2 π 2 Deff t
MRi ¼ exp  ð5:47Þ
π2 n¼0
ð2n þ 1Þ2 4L0 2

In case of considering the first term of the series, the equation can be shortened
and expressed as:

8 π 2 Deff t
ln MR ¼ ln  ð5:48Þ
π2 4L0 2
Diffusivities are estimated through plotting the logarithm of moisture ratio
(ln MR) with drying time (t) and slope and effective diffusivity can be calculated as:

π 2 Deff
Slope ¼  ð5:49Þ
4 L0 2
 
4 L0 2
Deff ¼  Slope ð5:50Þ
π2

where Slope ¼ (lnMR2  ln MR1)/(t2  t1).

Case II: For Spherical-Shaped Material

X
1
6  
MRi ¼ exp Deff n2 π 2 t=R2 ð5:51Þ
n¼1
n2 π 2

where R ¼ radius of the sphere/kernel

Considering the first term of the series, the equation can be shortened and
expressed as:

6 π 2 Deff t
ln MR ¼ ln  ð5:52Þ
π2 R2
π 2 Deff
Slope ¼  ð5:53Þ
R2

Case III: For Cylindrical-Shaped Material

X
1
4  
MRi ¼ exp Deff /n 2 t ð5:54Þ
n¼1
R /n
2 2

Considering the first term of the series, the equation can be shortened and
expressed as:
192 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

4
ln MR ¼ ln  /n 2 Deff t ð5:55Þ
R2 /n 2

Slope ¼ /n 2 Deff ð5:56Þ

where αn is the positive root of zero-order Bessel function [24].

5.11.5 Calculation of Activation Energy

Arrhenius-type relationship can also be used for determining the effective

diffusivity:


E
Deff ¼ D0 exp  a ð5:57Þ
RT
where D0, Ea, R and T are pre-exponential factor (m2/s), activation energy (kJ/mol),
universal gas constant (kJ/mol K) and absolute temperature (K), respectively.
The effective diffusivity in logarithm ln(Deff) form can be plotted with reciprocal
of absolute temperature (T )


Ea 1
ln ðDeff Þ ¼ ln ðDo Þ   ð5:58Þ
R T
The activation of energy can be estimated by determining the slope of the above-
mentioned equation [25].

5.12 Types of Dryers

In food processing industries, different foods are processed using different

ingredients. It is expected to have a number of dryers, which are selected on the
type of product for drying and other quality-related parameters. A number of dryers,
which are popular in industry, are described as follows:

5.12.1 Tray Dryers

These types of dryers have an insulated chamber, which has an opening for incoming
fresh air along with a separate heating arrangement and a plate to exhaust the moist
air through holes provided at the upper side of the dryer. Several steel trays are fitted
in the cavities marked in the inner body of the dryers (Figs. 5.25 and 5.26). Insulation
in the walls is being provided to minimize heat loss to the ambience. The product is
being spread on trays in thin layers for faster drying rate. A circulation fan is
generally provided to maintain same temperature throughout the dryer. These dryers
are appropriate for drying fruits, vegetables and several other food products. The
5 Drying 193

Fig. 5.25 Tray dryer with

perforated trays

Fig. 5.26 Tray dryer with regular trays

perforated trays are used in case of drying of fruits and vegetables in whole or in
pieces, while flat regular trays are used for drying of fruit pulp in crushed form and
the drying air pass over the material.

5.12.2 Tunnel Dryers

These types of dryers are similar to tray dryers, having larger capacity, making it
suitable for industrial purposes. Several moving trolleys or belt conveyers are
provided (Fig. 5.27). Several heaters are generally arranged on air inlet to heat the
air. Sometimes, heaters are being provided along with the tunnels for heating the air
passing through the tunnels. It may have co-current and counter current
194 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

Fig. 5.27 Tunnel dryer with perforated trays

Fig. 5.28 Drum dryer

arrangements for drying air and product flow. In some cases, cross flow may also be
used by making several compartments.

5.12.3 Drum/Rotary Dryers

These dryers have hollow drum of larger diameter. In case of drum dryer, the feed in
the form of pulp is placed over the outer surface of drum by spreading in thin layers.
The inner side of the drum is being heated with high-temperature steam, and the heat
is being transferred through conduction from metal sheet forming the drum
(Fig. 5.28).
The food material remains on the surface while rotation of drum and drying takes
place by absorbing the heat from the surface of drum. A scraper is provided to detach
the material from the drum after completion of drying. The drying uses the energy
5 Drying 195

Fig. 5.29 Rotary dryer

transferred through conduction; therefore, thermal conductivity of drum surface and

heat transfer coefficient play a vital role in drying. These dryers are useful for drying
pulp or pomace. Thermal efficiency of these dryers is high due to contact heat transfer.
The food material is fed in the drying chamber in case of rotary dryer, which is
inclined towards the output and heated through steam. The dryer is of cylindrical
shape and remains stationary (Fig. 5.29). Several paddles are provided to agitate the
food material throughout the travel from the feed inlet to the product outlet. The food
material meets heated surface and temperature of food material increases, which
facilitate the removal of water. The material is fed inside the drum into the cylindri-
cal space provided in rotary dryer, while the material is being placed over the circular
surface of rotating drum in drum dryer.

5.12.4 Fluidized Bed Dryers

Fluidized bed dryer uses an air stream flowing in upward direction to maintain the
material in suspended state by countering the effect of gravity. The rate of drying is
very high, and moisture removal is fast and uniform as all the sides of the material
get equal opportunity to face the drying air directly. These dryers are used for
materials having small size for carrying out the fluidization (Fig. 5.30). The airflow
also directs the flow to convey the material through feed trough. The convective heat
transfer remains the major mode of heat transfer for drying air to the food material.

5.12.5 Pneumatic Dryers

Food material is conveyed by higher velocity heated air stream in pneumatic dryers.
Higher velocity creates turbulence in stream, which conveys material and maintain
the material in suspension. Heaters are provided for heating of drying air, and
classifiers are needed to sperate the materials from the air (Fig. 5.31). In case of
higher residual moisture in the dried product, it can be again circulated in the dryer.
196 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

Fig. 5.30 Fluidized bed

dryer

Fig. 5.31 Pneumatic dryer Vapour

Feed

Air
Heater

The velocity of drying air is low to maintain the suspension of material in fluidized
bed dryer. The food material that is being conveyed with drying air is separated in
cyclone separator attached to the pneumatic dryer.

5.12.6 Spray Dryers

Spray dryers work on the principal of drying liquid or pumpable pulp in the form of
fine droplets, which dry rapidly with heated air stream. The drying remains very
rapid due to the availability of increased surface area by forming the fine droplets
(Fig. 5.32). The dried material is fed to cyclone separator for continuously with-
drawn of dried material and cooled to retain the quality attributes. The temperature of
drying air, heat transfer coefficient and diameter of droplets are important parameters
5 Drying 197

Fig. 5.32 Spray dryer

Feed

Atomizer

Hot air

Product

Fig. 5.33 Belt dryer

to govern the rate of drying and drying time. The dryer body is large enough to allow
particle for settling with minimum sticking on the walls. The size can be as large up
to 6 m of diameter and about 20 m of height. The spray dried products contain
hollow spaces, which provide excellent rehydration properties of dried products.

5.12.7 Belt/Trough Dryers

The food material is placed on a horizontal belt in thin layers, and air is being passed
through heating place, which heats the air for passing through the material
(Fig. 5.33). Sometimes, scrappers are placed to transport the material in place of
198 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

moving the material form feed inlet to product outlet. These can be placed in several
numbers to obtain desired moisture content in a single pass for matching with
continuous processing operations. The trough-shaped perforated belts are also
used to convey the material. The air is heated and passed from the bottom side of
the belt to pass through the food material. The speed of the belt is controlled
according to the level of drying and exposure time. The trough dryer is preferred
in handling of smaller dices of fruits and vegetables, peas, etc., while the belt dryers
are suitable to dry apples, grapes, tomato, garlic, potato slices, etc.

5.12.8 Bin Dryers

The grains like wheat, corn, rice, etc. are stored in bins. The grains are moistened
during high relative humidity weather conditions. The bin dryers are useful for
drying grains. They are made of cylindrical bins having perforated bottoms to
allow heated air to pass through material for drying (Fig. 5.34). As drying
progresses, the grains placed at the bottom dried first, and the zone of drying
moves upward till the completion of drying.

5.12.9 Vacuum Dryers

These dryers are similar to the tray dryers; however, the operating pressure makes
these dryers distinct (Fig. 5.35). These are operated under vacuum, which facilitate
the removal of water from the food material easily. The heat is usually transferred

Fig. 5.34 Bin dryer

Wet grain

Primary heating zone

Perforated floor
Dried grain Heater Blower
5 Drying 199

Condenser
vacuum
pump
Motor

Steam or
Water Jacket

Fig. 5.35 Vacuum dryer

Food
vacuum
Heated plates pump
Motor

Compression
mechanism

Condenser

Fig. 5.36 Freeze dryer

through radiation or conduction. The vapours as a result of drying are condensed in

condenser.

5.12.10 Freeze Dryers/Lyophilizer

The food material is kept on the shelves in a compartment under high vacuum
condition. The material is mostly frozen before loading on the shelf (Fig. 5.36). The
conduction and radiation modes are being used to transfer the heat. The vapours
generated are recovered through vacuum pump. A sheet of expanded metal is also
used to enhance heat transfer rate to food material through conduction and accelerate
the freeze-drying process. It also facilitates uniform removal of water from the food
material. The food should be placed on metal plate in such way, so that maximum
surface area should remain in contact with metal plate to receive maximum heat. The
condensation of vapour can be obtained using refrigerated condenser.
200 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

Exit air

Grains

Drying air Plenum chamber

Fig. 5.37 Flat bed dryer

5.12.11 Flat Bed Dryers

These dryers have a perforated bottom chamber to place the food materials, and air is
blown from the perforation provided at the bottom of chamber (Fig. 5.37). Since the
depth of food material remains less, the drying time is also shorter. The capacity of
such dryers is limited to 1–2 tonnes. These can be efficiently used on the farms. The
height of bed over the bed is limited to 1.2 m. Quicker drying, less over drying and
lower pressure requirement are the advantages of using these dryers. The depth of
the material remains less as compared to deep bin dryer.

5.12.12 Continuous Flow Dryer

These are made in vertical shape, the grains are poured from the top, and the dried
grain is being collected at the bottom. The conveyors are used to regulate the flow of
grains (Fig. 5.38). The grains are diverted in mix type version of dryer using baffles,
which accelerate the drying rate through mixing during movement in zig zag flow.
The flow rate of air is kept about 50–95 m3/min per ton and drying air temperature is
usually limited to 65
C. Whereas, in case of non-mixing type version, the grain
move downwards, which gets heated through the plenum chamber provided at the
centre of dryer, while drying air temperature is limited to 54
C and flow rate is
increased up to 125–250 m3/min per ton for drying the grains appropriately.

5.12.13 LSU Dryer

It is a continuous-type heated air dryer, which was developed by Louisiana State

University during the year 1950. The dryer was designed to ensure the good mixing
of grain and air for greater contact and gentle heat treatment. Several inverted-V-
shaped channels are used and placed in a vertical column (Fig. 5.39). These channels
are placed in such way that every alternate row is kept open towards the heated air
blower side to blow the air inside the dryer, which provides air to get ample chances
to mix with grain directly while moving upward and make an exit from remaining
5 Drying 201

Fig. 5.38 Continuous flow

dryers. (a) Mixing dryer. (b) a b
Non-mixing dryer

alternate channels, which are kept open to the ambient to exit the air. The dryer is
manufactured in large capacities and are installed in commercial rice mills
(Fig. 5.39).

5.12.14 Solar Dryers

Solar dryers are gaining popularity in developing world as a better alternative to sun
drying practices in open floor (Fig. 5.40). Sometimes, these provide a very good
option for supplementation and replacement of artificial mechanical dryers to save
the cost of fuel/energy. The drying temperatures in solar drying are comparatively
higher than the sun drying, which enhances the drying rate and lower the final
moisture content of the dried food material. Based on exposure to sun light, the
dryers may be divided into three categories, viz. direct, indirect and mixed type. The
exposure to direct sunlight can be avoided in indirect-type solar dryer, which
202 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

Fig. 5.39 LSU dryer

Fig. 5.40 Solar dryer

5 Drying 203

improves the product characteristics. However, higher drying temperatures are

attained in direct-type solar dryers.

5.13 Advanced Drying Technologies

A list of various drying technologies, applications and their advantages are

summarized in Table 5.1.

5.14 Dryer Performance and Efficiency

The dryer performance depends on several factors including design, maintenance

and operational methods. The dryer performance is also adjudged by the impact of
drying on food quality, uniformity of drying, faster drying rates and efficient energy
utilization. The energy efficiency remains useful for assessing performance of dryer,
making comparisons with other dryers, making improvements in a dryer or using
any alternative drying technique.
The minimum quantity of heat required is latent heat to remove water through
evaporation, so dryer efficiency can be represented by the ratio of minimum amount
of heat required to the actual amount of heat provided in a dryer. The efficiency of
drying system affects energy consumption and may increase drying cost. It can be
defined in terms of energy needed for drying process from the amount of energy
consumed. Overall thermal efficiency can be expressed as:

Amount of energy needed

Overall thermal efficiency ¼  100 ð5:59Þ
Amount of energy consumed

However, because of complex phenomena of food, water and drying mechanism,

other efficiency measures are also used. Another approach uses energy balance of the
air, assuming the drying operation in adiabatic condition, where heat is not
exchanged from the dryer to the surrounding. The heat transfer for the drying
corresponds to the drop in drying air temperature and rise in temperature in ambience
air (Fig. 5.41).
The air dryer efficiency, η, can be represented as:

T1  T2
η¼  100 ð5:60Þ
T1  Ta
where T1, T2 and Ta are the heated (inlet) air temperature (
C), outlet air temperature
(
C) and ambient air temperature (
C), respectively.
Generally, the difference in numerator part remains a major factor for determining
the efficiency. The thermal efficiency of drum dryers, spray dryers and radiant dryers
varies between 35–80%, 20–50% and 30–40%, respectively [6].
Table 5.1 List of newer drying techniques and their applications [26]
204

S. No. Name of drying Details Application Advantages

1. Microwave drying For home and industrial applications Coriander leaves, potato slices, corn, Shortens the drying time, reduces
due to penetration of microwaves yam, etc. energy consumption and provides
directly into the food material, which good quality food product
causes rapid internal heating through
ionic conductance and dipole
rotation
(i) Microwave-assisted First, microwave energy heat the Leafy vegetables, etc. Product with lower bulk density,
convective drying interior part of food rapidly which higher rehydration ratio, lower
accelerate movement of moisture change in colour
from interior to surface for
evaporation through convection
(ii) Microwave-assisted Food dehydration due to rapid Carrot, tomato slices, banana, Shortens drying time and maintain
vacuum drying volumetric heating and low pressure, grapes, etc. the quality of food products
which accelerate evaporation due to
decrease in boiling point at lower
pressure
(iii) Microwave-assisted Solves the issue of nonuniformity in Parboiled wheat, bulgur, sweet Accelerated drying rates and
spouted bed drying case of microwave heating potato dices, etc. improved quality of food products
applications
(iv) Microwave-assisted Increases drying rate with Soybean, cooked dice, unfrozen Drying time and specific energy
fluidized bed drying improvement in product quality cooked rice etc. consumption can be saved
(v) Microwave-assisted Better quality of food products as Cucumbers, banana cubes, etc. High porosity, low colour, flavour
freeze drying compared to other drying processes and nutrient degradations and also
good rehydration properties
2. Infrared radiation (IR)- IR is a part of the electromagnetic Dried foodstuffs such as fruits, Compact equipment, energy saving,
assisted dryings spectrum and falls in a wavelength vegetables, grains, etc. environmental friendly and simple
ranging from 0.75 to 1000 μm operation as well as contactless
Near-IR (NIR) (0.75–1.4 μm), heating
N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma
 5

mid-IR (MIR) (1.4–3.0 μm) and

far-IR (FIR) (3.0–1000 μm)
Drying

(i) IR-assisted hot air drying The penetration of IR provide rapid Sweet potatoes, potatoes, It takes 2–2.5 lesser times to dry the
(HAD) heating of material at inner layers, pineapples, mulberry leaf tea, material as compared to convection
which accelerate the movement of longan, tomatoes, red pepper, drying alone, while keeping good
moisture towards the surface onions, carrots, apples, berries, etc. surface quality and high efficiency
lower shrinkage, improved
rehydration, lower hardness and
lower toughness
(ii) IR-assisted microwave MW drying has the specific Egg plants, bread crumbs, carrots, Increases the drying rate of
drying advantage of rapid heating due to the banana, kiwifruit, peach, green agricultural products and preserves
penetration of MWs into the volume pepper, black tea, raspberry, red the quality attributes of products
of the product. Infrared heating can chilli, etc.
intensively heat the sample surface;
therefore, it is usually used to assist
MW drying (IR-MW) to accelerate
the evaporation from the surface
water and to prevent sogginess of the
dried product
(iii) IR-assisted vacuum Drying food products under vacuum Welsh onion, potato, banana, lemon, High drying rate, low drying
drying provides high drying rate, low red pepper and pumpkin temperature and oxygen-deficient
drying temperature and oxygen- processing environment, which
deficient processing environment, improves the quality and nutritive
thereby improves the quality and values of the dried products
nutritive values of the dried products
(iv) IR-assisted freeze drying Freeze drying (FD) dehydrates Sweet potato, mushroom, pear, yam Improves the drying rate and reduces
frozen materials by a process of slices, apple cubes, banana slices, the energy consumption
sublimation under high vacuum, banana strawberry, etc.
which uses IR for providing energy
for evaporation
(continued)
205
Table 5.1 (continued)
206

S. No. Name of drying Details Application Advantages

3. Radio frequency drying Radio frequency (RF) is a novel Blanching, thawing, cooking, Produces heat volumetrically, rapid
technique, with a frequency range of drying, disinfection and extraction drying with considerable reduced
3 kHz to 300 MHz, which is much drying time and high energy
lower than that of microwave efficiency
(MW) (300 MHz to 300 GHz)
(i) RF-assisted convective Faster than that of hot air drying Crush, tear, curl method (CTC tea), Moisture transfer and temperature
drying—Combined RF alone alfalfa leaves, broad bean seeds, increase is rapid due to volumetric
and hot air (CRFHA) lettuces, corn seeds, etc. heating, which shortens the drying
time
(ii) RF-assisted vacuum Moisture removal is rapid due to Heat-sensitive agricultural foods Accelerate the drying process
drying (RFVD) vacuum
(iii) RF-assisted spouted and Fluidized/spouted bed drying with Grains, corn More uniform exposure of
fluidized bed drying radio frequency provides accelerated particulates to electromagnetic
drying rates due to fluidization of energy due to excellent mixing of the
food material solid and the gas
4. Foam mat drying Liquid, pulp, or semisolid material is Custard apple, tomato pump, fruit Simple, lesser expensive and time
converted into stable foam by juices, etc. consuming
incorporating a substantial volume
of air or an inert gas in the presence
of a foaming agent. Bubbling/
whipping is done for foam
formation. Foaming agents are egg
white/albumin, soy protein, lecithin
and milk protein concentrate,
whereas the common stabilizing
agents are methyl cellulose, agar,
gum Arabic, starch and egg white
N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma
 5

5. Spray freeze drying It involves three stages: Atomization High-value products, which include Better retention of volatiles and
of liquid into droplets, freezing coffee powder, whey protein, egg nutritional components and
(solidifying) them using a cold fluid, albumin, etc. improved physical properties
Drying

followed by sublimation of these

frozen droplets at low temperature
and pressure
6. Heat pump drying The energy from the dryer exhaust Suitable for apple, ginger, guava, The humidity and temperature of
gas is utilized using refrigeration papaya, lecithin, grated carrot, etc. drying air can be changed according
cycle to the food sensitivity, which
facilitates drying at lower
temperature
7. Electrohydrodynamic Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) drying Suitable for heat-sensitive Faster drying rates in comparison to
drying refers to the removal of water from biomaterials (vegetables, hot air drying, lower shrinkage,
the wet material, that is exposed to mushrooms, fruits, tofu, etc.) higher rehydration ratio and better
strong electric field due to retention of nutrients
aerodynamic action of the so-called
corona wind, ionic wind or electric
wind. This wind originates from a
sharp end of the electrically
conducting pin (needle) or fine
horizontal wire as a result of ions
leaving this pin/wire and impinging
the surface of the material being
dried
8. Direct and instant DIC is a high-temperature/short-time It can specifically be used for It maintains the nutritional value
controlled pressure drop (HTST) treatment, leading to a low expanded granules or aiming at through enhancing the availability of
swell (DIC) drying [15] final temperature which may cross obtaining starch-free, crispy, tasty the bioactive compounds in fruits
the glass transition Tg of many and highly nutritional snacks, can be and vegetables and reduces both
partially dried fruits and vegetables. applied for decontamination and drying time and energy consumption
The SD (swell drying)–DIC method elimination of insects and larvae
results in a well-controlled macro-
and microstructure. The high
207

expansion ratio induces significant

crispness
(continued)
Table 5.1 (continued)
208

S. No. Name of drying Details Application Advantages

9. Impinging stream drying Two streams with high-velocity Paddy, parboiled paddy, etc. Increases head rice yield
impinge/collide together. One of the
streams carries the material for
drying, while drying air is used in
another stream. A zone of intense
heat and mass transfer is created due
to collision of streams, which
accelerate the rate of drying
N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma
5 Drying 209

Fig. 5.41 Schematic diagram

of dryer Ambience Ta

T1 Dryer T2

Q.17 The 500 kg of ripe tomato pulp is dried from 90% to 8% moisture content by
heated air at 75
C at flow rate of 15,000 m3/h from ambient temperature of 30
C,
which was reduced to 60
C after passing through the dryer and exit at the same
temperature. The drying completes within 8 h of working and specific heat of tomato
pulp is 3.67 kJ/kg
C. The latent heat, specific heat and density of air can be taken as
2331 kJ/kg, 1.0 kJ/kg
C and 1.02 kg/m3, respectively. Estimate overall thermal
efficiency and air-drying efficiency.

Solution
Initial mass of tomato pulp ¼ 500 kg

Initial moisture content ¼ 90%

Final moisture content ¼ 8%

Initial mass of water in tomato pulp ¼ 500  90=100 ¼ 450 kg

Mass of solid in tomato pulp ¼ 500  450 ¼ 50 kg

Final mass of water in tomato pulp ¼ 8  50=ð100  8Þ ¼ 4:3 kg

Final mass of tomato pulp ¼ 50 þ 4:3 ¼ 54:3 kg

Mass of water removed in drying ¼ 500  54:3 ¼ 445:7 kg

Energy needed:


Now sensible heat required to increase the temperature of tomato pulp from 30 to 60 C
¼ m  cp  Δt

¼ 500  3:67  ð60  30Þ ¼ 55050 kJ

210 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

Latent heat required to evaporate the water from the tomato pulp ¼ m  L

¼ 445:7  2331 ¼ 1038927 kJ

Total energy required to evaporate the water ¼ m  cP  Δt þ m  L

¼ 55050 þ 1038927 ¼ 1093977 kJ

Energy consumed:

Flow rate of air ¼ 15000 m3 =h

Total time of drying ¼ 8 h

Total volume of air required ¼ 15000  8 ¼ 120000 m3

Density of air ¼ 1:02 kg=m3

Total mass of air required ¼ 120000  1:02 ¼ 122400 kg

Total amount of energy provided by air ¼ m  cp  Δt

¼ 122400  1  ð75  60Þ ¼ 1836000 kJ

Estimation of Efficiencies
Amount of energy needed
Overall thermal efficiency ¼  100
Amount of energy consumed
1093977
Overall thermal efficiency ¼  100 ¼ 59:54%
1836000
T1  T2 75  60
Air dryer efficiency, η ¼  100 ¼  100 ¼ 33:33%
T1  Ta 75  30

5.15 Effect of Drying on Foods

The drying of food products affects the product quality. The retention of quality
attributes and drying efficiency remain necessary for optimization of processing
parameters [27]. Some of the important characteristics, to be taken into account are
given as follows:

5.15.1 Texture

The solid food materials are characterized by their texture and play a vital role on the
quality attributes. The texture of food material is also affected with the cleaning,
5 Drying 211

pre-treatments and size reduction along with drying of fruits and vegetables. More
changes in the texture of dried food at higher temperature are evident due to
movement of water from interior to the surface of the food. The movement of
water from the food remains specific to the type of food and drying conditions.
Some of the mechanisms for change of texture are:

• Gelatinization of starch: The gelatinization of starch in the presence of moisture

and heat creates variation in moisture, structure and internal stresses.
• Development of cracks: Numerous methods of drying of food ruptures, cracks,
compresses and distorts the comparatively hard cells, which leads to development
of a shrunken shrivelled appearance, and the material does not regain completely
and has a significant amount of difference in fresh and rehydrated foods.
• Denaturation of protein: The aggregate formation during drying leads to dena-
turation of proteins, which reduces the water-holding capacity and toughening of
tissues.
• Case hardening: The chemical and physical alteration in solutes available at
surface takes place due to the removal of water. The capillaries presented on
the surface ruptures and blocks the openings to create a hard and impermeable
layer at the surface, which can reduce the drying rate.

5.15.2 Flavour

• The volatile component, which generates the flavour, is lost from the food during
drying.
• The structure of the dried material becomes more porous, which increases the
effect of oxygen and remains susceptible for oxidation.
• The flavour of dried foods can be improved by restricting oxidative or hydrolytic
enzymes using different aids such as ascorbic acid, citric acid, sulphur
dioxide, etc.

5.15.3 Colour

• Enzymatic browning: The loss in colour of dried foods has numerous reasons as
drying alters surface characteristics, which causes different reflectivity and as a
result different colour values. Chlorophyll, carotenoids and other heat-sensitive
pigments present in fruits and vegetables alters due to application of heat and
oxidation.
• Non-enzymatic browning: The temperature and water activity of food are impor-
tant factors for Maillard reactions. The rate of darkening increases markedly at
high drying temperatures.
212 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

5.15.4 Nutritional Value

The nutritional value of food material is largely affected by drying, which can be
optimized by using appropriate procedures, drying temperature, time and storage
conditions.

• The preparation of fruits and vegetables generally deteriorate more in comparison

to drying operation. Therefore, preparation of fruits and vegetables must be
appropriately selected.
• Lower temperatures, shorter drying exposure and low oxygen level reduce the
loss of vitamin C, which remain sensitive to oxidation and heat treatment.
Thiamine also remains sensitive to heat treatment.
• The digestibility and biological value of proteins do not deteriorate considerably
during drying in most of the foods.

5.16 Exercise

1. How drying affects the storability of the food product? Explain in brief.
2. What is the difference between drying and dehydration? Discuss the advantages
and limitations of the drying of food material too.
3. Draw the phase diagram of water and explain its significance in lyophilization of
perishable foods.
4. Whether boiling point of water can be increased or decreased? Explain the
reason in brief.
5. State the mechanism of drying and draw a mass balance diagram depicting
drying process along with various equation used.
6. About 450 kg of bottle gourd with 92% moisture content is dried to 8% using
tray dryer, estimate the amount of drying material produced.
[Ans. 39.1 kg]
7. The water chestnut contains 62.5% moisture content, which needs to be dried to
9% for producing flour. Estimate the amount of water to be evaporated from an
initial mass of 20 kg chestnut and the amount of energy required, neglecting
sensible heat required. (Assume latent heat of water ¼ 2260 kJ/kg).
[Ans. 11.8 kg, 26,573.6 kJ]
8. A banana was dried to 5% in the form of slices. If the initial mass and moisture
of banana are 10 kg and 77%, estimate the amount of dried banana slices
prepared.
[Ans. 2.4 kg]
9. List various methods used for moisture content determination and explain any
one of the methods and application in details.
10. Represent a drying process on a psychrometrics chart. Also explain about
energy required for moisture removal and temperature gain during drying of
food materials.
5 Drying 213

11. What is the difference between equilibrium moisture content (EMC) and critical
moisture content (CMC)? Explain the importance of EMC in drying processes.
12. Explain the process for drying of fruits and vegetables through sublimation.
13. A bin holds 2000 kg of wet grain containing 75% dry matter. This grain is to be
dried to a final moisture content of 14% (wb). (a) Determine the initial and final
moisture content of grain on dry basis. (b) Determine the weight of water
removed during drying.
[Ans. (a) 33.3%, 16.3% (b) 255.8 kg]
14. Define the term equilibrium moisture content and state its importance.
15. Determine the values of constant c and n from the Henderson’s equation for the
following data obtained under two different conditions of EMC studies of
sunflower seed.

Condition RH (%) Temperature (
C) EMC (% d.b.)

1 60 35 11
2 70 45 14
[Ans. n ¼ 0.9985, c ¼ 0.00271]

16. Discuss the application of heat and mass transfer in drying processes. Also, state
the governing equation of heat and mass transfer in drying processes.
17. In an experimentation, the total pressure and humidity of wet air are 110 kPa and
0.035 kg/kg, respectively. (i) Calculate the partial pressure exerted by vapours.
(ii) If the saturation pressure remains 10.0 kPa, estimate relative humidity. (iii) If
the temperature of air is 40
C, estimate relative humidity. (iv) What should be
the partial pressure and relative humidity at 65
C and at dew point.
[Ans. (i) 5.9 kPa, (ii) 59%, (iii) 79.95%, (iv) 5.9 kPa and 100%]
18. The humidity of air is 0.027 kg/kg at total pressure of 123 kPa, estimate the
partial vapour pressure and relative humidity in case of saturation vapour
pressure at 61
C is 21.89 kPa.
[Ans. 5.1 kPa, 23.3%]
19. The humidity of air is 0.107 kg/kg at a total pressure of 90 kPa, estimate the
partial vapour pressure and relative humidity in case of saturation vapour
pressure of 19.03 kPa.
[Ans. 13.2 kPa, 69.3%]
20. If the total pressure of 77 kPa is exerted by an air with 0.072 kg/kg and the
saturation vapour pressure is 10.5 kPa, calculate partial vapour pressure and
relative humidity.
[Ans. 8.0 kPa, 79.2%]
21. State the mechanism of heat transfer rates using suitable curves of drying rates
with respect to moisture content and time. Explain various rate periods of drying
along with their physical significance.
22. What is the difference between equilibrium moisture content (EMC) and critical
moisture content (CMC)? Explain their importance in drying processes.
23. Explain the reason of reduction in the rate of drying. How these can be explained
in fruits and vegetables.
214 N. Kumar and H. K. Sharma

24. Following observations were recorded during thin layer drying of custard apple
pulp. Apply Lewis model and estimate the value of coefficient and coefficient of
determination using any spreadsheet program.

Drying
time (min) 0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 600
Moisture 1 0.71 0.44 0.24 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02
ratio
[Ans. k ¼ 0.008, R2 ¼ 0.9799]

25. Which drying removes water through sublimation? Explain the process in detail.
26. Explain the working of LSU with the help of neat sketches.
27. State the difference between various tray dryers used in drying of material.
28. What is the difference in application of air in fluidized bed dryer and pneumatic
dryers.
29. A food material has 5.5 m2 surface area with a temperature of 40
C, estimate the
rate of moisture removal, rate of heat energy utilization and heat transfer
coefficient, when temperature and humidity of the drying air are 55
C and
30%, respectively. The mass-transfer coefficient may be taken as 0.017 kg/m2s.
(Note: Use psychrometric chart and steam table).
[Ans. 0.00173 kg/s, 4.16 kW, 50.45 J/m2s
C]
30. A tray consisting of mango leather has 15.4 m2 surface area with a temperature
of 37
C, estimate the rate of moisture removal, rate of heat energy utilization
and heat transfer coefficient, when temperature and humidity of the drying air
are 70
C and 10%, respectively. The mass-transfer coefficient may be taken as
0.016 kg/m2s. (Note: Use psychrometric chart and steam table).
[Ans. 0.005248 kg/s, 12.67 kW, 24.92 J/m2s
C]
31. List various advanced drying technologies. Explain any one of the technologies
for drying of fruit pulp in brief.

References
1. Gustavsson, J., Cederberg, C., Sonesson, U., Otterdijk, R., & Meybeck, A. (2011). Global food
losses and food waste. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
2. Roberts, J. S., Kidd, D. R., & Zakour, O. P. (2008). Drying kinetics of grapes seeds. Journal of
Food Engineering, 89, 480–465.
3. Yilbas, B. S., Hussain, M. M., & Dincer, I. (2003). Heat and moisture diffusion in slabproducts
to convective boundary condition. Heat and Mass Transfer, 39, 471–476.
4. Marion, G. M., & Jakubowski, S. D. (2004). The compressibility of ice to 2.0 kbar. Cold
Regions Science and Technology, 38, 211–218.
5. Veloso, M. A. (2009). Thermodynamic properties of water in the critical region. In Interna-
tional nuclear atlantic conference - INAC 2009, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil, September 27 to
October 2, 2009.
6. Earle, R. L. (1983). Unit operations in food processing. Pergamon Press.
7. Sahay, K. M., & Singh, K. K. (2001). Unit operations of agricultural processing. Vikas
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
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8. Ranganna, S. (1986). Handbook of analysis and quality control for fruits and vegetable
products. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited.
9. Connolly, J. F., & O'Shea, J. (1962). Application of the vacuum oven to moisture determination
in biological materials. Irish Journal of Agricultural Research, 1(3), 334–338.
10. Nileson, S. (2017). Food analysis laboratory manual. Springer.
11. Jha, S. N. (2010). Nondestructive evaluation of food quality - theory and practice. Springer.
12. Lewis, W. K. (1921). The rate of drying of solid materials. Industrial Engineering Chemistry,
13, 427–432.
13. Page, G. E. (1949). Factors influencing the maximum rates of air drying shelled corn in thin
layers. M.S. thesis. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University, Purdue
14. Henderson, S. M., & Pabis, S. (1961). Grain drying theory. II. Temperature effects on drying
coefficients. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research, 6, 169–174.
15. Togrul, I. T., & Pehlivan, D. (2002). Mathematical modelling of solar drying of apricots in thin
layers. Journal of Food Engineering, 55, 209–216.
16. Henderson, S. M. (1974). Progress in developing the thin layer drying equation. Transactions of
American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 17(6), 1167–1172.
17. Wang, C. Y., & Singh, R. P. (1978). Use of variable equilibrium moisture content in modelling
rice drying. Transactions of American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 11, 668–672.
18. Diamante, L. M., & Munro, P. A. (1991). Mathematical modelling of hot air drying of sweet
potato slices. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 26, 99–103.
19. Yaldiz, O., Ertekin, C., & Uzun, H. I. (2001). Mathematical modelling of thin layer solar drying
of sultana grapes. Energy, 26, 457–465.
20. Verma, L. R., Bucklin, R. A., Endan, J. B., & Wratten, F. T. (1985). Effect of drying air
parameters on rice drying models. Transactions of the ASAE, 28, 296–301.
21. Midilli, A., Kucuk, H., & Yapar, Z. A. (2002). New model for single-layer drying. Drying
Technology, 20(7), 1503–1513.
22. Hii, C. L., Law, C. L., & Cloke, M. (2009). Modeling using a new thin layer drying model and
product quality of cocoa. Journal of Food Engineering, 90, 191–198.
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24. Parry, J. L. (1985). Mathematical modelling and computer simulation of heat and mass transfer
in agricultural grain drying: a review. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research, 32, 1–29.
25. Kumar, N., Sarkar, B. C., & Sharma, H. K. (2021). Mathematical modelling of thin layer drying
of carrot pomace. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 49(1), 33–41.
26. Majumdar, A. S., & Xiao, H. W. (2020). Advanced drying technologies for foods. CRC press.
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Websites
https://www.food-machines.org/vegetable-processing-machinery/belt-type-fruit-vegetable-drying-
machine.html#:~:text¼Belt%20type%20fruit%20and%20vegetable%20drying%20machine%
20is%20the%20ideal,fruits%2C%20medicinal%20materials%2C%20etc
Size Reduction
6
Yogesh Kumar, Vijay Singh Sharanagat, and Kshitiz Kumar

Abstract

In this chapter, the mechanism and factors affecting size reduction process and the
laws governing these operations are discussed. Size reduction is a process in
which particles with smaller size and large surface areas are formed, which
ultimately eases the processing. The chapter explains the size reduction mecha-
nism during compression, impact, cutting, shearing, and attrition. The stress-
strain behavior of materials during mechanical failure also plays an important role
during size reduction. To evaluate the effectiveness of size reduction operation,
analysis of newly formed surfaces and energy involved becomes important. A
better understanding of equipment and operation parameters can minimize the
overall input energy. The popular size reduction equipments for agricultural
produce, viz., hammer mill, ball mill, burr mill, jaw crusher, gyratory crusher,
crushing roll, cutter mill, Reitz mill, and colloid mills, are explained using
schematic diagrams. The heat generated during size reduction is always a big
concern in processing spices and herbs. Hence, advanced size reduction
operations like hammer mill with water jackets and cryogenic grinding are used
to protect the aromatic and volatile components. In liquid food, homogenization

Y. Kumar
Department of Food Engineering and Technology, Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and
Technology, Longowal, India
V. S. Sharanagat
Department of Food Engineering, National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship and
Management, Sonipat, Haryana, India
K. Kumar (*)
Department of Processing and Food Engineering, A D Patel Institute of Technology, Anand,
Gujarat, India
e-mail: [email protected]

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 217
Ltd. 2022
H. K. Sharma, N. Kumar (eds.), Agro-Processing and Food Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7289-7_6
218 Y. Kumar et al.

is frequently used to break particulate matter into smaller and uniform particle
sizes to form dispersion. The chapter also deals with different size reduction laws.

Keywords

Size reduction mechanism · Stress-strain behaviour · Grinding · Laws of size

reduction · Size reduction equipments · Low temperature grinding · Size reduction
in liquids

6.1 Introduction

Size reduction is a mechanical process and an important unit operation, in which

large particles are changed to smaller size. The mechanical breakdown of solids does
not change the chemical composition and only alters the state of aggregation of
solids. The large size of solid material limits their applications and processing.
Hence, large size solid requires to be brought down into smaller size before their
use, especially in food processing. Fine particles have a large surface area and more
absorption capacity, are easy to mix, and have low crystallinity which ultimately
ease the processing as well as enzymatic digestibility of food. Most of the process
operations related to size reduction are applied to solid foods; however, size reduc-
tion is also desired in liquid food like homogenization of milk.
Size reduction is a very inefficient operation, and only 1 to 2% of input energy is
utilized for size reduction, and the remaining energy is lost in the form of either heat
or sound. Most of the energy applied for size reduction is absorbed by the equipment
itself; therefore, the size reduction process is considered as inefficient. Due to this,
the actual available energy for size reduction is limited to a small fraction of the total
energy. Moreover, the energy consumption also depends on the type of materials, for
example, a plastic material will consume more energy because the material requires
energy in changing the shape before creating new surfaces. On the other hand, brittle
materials are more likely to directly fail and create new surfaces without changing
shape. Most of the theories postulated for size reduction consider that the material is
brittle and will fracture before elongation or contraction in feed particles [1].

6.2 Size Reduction Mechanism

6.2.1 Compression/Crushing

When a material is pressed by an external compressive force above its compressive

strength, it gets squeezed and compacted and finally fails. The slow application of
compressive force causes rupturing in many directions. Due to this, crushing
produces irregularly shaped and sized particles. However, the features of particles
and new surfaces also depend on the type of material being compressed and how
compression is applied. The compression is preferred when the feed is crystalline,
very hard, and friable having abrasive and/or non-sticky surfaces and coarse product
6 Size Reduction 219

is desired. Crushers are used for flour, grits, meal from grains, and size reduction of
sugars, salt, and mineral stones. Crushing of oilseeds increases the surface area and is
an important step in the expression and solvent-based extraction of oil.

6.2.2 Impact

If a large sudden force is applied over the material beyond its strength, it fails. Unlike
crushing or compression, the fracture propagates through the weak regions of the
material and creates new surfaces of failed regions. Moreover, the shock given to the
material limits the time of deformation and vibration, and majority of energy is
utilized in material fracturing. The impact is used to create very fine powder from a
wide range of feed. The example of application of impact force includes cracking of
nut with hammer. Combined with shearing force, impact force is used for the size
reduction of fibrous food [2].

6.2.3 Cutting

Cutting involves a hard, sharp, and thin knife which is forced through the material at
high speed. Cutting is used to create smaller pieces from the large ones making them
suitable for further processing. The forces acting on the various faces of cutting
devices are compression force, frictional force, deformation force, and separation
force. Cutting of food products can be divided into four phases: (1) First is the start-
up phase during which contact between the cutting edge and the material being cut is
achieved. (2) Second is the deformation phase just before the penetration of cutting
devices during which cutting force increases linearly. (3) Third is the separation
phase in which the actual separation of product occurs. During this, the resistance of
the product along with the friction force between the product and cutting device
determines the cutting force. (4) Fourth is the detaching phase in which the separa-
tion is completed. The dominating force during cutting depends upon the nature of
food material. In homogenous compact solid food material, the frictional force is
dominant, while in porous solids and vegetable tissues, the separation force acting on
the cutting edge is the dominant. In cheese and bacon, the frictional force may
comprise up to 40% of the total cutting force [3].

6.2.4 Shearing

The shearing force combines the action of cutting and crushing. The equipment used
to cause shearing contains both a knife and a bar.
The thickness of edges of knife decides material will fail to cutting or crushing.
Cutting dominates if a sharp and thin edged knife is used for the size reduction,
whereas crushing occurs if a thick and dull edged knife is used. However, the
thickness of the knife should be such that it is able to bear the shock resulting
from the material being hit. An ideal shearing unit consists of sharp and thin edged
220 Y. Kumar et al.

knife with a very small clearance between the bar and the knife. Shearing is preferred
if feed material has soft to medium hardness and the end product desired has
relatively coarse particles.

6.2.5 Attrition

Attrition involves shear and compression which cause rubbing or wearing action due
to friction. The material to be reduced is kept between two metal disks which rotate
in opposite direction.
To increase the shear and rubbing, the speed of disks is kept different from each
other. It is used to create very fine particles from friable and non-abrasive feed.
Table 6.1 illustrates the different forces applied for reducing the agricultural
products.

Table 6.1 Forces used in size reduction of agricultural products

Forces Schematic diagram Example
Compression Jaw crusher,
P crushing rolls

P
Impact Hammer mill, ball
mill

Attrition (compressive + Disk attrition mill

shearing force)

P,
v

P,v
Cutting (compression + Rotary knife cutter
friction) P,v
6 Size Reduction 221

6.3 Stress-Strain Behavior during Size Reduction

Studying the stress-strain behavior of solid materials helps in understanding the

behavior of that solid under applied stress and how its deformation and failure take
place. The stress-strain relation during size reduction can be understood through the
curve 2 in Fig. 6.1. If the applied stress remains below point E, the deformation is
elastic in nature. Elastic deformation represents the ability of the material to revert to
its original dimension on the removal of applied stress, which indicates that the
material is obeying Hooke’s law (stress and strain are proportional to each other for
small deformations) till point E on the curve. If the applied stress is increased a little
bit beyond proportional limit E up to point Y, the strain developed is not proportional
to stress; however, the material still returns to its original dimension on the removal
of stress. The point Y on the curve is called elastic limit or yield point [4].
Yield point represents the departure of linearity of stress-strain curve beyond
which permanent deformation in the material creeps in, i.e., the material exhibits
plastic behavior. If the applied stress is continued beyond yield point Y, the strain
increases rapidly even for a small change in stress. In general, the elastic limit is
ill-defined stress, but for some material, the onset of plastic deformation is denoted
by sudden drop in stress indicated by concave portion of the curve after yield point.
The stress of the concave region in such material is defined as the lower yield point.
The curve in the plastic region will always show nonlinear relation between shear
stress and strain. If the applied stress is continued further, the material is finally
ruptured at fracture point (point F). Depending on the mechanical properties, the
biological materials may exhibit different types of stress-strain curve, as shown in
Fig. 6.1. The longitudinal portion of the stress-strain curve is closer to the stress axis
for hard (stiff) materials, while in soft (flexible) materials, it is away from the stress
axis. Hence, materials represented by curves 1, 2, and 3 in Fig. 6.1 are hard, while
materials represented by curves 4 and 5 are soft. The longitudinal portion of the
stress-strain curve is long in the case of strong material, while in weak material, it is

Fig. 6.1 Behavior of a

material under applied stress F
2
Y
Strong material

E
F
E
Stress

1
Weak material

F F
ft 4
3 So
F
5
o
Strain
222 Y. Kumar et al.

Table 6.2 The nature of Stress-strain curve Nature of material

materials exhibited by dif-
Curve 1 Hard, strong, and brittle
ferent stress-strain curves in
Fig. 6.1 Curve 2 Hard, strong, and ductile
Curve 3 Hard, weak, and brittle
Curve 4 Soft, weak, and ductile
Curve 5 Soft, weak, and brittle

short. Hence, materials represented by curves 1 and 2 in Fig. 6.1 are strong, while
materials represented by curves 3, 4, and 5 are weak. The fracture point (point F) in
the case of ductile material is after a long concave portion, while in brittle material,
the fracture point is after a minimal elastic portion without any concave part of
stress-strain curve. Hence, materials represented by curves 2 and 4 in Fig. 6.1 are
ductile, while materials represented by curves 1, 3, and 5 are brittle.
The nature of materials represented by different stress-strain curves in Fig. 6.1 is
summarized in Table 6.2.

6.4 Factors Affecting Size Reduction Process

There are various factors, which affect the size reduction process. These factors
include nature, physical and chemical properties of rawmaterials, type of size
reduction mechanism, time and external factors [5]. The nature of materials affecting
size reduction is summarized in Table 6.3, whereas other factors that can affect size
reduction are concluded in Table 6.4.

6.5 Grinding

Grinding involves the conversion of materials into fine powder by fracturing. The
fracture occurs due to stress generated by mechanical components of grinder. Major
portion of the mechanical stress is internally absorbed by feed as strain energy in the
beginning of grinding. However, failure does not appear until strain energy exceeds
a critical level. When strain energy is enough, fracture starts to occur in the weaker
region of materials, and the energy stored inside the material is liberated. Time is
also an important factor in the fracturing process [6].

6.5.1 New Surface Formed by Grinding

In the initial stage of the grinding, the particles are of courser size, but as the grinding
is continued, the coarser particles are converted to finer particles. In the end of
grinding process, the product consists of a mixture of various particle sizes with a
higher fraction of a particular size. Fine particles have large surface area. Specific
surface area is defined as the surface area per unit mass.
6 Size Reduction 223

Table 6.3 The nature of materials affecting the size reduction process
Factors Remarks
1 Hardness Soft material fails easily to shear as compared to hard
2 Elasticity/ Elastic/sticky materials become soft due to stress applied during milling.
stickiness Materials often adhere to the mill surfaces and may block screen due to
sticky nature. Hence, materials like waxes, resins, and gums should be
chilled prior to milling
3 Friability Friable materials have the tendency to fail along well-defined planes.
Brittle materials have the tendency to convert into fine particles easily
4 Toughness Some substance is tough in nature due to their fibrous structure. It is
difficult to mill tough materials as compared to hard or brittle. Cutting
should be preferred during milling of tough materials
5 Melting point Materials with low melting point components (wax, fats/oil, and lipid) are
soften due to heat generation during size reduction. Thus, they should be
cooled along with mill
6 Hygroscopic If a material is hygroscopic, it absorbs the atmospheric moisture rapidly.
To avoid this, milling should be performed in dried and less humid
conditions
7 Thermolability If a substance contains components prone to oxidation and hydrolysis due
to ambient oxygen and moisture, the heat generated during milling
enhances these chemical reactions. Hence, to avoid degradation, milling
should be performed in inert close system of CO2 or N2
8 Volatility Substances containing volatile components (mainly aromatic compounds)
are more likely to degrade during size reduction due to heat. Cryogenic
milling is recommended mainly in the case of spices and aromatic plants

Table 6.4 Other factors affecting size reduction

Factors Remarks
1 Moisture It affects the mechanical properties like hardness, toughness, and stickiness.
content Generally, moisture below 5% is sufficient for dry milling and more than
50% for wet milling
2 Particle size A feed of proper size distribution results in better milling output. If the feed
has non-uniform size distribution, then the reducing efficiency of equipment
reduces, and the equipment may not handle the oversized feed. Thus, the
feed should be pretreated as per the requirement of milling equipment to
maintain uniform flow
3 Purity The output of size reduction might get contaminated due to abrasive wear of
required milling parts. This can be avoided by choosing a mill with minimal or no
wear and cleaning the mill parts prior to milling

6.5.2 Calculation of Specific Surface Area

For the calculation of specific surface area, two parameters are required: one is the
particle size distribution, and the other is the shape factor. The particle size distribu-
tion obtained through sieve analysis is used to calculate the typical dimension or
average diameter, Dp, of a particle. The typical dimension Dp of the particle can
arbitrarily be correlated to the volume (Vp) and the surface area (Ap) of the particle as:
224 Y. Kumar et al.

V P ¼ p  D3P ð6:1Þ

AP ¼ 6q  D2P ð6:2Þ

where Vp is the volume of the particle, Ap area of the particle surface, and Dp typical
dimension of the particle and p and q are the volume shape factor and surface shape
factor, respectively, which connect the particle geometries.
For cube-shaped particle, the typical dimension, Dp, will be equal to the side of
the cube in the above equation. The volume and surface area of cube are Dp3 and
6Dp2, respectively. Hence, the volume shape factor (p) as well as surface shape
factor (q) is equal to 1 for cube-shaped particle. The ratio of surface area to volume
would be 6/Dp.
For spherical particle, the typical dimension, Dp, will be equal to the diameter of
the sphere. For a sphere of diameter Dp, the volume and surface area are (π/6) Dp3
and πDp2, respectively. Hence, for sphere, the volume shape factor (p) as well as
surface shape factor (q) is π/6. For sphere, also the ratio of surface area to volume
would be 6/Dp.
A shape factor is now defined as q/p ¼ λ; therefore, for a cube or a sphere, λ ¼ 1.
Thus, shape factor is the ratio of the particle property to the property of a sphere
having a diameter equal to the measured particle dimension.
Now, the ratio of surface area to volume can be obtained by dividing Eq. (6.2) by
Eq. (6.1):

AP 6q 6λ
¼ ¼ ð6:3Þ
V P p  DP DP
The above equation can be rearranged as:


6q  V P V
AP ¼ ¼ 6λ P ð6:4Þ
p  DP DP

If there is a mass m of particles of density ρp, the number of particles is (m/

ρp  VP) each of area Ap.



m 6q  V P 6q  m
So total area, At ¼  ¼ ð6:6Þ
ρp  V P p  DP ρp  p  D P

6λm
∴At ¼ ð6:7Þ
ρp  DP

6.5.3 Degree of Grinding

This is defined as the ratio of the overall surface area of the final product to the
overall surface area of the feed. It can be expressed as:
6 Size Reduction 225

SP
dg ¼ ð6:8Þ
Sf

where dg is the degree of grinding, Sp overall surface area of the final product, and Sf
overall surface area of the feed.

6.5.4 Fineness Modulus

Fineness modulus (FM) is equal to the sum of cumulative percentage mass retained
over different sieves divided by 100. It can be used to find the average particle size
using the empirical equation:

DP ¼ 0:135ð1:366ÞFM ð6:9Þ

where DP is the average particle size (mm) and FM fineness modulus.

Example 6.1 Find the fineness modulus from the given data and calculate the
average particle size.

IS sieve no. 100 50 40 30 20 15 pan

Weight of material retained (g) 0 1.5 30 40.6 50.4 9.9 8

Solution:

IS Weight Cumulative Average

sieve retained weight retained Cumulative % of Fineness particle size
no. (g) (g) weight retained (%) modulus (mm)
100 0.0 0.00 0.00 256:41
100
DP ¼ 0.135
50 1.5 1.50 1.07 ¼ 2.5641 (1.366)FM
40 30 31.50 22.44 Or,
DP ¼ 0.135
30 40.6 72.10 51.35
(1.366)2.5641
20 50.4 122.50 87.25 ¼0.300 mm
15 9.9 132.40 94.30
Pan 8.0 140.4
Total 140.4 256.41

6.6 Laws of Size Reduction and Energy Calculation

The theories for the calculation for energy required in size reduction consider that the
energy required to create a small change in the particle size is proportional to the
original size of the particle [7].
226 Y. Kumar et al.


dE
 ¼ k  Dn ð6:10Þ
dD

where, dE is the differential energy required, dD is the change in a

typical dimension, D is the magnitude of a typical length dimension, k, n are
constants, () sign indicates reduction in size of D.

6.6.1 Rittinger’s Law

This is the oldest law for the calculation of energy required for the size reduction
operation. This law was developed by Peter von Rittinger in 1867. Rittinger consid-
ered the material to be brittle. He postulated that the energy required for size
reduction is directly proportional to the change in the surface area and n is assumed
as 2.


dE
 ¼ K R  D2 ð6:11Þ
dD

The total energy (E) required to reduce the size of particles can be calculated by
rearranging and integrating the above equation within the limit E ¼ 0 at Df (initial
feed size) and E ¼ E at Dp (final product size).

ZE ZDp
 dE ¼ K R D2 dD ð6:12Þ
0 Df

h i 


1 Dp 1 1
½E E0 ¼ K R  or, E ¼ K R   
D Df Dp Df


1 1
E ¼ KR  ð6:13Þ
Dp D f


P 1 1
¼ E ¼ KR  ð6:14Þ
m_ Dp D f

where Df is the particle size of the feed (m), Dp particle size of the product (m),
E total energy (kJ), P power required (kW), m_ mass flow rate (kg/s), and KR
Rittinger’s constant.
Also, E / particlesize
1
.
Rittinger’s law is more suitable where there is a large increase in surface area such
as in fine grinding.
6 Size Reduction 227

6.6.2 Kick’s Law

Kick (1885) assumed that the energy required for size reduction is directly propor-
tional to the change in dimension and n is assumed as 1.


dE
 ¼ K K D1 ð6:15Þ
dD

The total energy (E) required to reduce the size of particles can be calculated by
rearranging and integrating the above equation within the limit E ¼ 0 at Df (initial
feed size) and E ¼ E at Dp (final product size).

ZE ZDP
 dE ¼ K K D1 dD ð6:16Þ
0 Df

D
½E E0 ¼ K K ½ ln DDpf

or,E ¼  KK[(lnDp)  (lnDf)]


P Df
E ¼ ¼ K K ln ð6:17Þ
m_ Dp

where Df is the particle size of the feed (m), Dp particle size of the product (m), E
total energy (kJ), P power required (kW), m_ mass flow rate (kg/s), and KK Kick’s
constant.
D
Also, E / Dpf .
Hence, by Kick’s
  law, the energy required to grind particles for the same
D
reduction ratio Dpf is the same and does not depend on feed size.
Kick’s law is more suitable where coarser grinding takes place. This particular
equation is valid for bigger particle size, for example, size reduction from 12 cm to
6 cm or from 6 cm to 3 cm.

6.6.3 Bond’s Law

This law was developed by the Fred Chester Bond, an American mining engineer in
1952. He stated that the energy required for size reduction is proportional to the
square root of the surface area-volume ratio of the product. Since, grinding will not
yield particles of same size, Bond assumed the final particles size as size of mess in
which 80% of materials is passed. He assumed n ¼ 32 , which is in between
2 and  1.
228 Y. Kumar et al.


dE
¼ KD2
3
 ð6:18Þ
dD

The total energy (E) required to reduce the size of particles can be calculated by
rearranging and integrating the above equation within the limit E ¼ 0 at Df (initial
feed size) and E ¼ E at Dp (final product size).

ZE ZDp
D2 dD
3
 dE ¼ K ð6:19Þ
0 Df

 Dp " ! !#
1 1 1
½EE0 ¼ K 2  pffiffiffiffi or, E ¼ 2  K pffiffiffiffiffiffi  pffiffiffiffiffiffi
D Df Dp Df
!
1 1
E ¼ KB  ð6:20Þ
√Dp √D f

where KB ¼ 2 K.
Another empirical form of Bond’s equation is written in terms of constant work
index (Wi). Work index has been defined as the energy required to reduce the unit
mass of material from infinite size to a size where 80% of materials is below 100 μm.
!
P 1 1
E ¼ ¼ 10W i  ð6:21Þ
m_ √Dp √D f

where Df is the particle size of the feed (m), Dp particle size of the product (m),
E total energy (kWh/tonne), P power required (kW), m_ mass flow rate (tonne/h), Wi
work index (kWh/tonne), and KK Bond’s constant.
If we take the size of the feed and the final product in mm, then
!
P 1 1
E ¼ ¼ 0:3162W i  ð6:22Þ
m_ √Dp √D f

Equations (6.21) and (6.22) are empirical in nature, and the constants 10 and
0.3162 used in them, respectively, are on the basis of experimental results obtained
in different units.
Bond’s law is applicable for both coarse and fine grinding (Figs. 6.2 and 6.3) and
(Table 6.5).
6 Size Reduction 229

6.6.4 Summary of Laws of Size Reduction

Fig. 6.2 Application of size

reduction laws based on
materials

Fig. 6.3 Application of size

reduction laws based on
methods

Table 6.5 Summarizing laws of size reduction

Salient features Rittinger’s law Kick’s law Bond’s law
Assumption Energy required is Energy required is Energy required for size
directly proportional directly proportional to reduction is proportional
to the change in the change in to the square root of the
surface area dimension (size surface area-volume
reduction ratio) ratio of the product
     
Equation E ¼ KR 1
 D1f E ¼ K K  ln Dpf
D
E ¼ K B √D1  √D1
Dp p f

Value of n 2 1 3/2
Application Suitable where there Suitable where there is Suitable for a variety of
is a large increase in a small increase in the materials undergoing
the surface area, for surface area, for coarse, medium, and fine
example, fine grinding example, course size reduction
crushing
230 Y. Kumar et al.

6.7 Size Reduction Equipments

6.7.1 Hammer Mill

A standard hammer mill operates primarily on the principle of impact, although

attrition also takes place. A hammer mill consists of a feeding unit, a number of
hinged or fixed hammers connected to a rotating shaft inside milling casing, and a
sieve to control the size of the product. The impact takes place when the hammer hits
the feed material when they are passing through the little gap between the hammer
and breaker plate as shown in Fig. 6.4. The brittle and hard materials are more
suitable for hammer mill grinding. They have been found useful in the grinding of
dried fruits and vegetables, sugars, milk solid, spices, and sometimes fibrous food
materials [7, 8].

6.7.2 Ball Mill

Impact and attrition are the main forces involved during size reduction through ball
mill. A ball mill consists of a cylinder, which is filled with 30–35% of its volume by
small steel balls and is rotated through motor. When the cylinder starts to rotate, the
balls start to lift under centrifugal and frictional forces and fall back into the cylinder
and onto the feed as gravitational pull exceeds those forces (Fig. 6.5). The impact
force is provided as the ball falls from the top of the cylinder. The rotation of cylinder
is usually between 4 and 20 rpm and primarily depends upon the diameter of both

Fig. 6.4 Schematic of Feed

hammer mill

Hammer
Breaker
Plate

Product
6 Size Reduction 231

Fig. 6.5 Working of ball mill

Fig. 6.6 Ball position at different percentages of critical speed

cylinder and ball. If the peripheral speed of the cylinder exceeds a certain speed
called critical speed, the mill starts to act like a centrifuge [9].
The balls in mill having speed more than critical speed never fall back and stay on
the perimeter of the cylinder due to higher centrifugal force on them. The point
where the centrifugal force becomes greater than the gravitational force is called the
“critical speed” (Fig. 6.6).
Ball mills are suitable for single-stage grinding, where fine materials are desired.
In two-stage grinding, it can be used as the second-stage regrinding process. In the
first stage, very coarse materials are ground by other grinding method. The shape of
the final products is circular after grinding in the ball mill. The degree of fineness of
the final product can be controlled by changing the diameter of the ball.

6.7.2.1 Calculation of Critical Speed

When the ball is at the highest position on the cylinder, the centrifugal force is equal
to the gravitational force, i.e.,
232 Y. Kumar et al.

mω2 ðR  r Þ ¼ m g ð6:23Þ
g
ð2πnc Þ2 ¼ ð6. (24)Þ
ðR  r Þ
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 g
nc ¼ ð6:25Þ
2π R  r

where g is 9.8 m/s2, R radius of the cylinder (m), r radius of the ball (m), and nc
critical speed (rps).
The operating speed of the ball mill is kept at 65–80% of the critical speed. The
lower values are kept for the wet grinding in viscous solution, while a higher value is
kept for dry grinding.

6.7.3 Burr Mill or Plate Mill

A burr mill or plate mill consists of two horizontal/vertical circular abrasive plates,
either one or both revolving and separated by a small clearance (Fig. 6.7). The
clearance between plates is adjusted by the operator depending on the feed and
product size. A small clearance results in finer and smaller products, whereas a large
gap produces coarser output. The feed is provided near the axis of rotation and is
sheared and crushed as it moves to the edges of plates. Often, the device includes a
revolving screw that pushes the food through. Burr mill is generally used for the
grinding of hard and small food product like grains, beans, spices, and seeds. Hence,
burr mills are usually manufactured for a single purpose, for example, burr mill for
coffee beans, wheat, spices, etc.

Fig. 6.7 Schematic of

burr mill
6 Size Reduction 233

6.7.4 Jaw Crusher

A jaw crusher mainly uses compression for breaking the large solid particle into
relatively coarser output. It consists of several important mechanical components as
shown in Fig. 6.9. The crushing force is generated by the two jaws, one of which is
fixed, while the other reciprocates. The stationary vertical jaw is called fixed jaw,
while the reciprocating jaw is known as swing jaw. The swing jaw moves back and
forth relative to it, by a cam or pitman mechanism, acting like a class II lever as
shown in Fig. 6.8. The gap between the two jaws at vertical position is known as
sizing gap and can be adjusted using adjusting wedges.
The actual size reduction takes place in the cavity between the two jaws (Fig. 6.9).
The inertia for size reduction is created by a heavy flywheel. The swing jaw is
connected to the flywheel by a shaft which creates an eccentric motion for the
reciprocation jaw. The feed cannot leave the crushing chamber until its size reduces
to less than the sizing gap. Therefore, the final product consists of particle size lesser
than the sizing gap of jaw crusher. However, the application of jaw crusher is very
limited in food industries.

Fig. 6.8 Class II lever

mechanism

Fig. 6.9 Schematic diagram

of Jaw crusher
feed
Flywheel

Crus
hin
cham h
ber Adjusting
wedges

Jaw
Fixed
g Jaw
Movin

Hyraulic
Sizing gap Rams

Product
234 Y. Kumar et al.

6.7.5 Gyratory Crusher

The working of gyratory crusher is very much similar to a jaw crusher. It consists of
a solid cone set on a revolving shaft within a conical or vertical sloped hollow casing
as shown in Fig. 6.10. The solid cone revolves in a circular path without rotating, and
when it approaches the casing surface, crushing takes place. The crushed material
moves downward and is continually crushed till it becomes small enough to fall
through the gap between the two surfaces. This kind of crusher is used in size
reduction of hard and dry solids having size comparatively smaller as in the case of
jaw crushers. They can reduce the size of feed by a maximum of about one-tenth its
size. However, moist or sticky feed should be avoided as gyratory crusher is prone to
jamming [10].

6.7.6 Crushing Roll

A crushing roll consists of two or more steel rollers rotating in opposite direction and
pulls the feed in the clearance between them (Fig. 6.11). The size reduction takes
place mainly due to compression if both rolls rotate at the same speed. However,
shearing may take place if rolls rotate at different speed. Sometimes, fluted rollers are
used to increase the shearing force. Theoretically, roll crushers can reduce the size of
feed by one-fourth. However, it cannot crush particles of feed having minimum size
10 Mesh (2 mm). The clearance between the rolls is kept according to the final
product size desired, with consideration that the largest feed particle can only be four
times the gap between the first two rollers. The other factors which affect the

Fig. 6.10 Schematic of

gyratory
6 Size Reduction 235

Fig. 6.11 Schematic of

crushing roll

operation of roll crusher are rotational speed, diameter of rolls, capacity, and particle
size of both feed and product. The roll crushers are generally used for size reduction
of soft, dry, and non-sticky feed.
The crushing rolls are mainly of two types:

(a) Smooth roll crusher.

(b) Serrated or toothed-roll crusher.

6.7.6.1 Smooth Roll Crusher

Smooth roll crusher operates best when the final size is three to four times less than
the feed size (Fig. 6.12). They are used as secondary crushers. Feed materials used
for smooth rollers have diameters 13–102 mm. The diameter of the rolls varies with
the clearance between them, the feed size, and the coefficient of internal friction of
236 Y. Kumar et al.

Fig. 6.12 Smooth roll crusher

material to be crushed. The size of the material that can be caught by the rolls
depends upon the coefficient of friction between the material and the roll surface and
can be calculated by the following equation.

S
d f ¼ 0:04 R þ ð6:26Þ
2

where df is the maximum size of feed caught by rolls, R rolls’ radius, and S gap
between the rolls.
The smooth roll crusher is used for the extraction of juice from sugarcane, to
make grits or meals from food grains, and in making food grain flakes.

6.7.6.2 Serrated or Toothed-Roll Crusher

Compression, impact, and shear are the main forces acting in serrated crusher
(Fig. 6.13). These types of crushers contain one or two serrated or toothed roll as
per the need. They can reduce the much larger particles than smooth roll crusher.

6.7.7 Cutter Mill

Cutting mills are generally used in size reduction of soft to medium-hard, brittle,
fibrous, tough, plastic, or temperature-sensitive materials (Fig. 6.14). The comminu-
tion in cutter mill takes place mainly due to cutting and shearing. In addition, the
6 Size Reduction 237

Fig. 6.13 Serrated or toothed-roll crusher

Fig. 6.14 Schematic of Feed

cutter mill

Rotating
knife

Fixed
knife

Product

fineness of the product is controlled by selecting a desired sieve cassette. Cutter mill
consists of a rotor inside a casing to which a number of knives are attached. A screen
having pore size equal to the desired product diameter is placed at the bottom.
238 Y. Kumar et al.

Fig. 6.15 Schematic of

Ritz mill

Feed

Seal
Hammers

Screen

Primary
discharge
Secondary
discharge

6.7.8 Reitz Mill

Rietz mill is used to grind such materials which are otherwise hard to grind, for
example, materials high in oil or moisture content (Fig. 6.15). This mill usually
consists of a vertical rotor inside a circular screen enclosure. The rotor includes a
number of hammers running at a fairly close clearance. The hammers are generally
fixed to the rotor, but swing hammers are also used in some cases.

6.7.9 Colloid Mills

A colloid mill is used in the size reduction of solids and droplet present in suspension
or emulsion (Fig. 6.16). A colloid mill consists of a rotating cone (rotor), a static
cone (stator), and a feeding unit. The size reduction mainly takes place due to the
shearing action in the narrow gap between the rotor and stator. The wear is reduced
by using hardened steel made rotor and stator.
Colloid mills have been found effective in the size reduction of solids and for the
preparation of suspensions. They are used for grinding, dispersing, and
homogenizing of high viscous fluids like cream, gels, etc. In food processing, it is
used to process purees, food paste, pulps, and other similar products.
6 Size Reduction 239

Fig. 6.16 Schematic of a colloid mill

6.7.10 Concentric Cylinder Abrasive Mills

Concentric cylinder abrasive mills are mostly used for dehusking and splitting of
pulses or cereals. These mills work on the principle of frictional properties. These
machines consist of two concentric cylinders; the outside is a large drum of metal,
and the inside is a rotating abrasive roller. Generally, the outer cylinder is made as
the bottom half portion is perforated to act like a screen and the upper half portion is
made from plane metal sheet. Clearance between the outer and inner cylinder may be
constant to give even abrasion or kept more at feeding end and continuously
decreasing toward the discharge end. Size reduction takes place in the annular
space between both cylinders.

6.8 Low-Temperature Grinding

As discussed earlier, grinding is an energy-consuming unit operation, and only a

small percentage of the total energy is used for the creation of new surfaces. The rest
of input mechanical energy is lost in the form of either heat or sound during size
240 Y. Kumar et al.

Fig. 6.17 Hammer mill with

water jacket for
low-temperature grinding

reduction. The rise in temperature is not an issue for grinding of wheat, rice, pulses,
or other similar grains, as they have very less heat-sensitive compounds. However,
the rise in temperature significantly affects the flavor and aroma of spices and
medicinal qualities of herbs, which contain a wide range of heat labile aromatic
compounds. In the conventional grinding of spices, friction during grinding results
in rise of temperature (42–95  C) inside the grinding chamber. The temperature
continuously rises as grinding progresses. The temperature may further increase, if
significant oil content is present in the spices. The oils have lower heat capacity than
water and hence result in higher temperature rise for a given amount of frictional heat
generated. The rise in temperature can be avoided by using a cooling jacket or a heat
exchanger around the grinding chamber. By using simple cooling methods, if the
temperature inside chamber is maintained around 7.9–21.2  C, the losses in the
volatile compounds can be reduced up to 15% as compared to normal grinding
[11, 12]. Generally, hammer mill is used to grind spices and with water jacket
(Fig. 6.17), to limit the losses of heat-sensitive compounds.

6.9 Cryogenic Grinding

Cryogenic grinding is a step further and superior to the low-temperature grinding

method. It is used when very high levels of retention of aromatic compounds are
required. In this grinding method, size reduction is possible at sub-zero temperature
ranging from 0 to 195.6  C. The whole cryogenic grinding process can be divided
into three stages: (1) coarse grinding, (2) precooling, and (3) fine grinding.
The cryogenic grinding starts with coarse grinding of dried herbs or spices in
normal- or low-temperature condition. Coarse grinding due to very less friction does
not generate much heat, and hence the temperature of grinding chamber does not
increase to the extent that it can damage the volatile compounds. Once coarse
grinding is complete, the ground powders are taken to precooling unit whose main
6 Size Reduction 241

Coarse
Feed
Liquid Nitrogen

Grinder

Fine powder

Fig. 6.18 Schematic diagram of cryogenic grinding

component is screw conveyor assembly (Fig. 6.18). Here the coarse ground material
is exposed to cryogen such as liquid nitrogen. Cryogen removes the heat from the
coarse material and reduces the temperature below the freezing point. The fat present
in the spices and herbs also gets solidified. Now the cooled coarse material is fed to
the grinder where fine grinding takes place. As the particle temperature is very low,
the material goes through ductile-to-brittle transition and gets fractured easily when
subjected to impact and shear force during grinding. The low temperature of
powders prevents the rise in temperature by absorbing the heat generated in the
grinding chamber [12].
Cryogenic grinding has been found to be superior for the retention of volatile oil
in spices and herbs. The other advantages include formation of finer and uniform
particle size distribution. It also provides an inert atmosphere, thus eliminating the
possibility of oxidation. However, maintaining such a low temperature incurs extra
cost and may not be necessary for many of the spices.
242 Y. Kumar et al.

6.10 Size Reduction of Liquid

6.10.1 Emulsification

According to IUPAC, emulsion is a fluid colloid system in which an immiscible

liquid is suspended in the other liquid. An emulsion consists of disperse phase,
which disperses in other liquid called continuous phase. The diameters of droplets
usually range from approximately 1 μm to 100 μm. If droplet size is less than 0.1 μm,
dispersion is known as colloidal. Stability of emulsion is a kinetic concept means
resisting the changes in its properties over time (Fig. 6.19). Stable emulsion can
persist without change for a long period of time, and disperse phase droplets have no
tendency to stick with each other, rising or falling in continuous phase [13].

6.10.2 Factors Affecting the Stability of Emulsion

• Diameter of dispersed droplets.

• Density difference between the disperse phase and continuous phase.
• Viscosity of continuous phase.
• Temperature.
• Interfacial surface tension between the two phases.
• Change in pH and ionic strength.
• Emulsion composition.

6.10.3 Mechanism of Emulsion Breakdown

• Sedimentation: When the density of the dispersed phase is more than the contin-
uous phase, droplets fall downward to settle at the bottom.
• Creaming: When the density of the dispersed phase is lesser the than continuous
phase, droplets move upward toward the surface under the influence of buoyancy.

a b
Fig. 6.19 Stable and unstable emulsion
6 Size Reduction 243

• Flocculation: When there is an attractive force between the droplets, droplets

stick together to form aggregate like bunches of grapes, but are able to retain their
integrity.
• Coalescence: When two or more droplets merge into each other and form a larger
droplet, the average droplet size increases over time.
• Oswald ripening: When smaller droplets move towards larger droplets of dis-
perse phase through continuous phase, larger droplets to grow in size while
smaller droplets become diminished or may disappear. This phenomenon is
based on the fact that when the droplet size decreases, the solubility of the
material within the droplet increases.

6.10.4 Stokes’ Law and Emulsion Stability

Qualitative indication of physical factor influencing the stability of an emulsion can

be given by Stokes’ law. Sedimentation under gravity may break the emulsion and
can cause instability with time due to the relative flow of droplets downward. Hence,
a small velocity downward can enhance the instability of emulsion. Droplet size,
density differences, and viscosity are related to settling velocity, as given in the
following equation:

Dp 2  g  ρp  ρ f
Vs ¼ ð6:27Þ
18μ

where Vs is the settling velocity (m/s), Dp and ρp are the diameter (m) and density of
droplets (kg/m3), ρf is the density of continuous phase (kg/m3), μ is the viscosity of
continuous phase (Pa.s), and g is the acceleration due to gravity (m/s2).
The above equation indicates that settling velocity is directly proportional to the
square of droplet size, that’s why droplet size is critically important in maintaining
the emulsion stability. Also, lower density differences and higher viscosity enhance
the stability of emulsion.

6.10.5 Emulsifier

Emulsifiers (emulgents) are those substances which stabilize emulsion by enhancing

kinetic stability. An emulsifier consists of both polar which is water soluble (hydro-
philic) and nonpolar part (hydrophobic). Due to dual parts of emulsifier, droplets of
oil are surrounded by the emulsifier molecule, and therefore the oil core is hidden
from the water-friendly tails of the emulsifier. Emulsifier having more solubility in
water generally forms oil-in-water emulsion, whereas emulsifier having more solu-
bility in oil forms water-in-oil emulsion. Foods that contain emulsifier include butter,
margarine, cakes, soft drinks, ice cream, etc. Some common food emulsifiers used
are egg yolk, honey, polyglycerol ester, sorbitan ester, monoglyceride, mustard, soy
lecithin, etc. [14].
244 Y. Kumar et al.

6.10.6 Size Reduction and Preparation of Emulsion

The basic requirement for an emulsion is the small droplet size of disperse phase,
which can be achieved by imposing high shear stress, agitation, or disturbance to the
liquid of disperse phase. High shear forces break the liquid to be dispersed into fine
droplets to form emulsion. The equipment used for this purpose is popularly known
as homogenizer, and the process is called homogenization.
Homogenization is an important size reduction operation where particulate matter
in liquid is broken down to smaller and uniform particle size. Homogenization
results in the formation of dispersion. The size reduction in a homogenizer takes
place due to shearing, cavitation, and turbulence when a fluid is forced through a
narrow space of valve as shown in Fig. 6.20. Shearing takes place in the narrow gap
when the high-velocity fluid passes through the valve. The cavitation occurs due to
sudden and high pressure drop, in which formation and subsequent collapse of the
vapor bubbles take place. The high pressure drop also results in the release of fluid
energy which generates intense turbulent eddies of size the same as the droplet
diameter. The high energy generated together with the pressure difference breaks
down the droplets into smaller size.
Based on the pressure applied, homogenization is of two types: high-pressure
homogenization (HPH) and ultra-high-pressure homogenization (UHPH). A HPH
uses the pressure in range 150–200 MPa, whereas UHPH works between 350 and
400 MPa. In general, positive displacement pumps are used in the pumping of
unhomogenized fluid.
Homogenization is used as an important unit operation in food, pharmaceutical,
and cosmetic industries. The most common example is the homogenization of milk

Fig. 6.20 Schematic of high- Feed

pressure valve homogenizer

seat g
act r in
Imp

Product

Valve
6 Size Reduction 245

to create homogenous mixture by breaking up the fat globules into uniform particles
so that they remain suspended in the milk.

6.11 Solved Examples

Example 6.2 During a milling operation using a 10 H.P. motor, the size of the food
was reduced from 7 mm to 0.0011 mm. Find out if this motor would be adequate if
the size of the food material is reduced to 0.0005 mm. Use Rittinger’s equation for
the calculation and take 1 H.P. ¼ 754.7 W.
Solution:
According to Rittinger’s law:


P 1 1
¼k 
m_ Dp D f :
 
10  745:7 1 1
¼k 
m_ 0:0011 7
m_  k ¼ 8:203

By putting the value of k for the second condition where Dp is 0.0005,

 
1 1
_ k
P¼m 
0:0005 7
 
1 1
P ¼ 8:203 
0:0005 7
Or, P ¼ 16404.83 and W ¼ 21.99 H.P.
Therefore, the motor is not suitable for reduction to size 0.0005 from the initial
size of 7 mm, and an increase in power of more than 100% is required.

Example 6.3 In a wheat milling experiment, it was found that to grind 4-mm-sized
grains to IS sieve 35 (0.351 mm opening), the power requirement was 10 kW.
Calculate the power requirement for milling wheat by the same mill to IS sieve
15 (0.157 mm opening) using (1) Rittinger’s law and (2) Kick’s law. The feed rate of
milling is 180 kg/h.
Solution:
Given that P ¼ 10 kW and m_ ¼ 180 kg/h ¼ 0.18 tonne/h.,

1. Using Rittinger’s law:


P 1 1
¼k 
m_ Dp D f
246 Y. Kumar et al.

 
10 1 1
¼k 
0:18 0:351 4
k ¼ 21:37

By putting the value of k in the second condition where Dp is 0.157 mm,

 
P 1 1
¼ 21:37 
0:18 0:157 4
P ¼ 23:53 kW

2. Using Kick’s law:


P Df
¼ k  ln
m_ Dp

 
10 4
¼ k  ln
0:18 0:351
k ¼ 22:83

By putting the value of k in the second condition where Dp is 0.157 mm,

 
P 4
¼ 22:83  ln
0:18 0:157
P ¼ 13.30 kW

Example 6.4 A crusher requires 8 kWh for grinding a material at a rate of 150 kg/
h from 1 cm size to 5 mm size. How much power will be required if the reduction is
1.2 mm?
Solution: Given that 8 ¼ 10 kWh and m ¼ 100 kg/h ¼ 0.1 tonne/h,

1. Using Rittinger’s law:


P 1 1
¼k 
m_ Dp D f

 
8 1 1
¼k 
0:1 5 10
k ¼ 800

By putting the value of k in the second condition where Dp is 1.2 mm,

6 Size Reduction 247

 
P 1 1
¼ 800 
0:1 1:2 10
P ¼ 58:66 kWh

2. Using Kick’s law:


P Df
¼ k  ln
m_ Dp

 
8 10
¼ k  ln
0:1 5
k ¼ 115:44

By putting the value of k in the second condition where Dp is 0.157 mm,

 
P 10
¼ 115:44  ln
0:1 1:2
P ¼ 24:47 kW ð6:hÞ

Example 6.5 How much power is required to crush 2.5 tonnes/h of a material if
80% of the feed passes through IS sieve no. 480 (4.75 mm opening) and 80% of the
product passes through IS sieve no. 50 (0.5 mm opening)? Take the work index of
the material as 6.5.
Solution:
According to Bond’s law:
!
P 1 1
¼ 0:3162W i 
m_ √Dp √D f


P 1 1
¼ 0:3162  6:5 
2:5 √0:5 √4:75
or P¼4.91 kW

Example 6.6 Calculate the power required for the size reduction of material having
initial size such that 80% passes through a 76.2 mm screen and 80% of the final
product passes a 3.17 mm screen. Take feed rate as 12 tonnes/h and work index of
the material as 15.
248 Y. Kumar et al.

Solution:
According to Bond’s law:
!
P 1 1
¼ 0:3162W i 
m_ √Dp √D f


P 1 1
¼ 0:3162  15 
12 √3:17 √76:2
or P ¼ 25.45 kW

Example 6.7 Calculate the power required for the size reduction of material having
initial size such that 80% passes through a 101.6 mm screen and 80% of the final
product passes a 3.175 mm screen. Take feed rate as 300 tonnes/h and work index of
the material as 18.12. Also calculate the power required to crush the product further
where 80% is less than 1 mm.
Solution:
(a) Given that feed ¼ 300 t/h, work index ¼ 18.12, feed size ¼ 101.6 mm, and
product size ¼ 3.175 mm,
!
P 1 1
¼ 0:3162W i 
m_ √Dp √D f


P 1 1
¼ 0:3162  18:12 
300 √3:175 √101:6
P ¼ 767:74 kW

(b) When the product size is 1 mm,


P 1 1
¼ 0:3162  18:12 
300 √1 √101:6
P ¼ 1548.33 kW

Example 6.8 Ground salt was analyzed using IS sieve where it was found that 40%
of the total salt passed through sieve number 200 (2.032 mm opening) and retained
on sieve number 170 (1.676 mm opening). Calculate the surface area of the salt if
4 Kg of the sample having a density of 1030 Kgm3 and a shape factor of 1.70 is
used for grinding.
Solution:
The mean aperture of IS sieve no. 200 and sieve
no. 170 ¼ 1.854 mm ¼ 1.854  103 m.
The total area is given by:
6 Size Reduction 249

6λm
At ¼
ρP DP

Hence,

6 x 1:7 x 0:4 x 4
At ¼
1030 x 1:854 x 103
or, At ¼ 8:55 m2

Example 6.9 A ball mill used for grinding dry solid having 2500 mm diameter is
charged with 100 mm balls. Calculate the operating speed in revolution per minute.
Solution:
The critical speed of ball mill is
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 g
nc ¼
2π Rr
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Or, nc ¼ 2x3:1416
1 9:8
2:50:1

nc ¼ 0:314 rps

nc  19 rpm

The operating speed for the dry grinding is ¼ nc x 0.8

 15 rpm

Example 6.10 A ball mill is found that it is not working properly. What should be
the modification needed if the mill diameter is 1 m and run at 0.8 Hz? Assume
necessary data if required.
Solution:
Given the actual speed of ball mill, (ωa) ¼ 2π*f ¼ 2π * 0.8 ¼ 5.02 rad/s.
Assuming the diameter of ball to be very small compared to the mill diameter,
(R-r) ¼ 0.5 m.
ffi q9:8
pffiffiffiffiffiffi ffiffiffiffiffi
The critical angular speed of ball mill (ωc) ¼ Rr
g
¼ 0:5 ¼ 4.43 rad/s.
We can see that the actual speed of mill is higher than critical speed. For proper
operation of a ball mill, the operating speed should be in between (0.5 and 0.75) ωc.
Choosing an operating speed say (0.7) ωc, i.e., 0.7 * 4.43 ¼ 3.1 rad/s
Hence, the operating speed should be 3.1 rad/s, i.e., 3.1/2π ¼ 0.49 Hz.

Exercise

1. Describe the mechanism of size reduction in food particles.

2. What are the forces involved in the size reduction of agricultural products?
3. Discuss the stress-strain behavior of solid food particle during size reduction.
250 Y. Kumar et al.

4. What are the factors affecting the size reduction process in food materials?
5. Define the following terms:

(a) Degree of grinding.

(b) Fineness modulus.
(c) Work index.
(d) Critical speed of ball mill.
(e) Oswald ripening.

6. Write short notes on:

(a) New surface formed by grinding.
(b) Gyratory crusher.
7. Describe the laws for energy calculation during the size reduction of food
materials.
8. Discuss the size reduction process in solid food material.
9. Describe the mechanism of size reduction in liquid food material.
10. Describe a method for the calculation of average particle size for ground food
material.
11. What is the significance of fineness modulus?
12. Describe the construction and working of:
(a) Hammer mill.
(b) Ball mill.
(c) Burr mill.
(d) Crushing roll.
13. What is emulsification? What are the factors affecting the stability of emulsion?
14. Discuss the various mechanisms of emulsion breakdown.
15. What is the significance of terminal velocity in emulsion stability?
16. What is homogenization? Describe the size reduction of liquid in a
homogenizer.
17. A solid feed consisting of 20 mm particles is crushed to an average size of 5 mm
and requires 18 kJ/kg energy for this size reduction. If other conditions are
similar, calculate the energy required (kJ/kg) to crush the feed from 25 mm to
3 mm. (Use Rittinger’s law.) (Ans: 35.2 kJ/kg).
18. A food material having an initial mean diameter of 12 mm was ground to 4 mm.
The energy required for this grinding operation is 12 kJ/kg. The same food
material having an initial mean diameter of 2 mm is ground to a final size of x,
and the energy required for the process is 252 kJ/kg. Find the value of x using
Rittinger’s law. (Ans: 0.25 mm).
19. Find the fineness modulus from the given data and calculate the average
particle size.

IS sieve no. 100 50 40 30 20 15 pan

Weight of material retained (g) 0 4 40 50 10 8 4

(Ans: 0.35 mm)

6 Size Reduction 251

20. Find the fineness modulus of 200 g of the ground material if the masses retained
are 20%, 50%, 20%, and 10% of ground material on the three successive sieves
and a pan, respectively. (Ans: 3.6).
21. A ball mill of 1.8 m diameter is discharged with each ball having a diameter of
40 mm for grinding solid materials. The rotational speed of the balls is 80% of
the critical speed. What will be the operating speed in rpm? (Ans: 25.5 rpm).
22. The power requirement for grinding food material having an initial size of
50 mm and final size of 25 mm keeping feed rate of 20 tonnes/h is 400 kW.
Out of this, the power required for running the empty mill is 5 kW. Calculate the
power required using Rittinger’s law if the feed rate is changed to 12 tonnes/
h and final size of the product is 10 mm. (Ans: 63 kW).
23. Calculate the terminal falling velocity of 80-μm-diameter starch granules having
a density of 1600 kg/m3 in water at room temperature. The density and viscosity
of water at 25  C are 1000 kg/m3 and 1.002  103 Pa.s, respectively. (Ans:
0.002 m/s or 0.12 m/min).
24. How much power is required to crush 4 tonnes/h of a material if 80% of the feed
passes through IS sieve no. 480 (4.75 mm opening) and 80% of the product
passes through IS sieve no. 50 (0.5 mm opening)? Take the work index of the
material as 5.4. (Ans: 6.5 kW).
25. Ground spice was analyzed using IS sieve where it was found that 50% of the
total salt passed through sieve number 200 (2.032 mm opening) and retained on
sieve number 170 (1.676 mm opening). Calculate the surface area of the salt if
3 kg of the sample having a density of 1040 kgm3 and a shape factor of 1.60 is
used for grinding. (Ans: 14.9m2).
26. Wheat is milled at a rate of 5 tonnes/h, and the power required for this operation
is 40 kW. Assuming Bond’s law, determine the work index, and find the total
power requirement to mill down wheat to a distribution where 80% passes
through a 100 μm sieve. The distribution of feed and product is given in the
following table. (Ans: Wi ¼ 18.3).

Initial distribution Final distribution

Sieve size (μm) Retained mass fraction Sieve size (μm) Retained mass fraction
6730 0.00 605 0.00
4760 0.10 425 0.10
3360 0.10 300 0.12
2380 0.75 212 0.66
1680 0.05 150 0.10
100 0.02

References
1. Fellow, P. J. (2000). Food processing technology principles and practices (2nd ed.). Woodhead
Publishing Limited.
2. Earle, R. L. (2013). Unit operations in food processing. Elsevier.
252 Y. Kumar et al.

3. Schneider, Y., Zahn, S., & Linke, L. (2002). Qualitative process evaluation for ultrasonic
cutting of food. Engineering in Life Sciences, 2(6), 153–157.
4. Mohsenin, N. N. (1977). Characterization and failure in solid foods with particular reference to
fruits and vegetables. Journal of Texture Studies, 8(2), 169–193.
5. Henderson, S. M., & Perry, R. L. (1976). Agriculture process engineering. AVI Publishing.
6. McCabe, W. L., Smith, J. C., & Harriot, P. (2014). Unit operation of chemical engineering.
McGraw Hill Education (India) Edition. McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.
7. Sahay, K.M. and Singh, K.K. (2001). Unit operation of agriculture processing (2nd revised
ed.). Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
8. Saravacos, G. D., & Kostaropoulos, A. E. (2002). Handbook of food processing equipment.
Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
9. Brennan, J. G., Butters, J. R., Cowell, N. D., & Lilly, A. E. V. (1969). Food engineering
operations. Elsevier.
10. Snow, R. H., Kaye, B. H., Capes, C. E., & Sresty, G. C. (1984). Size reduction and size
enlargement. Microscope, 20, 8.
11. Shelake, P. S., Dabhi, M. N., Sabat, M., & Rathod, P. J. (2019). Performance evaluation of
developed low-temperature grinding mill. Journal of Food Process Engineering, 42(8),
e13290.
12. Singh, K. K., & Goswami, T. K. (1999). Studies on cryogenic grinding of cumin seed. Journal
of Food Process Engineering, 22(3), 175–190.
13. Brennan, J. G. (2006). Mixing, emulsification and size reduction. In Food processing handbook
(p. 513). Wiley-VCH.
14. Handbook, A. H. (2009). Processing of emulsions and dispersions (pp. 1–23). SPX
Corporation.
Mixing and Forming
7
Monica Premi and Vishal Sharma

Abstract

In this chapter, the fundamentals of the mixing process and its application in the
food industry are described. The convection and diffusive mixing mechanisms
are explained. The types of mixing equipment used for the different food
processing operations are also explained in detail. Mixing is one of the most
commonly used unit operations where a homogeneous mixture is obtained by
dispersing two or more ingredients together. Depending on the state of mixing,
the process can be classified as solid/solid, solid/liquid, liquid/liquid, and liquid/
gas mixing, respectively. There is a complex relationship between the product
quality characteristics and the mixing pattern. The selection of mixers plays a
significant role in mixing performance (in terms of mixing time, product yield,
and overall cost) as it affects the product’s overall quality. The different mixers
can be effectively used to perform various functions such as dough formation,
aeration in batter, dough texture development, homogenization of particulates in
suspension, etc. The flow pattern, mixing rate, and power consumption are
elaborated with worked examples. Forming is a size enlargement process that
also aids in food processing unlike mixing and is carried out immediately after the
mixing process, where high viscous or dough-like textures are molded into
different sizes and shapes. Forming equipment are specifically designed for the
processing of specific products such as biscuit former and bread and pie molder
for bakery and confectionery molder for confectionary. Several worked examples

M. Premi (*)
School of Life Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, International Academy City,
Dubai, United Arab Emirates
V. Sharma
Bakery Ingredients Division-IFFCO, Al Quoz, Industrial Area 1, Dubai, United Arab Emirates

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 253
Ltd. 2022
H. K. Sharma, N. Kumar (eds.), Agro-Processing and Food Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7289-7_7
254 M. Premi and V. Sharma

are also included in the chapter for better understanding of the concepts of mixing
and forming operation.

Keywords

Mixing mechanism · Mixing operations · Different types of mixing operations ·

Selection and classification of mixing equipments · Forming (bread, biscuit and
confectionery moulders) · Recent advancement in mixing

7.1 Introduction

Mixing is the fundamental unit operation where uniform mixture is produced by

dispersing one or more components within the other. The particulate component in a
minor amount is known as dispersed phase, and the larger component is known as
continuous phase.
Mixing is a process of combining all ingredients (solid, liquid, gas, or a combi-
nation of the three) to obtain a homogenous mixture, which aids in food processing.
The quality of the final products and its attributes usually depends on mixing
performance. Mixing efficiency depends upon the impeller design (including its
diameter). The different mixing operations are used for paste, batter, and dough
formation, aeration in batter and chocolate products, flavor dispersion in solids or
solutions, gas dissolution in aqueous solution, texture development in ice creams and
dough, and homogenization of particulate suspension. Extrusion and size reduction
process also possess mixing action.
Forming (molding) is a size enlargement process carried out immediately just
after the mixing process. It also aids in processing, where foods with higher viscosity
or foods with dough-like texture are formed (molded) in different sizes and shapes in
order to increase the handling convenience and to have varieties of bakery, confec-
tionery, and snack products. Alike mixing, forming also has an indirect effect on the
shelf life or nutritional quality of food products. Critical points that need consider-
ation during the forming process are the size and weight of pieces formed, unifor-
mity in smaller foods, and uniform heat transfer rate at the center of baked food.
Examples include bread molder, biscuit former, and confectionary molder. Extrusion
process also has forming function.

7.2 Mixing

7.2.1 Features of Mixing

• It involves the whole spectrum of materials from free-flowing powders to a

viscous paste-like dough.
• It involves many components, which exist in different physical states and have
different properties.
7 Mixing and Forming 255

• Energy consumption rate varies widely for each dispersing component. For
example, shear-sensitive liquids consume low energy in comparison to emulsifi-
cation, where it consumes high energy.
• Particularly, in particulate mixing, both mixing and segregation occur simulta-
neously, but segregation takes place during discharge from the mixer. Therefore,
the mixer discharge design is critical.
• It involves the dispersion of gas bubbles or air into pastes and liquid products
such as ice cream, bubbly chocolates, and meringues.
• In many viscous products, bubble incorporation is unacceptable as it can lead to
spoilage (oxidation) and inconsistent package fillings. Sometimes, the process
such as bubble exclusion or de-aeration exclusion can also be categorized into
mixing operation as end product, which results in a higher level of homogeneity.
• The state of any mixture is the result of complex mixing mechanisms that are
involved in it. Therefore, process control and online monitoring play an
important role.

7.2.2 Objective

There are a number of aspects for which mixing operation is carried out in food
products, which include:

• To obtain a uniform distribution of components.

• For reduction of non-uniformities.
• For reduction of stagnation zone.
• For efficient heat transfer.
• To aid in processing.
• To alter the eating quality of food.
• To obtain desired product characteristics.

7.2.3 Characteristics of Mixture

Mixture consists of two or more components that are combined in such a way that
every substance retains its own identity. The characteristics of the mixture are:

• It is an impure substance.
• It doesn’t have a specific formula—Constituents of the mixture are not present in
a fixed ratio.
• Constituents of a mixture retain their original properties.
• Properties of the mixture are the properties of components.
• Mixture components can be separated by physical methods such as heating,
distillation, crystallization, etc.
• It can be either homogenous or heterogeneous.
256 M. Premi and V. Sharma

Fig. 7.1 Stages in mixing to obtain a random complete mixture

Fig. 7.2 States of mixing

During initial mixing, components are grouped together in a vessel, but

components are still separated as pure components. The frequency of component
occurrence in whole vessel is proportional to the fraction of these components. As
mixing proceeds, each component starts dispersing within the other, and the
components’ proportions increase in the whole vessel approximately to the overall
proportions of the components. Complete mixing is achieved at the point where all
the samples contain the same proportion of components as in whole mixture
(Fig. 7.1). This state of mixing represents the ordered mixing or ideal mixing of
each component (Fig. 7.2b), and practically, this is an improbable result from the
mixing process. Alternative state of acceptable mixing is random mixing in which
the chance of occurrence of components in samples is the same as that of statistical
random dispersion (Fig. 7.2c).
7 Mixing and Forming 257

7.2.4 Mixing Mechanism

There are three mechanisms by which mixing behavior can be described:

• Convective mixing (macro-mixing): It involves the displacement of a large mass

of particles together from one zone to another in the mixture by using mechanical
agitation such as blades or screw or paddle elements. Due to the rotational motion
of agitating impellers, a circulatory flow is induced. This circulatory flow is
mainly responsible for the macroscopic mixing of bulk powder mixtures and
contributes to convective mixing. A large portion of the mixture moves relatively
at higher rates, but no changes are expected at the microscopic level. Thus, the
pure convective mixing is found to be less effective on a fine level as it
contributes to poor mixing characteristics. For batch operations, convective
mixing is effective, whereas it is not considered very effective for continuous
operations. Shearing occurs in this type of mixing. Therefore, sometimes, shear
mixing is considered as part of this mixing.
• Shear mixing: It involves momentum exchange of particles having different
velocities. This velocity distribution takes place around the vessel walls and the
agitating impeller due to extension and compression of bulk powders. Shearing
force occurs in this type of mixing, where a group of particles are mixed
thoroughly by the formation of slipping of planes. This type of mixing enhances
semi-microscopic mixing and is effective in both the batch and continuous
operations. In rotary vessel mixers, shear mixing takes place. In free-flowing
powders, both shear and diffusive mixing lead to de-mixing (segregation) of
particles; thus, for such powder, mixing mainly takes place due to convection.
• Diffusive mixing (micro-mixing): It involves the random movement of particles
that changes its position relative to one another; hence, it is referred to as random
walk phenomenon. Diffusive mixing is suitable for fragile agglomerates that
require gentle and slow mixing, but is not preferable for cohesive powders. The
diffusive mixing is best suited for axial-type mixing. Pure diffusive mixing is
highly effective in the production of intimate mixtures at individual particle level,
but it takes place at a very slow rate.

Usually, in simple barrel-type mixers, pure diffusive mixing occurs, whereas in

spiral ribbon-type trough mixer, mostly pure convective mixing takes place. Hence,
by combining the features of both convective (speed) and diffusive (effectiveness)
mixing, an effective operation can be achieved.
During the mixing operation, either all the mechanisms exist, or only one or two
may predominate. This usually depends on the type of mixer used and physical
properties of particles. Selection of mixer plays a significant role in mixing perfor-
mance. For example, for uniform mixing in cohesive powders, it requires shear and
convection mechanism. Therefore, ploughs and blades are more appropriate for
mixing rather than using tumbling mixers.
258 M. Premi and V. Sharma

7.2.5 Types of Mixing Operation

In food industries, it can be distinguished on the basis of the following.

7.2.5.1 State of Mixing

• Solid/solid mixing: It is applicable for mixing tea, coffee, dried soups, and cake
mixes.
• Solid/liquid mixing: It is applicable for mixing dairy products and paste and
preparation of the dough.
• Liquid/liquid mixing: It is applicable for mixing emulsions for margarines and
spreads.
• Liquid/gas mixing: It is applicable for mixing whipped cream and ice creams.

7.2.5.2 Mixing and Segregation Properties

• Positive mixture: It is prepared from the materials such as gases and miscible
liquids, which get mixed immediately and irreversibly by the process of diffusion
and tend to approach as an ideal mixture. These mixtures require no energy for
mixing.
• Negative mixture: It is the mixture with components that separate out. These
mixtures require higher energy and external force to keep the components
adequately dispersed.
• Neutral mixture: It is static in behavior. These mixtures such as paste and powders
do not mix or segregate spontaneously.

7.2.5.3 State of Mixing May Include the Following

Dispersing and Dissolution into Liquids

Mixing is a process of combining all the components together to ultimately form
either a uniform dispersion or a homogenous phase. Turbulent mixing of two
miscible liquids with low viscosity is easy to process, whereas dissolution of gums
and extenders is more complex, as the solution becomes more viscous during
mixing. Particularly, for such cases, mixers, which induce both turbulent and laminar
mixing, are more effective.
The emulsification process involves the dispersion of either partially miscible or
immiscible liquid into the other to form droplet dispersion in a continuous phase.
Dispersed liquid volume fraction may be 80%, but if the volume fraction exceeds
50%, then the dispersion is quite difficult. Typical examples of oil-in-water emulsion
(o/w) are mayonnaise, ice cream, and salad creams, where fat is dispersed in the
aqueous medium, whereas margarine is an example of water-in-oil emulsion (w/o),
where water is dispersed in the fat medium.
Particularly, in some cases, it is often required to disperse solids into the liquid. If
the solid material is to be dispersed in a liquid, which is in small quantity, then the
mixer used must be able to circulate the entire bulk.
Some mixers are also used to disperse air into liquids, emulsions, and slurries. On
the other hand, mixers are also used to de-aerate highly viscous liquid, where air can
7 Mixing and Forming 259

lead to unavoidable reactions. The de-aeration process facilitates packaging and also
ensures keeping the quality of foods (visual appearance) that are susceptible to
oxidation.

Mixing of Particulate Materials

Mixing of particulate materials is quite difficult as particles vary widely in size,
shape, surface characteristics, and density. These variations in particle characteristics
led free-flowing mixture to segregation or un-mixing of mixture. Cohesive powders,
on the other hand, do not move freely when agitated, but the behavior of bulk
material may vary, and that also depends upon the moisture and oil content, which
may further complicate the mixing process. Muesli is the example of a free-flowing
mixture that tends to segregate during mixing, whereas soup mix is an example of a
cohesive mixture that agglomerates during mixing.

Mixing of Batter and Dough

Mixing of batter and dough is performed by utilizing a series of agitation, which
induce interaction among all the components such as flour, salt, enzyme, yeast,
sweeteners, air, reducing and oxidizing agent, and water. Mixers used for mixing
batter and dough must induce shear in order to homogenize the ingredients and also
to aerate the mixture.
By using different mixing operations, dough, batter, and paste can be produced
[1]. Often, batter for cake is produced by dissolving soluble solids and mixing along
with a high concentration of insoluble solids. Paste is usually formed by physical and
chemical reaction during mixing such as comminution or precipitation. Kneading of
dough involves physical process such as extensive mixing and stretching of the
material, which promotes biochemical reaction and leads to gluten development.

7.2.6 Measurement

7.2.6.1 Sampling
Sampling can be very simple or complex. The sampling process is only acceptable if
the sample represents the whole mixture. But, there is a difference between the
mixture and the sample. Therefore, all the mixing process usually consists of
sampling location and procedure, number of samples, and sample size.

7.2.6.2 Methods of Sampling

The choice of technique used for sampling mixture depends upon the mixer and
mixture characteristics. Most commonly used methods for sampling mixture are as
follows:

• Sampling by probe: This device is used for sampling, which contains a solid rod
with radial holes. When sampling is done, the rod is rotated to uncover all the
holes. Recent advancement in sampling is the application of photoelectric probe,
which is connected to the computer for faster processing data. Recently,
260 M. Premi and V. Sharma

pneumatic and Probe-A-Vac probes are used where air is used in combination
with the probe. This consists of a small cylinder inside a larger cylinder, where the
air is forced down between the cylinders by using negative pressure. The negative
pressure drags the particles in a smaller cylinder and also helps in pushing the
probe into the mixture.
• Sampling by complete subdivision of mixture: Tray is used in this method where it
is subdivided into many cells to hold the mixture. Although this process of
sampling is accurate, it is a very time-consuming process.
• Sampling by freezing the mixture: In this process, the mixture is frozen, and then a
small section is utilized out of it.
• Sampling by mechanical belt cup type: These samplers consist of cups, which
regularly take the sample from the mixture by dipping into the material on a
moving belt or from the material that drops at the terminal of the belt.
• Sampling by outlet stream: In this, a sample is collected at a fixed time period
from the mixer outlet.
• Sampling by manual cup type: It is particularly used for the sampling of grains. In
this sampling type, samplers consist of containers that are in the form of pelican
pouches and are known as “pelican sampler,” which is passed through the stream
of free-falling substance [2].

The different locations used for sampling are orderly or randomly distributed
throughout the bulk. In ordered sampling, samples are collected at a regular interval
of time, whereas, in random sampling, tables of random numbers are used to track or
locate the random position in the mixture. Nowadays, computer-aided selection is
commonly preferred. The different methods used to analyze the samples are numeric
counting, chemical analysis, X-ray fluorescence, flame spectroscopy, magnetic
separation, and radioactive counting [3].

7.2.6.3 Sample Size

For accurate mixing information, the sample size should not be too small or too large
taken from the bulk; otherwise, it will provide incorrect information. No systematic
methodology in common has been proposed to obtain an accurate sample size.
Sometimes, both process conditions and product requirements suggest the sample
size. As a thumb rule, not more than 5% of the sample is to be considered from
the bulk.
Some researchers have correlated the impact of sample size on the mixing index.
For the completely random mixture, totally segregated mixture is independent of the
sample size, whereas the sample composition variance decreases inversely with
sample size [4].

7.2.6.4 Scale of Scrutiny

The prime concern for any processor is to ensure that the product should maintain
homogeneity, when examined on the consumer’s scale of scrutiny. Mixing is done to
obtain a uniform distribution of components among the mixture. The concentration
of each component measured should be expressed in terms of relative concentration.
7 Mixing and Forming 261

As each assessment depends upon the sample size, therefore, it is important to

achieve homogeneity in a predetermined scale of scrutiny in any practical process.

7.2.7 Mixing Operations in the Food Industry

There is a complex link between the product characteristics and mixing pattern. The
criteria for successful mixing depend on the desirable quality of product (in terms of
functionality, homogeneity, particulate integrity, and sensory characteristics),
energy and process efficiency, flexibility (to changes in processing), safety, hygiene,
and legal issues (standard for some food composition).

7.2.7.1 Solid Mixing

Mechanism
Solid mixing involves convective, shear, and diffusive mixing. As mixing proceeds,
all the three mechanisms proceed simultaneously in a mixer. The characteristic curve
of the mixing process is the graph between the mixing time (t) and degree of
mixedness (M, logarithmic scale) as shown in Fig. 7.3. The curve plays a predomi-
nate role in evaluating the mixer performance. Generally, during the initial mixing
(I), convective mixing predominates, and in the intermediate stage of mixing (II),
less convective and more shear mixing occurs. In the final stage of mixing (III),
diffusive mixing becomes more effective [5].

Theory
It is a complex process, where the mixing efficiency is significantly influenced by the
solid characteristics and mixers and its operating conditions. Unlike the mixing of
liquid and viscous paste, complete uniform distributions of components are not
possible in particulate solids or dry powders.
In solid, the degree of mixing depends upon the following parameters:

Fig. 7.3 Characteristic curve Log σ

of mixing process:
(I) convective mixing, I
(II) convective and shear σ0
mixing, and (III) diffusive
mixing
II
III

σr

Time, t
262 M. Premi and V. Sharma

• Component’s characteristics: particle shape, size, density, moisture content, flow

and surface characteristics, a tendency to agglomerate
• Mixer characteristics: dimension and geometry, construction material, agitator
used, surface finish, efficiency
• Operating conditions: the amount of each constituent, the proportion of mixture
volume to the mixer, mixer speed, sequence, method and rate of adding material,
and rate and degree of mixing

Mixing and Segregation

Generally, materials of similar shape, size, and density form a uniform mixture rather
than dissimilar materials. Dissimilarities in these properties lead to segregation of
components during mixing. The consistency of the end product relies on the
components of food and type of mixer and its operating conditions, which directly
relates to the equilibrium between mixing and segregation (Fig. 7.4).
Granular convection is a phenomenon in which the granular material is exposed
to either vibration or shaking. It exhibits a circular pattern which is very much
similar to that of fluid convection [6] and led to the accumulation of particles
preferentially one over another. This is the reason why small particles usually slip
beneath the large particles in a food packet [7]. This phenomenon is also known as
Brazilian nut effect or muesli effect [8]. It is commonly observed in mixed nuts and
muesli breakfast mix, which contain particles of different sizes but are of the same
density. Particle mixing can never be homogenous as that of fluid mixing as particles
contribute to segregation, whereas fluid molecules always tend to mix.
Mixing of solid plays a critically important role in the formulation of several
products such as baby food, ready-to-eat soup, spice blends, coffee (3-in-1), etc.

Fig. 7.4 Profile of mixing process: (a) mixing, (b) optimum mixing, (c) over-mixing, (d)
re-mixing, and (e) re-segregation
7 Mixing and Forming 263

Particularly in few mixtures, after a fixed period of time, uniformity is achieved,

and then gradually segregation (or un-mixing) starts. Therefore, it is crucial in such
case to maintain mixing time precisely. Hence, long mixing period does not guaran-
tee perfect mixing. Practically, if optimum mixing time passes, the mixture tends to
segregate. For a process, mixing duration is usually determined either by testing or
by the operator’s knowledge. The quality (homogeneity) of the final blended output
can also be described as composition variance that gets decreased over a period of
time as mixing continues (Fig. 7.4). Commonly used method for determining the
homogeneity of blended product is an analysis of “grab sample.” It is a sampling
technique where a single sample is taken at a specific time. Grab sample is also
known as an individual sample or catch sample, for example, collecting a beaker of
emulsion and testing for its pH. Usually, material with particle size greater than
75 mm tends to segregate very easily during mechanical zigzag, but material with
particle size below 10 mm will not segregate substantially.
Different methods adopted to reduce product segregation during the mixing
process include improvement in material properties (i.e., by reducing absolute
size, narrowing size distribution, and avoiding irregularly shaped particles), contin-
uous mixing in a controlled manner (i.e., by maintaining humidity and reducing
vibration), and proper selection of operational parameters and handling
equipment [9].

Mixing Quality (Mixedness)

As mixing proceeds, the samples become more homogenous or uniform in terms of
its composition, and it represents the mean composition of the total mixture. The
simplest method used for calculating the deviation in composition is to apply the
statistical means known as standard deviation. It provides an adequate technique of
estimating the level to which fractional concentration of a component scatters around
its mean value in different samples (Fig. 7.5).

Fig. 7.5 Normal probability

distribution
264 M. Premi and V. Sharma

Standard deviation is estimated by using the equation:

rhffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiiffi
1 X
σm ¼ ðx  x́Þ2 ð7:1Þ
n1
where σ is the standard deviation, x is the component’s concentration in all sample, x́
is the mean concentration of samples, and n is the number of samples.
Equation (7.1) can be applied for a maximum of 30 samples (N<30). For a larger
sample size, the equation is modified as (1/N ). Standard deviation is calculated by
using Eq. (7.1) for the measured sample composition. Usually, it is convenient to
apply σ 2 (known as the variance of the mixture) instead of σ, which is the variance of
the fractional sample composition from the mean sample composition. For perfect
mixing, the standard deviation (σ 1¼0) should be zero. But, ideally, σ 1¼0 cannot be
attained. But, by using effective mixer, this value can be reduced. Standard deviation
gets lowered with increase in mixture homogeneity.

Mixing Index
Mixing index (M ) measures the level of mixing, which proceeds toward homogene-
ity. The mixing quality of true mixture lies between the perfectly mixed mixture
(random) and that of totally un-mixed mixture (segregated). The extent of mixing
can be assessed by using the number of mixing indices [10].

σm  σ1
M1 ¼ ð7:2Þ
σ0  σ1
log σ m  σ 1
M2 ¼ ð7:3Þ
log σ 0  σ 1

σ 2m  σ 21
M3 ¼ ð7:4Þ
σ 20  σ 21

where σ 0, σ m, and σ 1 are the standard deviation in the beginning of mixing, while
mixing, and of a perfectly mixed sample, respectively. σ 0 can be calculated using the
equation:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
σ0 ¼ ½V 1 ð1  V 1 Þ ð7:5Þ

where V is the component’s average fractional mass of the mixture.

Mixing index M1 is used for low mixing rates or when components are mixed in
approximately equal masses, M2 is used for high mixing rate or when a small
quantity of one sample is mixed in bulk material, and M3 is used for solid/liquid
mixing in a similar condition to M1. M3 is also used for the mixing of heavy paste.
Practically, all the three mixing indices are assessed, and the one best-suited mixer
for particular ingredients can be selected.
Mixing index (M ) for a true mixture ranges from 0 (completely segregated) to
1 (completely randomized). As mixing continues, M ¼ 1 approaches asymptotically,
7 Mixing and Forming 265

but in reality, this assumption is not always affirmed as in the case of free-flowing
powders, the phenomenon of de-mixing is not considered.

Mixing Rate and Mixing Efficiency

Mixing time is directly correlated to the mixing index and can be expressed as:

ln M ¼ Kt m ð7:6Þ

where K is the mixing rate constant that depends on the nature of components and
type of mixer used and tm is the mixing time.
Ideally, when mixing is completed, all the samples must have the similar concen-
tration of each component that was added at the start of mixing.
Mixing/blending efficiency of the blender can also be expressed as:
 
σ
ηM ¼ ð7:7Þ
σ0

Mixing Energy Input

A significant amount of energy is consumed for mixing. As such, there is no relation
between the mixing progress and energy consumption. But, in extreme cases
preferentially in the mixing of high viscous liquids, there may be shearing action
along one plane in a sticky material, which is then recombined to restore the original
pattern and then repeating this same action again may consume sufficient energy but
perform no mixing action. In well-designed mixers, energy consumption depends on
the duration of mixing. For example, during the mixing of flour for dough prepara-
tion using high-speed mixers, the power input (energy utilized) at any specific time
can be used to estimate the required mixing time. Power input has a direct relation
with chemical reactions that are involved during mixing as flour components
oxidized during mixing, which increases the resistance to shear and thus increases
the power requirement for operating the mixer.

Problem 7.1 During dough preparation, 450 g of powdered sugar is blended with
50 kg of wheat flour. After 1, 10, and 20 min, five samples of 50 g were collected and
analyzed for the powdered sugar percentage. The outputs obtained are as follows:

Powdered sugar % after 1 min 0.13 0.20 0.29 0.11 0.57

10 min 0.54 0.51 0.40 0.50 0.48
20 min 0.46 0.44 0.43 0.43 0.44

For each mixing time, calculate the mixing index.

Solution:
In the mix, the average fractional mass of powdered sugar
266 M. Premi and V. Sharma

450
¼
50  103
¼ 8  103

By using the equation

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
σ o ¼ ½8  103 ð18  103 Þ

¼ 8:888

Mixing after 20 min

Mean concentration of samples (x́ ¼ 0.448)
After 1 min, using equation
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
h i
1 X
σm ¼ ðx  0:448Þ2
51
(Subtract the x́ (¼0.448) from x for each five samples, square the output, and sum
the squares.)
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1
σm ¼  0:315
51
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
σ m ¼ 0:25  0:315
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
σ m ¼ 0:078

σ m ¼ 0:279

After 10 min

σ m ¼ 0:067

After 20 min

σ m ¼ 0:015

Mixing index M2 after 1 min

log 0:279  log 0:01

M2 ¼
log 8:888  log 0:01

M 2 ¼ 0:493

After 10 min
7 Mixing and Forming 267

M 2 ¼ 0:282

After 20 min

M 2 ¼ 0:016

Using equation after 20 min

ln 0:016 ¼ k  1200

k ¼ 0:0034

Time required for σ m ¼ σ 1 ¼ 0.01 is found then:

ln 0:01 ¼ 0:0034  t m

t m ¼ 1355 s

Remaining mixing time ¼ 1355 – 1200

¼ 155 s

¼ 2:58 min :

Problem 7.2 A confectionery industry prepares powder mixer for toffee

manufacturing. Sugar of 22 kg and other material of 78 kg are blended for 7 min
at a steady speed. The sugar content of the ten samples of the mixture, each weighing
20 g, was examined. The outputs, in weight %, are 21.8, 22.0, 21.8, 21.7, 23.0, 22.7,
21.4, 22.3, 22.0, and 20.9.

(a) Calculate the root-mean-square deviation (RMSD) and variance.

(b) Calculate the mixing index; assume the particles are small and of equal size.

Solution:

(a) The sugar concentration of the sugar in the mixture is 22%.

Let p be the individual result found for a sample. For this sample, the deviation
( p  22) was calculated. Then ( p  22)2 for each sample deviation was
calculated. The results were summed, and then the sum was divided by the
10 (number of samples). The resultant output is the variance. Taking the square
root of the variance and this will be RMS:
268 M. Premi and V. Sharma

Sample no. P (p  0.22)2

1 0.218 0.00000400
2 0.220 0.00000000
3 0.218 0.00000400
4 0.217 0.00000900
5 0.230 0.00010000
6 0.227 0.00004900
7 0.214 0.00003600
8 0.223 0.00000900
9 0.220 0.00000000
10 0.209 0.00012100
Ʃ 0.00033200
Ʃ/n¼S2 0.0000332
RMS ¼ S 0.0057619

(b) Due to the large number of particles in the sample, the mixing index M is given
by the following equation:

S2
M ¼1
S20

S20 ¼ qð1  qÞ

¼ 0:22  0:78

¼ 0:1716
0:0000332
M ¼1 ¼ 0:9998
0:1716
The quality of mixing is very good.

7.2.7.2 Liquid Mixing

Flow Pattern
The movement induced in low viscosity liquids by mixers is shown in Fig. 7.6 and
can be characterized by:

• A longitudinal velocity (axial velocity, Va), acting parallel to the mixer shaft.
• A rotational velocity (tangential velocity, Vt), acting tangentially to the mixer
shaft. It simply rotates the fluid and leads to vortex formation. It has no significant
effect on mixing.
• A radial velocity (Vr), acting perpendicular to the mixer shaft.
7 Mixing and Forming 269

Fig. 7.6 Component

velocities induced during
mixing: (a) longitudinal
velocity, (b) rotational
velocity, and (c) radial
velocity

Fig. 7.7 Different positions of mixer shafts for effective mixing of liquids

For successful mixing, the following actions are implemented to induce both
longitudinal and radial velocities during liquid mixing:

• Attaching baffles on the mixer wall

• Positioning of mixer shaft or blades (either angled or off-center) (Fig. 7.7)
• Installing impellers set that rotate in opposite directions

For mixing low viscosity fluids effectively, throughout the liquid bulk, turbulence
is created to entrain the slow-moving portion within the faster one. During mixing,
vortex formation should be avoided as it provides hindrance by circulating the
270 M. Premi and V. Sharma

Fig. 7.8 Types of non-Newtonian fluids

adjoining layers of the liquid at a same speed, whereas, in highly viscous fluids, such
as dough/paste, mixing is done by different actions such as:

• By kneading the material into the other material or adjacent the vessel wall
• By folding the un-mixed portion within the mixed one
• By shearing for stretching the material

These actions help to create and recombine new surfaces in the food that lead to
efficient mixing. As the material does not flow readily, therefore, it is required to
either move the food into the mixer or move the blade through the vessel.
Mostly, liquid foods are non-Newtonian, and their types (Fig. 7.8) are:

• Viscoelastic foods—which exhibit viscous and elastic properties both like dough
and require stretching and folding action for shearing the material. Planetary and
twin shaft mixers with intermeshing blades are suitable for viscoelastic foods.
• Pseudoplastic foods—also known as shear-thinning fluids, where increasing the
shear rate results in a decrease in viscosity. These fluids exhibit yield stress that
must be overcome for flow to occur. Foods like sauces form a thinned material
zone around the agitator during mixing, and the bulk of food doesn’t move. This
zone becomes apparent more quickly by increasing the agitator speed. Roller
mills or gate or planetary mixers are suitable for this type of food.
• Dilatant foods—are also known as shear-thickening fluids where viscosity
increases as the shear rate increases. Foods like chocolate require great care
while mixing. Paddle or planetary mixers are suitable for mixing dilatant foods.
These foods require adequate power for proper mixing; otherwise, increase in
viscosity would damage the shafts and drive mechanism.
7 Mixing and Forming 271

Mixing Rate
The mixing rate is usually described in terms of mixing index. The mixing rate
constant (K ) depends on the features of mixing equipment and on the characteristics
of the type of liquid food.
The effect of mixing characteristics of the mixer on mixing rate constant is
calculated as:

D3 N
K/ ð7:8Þ
D2t z

where D is the agitator diameter (m), N is the agitator speed (rev s1), z is the liquid
height (m), and Dt is the vessel diameter (m).

Power Consumption
The power consumption of mixing equipment depends upon:

• Quantity and type of food (nature and viscosity)

• Impeller characteristics (type, position, size, and speed)

The mixing quality depends upon the energy utilized by unit mass or unit volume
fluid. Liquid flow can be explained by using three dimensionless numbers:

• Reynolds number (Re): Re is the ratio between inertial and viscous forces. It is
used to determine the type of flow discharge whether laminar or turbulent
(elevated Re—turbulent regime).

D2 Nρm
Re ¼ ð7:9Þ
μm

• Froude number (Fr): Fr is the ratio between gravitational and inertial forces. It is
used to indicate the effect of gravity on fluid motion and also predicts the vortex
formation in the mixer (elevated Fr—vortex formed). It is only important if
Re > 300 and unbaffled vessel is used for mixing.

DN 2
Fr ¼ ð7:10Þ
g

• Power number (Po): Po relates power (torque) with agitator diameter, speed of
the shaft, and liquid density.
272 M. Premi and V. Sharma

Fig. 7.9 Plots of power function versus Reynolds number

P
Po ¼ ð7:11Þ
ρm N 3 D5

where P is the power transmitted by agitator (W), ρm is the mixture density (kg m3),
N is the speed of rotation (s1), D is the impeller diameter (m), μm is the viscosity of
mixture (Nsm2), and g is the acceleration due to gravity (m s1).
These three dimensionless numbers (Re, Fr, and Po) are important power
correlations in the mixing field. These numbers help to understand all the forces
induced during each mixing operation and also relate to operating conditions and
mixer dimension used. These three dimensionless numbers are related to each other
and can be expressed as:

Po ¼ K ð Re Þn ðFrÞm ð7:12Þ

where K, n, and m are the variables obtained experimentally and are related to the
agitator configuration and type of mixer used. This correlation is given as log/log
plots of Φ ¼ (Po)/(Fr)m versus (Re), shown in Fig. 7.9 [11].
However, the Froude number plays an important role, especially when the vortex
is formed in an unbaffled vessel. Hence, it is neglected from Eq. (7.12), and a simpler
expression can be used in the following cases:

• In the laminar regime (Re < 10), the curve between Φ and Re is a straight line.

1
Po / ð7:13Þ
Re
7 Mixing and Forming 273

P
ðPoÞð Re Þ ¼ ¼ constant ð7:14Þ
N 2 D3 μ
Under these conditions, the energy input depends on the fluid viscosity, not on the
fluid density.

• In the turbulent regime (Re > 10), Φ does not change with Re. Therefore, Po is
constant.

P
Po ¼ constant ¼ ð7:15Þ
D5 N 3 ρ
The energy input under these conditions depends on the fluid density, not on the
fluid viscosity.
The mixture density is calculated by adding component densities of both dis-
persed and continuous phases:

ρm ¼ V 1 ρ1 þ V 2 ρ2 ð7:16Þ

where V is the mixture volume, ρ1 is the continuous phase density, and ρ2 is the
dispersed phase density.
The mixture viscosity is calculated by using the equation:

For unbaffled mixers:

μm ðunbaffledÞ ¼ μV1 1 μV2 2 ð7:17Þ

For baffled mixers:

 
μ1 1 þ 1:5μ2 V 2
μm ðbaffledÞ ¼ ð7:18Þ
V1 μ1 þ μ2

Variations in power number (Po) at different Reynolds numbers by propellers

[12] are represented in Fig. 7.10.

Problem 7.3 Rapeseed oil and sunflower oil are mixed together in a proportion of
1 to 4 in a cylindrical tank with 2 m diameter at 25 C by using a propeller agitator of
25 cm diameter which operates at 800 rev/min. Calculate the required motor size for
blending oils.
Solution:
(Viscosity of sunflower oil at 25 C ¼ 0.049 Ns/m2, density of sunflower oil at
25 C ¼ 918.8 kg/m3, viscosity of rapeseed oil at 25 C ¼ 0.118 Ns/m2, and density
of rapeseed oil at 25 C ¼ 900 kg/m3)
274 M. Premi and V. Sharma

Fig. 7.10 Variations in power number (Po) versus Reynolds number (Re) for propeller: (a)
viscosity ¼ 0.189 Nsm2, (b) viscosity ¼ 0.028 Nsm2, and (c) viscosity ¼ 0.109 Nsm2

From equation

μm ðunbaffledÞ ¼ 0:0490:25 0:1180:75

μm ¼ 0:094 Ns=m2

From equation

ρm ¼ 0:25  918:8 þ 0:75  900

ρm ¼ 904:7 kg=m3

From equation

ð0:25Þ2  800  904:7

Re ¼
0:094  60
Re ¼ 8020:3

From Fig. 7.10, for Re ¼ 8020.3, Po ¼ 0.5.

From equation

 
800 3
P ¼ 0:5  904:7   0:255
60
P ¼ 1032:2 J=s

1:032 kW

As 1 hp ¼ 745.4 J/s, the required motor size is 1032.2/

745.4 ¼ 1.38 hp ¼ 1.032 kW.
7 Mixing and Forming 275

Problem 7.4 A cylindrical fermenter with an inside diameter of 0.3 m and a height
of 0.3 m is fixed with disc flat blade turbine mixer having 0.1 m diameter. The mixer
usually rotates at 600 rpm. The process is scaled up to fermenter of 1 m3 capacity,
having similar agitation power per unit volume.

(a) Calculate the speed of revolution.

(b) Will the 5 hp motor be powerful enough to start the mixer?

Solution:
Fermentor with ρ ¼ 1000 kg/m3 and μ ¼ 0.02 Pa s.
Mixing power per unit volume:

d2 Nρ
Re ¼
μ

ð0:1Þ2  600  1000

¼
0:02  60
¼ 5000

The regime is clearly turbulent; therefore, Po ¼ 5.

P
Po ¼ ¼5
ρN 3 d5

P ¼ 5  1000  103  0:15

¼ 50 W:

The liquid volume in the fermenter is 0.021 m3. Therefore, the power per m3 is
50/0.021 ¼ 2381 W.
In order to have similar agitation power per unit volume, the vessel diameter and
impeller diameter will be 1.084 m and 0.361 m. We shall consider that the large
fermentor condition will also be turbulent.

P ¼ 2381 ¼ 5  1000  N 3  0:3615

N ¼ 4:2 s1 ¼ 256 rpm:

b. The required input power necessary in H.P p ¼ 2381/750 ¼ 3.2 HP. Therefore,
a motor of 5 HP will be sufficient.

Problem 7.5 For blending syrup, a vertical cylindrical vessel is used that is
assembled with a three-bladed propeller. The propeller mixer rotates at 60 rpm and
has 0.1 m diameter. Experimental result shows that mixing the input energy of 2 J/kg
276 M. Premi and V. Sharma

is necessary for suitable mixing. Estimate the mixing time for a 100 kg batch.
Viscosity ¼ 4 Pa s and syrup density ¼ 1200 kg/m3.
Solution:

d2 Nρ
Re ¼
μ

ð0:1Þ2  1  1200
¼
4
¼3

The regime is laminar Po ¼ 14.

P
Po ¼ ¼ 14
ρN 3 d5

P ¼ 14  1200  13  0:15

¼ 0:168 W
2  100
t¼
0:168
¼ 1190 s

¼ 19:8 min :

Problem 7.6 A large aqueous-based liquid food is blended in a batch-type vessel.

Considering a power number of 5 (for Re > 5000), estimate the power input through
the impeller if an impeller has a speed of 30 rpm and diameter of 70 cm. The
viscosity and density of the liquid food are 0.02 Pa s and 1000 kg m3, respectively.
Solution:
The power number for an impeller:

P
Np ¼
ρN 3 D5
The power for mixing is, therefore:

P ¼ 5  1000  ð30=60Þ3  0:75 ¼ 105 W

The power is 105 W; as a check, the Reynolds number is:

ρND2 1000  30  0:72

Re ¼ ¼ ¼ 12250
μ 0:02  60
A power number of 5 is therefore valid for Re greater than 5000.
7 Mixing and Forming 277

Problem 7.7 A three-bladed propeller with a diameter of 0.25 m is rotated at 1.6 Hz

to mix the fluid in the laminar region. However, due to corrosion, the propeller must
be replaced by a flat two-bladed blade with a diameter of 0.76 m. At what speed will
the paddle rotate if the same motor is used?
Solution:
The power required to mixing in the laminar region is:

P ¼ kN 2 D3

where k for the propeller and flat paddle are 1964 and 1748.
Thus, the propeller with a diameter of 0.25 m diameter rotates at 1.6 Hz.

P ¼ 1964  1:62  0:253 ¼ 78:43 W

and for paddle with a diameter of 0.76 m in using the same motor:

P
N2 ¼
kD3
78:43
N2 ¼ ¼ 0:104 Hz ¼ 6:23 rpm:
1748  0:763

Problem 7.8 For the production of water-in-oil emulsion, two portable mixers with
three blades are used, an impeller with a diameter of 0.4 m rotating at 1 Hz and
another impeller with a diameter of 0.25 m rotating at 2 Hz. Which unit consumes
the least power in turbulent conditions?
Thus, a 0.4 m wheel will consume less energy than a 0.25 m wheel.
Solution:
In turbulent conditions, the power required for mixing is given as:

P ¼ KN 3 D5

In this case: P1 ¼ k130.45 ¼ 0.0102k and P2 ¼ k230.255 ¼ 0.0776k.

P1 0:0102k
¼ ¼ 0:131:
P2 0:0776k
Thus, the impeller with a diameter of 0.4 m will require less power than the
impeller with a diameter of 0.25 m.

Problem 7.9 A small tank 0.28 m in diameter with an impeller 0.11 m in diameter is
used for blending two miscible liquids (properties were relatively same to water, i.e.,
viscosity ¼ 1 mN s/m2 and density ¼ 1000 kg/m3). Blending was completed in
1 min using an impeller speed of 220 rev/min. The company plans to scale up the
process using the criterion of constant tip speed in a tank of 3 m diameter.
278 M. Premi and V. Sharma

(a) At what speed should the large impeller be driven?

(b) What will be the power required?

Solution:

(a) In a small-scale tank, the impeller with a diameter of 0.11 m is rotated at 220 rev/
min.

220
¼ 3:67 Hz
60
The tip speed is then:

πDN ¼ π  0:11  3:67 ¼ 1:26 m=s

In a large tank, if this is the same, where D ¼ 33 ¼ 1 m, then,

1:26 ¼ π  1  N

In a larger impeller, the speed of rotation is:

N ¼ 0:401 Hz or 24:06 rev= min :

(b) In the large-scale tank, N ¼ 0.401 Hz, D ¼ 1 m, ρ ¼ 1000 kg/m3, and

μ ¼ 1  103 Ns/m2.
Thus,

D2 Nρ 12  0:401  1000
Re ¼ ¼ ¼ 401, 000:
μ 1  103
For a propeller mixer, the power number Np ¼ 0.6.Thus,

0:6 ¼ P=ρN 3 D5

P ¼ 0:6ρD3 N 5 ¼ 0:6  1000  0:4013  15

¼ 38:6 W:

Problem 7.10 A tank having a standard Rushton impeller is needed to disperse the
gas in a solution with properties similar to water. The tank has a diameter of 2.8 m
(1.1 impeller diameter). A power input of 0.72 kW/m3 is used. Turbulence was
assumed during the process, and the presence of gas does not affect significantly the
relationship between Reynolds and power number:
7 Mixing and Forming 279

(a) What will be the power needed by the impeller?

(b) At what speed, the impeller must be driven?

Solution:

(a) Assume that the liquid depth ¼ tank diameter; then:

   
Volume of liquid ¼ πD2 =4 H ¼ π  2:82  2:8 =4

¼ 17:23 m3

With a power input of 0.72 kW/m3, the power needed by the impeller is:

P ¼ 0:72  17:23 ¼ 12:40 Kw

(b) For turbulent processing conditions, μ ¼ 1 mN s/m2, and the power number is
approximately 0.7.

P
¼ 0:7
ρN 3 D5

12:40  103
¼ 0:7
1000  N 3  1:15
From which:

N ¼ 2:22 Hz or 133:2 rev= min :

Problem 7.11 With an agitation system, fruit juice having a density of 1100 kg/m3
and a viscosity of 0.03 Pa s is agitated by using a turbine impeller. The impeller
consists of a disc with six blades. The tank diameter is 1.8 m. The liquid height in the
tank is equal to the tank diameter. The impeller is of 0.5 m diameter. The width of the
blade is 0.1 m. If the turbine is operating at 100 rpm, determine the amount of power
required.
Impeller diameter (D) ¼ 0.5 m, tank diameter (T ) ¼ 1.8 m, blade width
(Wb) ¼ 0.1 m, baffle width (B) ¼ 0.15 m, impeller speed (N ) ¼ 100 rpm, fluid
density (ρ) ¼ 1100 kg/m3, and fluid viscosity (μ) ¼ 0.03 Pa s.
Solution:

Re ¼ D2 Nρ=μ

0:52  1:667  1100=0:03

280 M. Premi and V. Sharma

Re ¼ 15, 280

N¼5

P ¼ NρN 3 D5

5  1100  1:6673  0:55

P ¼ 796:2 J=s ¼ 0:796 W:

The power input of 0.796 kW is required by the impeller. Hence, the motor
preferred for the mixer should be larger than 0.8 kW.

7.2.7.3 Liquid/Liquid Mixing

Liquid/liquid mixing is the process where two or more liquid ingredients are mixed
together to form a mixture. This mixing is divided as miscible and immiscible
mixing. The term “blending” is used to define miscible mixing, whereas the term
“mixing” is used for the formation of emulsions or for the dispersion of immiscible
liquids. Miscible mixing involves the complete mixing of two components to form a
stable homogenous mixture (mixing of flavoring in non-carbonated beverages).
Immiscible mixing is the dispersion of two liquids that do not form a stable uniform
mixture (mixing of water and oil) and leads to the formation of different emulsions.
The type of blending equipment required for the blending of liquids depends on
the nature of the liquids. The single-phase blending process includes high-flow,
low-shear mixers to form stable mixtures, whereas the multi-phase mixing process
involves low-flow, high-shear mixers to form tiny droplets of oil particles in laminar,
transitional, or turbulent regimes (depending on Reynolds number of flow). For
laminar mixing, anchor/helical mixers are used, and for transitional or turbulent
mixing, impellers are commonly used.

7.2.7.4 Solid/Liquid Mixing

Solid/liquid mixing is the process where the solid component is mixed in liquid.
When the solid component is non-dissolvable in the mixture, it remains suspended
and forms a “slurry.” This process is known as “solid suspension.” This technique is
used by wastewater processors to extract beneficial ingredients by suspending heavy
metals into the solution, whereas, if the solid component is dissolvable, it forms a
homogenous solution. Sugar water and sweetened milk are typical examples of this
category.

7.2.7.5 Liquid/Gas Mixing

Liquid/gas mixing is the process where gas bubbles are suspended efficiently in an
immiscible liquid. For an effective process, a large surface area is created between
the liquid and gas contact point by breaking up the large bubbles into tiny bubbles by
using turbine-type impellers. These impellers have been typically used in carbonated
beverages and beer industries.
7 Mixing and Forming 281

7.2.7.6 Mixing of Gases

Gas mixing is the process where mixing of gases is done for a particular purpose.
This process is widely used in modified atmosphere packaging and in brewing
industry. In modified atmosphere packaging, fresh produce shelf life is extended
and maintains product quality. Depending on the product type, the composition of
gas varies. For meat products, high oxygen concentration is used to maintain the red
color, and for vegetables and bread, low oxygen concentration is used to reduce
mold growth. In the wine industry, a process called “sparging” is done where an inert
gas (nitrogen) is bubbled through the wine to remove dissolved oxygen and carbon
dioxide [13].

7.2.7.7 Multi-phase Mixing

Multi-phase mixing is the process where all the three phases (solid, liquid, and gas)
are combined together in a single step. Usually, this type of mixing predominates in
the fermentation process, where gas and solid microbes are required to distribute
effectively in the liquid medium, and in the hydrogenation process in which gaseous
and liquid reagents are mixed together with solid catalyst.

7.2.8 Selection of Mixing Equipment

Many variables are involved in the selection of mixer for mixing different types of
solids, liquids, and paste in order to obtain the desired mixing performance in terms
of minimum mixing time and maximum product yield with minimum overall cost.
There should be a balance between the mixer used and ingredient characteristics to
obtain the desired production quantity with energy efficiency.
Selection of mixer is based on considering several criteria such as:

(a) Ingredient characteristics: Ingredients’ physical, chemical, and mechanical

properties are the prime important consideration.
• Phases being mixed (solid/solid, solid/liquid, and liquid/liquid)
• Characteristics of end product (density and viscosity)
(b) Process setup: It includes the following factors such as:
• Usage and application of mixer.
• Quantity of different ingredients to be mixed.
• Handling equipment dimensions (diameter and height).
• Mode of operation: batch or continuous.
• Pre- and post-blending mixture.
• Operating multiple operations in mixing equipment such as drying, coating,
and liquid addition [14].
• Charging and discharging of ingredients from the mixer.
• Mixer operating conditions—As per process requirement, some mixers oper-
ate under pressure or vacuum.
282 M. Premi and V. Sharma

Table 7.1 Mixer selection based on different requirements

Sr. no. Features Tumbling mixer Vertical screw Orbital screw
1 Mixing requirement
Free-flowing powders √ √ √
Cohesive powders x √ √
Paste x x √
Materials of different sizes x x √
Materials of different shapes x x √
Materials of different densities x √ √
2 Shear requirement
High shear x x x
Low shear √ √ √
3 Cleaning requirement
Self-cleaning √ x x
Cleaning by washing √ √ x
Cleaning by brushing √ √ x
Cleaning by sterilization x x x
Self-emptying √ √ x
4 Power requirement
<5 hp/tone x √ √
5–10 hp/tone √ x x
>10 hp/tone √ x x
√ ¼ Yes and x ¼ No

• Mixing accuracy and homogeneity—Depending upon the application,

mixing homogeneity and accuracy vary. Mixing accuracy can be assessed
by “heap test” where properly mixed mixture is poured with the help of
funnel to shape a heap. If the sample composition from the center differs from
the composition of the sample from the outer side, then the mixture is likely
to segregate in the later process.
(c) Mixer design selection: The mixer design should be:
• Hygienic and suitable for cleaning
• Energy-efficient in terms of power consumption and mixing time
• Easy to discharge
• Smooth especially internal surface finish
• Able to use for multipurpose functions

Other factors that must be considered during mixer selection are equipment
safety, ease in operation, and plant layout. The selection of mixer is based on
different requirements and the different mixing processes (batch/continuous) are
given in Tables 7.1 and 7.2, respectively.
7 Mixing and Forming 283

Table 7.2 Batch v/s continuous mixing process

Mixing process
Features Batch Continuous
Mixing Mixer is charged together with all Ingredients flow steadily from an
ingredients or in a predefined upstream process into the mixer.
sequence and mixed until Mixing takes place as ingredients
homogeneity obtained move forward from the charging point
to discharge point. All steps
(weighing, loading, mixing, and
discharging) occur continuously and
simultaneously
Production Many products can be produced on Only single product of larger
flexibility the same production line quantities is mixed
Product Changes from batch to batch Remains the same
properties
Capital cost Higher Lower
for mixer Lower Higher
Ancillary
Throughput Lower productivity, less efficient Higher productivity, more efficient
Production Small Large
quantity
Output kg/batch kg/h
measurement
Mixing time High Low
Advantages Versatile, interchangeable impellers Variation reduced from batch to
allow the materials with a wide batch, low labor requirement
variety of properties to be mixed,
suitable for small-scale processing,
changing of product very easy
Disadvantages Variations batch to batch are large, Product wastage, lack of flexibility
labor-intensive, and time-consuming (continuous mixing process is
process specifically designed for a particular
application and cannot be efficiently
tailored to mix different
formulations), and higher overall
maintenance cost
Applications Dough Margarine and carbonation of drinks

7.2.9 Classification of Mixing Equipment

7.2.9.1 On the Basis of the Scale of Mixing

• Batch mixing
• Continuous mixing

7.2.9.2 On the Basis of Flow Properties

• Free-flowing solids
• Cohesive solids
284 M. Premi and V. Sharma

Fig. 7.11 Schematic

representation of a vessel-type
mixer

Fig. 7.12 Schematic representation of a pipe-type mixer

7.2.9.3 On the Basis of the Configuration Used

• Vessel-type mixers
• Pipe-type mixers

All equipment used for mixing are having either vessel- or pipe-type configuration.
Usually, vessel-type mixers are used for batch process (Fig. 7.11). These mixers are
fitted with a rotor which induces mixing by agitating components. In some mixers,
the vessel itself rotates periodically that induces mixing. In vessel-type mixer,
circulation or back mixing of all the components takes place in all the directions
of the vessel.
Pipe-type mixers are typically used for continuous process. These mixers may be
static or dynamic and contain stream splitters and turbulence promoters for turbulent
mixing and reorientation of components for laminar mixing. For whipping cream,
pipe-type mixers are used. In pipe-type mixer, axial flow predominates, but cross-
flow is also significant that moves the components in the direction of flow
(Fig. 7.12).
7 Mixing and Forming 285

7.2.9.4 On the Basis of Speed

• High-speed mixers
• Low-speed mixers

In high-speed mixers, sufficient kinetic energy is imparted during the mixing of

material. High-speed mixers consist of small impellers, which are used for mixing
low viscosity liquids by creating turbulence throughout the vessel. On the other
hand, in low-speed mixers, kinetic energy is not imparted, and it consists of large
impellers, which usually sweep the whole vessel for mixing the materials of high
viscosity in laminar flow.

7.2.9.5 On the Basis of the Axis of Rotation of Mixing Vessel

• Horizontal mixers
• Vertical mixers

Horizontal mixers consist of impellers, which are mounted on a horizontal shaft that
rotates in U-shaped jacketed trough. In horizontal mixers, mixing takes place by
kneading and stretching. Different shapes are available in impellers such as sigma,
paddle, and z along with serrated scraper installed at the edge. In some cases, there
are two horizontal shafts fitted with paddles that rotate in opposite directions and at
varying speeds. Typically, these mixers are used for processing of chocolate, meat
and fish paste, chewing gum, die dough, fondants, and biscuit dough and cream [10].
A screw mixer consists of two shafts fitted with paddles in the elongated
horizontal tank, which rotates at varied speed in the opposite direction that leads
to intense and thorough mixing. Kneaders consist of a screw, which pushes the
material against the baffles and creates high shear stress. These mixers are very
useful for high viscous paste. Several bowls may be allocated in horizontal mixers
that maximize its availability during mixing.
Vertical mixers consist of paddle agitators of large diameter such as gate and
anchor, which ensure that all materials rotate during mixing. In vertical mixers,
mixing takes place by cutting and shearing. Planetary mixers are usually of small
diameter, which rotate about its axis and also inside the bowl induce vigorous mixing
of the entire mixture. These mixers retain low power consumption. In some design,
the bowl also rotates or orbits; hence, they are known as “orbital screw mixer.” They
require low shear rate during the mixing of materials like sensitive cream and paste.
Recent advances in the commercial production of bread have been taking place,
where a slow process of dough formation is replaced by rapid mechanical means by
fermentation. Tweedy mixers are special vertical mixers that utilize high power
inputs (40 kJ/kg). Spiral kneading mixers provide intermittent processing but mix
intensively. This spiral attachment mixes intensively only in one zone, and as the
bowl rotates, materials also pass through the processing zone and rest, which reduces
overheating. Mixing vessels used for mixing stiff dough are surrounded by water
jacket to remove excess heat generated.
For biscuit manufacturing, both hard and soft dough are processed by using a
vertical mixer having multiple mixing paddles. These paddles create higher
286 M. Premi and V. Sharma

circulation rate that results in the rapid dispersion of ingredients without subjecting
to low shear rate so these mixers are important for special and fruit dough [15].

7.2.9.6 On the Basis of Powder Falls

• Passive mixers—When the mixture flows under the influence of gravity or
without vibration or mechanical agitation, mixing homogeneity is achieved due
to the arbitrary motion of particles. Since the mechanism is similar to the diffusion
process, hence, it is also known as “diffusive mixers.” These mixer types are
particularly suitable for fragile material, which includes gentle mixing as it does
not produce shear [10].

In continuous processing, particularly in-flow passive mixers are used. In this

process, particulate solids, liquids, or gases flow through the pipe, and mixing
takes place simply by using turbulence without using any mechanical mixers. This
type of mixing process is also called “passive mixing.” Devices such as venturi tubes
can be used for in-flow mixing for accelerating the fluid. In-flow passive mixers are
not adequate for mixing highly viscous liquids.
Besides the mixing, mixers also carry out other functions in the processing of
powders such as [14]:

• Particle coating
• Drying
• Agglomeration
• Size reduction and change in particle shape
• Admixture of liquids (e.g., fat in dry soup mixes)

The drum blender has a horizontal cylinder rotating around its axis (Fig. 7.13). It
has a diffusive mixing action. In this, continuous mixing operations can be
performed by simply tilting the drum. Powder, which is to be mixed, is placed
inside the drum. As the drum rotates, powder is lifted up until the angle of repose
(i.e., it is interrelated to friction between powder particles. The smaller the angle of
repose, the better the powder flow ability) exceeds (NO significant value given in
literature). At this point, the powder falls back to the rest of the bulk and then enters
again to a new circle (zone) of lifting and falling again. Diffusive mixing (i.e.,
passive mixing) occurs while falling during the residence time of the powder in the
air.
Tumbler mixers are also diffusive-type mixer, which consists of an enclosed
vessel that rotates about an axis either inclined or horizontal so that each particle
tumbles with each other. These mixers are commonly used for non-cohesive or free-
flowing mixtures. But, these mixers are not suitable for agglomerate mixtures and
mixtures, which tend to segregate during mixing. The efficiency of tumbler mixer
depends on the rotation speed of the vessel, which relies on the shape and size of the
vessel and material used for mixing. Double-cone, rotocube, V-cone, and Y-cone
blenders are the examples of tumbler-type mixers (Fig. 7.14). In double-cone
tumblers, as the vessel rotates, powders undergo repetitive cycles of expansion and
7 Mixing and Forming 287

Fig. 7.13 Cross-sectional

view of drum blender

Fig. 7.14 Cross-sectional representation of different tumbler mixers

compaction, whereas in V-shaped tumbler mixer, diffusive mixing takes place by

repetitive cycles of division and assembly.
• Active mixers—Mixing homogeneity is attained due to mechanical agitation. As
the parts of the bulk mixture are carried forward with respect to each other by
turbulence or by agitation as shearing forces are induced, hence, it is also known
as “convective mixers” (Fig. 7.15).

Convective mixers (Fig. 7.15) (i.e., active mixers) consist of impellers in a static
vessel, which rotates the particle from one zone to another within the bulk. Mostly,
convective mixers operate at low rotation speed (15–60 rev/min), but some mixer
288 M. Premi and V. Sharma

Fig. 7.15 Schematic representation of convective mixers

operates at higher speed (1000 rev/min). These mixers are suitable for free-flowing,
cohesive, and segregating mixture. Particularly for difficult mixing, Nutamix, a type
of orbital screw mixer, is used. These mixers induce greater shear. Various types of
convective mixers are available; some of them are:

• Paddle mixers—rotating elements mix the powders by moving bed and by

fluidization. These types of mixers are used for both batch and continuous
purpose. During mixing, the liquid component can be sprayed. In recent advance-
ment, the entire mixing chamber can be rotated from top to bottom to quickly
unload the product and rotate backward to load new material.
• Trough mixers—named because it has a U-shaped longitudinal rotating shaft.
Ribbon mixer is a type of trough mixers. Agitation takes place by a series of screw
or paddles.

7.2.9.7 On the Basis of State and Rheology of Food Material

• Particulate solid mixers (dry powders)
• Viscous liquid mixers (low/medium)
• Highly viscous mixers (liquids and paste)
• Dough mixers (dispersion of powders in liquids)

Particulate Solid Mixers for Dry Powders

The following mixers are particularly used for blending flour and grains, for the
preparation of ready-to-eat mixes (such as soups and cake mixes), and for coating
purpose.

• Tumbling action of rotating vessel mixers (tumbler mixers)

• Positive movement of ingredients in screw-type mixers (vertical screw mixers)

In tumbler mixers (Sect. 7.2.9.6), blending takes place around a horizontal shaft
rotated around an axis, which causes the ingredients to tumble over each other in a
7 Mixing and Forming 289

Fig. 7.16 Schematic diagram

of a ribbon mixer

fully enclosed rotating vessel. These mixers are operated at a speed of 20–100 rev/
min. Optimum mixing of ingredients depends upon speed and the shape of the
vessel. If the centrifugal force exceeds gravity, then the maximum operating speed
should be lowered than “critical speed.” Mixing efficiency is enhanced either by
using counter-rotating arms or by using baffles. These mixers are made of stainless
steel, and the rotating vessel is of different shapes such as double-cone, V-cone,
Y-cone, cubical, and drum mixers.
Merits of tumbler mixers are as follows: (1) large quantity of materials can be
easily mixed; (2) higher production flexibility; (3) even delicate particle can be
mixed gently; and (4) easy to clean. Besides these merits, there are few demerits
such as agglomerates cannot be broken during mixing, a continuous process cannot
be adapted, and cohesive materials are difficult to handle. Tumbler mixers have a
wide variety of applications; it includes mixing of functional food ingredients and
nutritional supplements; mixing of spices, protein powders, herbs, lactose powder,
and sugar beads; and mixing of starter cultures (yeast and lactic acid bacteria) for
wine, beer, cheese, and fermented products.
Ribbon mixers (active trough mixer) are an effective powder mixer (Fig. 7.16). It
consists of double helix ribbon agitators, which counter-rotate in a fully enclosed
U-shaped horizontal vessel. The pitch between the ribbons is mismatched so that one
rapidly shifts the ingredients forward through the vessel and the second one moves
the ingredients backward, which help to produce net forward movement of
ingredients.
The ribbon mixer consists of an agitator and U-shaped horizontal trough, which
are made of outer and inner helical ribbons and are pitched to move the mixture
axially in the opposite direction as well as radially. The ribbons rotate up to the tip
speed of approximately 300 ft/min. This mixer is cost-effective for mixing dry
ingredients for muffin and cake mixes, tea, coffee, spices and herbs, flour, cereals,
bread improvers, snack bar, and other beverage blends such as chocolate drink,
energy drink, whey protein shakes, and powdered juices. The merits of ribbon
mixers are as follows: it requires less space and is suitable for the mixing of
materials, which tend to agglomerate.
Vertical screw mixers (discussed in Sect. 7.2.9.5) are particularly applicable when
minute amount of ingredients are mixed into the bulk material. It consists of a
290 M. Premi and V. Sharma

rotating vertical screw enclosed in a conical vessel and that creates gentle blending
action around the central axis to mix the ingredients uniformly. As compared to the
horizontal mixers, it has several advantages, which include:

• For a wide range of batch sizes, having a range of as small as 10% of the rated
capacity, one blender can be used.
• Gentle blending action is ideal for friable (the tendency of solid material to break
into smaller size by rubbing action) or shear-sensitive materials.
• After completion of the blend cycle, almost 100% of the blended material is
expelled through the bottom valve.
• Require less floor space and are perfectly suitable for multi-story facilities.
• Use lesser power per unit being blended.

These mixers are generally used for applications such as bakery premixes, baby
powder, chocolate drink mixes, and dried soups that require minimal heat generation
and gentle mixing action both at the same time. The applications, which require high
shear mixing, can also be performed by these mixers.

Low or Medium Viscosity Liquid Mixers (Blenders/Agitators)

Various designs of mixers are used for mixing shear-thinning or pseudoplastic
liquids in baffled or unbaffled vessels. Large impellers or small clearance at vessel
wall is used to minimize the stagnant regions that may form during the mixing of
viscous liquids.
Paddle agitators—It is the simplest mixer and consists of one or more flat blades
mounted on the shaft, which usually rotate at low speed (20–150 rev/min), and the
size is 50–75% of the vessel diameter (Fig. 7.17). Paddle agitators primarily induce

Fig. 7.17 Schematic diagram

of a paddle mixer
7 Mixing and Forming 291

Fig. 7.18 Flow behaviors in

agitation vessel in paddle
impeller

Fig. 7.19 Schematic design of (a) an anchor mixer and (b) a turbine mixer

radial flow along with little longitudinal flow. Therefore, the mixing action is more
concentrated toward the horizontal plane of rotation and does not spread to the
remaining liquid bulk in the vessel. Particularly, in unbaffled vessels, blades are
pitched to assist in longitudinal flow (Fig. 7.18).
Anchor agitators are used for mixing liquids, particularly in the vessel with bowl-
shaped bottom and kettles of hemisphere shape (Fig. 7.19a). Generally, anchor
292 M. Premi and V. Sharma

Fig. 7.20 Types of agitators

Fig. 7.21 Flow pattern in

agitation vessel in turbine
agitators

mixers are used in a jacketed-cooking vessel and are fitted with a wiper, which
prevents the product scorching from heated surfaces. It has “close clearance design”
for the transfer of heat between the vessel and the mixture. Other agitators such as
paddle and gate also have close clearance design that leads to better mixing.
An impeller agitator consists of two or more blades mounted on the rotating shaft
(usually vertical). These blades can be flat, curved, or pitched (angled) to promote
longitudinal and radial flow (Fig. 7.20). Turbine agitators are a type of impeller
agitators, which consist of more than four blades fixed collectively (Fig. 7.19b). It
usually operates at high speed (30–500 rev/min), and the size is 30–50% of the
vessel diameter. Depending upon the impellers’ application, the blades can be fixed
either on a flat disc (also known as vaned disc impeller) or fixed vertically in baffled
vessels. Impellers induce high shear forces on fluids that evolve at the edges of the
blades (Fig. 7.21). Therefore, it is typically used for phase dispersion (such as
emulsion premixing and homogenization) and for applications that include mass
transfer (such as transfer of oxygen in fermenters).
7 Mixing and Forming 293

Fig. 7.22 Schematic diagram

of a propeller mixer

Table 7.3 Merits and demerits of selected liquid mixers

Mixer type Merits Demerits
Paddle Good radial and Risk of vortex formation at higher speed, poor
agitator rotational flow perpendicular flow
Turbine Very good mixing Expensive
agitator
Propeller Good flow in all Expensive than paddle agitator
impeller directions

Table 7.4 Types of Product viscosity range (Pa s) Agitator type

agitators used for different
<3 Propeller
range of viscosities
<100 Turbine
50–500 Anchor
500–1000 Helical and ribbon type

Propeller agitators are the impellers with size less than a quarter of the vessel
diameter and have short blades and shaft that is directly coupled with motor
(Fig. 7.22). Longitudinal flow predominates in these agitators. Usually, the mixer
shaft is located off-center or on an angle. It operates at high rotation speed
(400–1500 rev/min). Impeller agitators are also known as portable agitators as its
diameter is smaller than turbine agitators; therefore, they are easier to move from one
place to another. These agitators are used for blending low viscosity liquids and
commonly used for preparing brines or syrups, diluting concentrate solutions, and
blending miscible liquids (Tables 7.3 and 7.4).
294 M. Premi and V. Sharma

Fig. 7.23 Powder-liquid

contacting devices: Neptune
Chemix

Fig. 7.24 Schematic diagram

of anchor and gate mixer

Agitation plays an important role in preventing vortex formation and promoting

radial and longitudinal liquid flow in order to achieve efficient liquid mixing. Hence,
the agitator is located at different positions in all the impellers (Fig. 7.7). To increase
the shearing forces in liquids, baffles are attached to the vessel wall, which also
interrupts the rotational flow.
Powder-liquid contacting mixers are commonly used to blend powders with
liquids and are also known as short residence time mixers. By using rotors or blades,
the powder is uniformly blended into a spray of liquids. Pumps are also used to blend
powders with liquids by creating turbulence flow. Commonly used powder
contacting-type mixers are Neptune Chemix (Fig. 7.23), buss mixer, and Schugi
mixer.

Mixers for High Viscosity Liquids and Pastes

Vertical shaft slow speed mixers are used for mixing viscous liquids. Multiple
paddles (gate) or counter-rotating agitators are commonly used to promote high
shear force (Fig. 7.24). Gate and anchor agitators are the basic design, which is often
used in combination with heating mixing vessels. Scraper blades are fitted along
with the anchor to prevent the burning of liquids and pastes. Complex designs are
used to increase radial movement in the mixtures by inclined vertical blades and to
7 Mixing and Forming 295

Fig. 7.25 Schematic diagram of a double sigma blade mixer

promote shearing action through the arms on a gate where stationary arms overlap on
anchor.
Other configurations adopted to minimize stagnant regions during the mixing of
high viscous liquids and pastes are:

• Using a combination of small and large impellers

• Imparting planetary motion in addition to rotatory motion

General configuration of horizontal blade twin shaft mixers is sigma blade

(or z blade) mixer (Fig. 7.25). This mixer consists of a metal trough in which two
heavy-duty blades are mounted horizontally. These two blades overlap and rotate at
either different or similar speeds ranging from 14 to 60 rev/min to promote shearing
action between the trough and blade and between the blades. These mixers utilize a
significant quantity of power during mixing, which is dissipated in the form of heat.
Therefore, mixing time may be low to achieve high mixing efficiency. For tempera-
ture control, walls of the trough are jacketed if necessary. For mixing and shredding,
unique blade configurations are used that include serrated blades and different blade
configurations such as double claw and gridlap.
Planetary mixers are used for both domestic and industrial applications. All the
vessel parts are in mixing action, and blades rotate at 40–370 rev/min (Fig. 7.26). An
alternative design of planetary mixer is also available in which rotating blades are
located off-center and are co-current or counter-current to the revolving vessel. A
small clearance is there between the vessel wall and the blades in both types. Gate
blades are adopted for blending paste, mixing ingredients, and spread formation.
Screw conveyor mixers are continuous-type rotor-stator mixers. Rotor fits hori-
zontally inside the barrel (a stationary slotted casing). It consists of single or twin
screws which helps to transfer the viscous liquids and pastes through the barrel and is
forced through perforated grids or plates. The small clearance between the barrel and
the screw promotes shearing and kneading action. To increase the shearing action,
screws are interposed with pins. This mixer is used for manufacturing margarine or
butter and also for the extrusion process. Recent advances in mixer include
296 M. Premi and V. Sharma

Fig. 7.26 Schematic diagram

of a planetary mixer

automatic control of recipe storage with microprocessor control for a swift change of
process conditions and products and monitoring and logging of product data and
process conditions. The continuous rotor-stator-type mixers are adopted for the
preparation of dough for the manufacturing of confectionery, biscuits, cakes, breads,
and cracker products.
Currently, many designs are available in a mixer such as bowl rollers and
choppers, which are used for specific mixing applications. Colloid and roller mills
are used for mixing high viscous liquids and paste in addition to its usage as size
reduction equipment.
Recent development includes a motionless or static mixer for viscous liquids and
paste. These mixers eliminate the need of agitators, rotating parts, and tanks, which
helps to reduce the capital and maintenance cost. These mixers consist of a series of
static mixing elements, which are precisely aligned in a housing, which is set up in
the processing line. According to the type of food and degree of mixing requirement,
mixing elements rotate and integrate the food ingredients in a specific pattern. These
mixers are operated using three different mixing patterns which include radial,
transient, and flow mixing. In the radial mixing pattern, the liquid is turn aside by
the static mixing element by a series of 180 rotations, which reflect back the liquid
from the center of the vessel wall. In transient mixing, the spaces between the static
mixing elements permit relaxation after rapid radial mixing of viscous material,
whereas in flow mixing, the material is divided into two components first by the
static mixing element and secondly by rotating 180 , which push the liquid against
the center of the vessel wall and back again.
7 Mixing and Forming 297

Dough, Batter, and Paste Mixers and Kneaders

These mixers are applied to mixing operation in dough and paste-type products.
Mixers of these types induce high rotational momentum. The energy consumption
per unit mass or volume of product is considerably higher in spite of having
relatively low rotational speed. In order to prevent overheating of the mixture,
cooling jackets are used in the kneader as mechanical energy is transformed to
heat during mixing. Kneaders include horizontal dough mixers, planetary mixers,
cutter mixer, and sigma blade mixers. Particularly, in extruders, both mixing and
kneading take place simultaneously. During the kneading operation, considerable
shear force is induced that often results in vast changes at the molecular level in
product structure [16]. The kneading operation is necessary for gluten development
in the dough [17] and butter/margarine plasticization [18].

Problem 7.12 For kneading dough in a batch of 100 kg each, a dough mixer is used.
The net input mixing power is 250 W/kg of dough. For cooling purpose, the mixer is
fitted with a jacket. The main aim is to maintain a constant dough temperature while
mixing.

(a) The cooling water temperature rise must be controlled below 15 C. What is the
minimum cooling water flow rate?
(b) Due to the control system failure, the cooling water flow was delayed by 6 min.
Calculate the temperature rise of the dough. The dough: Cp ¼ 2424 J/kg K.

Solution:

(a) Let G be the water mass flow rate (Cp ¼ 4180 J/kg K) and Δ is the increase in the
temperature of the water. Then:

GC p  ΔT ¼ q

250  100
G¼
4180  15
1435 kg=h

0:4 kg=s

(b) If during mixing the heat generated is not removed, then:

 
m  Cp  ΔT dough
¼q
298 M. Premi and V. Sharma

q 250  100  6  60
ΔT dough ¼  
mC p dough 100  2424

37:12∘ C

7.2.10 Effect on Foods

Generally, the mixing process does not directly affect the shelf life or nutritional
value of the food products, but it can have an indirect impact as ingredients in food
react with each other, which affects the sensory and functional properties of food.
The extent and nature of reaction depend on the food components, but the reaction
can be accelerated by attaching the heating element along with the mixer. The main
effect of mixing is to thoroughly combine all the ingredients of the bulk uniformly,
for example, development of gluten during dough formation by folding and
stretching action, which leads to swelling and strengthening the continuous network
of gluten that leads to the desired texture for the bread manufacturing.

7.3 Forming

Equipment used for forming (molding) have many designs and are specially
designed for specific products like biscuits, pie, breads, confectionery, and snack
foods.

7.3.1 Bread Molders

The molder shapes the dough pieces into the cylinder, which on proofing expand to
desired loaf volume (Fig. 7.27). Three stages are involved in molding bread dough,
that is, sheeting, curling, and rolling-sealing. It consists of a set of rollers which have

Fig. 7.27 Drum molder for

bread dough
7 Mixing and Forming 299

Fig. 7.28 Encrusting discs

small gaps “nips” that successively and gently roll the dough into sheets without
tearing it. The sheets are generally curled and rolled into a cylinder followed by
sealing through a revolving drum that passes the bread dough against the pressure
plate. Then the trapped air is then continuously pressurized to expel out the trapped
air, which compresses the dough and increases the sheet moisture content at the
trailing end. It is recommended to have moist dough part in the center of the cylinder.
Varieties of designs such as reverse sheeting and cross-grain molders are used for
changing the direction of the sheet to roll the trailing edge [19].
Equipment used for forming and encasing dough is shown in Fig. 7.28, where
both the outer and inner materials are extruded together and then divided and shaped
by using two “encrusting discs.” These discs help to bring changes in the relative
thickness of both layers (inner and outer) just by adjusting the flow rate, which
increases the flexibility in production, whereas in the conventional method, the
product size is estimated by the feed size, and the thickness is estimated by the
flow rate of each material used. Particularly, this equipment was designed by Japan
for the cake production where bean paste is used to fill the outer layer of rice dough.
This equipment is widely used for the processing of hamburgers filled with cheese,
sweetbreads that are filled with jams, fish stuffed with vegetables, meat pie, and
doughnuts.

7.3.2 Biscuit Formers and Pie

Biscuits are formed (Fig. 7.29) by using either of the four methods:

• By using a metal molding roller, the dough is gently pushed through cavities of
different shapes.
300 M. Premi and V. Sharma

Fig. 7.29 Biscuit formers

• By using a cutting roller, the dough sheet is cut into shapes and simultaneously
imprints design on the biscuit upper surface by printing rollers.
• By using a wire cut machine, the soft dough is extruded by a series of dies.
• By using a rout press, a ribbon of dough is extruded continuously, and then the
ribbon is cut to the desired length using a reciprocating blade.

Pie casings are made by placing dough pieces in an aluminum foil container or
reusable pie mold and finally pressing with die. The filling is then filled into a casing,
and a permanent sheet of flour is placed on top. Finally, the lid is cut with a
reciprocal blade.

7.3.3 Confectionary Molders

Confectionary molders (Fig. 7.30) are attached to the continuous conveyor, which
consist of individual molds that process confectionaries of different desired sizes and
shapes. This process takes place at the bottom of the accelerator, which contains a
piston filler that fills the molds with the required amount of hot sugar. The depositor
can store the food either in a single layer or in the center (Fig. 7.30a). These
depositors are used for filling chocolate paste around the hard-boiled confectionary.
Finally, the confectionary is cooled into the cooling tunnel. When all the
confectionaries harden sufficiently, each confectionary is ejected, and molders
restart the process again (Fig. 7.30b).
Chocolate molders are classified into three types on the basis of the material used
and the ejection method:

• For butterscotch (hard confectionary), metal molds equipped with ejector pins
are used.
7 Mixing and Forming 301

Fig. 7.30 Chocolate molder. (a) Depositing center-filled confectionery. (b) Confectionery mold-
ing: An air-demolding depositor

• For caramel, toffee, fondant, fudges, and chocolate (soft confectionary), polyvi-
nyl chloride flexible molds are used to eject the confectionary by mechanical
means.
• For gums and jellies, polytetrafluoroethylene-coated aluminum molds are used to
eject the confectionary by compressed air ejection.

Each type molder is controlled automatically. Other forming equipment extrude

sugar confectionary and use a set rollers to shape in form “rope.” The individual
confectionery is then separated from the rope and formed using a die.
In modern times, depositors are controlled by a microprocessor and are used for
processing high viscous liquids for confectionary into different shapes and sizes. The
memory can store 99 different confectionery products of various shapes, sizes, and
weights, and the operator uses a two-digit product code to store them.

Problem 7.13 A soya meal with moisture content (15%, w.b) is extruded through
the extruder with channel dimension (width 6 cm, height 3 cm, length 40 cm).
Rheological properties of the extrudate are evaluated as a density of 1300 kg/m3 and
viscosity of 68,000 Pa s. The wall velocity is evaluated as 0.4 m/s. Estimate the
extrudate flow rate through die if pressure drop is maintained at 2000 kPa.
Solution:
302 M. Premi and V. Sharma

(Moisture content, 15%; channel length, 40 cm; and cross section, 6*3; density,
1300 kg/m3; viscosity, 68,000 Pa s; wall velocity, 0.4 m/s; and pressure, 2000 kPa)
The volumetric flow rate in cross section for Newtonian fluid was calculated
using equation:

ΔPWH 3 uwall HW
V¼ þ ð7:19Þ
12μL 2

ð2  10Þ6 ð0:06Þð0:03Þ3 ð0:4Þð0:03Þð0:06Þ

V¼ þ
ð12Þð68000Þð0:4Þ 2

V ¼ 1:13  104 m3 =s

The mass flow rate was calculated using extrudate density 1300 kg/m3 as follows:

ḿ ¼ ð1:13  10Þ4 ð1300Þ

ḿ ¼ 0:1469 kg=s ¼ 528:84 kg=h:

Problem 7.14 A corn meal extrudate (non-Newtonian) with a moisture content of

20% (w.b) is pumped through an extruder with channel dimensions (width 4 cm,
height 3 cm, length 40 cm). The wall velocity is evaluated at 0.2 m/s. The rheological
properties of extrudate are described as a density of 1200 kg/m3, a coefficient of
consistency of 1100 Pa sn, and a flow behavior index of 0.40. Calculate the pressure
drop when a mass flow rate of 700 kg/h is maintained.
Solution:
(Moisture content of corn meal extrudate, 20%; channel length, 40 cm; channel
cross section, 4*3 cm; wall velocity, 0.2 m/s; density, 1200 kg/m3; coefficient
consistency, 1100 Pa sn; flow behavior index, 0.40; and mass flow rate, 700 kg/h)
For non-Newtonian fluids, the volumetric flow rate is used to calculate
pressure drop:
 
4þn 1 WH 3 uwall 1n ΔP
V¼ WHuwall  ð7:20Þ
10 ð1 þ 2nÞ 4K H L

This equation is valid for flow indices from 0.2 and 1.0 and screw pitch angle
from 15 and 25 .

700
V¼ ¼ 0:583 m3 =h ¼ 1:62  104 m3 =s
1200
h i
1:62  104  ð4þ0:40Þ0:040:030:2
10  ð1 þ 2  0:40Þ  4  1100  0:4 h0:03i0:401
ΔP ¼
0:04  0:033 0:2
7 Mixing and Forming 303

ΔP ¼ 521664 Pa s ¼ 144:9 kPa:

7.4 Recent Advancement in the Science of Mixing

Computer-aided techniques such as computational fluid dynamics (CFD) are used to

optimize mixer design settings or to choose a suitable mixer for a specific food. With
CFD, it is much easier to explain liquid flow along with heat and mass transfer
phenomenon, which leads to better equipment design and process control for the
mixing operation. These computer-aided technologies provide optimal configuration
settings based on vessel shape, size and type of impeller, power input, and mixing
speed. CFD is the numerical simulation of fluid flow. CFD helps to predict the
insight flow patterns for both simple and complex geometries. Mixers are modeled
using 2D or 3D CFD techniques.
Recently, imaging and monitoring techniques are used to facilitate the mapping
of flow pattern within the processing vessel and identification of poor mixing
regions. In order to determine the optimum mixing time, nowadays, sensing
emerging techniques such as NIR chemical imaging and NIR spectrometry are
used. Monitoring is very challenging where mixing continues even after the mixing
action has ceased, especially in a process that involves crystallization and gas
inclusion.

7.5 Exercise

1. Define mixing. What are the factors affecting mixing?

2. What are the special features of mixing?
3. What is positive mixing?
4. Which types of mixers are used for batter and dough?
5. How does mixing of solids take place? Discuss its mechanism.
6. A three-bladed propeller with a diameter of 0.20 m is rotated at 1.2 Hz to mix the
fluid in the laminar region. However, due to corrosion, the propeller must be
replaced by a flat two-bladed blade with a diameter of 0.71 m. At what speed
will the paddle rotate if the same motor is used? [Solution: 2.21 rpm]
7. For kneading dough in a batch of 110 kg each, a dough mixer is used. The net
input mixing power is 270 W/kg of dough. For cooling purpose, the mixer is
fitted with a jacket. The main aim is to maintain a constant dough temperature
while mixing. The cooling water temperature rise must be controlled below
13 C. What is the minimum cooling water flow rate? [Solution: 0.54 kg/s]
8. A tank having a standard Rushton impeller is needed to disperse the gas in a
solution with properties similar to water. The tank has a diameter of 2.5 m (1.2
impeller diameter). A power input of 0.73 kW/m3 is used. Turbulence was
assumed during the process, and the presence of gas does not affect significantly
the relationship between Reynolds and power number. What will be the power
needed by the impeller? [Solution: 8.59 Kw]
304 M. Premi and V. Sharma

9. In a batch-type vessel, a large aqueous-based liquid food is blended. Consider-

ing a power number of 5 (for Re > 5000), estimate the power input through the
impeller if an impeller has a speed of 20 rpm and diameter of 60 cm. The
viscosity and density of the liquid food are 0.01 Pa s and 1000 kg m3, respec-
tively. [Solution: 13.97 W. A power number of 5 is therefore valid for Re greater
than 5000.]
10. For blending brine, a vertical cylindrical vessel is used that is assembled with a
three-bladed propeller. The propeller mixer rotates at 60 rpm and has 0.1 m
diameter. Experimental result shows that mixing the input energy of 2.1 J/kg is
necessary for suitable mixing. Estimate the mixing time for a 100 kg batch.
Viscosity ¼ 3 Pa s and syrup density ¼ 1100 kg/m3. [Solution: 21.64 min].

References
1. Lindley, J. A. (1991). Mixing processes for agricultural and food materials: 2. Highly viscous
liquids and cohesive materials. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research, 48, 229–247.
2. FAO. (1994). Grain storage techniques, evolution and trends in developing countries. In D. L.
Proctor (Ed.), FAO agricultural services bulletin no. 109. Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO).
3. Zhao, Y. (2017). Oil analysis handbook for predictive equipment maintenance (3rd ed.).
Spectro Scientific.
4. Lacey, P. M. C. (1943). The mixing of solid particles. Transactions of the Institute of Chemical
Engineering, 21, 53–59.
5. Miyanami, K. (1997). Mixing. In K. Gotoh, H. Masuda, & K. Higashitani (Eds.), Powder
technology handbook (pp. 609–625). Marcel Dekker.
6. Duran, J. (2000). Sands, powders, and grains. Springer.
7. Hong, D. C., Quinn, P. V., & Luding, S. (2001). Reverse brazil nut problem: Competition
between percolation and condensation. Physics Review Letters, 86(15), 3423–3426.
8. Rosato, A., Strandburg, K. J., Prinz, F., & Swendsen, R. H. (1987). Why the brazil nuts are
on top: Size segregation of particulate matter by shaking. Physics Review Letters, 58,
1038–1042.
9. Tang, P., & Puri, V. M. (2004). Methods for minimizing segregation: A review. Particulate
Science and Technology, 22(4), 321–337.
10. Fellows, P. J. (2000). Food processing technology: Principles and practice, parts 1–4 (2nd ed.).
Woodhead and CRC Press LLC.
11. McCabe, W. L., & Smith, J. C. (1956). Unit operations of chemical engineering. McGraw-Hill.
12. Rushton, J. N., Costich, E. W., & Everett, H. S. (1950). Chemical Engineering Progress,
46, 395.
13. Retrieved from www.gasmixing.com/Gas-mixing-applications.aspx.
14. Tekchandaney, J. (2012). Selection of mixers, Mixing Expert. Retrieved from http://mixing-
expert.com/selection-of mixers/#:~:text¼Mixer%20selection%20is%20carried%20out,are%
20the%20most%20important%20considerations.
15. Anonymous. (2018). Making a good mix. Food Processing Industry, 46(545), 21. 24, 26,
28, 30, 32.
7 Mixing and Forming 305

16. Hayta, M., & Alpaslan, M. (2001). Effect of processing on bio chemical and rheological
properties of wheat gluten proteins. Nahrung/Food, 45(5), 304–308.
17. Haegens, N. (2006). Mixing, dough making and dough makeup. In Y. H. Hui (Ed.), Baking
products: Science and technology. Blackwell.
18. Wright, A. J., Scanlon, M. G., Hartel, R. W., & Maragnoni, A. G. (2001). Rheological
properties of milk fat and butter. Journal of Food Science, 66(8), 1056–1071.
19. Matz, S. A. (1972). Bakery technology and engineering (pp. 237–257). AVI.
Cleaning and Separation
8
Farid G. Sayyad, Harish Kumar Sharma, and Navneet Kumar

Abstract

In this chapter, the importance of cleaning and separation operations is

highlighted. Various types of separators based on different principles, viz., disc
separator, indented cylinder separator, specific gravity separator, spiral separator,
inclined draper, velvet roll separator, magnetic separator, color separator, stone
separator, pneumatic separator, and cyclone cylinder separators are explained
using simple schematic diagrams. The types and characteristics of screens, viz.,
grizzly, gyrating and vibrating screens used in separators are also discussed with
sieve analysis and worked examples. The basic principle of sedimentation used
for separation of particulates from fluids is explained. The gravitational sedimen-
tation and types of sedimentors, viz., gravity settling tank and solid contact unit,
are discussed. Different types of centrifugation processes including horizontal
bowl, tubular, bowl, and basket centrifuges are discussed with schematic
diagrams. Filtration is used to separate suspended particles by application of
pressure through porous material. The rate of filtration through the cake is worked
out. How batch plate, shell-and-leaf pressure, vacuum, rotary drum and disc,
cartridge, and centrifugal filters work is elaborated. The membrane filters that
provide solution according to the filtration requirement are also explained. The

F. G. Sayyad (*)
Polytechnic in Agricultural Engineering, Anand Agricultural University, Dahod, Gujarat, India
e-mail: [email protected]
H. K. Sharma
National Institute of Technology (NIT), (An Institute of National Importance), Agartala, Tripura,
India
N. Kumar
Department of Processing and Food Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering and
Technology, Anand Agricultural University, Godhara, Gujarat, India

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 307
Ltd. 2022
H. K. Sharma, N. Kumar (eds.), Agro-Processing and Food Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7289-7_8
308 F. G. Sayyad et al.

application of centrifugation and filtration processes in food processing industries

is also presented to make the students become aware of cleaning and separation
operations in these industries.

Keywords

Cleaning (dry and wet) · Separation (types of separators, size of screens and sieve
analysis) · Sedimentation (drag force, particle velocity, sedimentors and
centrifugation) · Filtration (rate and types of filters)

8.1 Cleaning

Cleaning is a unit operation in agricultural processing, which deals with the removal
and separation of undesirable ingredients from food material and provides sound
material for further series of operation. The following is the categorization of
different undesirable materials (contaminant) and their source (Table 8.1):
Washing of fruits and vegetables, peeling, descaling fish, or removal of skin is
also considered as cleaning processes. Cleaning is the foremost food processing
operation to prevent damages of the equipment from hard contaminants, e.g., nuts,
bolts of farm machineries, and stones from the grower’s field. It also saves money
spent for processing of undesired contaminants, which are ultimately discarded in
further processing operations. Thus, cleaning can be proved as an effective tool to
boost the economy of the operation along with reduction in generation of food
processing wastes to cater the environmentally friendly solution.

8.1.1 Dry Cleaning

Dry cleanings are mostly used for low moisture foods, which are small in size and
possess higher mechanical strength such as grains and nuts. It removes surface
adulterant and reduce pest infestation and product contamination. The effective
use of dry cleaning gives safe and sound product, enhanced shelf life, and reduction
of off color and flavor. The dry cleaning is performed using separators for reduction
in product contamination and improvement of process efficiency.

Table 8.1 Different undesirable materials in agricultural produce

S. no. Organic/inorganic materials Contaminants
1 Metals Ferrous/non-ferrous metals, e.g., nut, bolt, and fitting
2 Minerals Stones, soil, grease, and engine oil
3 Plant Weeds, seeds and leaves, trashes, twigs, pods, and skin
4 Animal Insects, larvae, hairs, bones, excreta, and blood
5 Chemicals Fertilizer, pesticide, and herbicides
6 Microbial cells and product Fungus, yeasts, soft rots, color, flavor, and toxins
8 Cleaning and Separation 309

8.1.2 Wet Cleaning

Wet cleaning method utilizes water for rinsing to remove soil or pesticide residues
on the surface of fruits and vegetables. It is an appropriate method that has series of
pre- and post-detergent rinses to reduce the microbial load. This method is consid-
ered more appropriate than dry method for removing dust and soil, but careful
control is needed during the processing because the application of water may
enhance the chemical and microbiological spoilage. The equipment are designed
on the phenomenon of spraying, soaking, floating, and ultrasonic operations, and
some of the wet cleaning equipment are flotation tank, ultrasonic cleaners, brush
washer, spray washer, drum washer, etc.

8.2 Separation

In the food industry, it is used to separate and purify a specific component from the
food material. Generally, it is the separation of undesirable and foreign matters from
the desired grains/products. The mechanical separation techniques are mainly based
on the difference in the physical properties such as shape, size, and density.
Mechanical separation techniques are generally applicable to heterogeneous
mixtures, whereas the techniques such as distillation, absorption, and crystallization
are used for homogenous mixtures.

1. Size separation: Size separation is referred to as the process of passing the

material into the series of screens and then dividing it into many fractions.
2. Unsized separation: A single screen may separate materials into two fractions
only, i.e., undersize and oversize through a single separation, which is referred to
as unsized separation/function.

8.2.1 Types of Separators

After harvesting of the produce, there is a need to remove contaminants like weed
seed, stalk, stems, trashes, dry leaves, broken seed, and dirt so that good efficiency
could be achieved. Attempts are being made to develop equipment, which could be
efficient and reduce seed loss.

8.2.1.1 Disc Separator

Disc separator separates grains, based on differences in length. It works on the
principle of lifting short seed and rejecting longer seed (Fig. 8.1). Disc separator
comprises a series of indented discs or pockets on a revolving horizontal shaft. Each
disc contains numerous recesses on each face. Normally the arrangements of disc
pockets are furnished in a progressive manner, i.e., smaller pocket disc from intake
end to larger pocket disc at the discharge end.
310 F. G. Sayyad et al.

Fig. 8.1 Disc separator

In the center of the disc, there is round opening called core, where three spokes
are fastened to the rotor shaft, which carries the disc. Midway on each spoke, there
are sheet metal conveyor blades that act as screw conveyor to move bulk of seed
from inlet to discharged end of the machine. As the discs revolve, the short seeds are
hold by centrifugal force nearby hollow pocket, and longer grains are rejected.
The size of the cavity is made somewhat bigger to the smaller seeds and smaller
from the longer seeds, which remains specific to the separation requirements. Some
adjustment/variation can be made in the speed of the disc, as slower speed allows
material to fall out of the pocket during loading of grains in discs and fast speed
prevents the smaller material to unload at discharge outlet from the pocket.
It is used in agricultural and processing industries to clearly differentiate rice,
wheat, and mustard from oats. Three different types of disc pockets are used. The
name of R pocket is derived from rice, which is utilized for separation of whole and
broken rice. A round and flat lifting frame is attached to the pockets. This pocket will
reject the round grain and lift cross-broken grain on the flat surface. The V pocket
stands for the name of scientist “vetch” and it is used to remove round-shaped grains.
Some discs with pockets designated by letter are used to perform specific operations,
which are normally square faced and larger than R and V.

8.2.1.2 Indented Cylinder Separator

Indented cylinder separators are used to separate the grains on the basis of difference
in relative length. It is used specially for removal of grains like wheat, rye, mustard,
and barley. It consists of rotating horizontal cylinder with inner side indents. The
inner cylinder is thin, with scattered indents and semi-spherical form. The grains are
fed in the inlet of the cylinder, and small grains are grabbed in indents with combined
action of indentation and centrifugal force. At the top of rotation, these grains are
dropped into an adjustable conical-shaped trough and collected at the bottom for
conveying through screw conveyor to the specific outlet.
8 Cleaning and Separation 311

Fig. 8.2 Indented cylinder separator

The longer seeds are discarded by travelling shorter distances due to the effect of
gravity. In order to avoid overcrowding of seed mass, the agitations are provided by
screw conveyor (Fig. 8.2). The cylinders have identical indents throughout the
length; hence, for different separations, different cylinders are needed. Inside the
cylinder, the position of adjustable trough and speed of rotation of cylinders play a
vital role for obtaining maximum separation efficiency. Centrifugal forces are
enough to collect grains in the pocket, but it also influences distance traveled by a
specific grain before drop back. Cylinder excessive speeds make the grains stick to
the indents and stop it to fall inside of the adjustable trough, whereas too slow speed
won’t lift short grains out of seed mass.

8.2.1.3 Specific Gravity Separator

The difference in specific gravity or density of a material is prime criteria for
separation of grains. The material to flow over a mesh slant edge and flotation of
grain mixture due to jet of air generally take place due to the difference in density.
The device having different functional parts in that triangular-shaped perforated
deck is placed underneath to form a number of small jets, which causes the seed mass
lifted as per their densities. The air pressure and velocity of air flowing upward
through the deck can be easily controlled (Fig. 8.3).
The raw materials are fed through the hopper, which spread on the upper part of
the inclined perforated surface. The air is blown from the triangular perforated deck
surface and a jet of air causes lifting of the lightest material from the deck surface and
is then conveyed toward the discharged end due to oscillating motion. The heavier
particles are not lifted and collected at the upper side. It is mainly used in grain
milling industry for the separation and classification of grains into high- and
low-density fractions.
312 F. G. Sayyad et al.

Feeding Hopper
Inclined perforated Surface

‘V’ shape triangular

perforated deck

Lighter grains Heavier grains

Fig. 8.3 Specific gravity separator

8.2.1.4 Spiral Separator

This separator separates the grains/materials on the basis of shape and ability to slide
or roll. It comprises vertical standing, open, helical, straight screw, which is open on
top and mixture of grains are poured into the hopper. Round grains revolve on the
slope provided, gain the momentum, bounce due to experiencing centrifugal force,
travel longer distances, and take the path of the outer helix, while flat material only
slides and remains in the inner helix of the spiral and is delivered through a separate
outlet (Fig. 8.4).

8.2.1.5 Inclined Draper Separator

Separation across inclined draper occurs on the basis of the ability of seeds to slide or
roll. Seeds are dropped through the hopper on a moving canvas, rubber, or synthetic
surface of a draper. The mixture is spread over an angled draper belt going upward.
The smooth, circular grains roll or slip down the draper at a quicker pace than the
upward motion and discharged into the sound grain collector, while the coarse or
rough surface particles are transferred to the top of the inclined draper and gathered
in impure grain receiver (Fig. 8.5).
The separation of materials is predominantly depending on the degrees of rough-
ness of belt. The rough surface belts are used for attaining separation primarily due to
rolling action of grains, while smooth or plastic belts are preferred for attaining
separation on sliding action. For the separation of dissimilar materials, important
variables such as feed rate, speed of draper, and inclination angle should be taken
into account. For optimum separation, the feed rate should be kept low, while
inclination angle affects the speed of draper, which should be adjusted for desired
level of friction to ensure rolling or sliding.
8 Cleaning and Separation 313

Fig. 8.4 Spiral separator Feed in

inner helix

Outer helix

Outlet

Fig. 8.5 Inclined draper seed separator

8.2.1.6 Velvet Roll Separator

The velvet roll separator differentiates grains based on variation in shape and surface
texture. This separator operates after cleaning and separating grains from chaff as
well as trash. It is indeed ideally suited to separate rough seed coat, broken seed, and
314 F. G. Sayyad et al.

Velvet rolls

Rough grains

Mixed Rough and smooth grains

Smooth grains

Fig. 8.6 Velvet roll separator

sharp angle seed from smooth and sound grains. It consists of two parallel inclined
rolls covered with velvet cloth and placed side by side with each other. The rollers
rotate in completely different directions, with adjustable shields above the rollers.
The rollers spin and smooth grains bounce backward to the inclined trough and
discharge at the bottom of the separator. The rough surface grains with broken or
fractured edges are trapped in the velvet pushed against the shield and accumulated
in impurity channel (Fig. 8.6). The velvet roll separator needs balanced adjustments
to give the best performance. The mixture of different specifications needs calibra-
tion of inclination angle, clearance between shields and rolls, and feed rates.

8.2.1.7 Magnetic Separator

The stickiness and the texture of grains remain prime factors for separation of grains
through magnetic separators. In this method, the grain mixture is fed to screw
conveyor, where seeds are mixed with water through water spray and then mixed
with finely ground iron powder. The cracked, broken, and rough grains adhere with
wet iron powder, whereas sound grains remain free from powder due to smooth
surface (Fig. 8.7).
The grain mix then is discharged from the mixing screw into revolving drum,
which has high magnetic field. The sound grains fall from the drum easily due to
gravity and are gathered in clean seed outlets. Grain powder mixtures are attracted
and adhered to magnetic drum and are separated by scraper or rotary brush and then
deposited in broken seed outlet. To increase the efficiency of operation, the grain
mixture is passed over this separator having two or three magnetic drums.

8.2.1.8 Color Separator

Color separator separates numerous foods based on the color attributes. The seeds of
peas, garden beans, coffee beans, lemons, peanuts, walnuts, rice, and raisins are
separated using color-based separations. Electronic separator can remove the mud
balls and defective seed (Fig. 8.8). The grain mixtures are fed through the hopper and
convey toward optical chamber by means of conveyor.
8 Cleaning and Separation 315

Spraying of Water
Feeding hopper Iron power spray

Screw conveyor

Rotating Magnetic drum

Scraper

Sound seed

Rough texture seed

Fig. 8.7 Magnetic separator

Two photocells are set at a particular angle, which receives grains within space
and directs beams to picture the grain trajectory. When beams encounter darker
objects, it provides current to a high-voltage-operated needle fixed on another side.
The grains are then passed through two high - potential difference electrodes, and
grains are separated into two fractions. The separation capacity is comparatively low
in this method.

8.2.1.9 Stone Separator

It divides grain mass into two fractions according to the specific gravity/density
differences. The mixture of grains is placed on the middle portion of the deck, which
observes the flow of air through the bottom of a deck and stratifies proportions of
material, while the reciprocating motion of the deck separates the lighter particles
from the heavier particles. The movement of heavier material toward the upper
portion of the deck and lighter material toward the bottom end of the deck is
observed without getting any middle-sized material. The calibration or adjustments
of feed rate, deck slope, airflow rate, and deck vibration rates need to be performed
for effective operation (Fig. 8.9). Separation may be modified by deck vibration,
feed rate, deck slope, and airflow intensity.
316 F. G. Sayyad et al.

Fig. 8.8 Color separator

8.2.1.10 Pneumatic Separator

The aerodynamic properties of material are used for separating the grains and other
material in a mixture. The shape, size, surface area, density, and orientation of
material affect the aerodynamic properties of material. Terminal velocity of grain
remains important for separating the grains in pneumatic separator. Either the speed
of fan or the opening size can be set to obtain the desired air velocity for separation.
The aspirators work on negative pressure and create vacuum in the separation
chamber by providing a fan at outlet for creating suction. The rough separation is
performed in scalping separators, in which negative pressure can be used for
aspirating lighter particles.
In pneumatic separators, the velocity of air is kept marginally lower than terminal
velocity of sound or heavy grains so that only undesired lighter material is lifted and
moved to the cyclone separator, while the remaining heavy grains are dropped
through the clean grain outlet (Fig. 8.10).
Airflow and separation principles remain the same for every pneumatic separator.
The movement of lighter material is not affected by the method of blowing air
(pneumatic/aspiration), and the difference in pressure from higher to lower moves
the lighter material for separation.

8.2.1.11 Cyclone Cylinder Separator

This equipment is used to accumulate dust and lighter waste generated during grain
processing operations. It is associated with air screen cleaner to collect light
8 Cleaning and Separation 317

Hopper having
Materials with impurities

Big density Materials

Clean
materials

Fig. 8.9 Stone separator

Fig. 8.10 Pneumatic

separator
Critical duct

Feed in

Cyclone separator

Impurities outlet
Upward movement of air
Blower

Sound seeds
318 F. G. Sayyad et al.

Fig. 8.11 Cyclone cylinder

separator

impurities. In the case of pneumatic conveyor, airborne material can be settled in

cyclone separator. The tangential entry at the top of cyclone allows forming a vortex
and dropping in pressure, which allows materials associated with air to collect at the
bottom outlet of the chamber. The air makes an exit from the top of cyclone being
lighter in weight than the material (Fig. 8.11).

8.2.2 Size of Screens

Size remains major criteria for separation of grains using screen. The screen with
elongated holes/perforations is used for separation based on thickness of material,
while screens with round holes are used for width-based separation. The screens are
generally kept flat and separate using oscillation. Occasionally revolving cylindrical
screens are also used. Brushes, beaters, and other devices are used to remove the
choking of screen. The lengthwise separation on screen can be performed by length
separators. A fan is used to separate the grains based on aerodynamic properties and
gravity. The screen cleaners have only one or two working screens; however, a
complex cleaner has several integral parts as screens, sorters, fans, etc.

8.2.2.1 Grizzly Screen

The grizzlies are made with several metallic bars, which are arranged in parallel and
fixed on a frame at an inclination of 30 to 50
from the horizontal (Fig. 8.12).
Sometimes these bars are fitted horizontally. These handle large particle sizes of
about more than 25 mm in size and spacing is set to 50 to 200 mm between the bars.
These are used for a coarse or an initial rough separation to identify and separate
bigger particles/lumps conveyed along with grains or similar material.
8 Cleaning and Separation 319

Metallic bars

Frame

Small material

Bigger material

Fig. 8.12 Grizzley screen

8.2.2.2 Gyrating Screen

Gyrating screen consists of two screens, one above the other, and are held in a casing
inclined at an angel between 16
and 30
with the horizontal. The rate of gyration is
between 600 and 1800 rpm. The screens are rectangular and fairly long, typically 0.5
to 1.2 m and 1.5 to 4.3 m in size.

8.2.2.3 Vibrating Screen

Vibrating screen that is rapidly vibrated with small amplitude is less likely to blind
than gyrating screen. The vibration may be generated mechanically or electrically.
The vibration rate varies between 30 and 1000 strokes per min, and these are kept
sightly inclined for achieving separation. These are used to separate the particles
usually in the range of 0.25 to 25 mm.

8.2.3 Sieve Analysis

The sieve analysis is performed to decide the type of screen for maximizing the
separation effectiveness [1]. Sometimes, seeds of various sizes are also separated
using screens. The basic objective of any screen is the separation of feed, consisting
of particles of varying sizes, into different fractions of specific sizes. These fractions
are known as undersize and oversize material for a particular sieve. The material that
passes through a screen is termed as undersize material, while material retained over
the screen is known as oversize material.

8.2.3.1 Sieve Diameter

The maximum size of particles that can be passed through a square sieve is known as
sieve diameter and can be represented as ds, which may be different for the same
distance “x.” The different sieve diameter, ds, for the same gap between two wires (x)
320 F. G. Sayyad et al.

x x x

ds
ds ds

Fig. 8.13 Effect of shape on sieve diameters

is represented in Fig. 8.13, which depends on the shape of the material used for
cleaning or separation.

8.2.3.2 Range of Analysis

The smallest sieve size is kept 20 μm according to ISO standards (3310–1:2016)
with a maximum size of 125 mm, whereas 40 μm to 125 mm sizes are used in
practices for screening dry materials.

8.2.3.3 Sample Preparation and Sieve Analysis

The material is dried in hot air oven for sieve analysis to avoid stickiness due to
moisture. A number of sieves, which are either woven or perforated with known
specific aperture sizes, are kept in a stack with bigger aperture sieve at the top to the
decreasing aperture size to the bottom. The size of aperture is about √2 or 2√2 times
from adjacent sieve in a set of 6–8 sieves in a stack. The samples with mass W are
poured on the top sieve and the set is shaken for a specific time so that sieving of
material takes place. The material is collected by disassembling the sieves and
weighed (Table 8.2). The representative plot of percentage retained and the cumula-
tive percentage with logarithm of opening side (d) is represented in Fig. 8.14.
The graphs represent the variation of particles in various samples. It also gives an
idea about the size with maximum occurrence and is helpful in deciding the sieve
size for separation of specific fractions.

8.2.3.4 Specification of Sieves

The wire mesh sieves are made of wire of uniform and circular cross-sectional area,
and these can be represented by (1) the number of sieve, i.e., the number of meshes in
unit inch or 25.4 mm in each direction and (2) the clear distance between the wires,
which represents diameters of the biggest spherical particles to pass through
(Fig. 8.15). The diameter of wire is suitably selected according to the strength
required to avoid damage or distortion and is termed as wire nominal diameter.

8.2.3.5 Approximate Screen Area

The screen area is presented as open area in percentage to the total area available on
the sieve. It is affected by the diameter of wire and space between the wires and is
 8
Cleaning and Separation

Table 8.2 Observations collected for sieve analysis

Sieve number Size of opening Arithmetic mean size of Logarithmic size of Mass retained on % Retained on Cumulative
(passed/retained) (passed/retained) openings d (μm) opening log (d ) smaller sieve (g) smaller sieve % oversize
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
M1/M2 d1/d2 1/2(d1 + d2) log (col. 3) W1 P1 ¼ 100  W1/ P1
W
M2/M3 d2/d3 1/2(d2 + d3) W2 P2 ¼ 100  W2/ P1 + P2
W
M3/M4 d3/d4 1/2(d3 + d4) W3 P3 ¼ 100  W3/ P1 + P2 + P3
W
– – – – – –
Total ¼ W Total ¼ 100
321
322 F. G. Sayyad et al.

ght %
Weight ative
Cumulative
retained
ned Weight %
d
retained

log d log d

Fig. 8.14 Plots of particle sizes

1 inch

Distance
1 inch

Fig. 8.15 Woven wire mesh

generally kept about 35–40% to provide sufficient and useful perforation. A higher
area is desired; however, strength of the mesh remains a limitation in increasing the
screen area.

Total area of the sieve  Area occupied by the wire

Approximate screen area ¼
Total area of the sieve
 100%

8.2.3.6 Aperture Tolerance Average (ATA)

The opening/aperture of screen remains identical in size; however, small tolerance
limit is allowed in all the openings. The expression of this variation in percent is
known as aperture tolerance average.

8.2.3.7 Capacity of Screen

The capacity of screens is represented in tonnes of material processed in an hour,
which depends on the size of machine, screen area, type and variety of crop, amount
of foreign material, etc. It may vary from 2 to 10 tonnes per hour in industrial scale
8 Cleaning and Separation 323

units. In industrial practices, generally, the rates are listed for a four-screen machine
(size: width 42 in. and length 44 in.).

8.2.3.8 Effectiveness of Screen

Screen efficiency can be described as ability to closely divide feed into plus grain
(overflow) and minus grain (underflow) depending on their sizes.
The screen is said to be effective, if all the oversize material in feed (F) passes
through overflow outlet (O), while all the undersize material is collected through
underflow (U ) as shown in Fig. 8.16. Applying material balance for the separation,
the following are considered:

F ¼ Mass flow rate of feed, kg=h

O ¼ Mass flow rate of oversize, kg=h

U ¼ Mass flow rate of undersize, kg=h

mf ¼ Mass fraction of materials in a feed

mo ¼ Mass fraction of materials in overflow

mu ¼ Mass fraction of materials in underflow

According to total material balance,

F ¼OþU

Or

O¼FU

Or

F, mf

O,
mo

U, mu

Fig. 8.16 Material balance for screening process

324 F. G. Sayyad et al.

U ¼FO

Applying fractional material balance for desired material,

Fmf ¼ Omo þ Umu

which can be solved to obtain

O mf  mu
¼ ð8:1Þ
F mo  mu
U mO  mF
¼ ð8:2Þ
F mo  mu
The efficiency of receiving oversize material in overflow to the amount of
oversize material in feed can be represented as follows:

Omo
EO ¼
Fmf
Efficiency based on undersize materials is given by the following
mathematical form:

U ð1  mu Þ
Eu ¼
F ð1  m f Þ

Overall effectiveness E is product of Eo and Eu:

E ¼ Eo  Eu

OUmo ð1  mu Þ
E¼ ð8:3Þ
F 2 mf ð1  mf Þ

Rearranging the Eq. (8.3) by substituting the Eqs. (8.1) and (8.2), we get

ðmf  mu Þðmo  mf Þmo ð1  mu Þ

E¼
ðmo  mu Þ2 ð1  mf Þmf

Problem 8.1 Durum wheat was milled in an attrition mill. The ground product was
analyzed with a set of IS screens. Calculate the screen effectiveness of (1) IS 50 mesh
and (2) IS 30 mesh. The data are presented in the following table:
8 Cleaning and Separation 325

% Materials retained over each screen

Sr. no. IS screen Width of opening, mm Feed Overflow Underflow
1 100 1.00 4.00 0.00 0.00
2 70 0.708 16.00 11.24 0.00
3 50 0.500 23.00 47.87 2.88
4 40 0.420 29.00 23.68 10.65
5 30 0.296 15.00 11.89 44.23
6 20 0.211 8.00 4.32 24.78
7 15 0.1157 5.00 1.00 9.82
8 Pan 0 7.64

Solution: Solving for the cumulative mass fraction smaller than screen opening
retained over each screen.
Cumulative mass fraction of material retained over each screen:

% Materials retained over each screen

Feed Overflow Underflow
Sr. no. IS screen Width of opening, mm mf mo mu
1 100 1.00 0.04 0.00 0.00
2 70 0.708 0.20 0.1124 0.00
3 50 0.500 0.43 0.5911 0.0288
4 40 0.420 0.72 0.8279 0.1353
5 30 0.296 0.87 0.9468 0.5776
6 20 0.211 0.95 0.99 0.8254
7 15 0.1157 1.00 1.00 0.9236
8 Pan 0 1.00

Calculations:

1. For IS mesh 50, the cumulative mass fraction of feed, overflow, and underflow
are 0.43, 0.5911, and 0.0288, respectively:

mf ¼ 0:43, mo ¼ 0:5911 and mu ¼ 0:0288

ðmf  mu Þðmo  mf Þmo ð1  mu Þ

E¼
ðmo  mu Þ2 ð1  mf Þmf

ð0:43  0:0288Þð0:5911  0:43Þ0:5911ð1  0:0288Þ

E50 ¼
ð0:5911  0:0288Þ2 ð1  0:43Þ0:43

E50 ¼ 0:4787
326 F. G. Sayyad et al.

2. For IS 30 mesh,

mf ¼ 0:87, mo ¼ 0:9468 and mu ¼ 0:5776

ð0:87  0:5776Þð0:9468  0:87Þ0:9468ð1  0:5776Þ

E30 ¼
ð0:9468  0:5776Þ2 ð1  0:87Þ0:87

E30 ¼ 0:5825

8.3 Sedimentation

Sedimentation is the process of separation of particulates from fluid streams under

the influence of gravity. The gravitational force remains the main reason for
separating the particles from the liquids, which may be in the form of solid, liquid
droplets, dirt, and debris from inflow of materials. The material has settling velocity
due to its size, shape, and mass. The properties of material usually do not change due
to formation of aggregates during sedimentation, and the particles settle at the
bottom of container under the influence of gravity. The particles accelerate from
the start till frictional drag becomes equal to the force exerted by the gravity and
move further with a constant velocity, which is termed as terminal velocity [2].

8.3.1 Drag Force

The drag is defined as the force that acts opposite to the motion of a particle, on a
body, moving with respect to fluid due to fluid movement. The drag force (Fd)
depends on projected area (Ap), mass density moving through fluid (ρf), viscosity (η),
modulus of elasticity (E), and velocity (V ) and can be represented as


F d ¼ f Ap , ρf , η, E, V ð8:4Þ

The dimensional analysis provides relation of drag force with various factors:

ðρf ν2 Þ
F d ¼ CA ð8:5Þ
2

8.3.2 Particle Velocity in a Fluid

Particle, having more density than liquid, is dropped/immersed, and it experiences

gravitational force resulting in a downward movement and drag force resisting the
movement of particle as represented in Fig. 8.17. The force Fg represents
8 Cleaning and Separation 327

Fig. 8.17 Force on spherical Fd

particle for movement

F = Fg-Fd

Fg

gravitational force, Fd represents drag force, and the effective force is the difference
in both the forces, which moves the particle downward.
Gravitational force, Fg ¼ m  g, remains constant during the movement of
particle, while the drag force increases with increase in particle velocity (Eq. 8.5).
This results in attaining equilibrium at a stage where both the forces become equal
(Fg ¼ Fd) and no effective force on the particle is observed at this stage. Therefore,
no further increase in velocity is observed and particle attains a constant velocity.
The fluid particles accelerate with time due to gravity at constant force and attain
a constant maximum velocity named as terminal velocity, which is affected by
shape, size, density, drag coefficient, and other physical properties of particles and
liquids. The resultant force causing the particles to move can be expressed by
deducting the amount the friction offered by the surrounding fluid:

F e ¼ V  g  ðρP  ρf Þ ð8:6Þ

where Fe, V, g, γ p, and γ f are net external driving force on the particle, volume of the
particle, acceleration due to external force (gravity), particle density, and fluid
density, respectively. The particle drag force (Fd) is estimated using the following
expression and measures relative velocity of the particle in flowing fluid and
projected area of the particle:

C  ρf  v 2  A
Fd ¼ ð8:7Þ
2
where C, ρf, ν, and A are drag coefficient, density of the fluid, relative velocity of the
particle, and projected area of the particle normal to the direction of motion,
respectively.
At equilibrium condition, the gravitational force working in downward direction,
which is responsible for downward motion of the particle, becomes equal to the drag
force (Fg ¼ Fd), which resists the movement and works in upward direction. The
acceleration of particle becomes zero, which results in constant velocity (terminal
velocity):
328 F. G. Sayyad et al.

C  ρf  v2t  A
V  g  ρp  ρf ¼
2
Considering, particle as a spherical shape with diameter D of the particles,

π  ðDÞ3
Volume of spherical particle, V ¼
6

π  ðD Þ2
Projected area, A ¼
4
π D3
C ρf v2t πD2
 g  ρp  ρf ¼
6 8
Theoretically, the drag coefficient for spherical particles in streamline motion can
be represented as

24 24μ
C¼ ¼ ,
Re Dvt ρf

where Re ¼ ρf vμt D

πD3
24μ ρf v2t πD2

 g  ρp  ρf ¼
6 Dvt ρf 8

πD3

 g  ρp  ρf ¼ 3μvt πD
6
D2

 g  ρp  ρf ¼ 3μvt
6
D2

 ρp  ρf  g ¼ v t
18μ


D2 ρp  ρf g
vt ¼
18μ
where diameter of particles, density of particles, density of fluid, viscosity of fluid,
and gravitational acceleration are represented by D (m), ρp (kg/m3), ρf (kg/m3), μ
(Ns/m2), and g (m/s2), respectively. The particle will move downward in case
particle density remains higher than fluid density, and particles, having less density
than fluid, will move in upward direction.

Problem 8.2 The particle stayed starts falling in water from rest. The particle has
diameter 50 μm, density of sphere ρs ¼ 2000 kg/m3, and density of water 1000
kg/m3. The viscosity of water can be taken as 1 mN s/m2. Calculate terminal velocity
of the spherical particle.
8 Cleaning and Separation 329

Solution:
Applying Stokes’ law,


d2 g
Vt ¼ ðρ  ρÞ
18μ s

2 
50  106  9:81
Vt ¼ ð2000  1000Þ
18  1  103
V t ¼ 1:3625  106 m=s

8.3.3 Sedimentation in Fluids

8.3.3.1 Gravitational Sedimentation in Liquids

The sedimentation in liquid takes place due to gravity. At low concentration, it is
based on the principle of Stokes’ law. A sedimentation tank enables suspended
particles to settle at the bottom and be taken out, while water moves through the tank
gradually and attains some degree of purification. In a continuous settling tank, there
are various compartments to separate accumulated solids. The accumulated solids
are known as sludge, which is collected at the bottom, while the clarified liquid is
received in decanting channels at the top as overflow of tanks (Fig. 8.18).

8.3.3.2 Sedimentation of Particles in Gas

In the food processing industry, an important example of sedimentation of particles
includes spray drying. In spray drying, slurry, when forced through the nozzle, is
atomized into small droplets. The current of hot gasses gets mixed with droplets of

Influent collection unit

Decanting channel

Sludge scraper arm

Sludge settling unit

Sludge collecting unit
Inlet

Fig. 8.18 Continuous sedimentation plant

330 F. G. Sayyad et al.

slurry and as a result gets dried. Finally, the dried material settles and gets separated
from the air. The area for settling the particles can be calculated in the same manner
like sedimentation. The slow rate of sedimentation, which is not desirable, will
indicate long contact time between the heated air and particles and large
chamber area.

8.3.4 Sedimentors

8.3.4.1 Gravity Settling Tank

Settling is the mechanism by which objects settle down in a liquid and sediment at
the bottom. Particles that encounter either gravitational or centrifugal force may have
a tendency to move consistently in the direction of force. Length of collection tank is
long enough so that all the particles should settle down (Fig. 8.19). Settling velocity
of particle depends upon the speed of flow. If the speed of flow is kept too fast, then
capacity of tank may not remain enough to settle all the particles.
There are two types of classifiers (a) simple gravity settling tank and
(b) Spitzkasten gravity settling chamber. These simple classifiers have large tanks,
which are subdivided in several subsections so that settling velocity becomes slower
and high-density particles are trapped in the initial section and light particles are
collected in last section (Fig. 8.20). In Spitzkasten gravity settling chamber, a series
of conical vessels with increasing diameter are placed in the direction of flow. It
works on the same principle as that of simple classifier. The coarse material is
trapped in the first vessel followed by intermediate and then fine particles.

Fig. 8.19 Simple gravity settling tank

8 Cleaning and Separation 331

Fig. 8.20 Simple classifier

Reaction flocculation
zone

Sludge collecting unit Mixing zone

Fig. 8.21 Solid contact unit

8.3.4.2 Solid Contact Unit

In solid contact unit, coagulation and flocculation process is combined to perform
separation of colloidal materials by sedimentation. The coagulation/flocculation of
smaller particles occurs to form larger mass. It is also called as sludge blanket
clarifiers. In flocculation, the mixing is carried out for a fixed period of time to
promote agglomeration, which finally assists in settling. The feed enters from the
center, wherein coagulation and flocculation take place in conical reaction floccula-
tion zone. Inverted-cone-shaped reaction flocculation zone restricts the rise of water
due to less space availability on the top, and as a result, water leaves from the bottom
side of flocculation zone and enters the sludge blanket or slurry in the outer chamber
(Fig. 8.21). The sludge blanket structure is formed due to previously coagulated
solids and solids during sedimentation. The water is required to pass through the
sludge and clarified water is being collected at the top of the solid contact units.
332 F. G. Sayyad et al.

8.3.4.3 Settling Under Combined Forces

Mechanical separation in some cases may involve more than one force in combina-
tion. In the case of fine particles, the velocity should be kept very low for sedimen-
tation of particles at the bottom of sedimentation unit. The centrifugal force can be
combined, which results in deposition of particles at the inner periphery of the tank,
which can be separated by scraping. Rotary mechanical classifier and rotary dryers
also use the combined force for settling of fine particles.

8.3.5 Centrifugation

Centrifugation is a technique for separating immiscible liquids or solids from a

solution by applying centrifugal force on the particles, which makes heavier/denser
material (Liquid A) move in the outer space nearing boundary wall, while rotating
and lighter/thinner material (Liquid B) remains near to the inner space in the
centrifuge (Fig. 8.22). The rotational movement provides centrifugal force to the
particles, which assists in accelerated separation.

8.3.5.1 Cyclones
The cyclone is used for the removal of particles of nearly 10 mm or more in size.
Cyclone separator is often used to separate airborne material from conveyor dis-
charge. They can also be used for separation of particles from liquids or separation of
liquid droplets from air/gases. The air incorporating particles enters tangentially in
the cyclone separator at the top, which leads to a pressure drop due to formation of a
vortex around the center line of chamber. The heavier particles slide along the
cyclone wall and move toward the central bottom exit, whereas the air remains in
the center and moves toward top and gets released.

8.3.5.2 Liquid Separation

Separation of one component of a liquid mixture/liquid is a common operation for
separation of liquids, which are immiscible as in the case of emulsion. In the dairy
industry, the milk is separated into cream and skim milk. The skim milk and cream
are separated at some specific surface within the bowl, which can be collected
through respective discharge outlets.

Fig. 8.22 Separation of immiscible liquids in a cylindrical boundary

8 Cleaning and Separation 333

Fig. 8.23 Liquid separation in a centrifuge

Fig. 8.24 Horizontal bowl centrifuge

Centrifugal equipment rotates the mixtures around a fixed axis, which applies
centrifugal force in the outward direction (Fig. 8.23). Several pipes/plates are
arranged in a way to separate denser and lighter components present in the liquid.

Horizontal Bowl Centrifuge

These are also known as decanter centrifuges and are used to treat suspension from
40 to a very high solid content of up to 60%. A rotating bowl, horizontal inlet, and
helical scroll are fitted in a centrifuge, which separates solid from the liquid phase
(Fig. 8.24). It uses the force produced under the rapid rotation of a helical screw
conveyor, extracting the liquid from the solid fraction.
334 F. G. Sayyad et al.

The solid particles are forced outward against the wall, whereas liquid can be
extracted from the center of the bowl. These can provide acceleration up to 4000 g
force. The bowls are conical, and diameters range from 10 to 100 cm. The liquid is
fed by a concentric narrow pipe to an appropriate place in the bowl. The solid
particles stick on the bowl surface, whereas clear liquid is collected in the bowl.
The solid from the bowl is collected through a helical screw conveyor toward
conical section and discharges from the end of conical section. The clear liquid
outflow can be obtained from the flow through the outer cavity from the opposite
side of feed inflow. Two immiscible liquids can also be separated using specially
designed outlets for discharging high volume of thick and thin liquids. The decanters
can be used continuously for extraction of solid and liquids.

Tubular Centrifuges
It is considered one of the simplest centrifuges. It consists of a rotor with an inlet for
feed and outlets of lighter and heavier phase. The bowl rotates around a vertical axis
in stationary casing. The tubular bowl is of 15 to 50 cm, which rotates 15,000 to
50,000 rpm and exerts a force of 10,000 g. The separation of lighter and heavier
liquids is performed continuously. The capacities of these centrifuges are limited due
to their geometry.

Disc Bowl Centrifuge

The disc bowl centrifuges separate the mixture as lighter liquid and heavier liquid
(Fig. 8.25a). Solids remain far more troublesome, while removal of liquid phase
remains easier from a centrifuge. The stationary ploughs/scrapers are not used in
these centrifuges due to restricting flow pattern. The disc bowl style centrifuge
creates dense slurry and produces acceleration up to about 12,000 g forces. The
bowl comprises about 50 to 150 conical discs, 2 mm apart. The liquid suspension
passes through the gaps between discs to the system axis; solids settle on the
underside of every disk, move all along the disk in the outer direction, leave edge
of the disc, and are thrown by the centrifugal force to the bowl surface. The clear
liquid moves to the bowl center and discharges above or below the weir. These are
mostly used to separate oil, water, solids, and especially fuel and lubrication oil on
board ships. These possess good separation efficiency; however, generation of shear
forces, air mixing, and increase in temperature remains limitation of these
centrifuges.

Nozzle Discharge Centrifuge

Nozzle centrifuges are continuously working machines that separate liquids from
solids through nozzles. The clear liquids are discharged by in-built centripetal pump.
The nozzles are placed on the circumference of centrifuge for handling solids
(Fig. 8.25b), and separated solids are continually expelled via nozzles at the bowl
periphery. The nozzles are kept open intermittently or under automatic operation for
release of separated solids. It consists of a system with 2–24 nozzles around the tank.
The nozzle size varies from 0.75 to 2.00 mm, which depends on the particle size of
solids in feed. Through these nozzles, dense solids with 5 to 50% concentration are
8 Cleaning and Separation 335

Fig. 8.25 Liquid centrifuge: (a) conical bowl and (b) nozzle

discharged continuously. These are used in biotechnology, pharmaceutical, and food

industries to handle fermented products.

Self-Opening Centrifuge
The centrifuge contains self-cleaning bowl with conical disc stack to increase
effective clarification area (Fig. 8.26). The centrifuge may be used for separation
or clarification processes, when the solid content is about 30–40% in the feed
material. It discharges separated solids while moving at maximum speed. A number
of ports are provided at the periphery of bowl, which are opened and closed using
movable sliding piston and hydraulically actuated mechanism to eject the particles
from the centrifuge. Usually, water is used to control the exits through the ports;
however, low-viscosity organic liquid can also be used. The opening mechanism can
facilitate total ejections or partial ejections as per the requirement. The complete
discharge from the centrifuge can be obtained by closing the feed valve.
336 F. G. Sayyad et al.

Fig. 8.26 Self-opening Centrifuge

Basket Centrifuges
These centrifuges usually operate in batches and have cylindrical chamber, which
rotates rapidly around horizontal, vertical, or any other inclined axis. The centrifuges
with solid wall are used for liquid–solid and liquid–liquid separation. The liquid–
liquid separation is performed by placing discharge tubes at an appropriate distance
from the center. The perforated wall centrifuges use wall as filtration medium and
liquid materials are forced to leave the rotating cylinder through perforations. These
types of centrifuges are used in sugar industries for separation of mother liquors and
sugar crystals.

8.4 Filtration

The filtration is carried out to separate solid particles from a liquid or gas by
application of force on the mixture to pass through a porous material, which can
retain the particles. There are two types of filtration, i.e., (1) surface filtration and
(2) depth filtration. The particles are retained on the surface, when fluid is passed
through a filter/porous medium under pressure due to the restriction provided by the
small opening on the surface. It includes filter paper, muslin cloth, sintered glass,
membranes, etc. Whereas in depth filtration, the fluid is passed through a thick layer
of fibrous/ particulate material, e.g., glass/rock wool, sand, etc. The solids are
retained due to collision with filter/particles of filter medium or by adsorption.
This filtration is mainly there in sand bed filters, air filters, oil filters, etc.
The filtration has several applications in food processing industries. The raw juice
is treated with pectolytic enzymes that make colloidal particles in suspension to
8 Cleaning and Separation 337

flocculate. These are then filtered in one or different steps. In the case of wine
clarification, the suspended colloidal particles in the form of cloud can be flocculated
by addition of protein, which combines with tannins from insoluble complex.
The complex precipitates to the bottom and is separated by filtration. The
unrefined oil is mixed with bleaching earth for absorption of unwanted pigments,
which is separated using filtration. The sugar crystals are recovered from
concentrated juice using filtration followed by several filtrations in the refining of
sugar. The brines and syrups are used in canned fruits and vegetables, which needs
several filtrations using strainers to remove extraneous material. Nowadays, filtration
has become essential for treating the drinking water or water as ingredients. The
hygienic and safe environment for food processing industries also requires air filters
to create aseptic environments especially in packaging section.
The mixture of liquids and suspended solid particles is passed through a filter,
wherein solid particles are deposited on the filter, which reduces the effectiveness of
filtration. The resistance of flow increases, and for maintaining constant flow, higher
pressure is needed to be applied. The rate of filtration can also be defined as

Driving force
Rate of filtration ¼
Resistance to flow
The gravitational force is also used for filtration and termed as gravity filtration;
however, its application in food processing operation is limited due to slower
filtration rates. The driving forces are sometimes enhanced by applying pressure
on one side and maintaining vacuum on another side to increase the pressure
difference. Sometimes food-grade diatomaceous earth can be mixed as filter aids
to improve the filter cake formation.

8.4.1 Rate of Filtration

The rate of filtration can be defined as actual filtrate volume received per unit time
through the filter. The flow through the filter occurs due to pressure difference
between both the faces (Fig. 8.27). The volumetric flow rate Q (m3/s) for the fluid
passing the volume V (m3) in time t (s) can be given as

dV
Q¼
dt

According to Darcy’s law, if the flow of liquid passes across the filter area A (m2),
which is normal to flow direction, and through a length of filter L (m), while the
pressure drops across the bed length ΔP (Pa), hydraulic conductivity K, length of
material to pass through L (m), and resistance offered by porous bed R (per m), and
viscosity of fluid μ (Pa s), the volumetric flow rate can also be written as
338 F. G. Sayyad et al.

Fig. 8.27 Flow through the Filter Cake

filter and cake

L
Lf

K  A  ΔP
Q¼
μL
Considering resistance offered through medium R ¼ L/K

dV AΔP
Q¼ ¼
dt μR

The resistance through the medium depends on the hydraulic conductivity K and
length of cake L and can be represented as

Rc ¼ L=K ¼ r  L

Considering r is resistance offered by the filter (r ¼ 1/K ). Similarly, the resistance

offered by the filter may be assumed as additional layer of cake with a length Lf and
can be represented as

Rf ¼ Lf =K ¼ r  Lf

The total resistance in the flow also considers the resistance offered by medium
and cake:

R ¼ Rc þ Rf

R ¼ r  L þ r  Lf ¼ r ðL þ Lf Þ

Substituting the value of R, the flow rate becomes

8 Cleaning and Separation 339

dV AΔP
Q¼ ¼
dt μr ðL þ Lf Þ

The volume of filtrate collected on the filter also adds to the effective length of the
filter; considering volume of cake generated per unit volume of filtrate (ν), the
effective length of the filter per unit volume can be represented as

Volume of cake ¼ Cross sectional area of cake ðAÞ

 Length of cake along the flow ðLÞ

and

Volume of cake ¼ Volume of filterate ðV Þ

 Volume of cake deposited per unit volume of filtrate ðνÞ

Therefore,

Volume of filterate ðV Þ  Volume of cake deposited per unit volume of filtrate ðνÞ
¼ Cross sectional area of cake ðAÞ  Length of cake along the flow ðLÞ

V ν¼AL
νV
L¼
A
Similarly, the length of the filter, while assuming fictitious cake length for
resistance offered by the filter, can be represented as

v  Vf
Lf ¼
A
where Vf ¼ fictitious volume of cake offering resistance.
Substituting the value of L and Lf, the flow rate becomes

dV A2 ΔP
Q¼ ¼
dt rμvðV þ V f Þ

As per the boundary conditions, the fundamental differential equation of cake

filtration has the following solutions [3, 4]:

1. Constant rate filtration: Q ¼ dV/dt is kept constant. Pressure drop is to be

increased to overcome the resistance offered by additional cake deposition/
buildup.
2. Constant pressure drop filtration: The pressure drop ΔP is kept constant. The rate
of filtration Q ¼ dV/dt decreases due to increase in cake resistance.
340 F. G. Sayyad et al.

Fig. 8.28 Plots of constant rate and pressure filtration processes

Case 1 The rate of filtration may be assumed as constant. The increase in pressure is
needed to nullify the effect of resistance offered by continuous cake buildup. The
constant rate filtration has generally met the condition by using a positive displace-
ment pump for feeding at nearly constant rate. The batch system is stopped after
reaching at a specified pressure limit and the change in pressure can be represented as

rμvQ rμvQ
ΔP ¼ 2
V þ 2 Vf
A A
Calculation of “r” and Vf
The values of “r” and Vf can be obtained by plotting the experimental values of
change in pressure with volume and the value of slope (s) can be represented as rμvQ
A2
and value of intercept on Y axis (q) can be obtained as rμvQ
A2
V f (Fig. 8.28).

Case 2 The pressure across the filter is constant, which infers decrease in rate of
filtration due to increase of resistance by cake buildup; the Q ¼ ΔV/Δt and the time
“Δt” can be represented as
   
rμv r μ v Vf
Δt ¼ V 2 ΔV þ ΔV
A ΔP A2 ΔP
For finding out the values, the equation can be modified as
   
Δt rμv rμv
¼V 2 þ Vf
ΔV A ΔP A2 ΔP
Ruth’s coefficient (C) for constant pressure filtration is independent of volume of
filtrate at concentration higher than 0.20 g solid/g of slurry [5] and can be represented
as
8 Cleaning and Separation 341

2A2 Δ P
C¼
rμv
Δt 2V 2
¼ þ V
ΔV C C f
Calculation of “r” and Vf
The values of “r” and Vf can be obtained by plotting the experimental observation
of Δt/ΔV with volume (V ), and the value of slope (s) can be represented as C2 and
value of intercept on Y axis (q) can be obtained as C2 V f (Fig. 8.28).

8.4.2 Types of Filters

The following filters are primarily used in food processing industries:

8.4.2.1 Pressure Filters

The pressure is applied to the liquid to pass through the filters. The common filters,
which generally have wider applications, are (a) batch-plate-and-frame filter press
and (b). shell-and-leaf pressure filter.

Batch-Plate-and-Frame Filter Press

This filter press consists of a paper or cloth as filter, which is supported on vertical
plates and fixed in frames (Fig. 8.29). The liquid with suspended insoluble particles
is pumped into the press, which allows liquid to pass through the filters and move to
the drain provided as an outlet from each plate separately. The pressure is built up to
certain prefixed value for flow of liquid. The backwash of the filter is performed with
water intermittently, whenever needed. The filter press is dismantled on complete

Fig. 8.29 Plate-and-frame filter press

342 F. G. Sayyad et al.

deposition of cake in the space provided, which is removed and thus can be used for
the next filtration process.
The cost of filter press is relatively low, and it offers higher flexibility to handle
various materials and can be maintained easily. These are used for production of
juices and oils. The press requires more labor and time for filtration due to disman-
tling of plates several times after deposition of cakes on the filter plates. The factors
that affect the filtration cycle time are [6]: (1) design factors, (2) chamber thickness,
(3) feed pressure, (4) filter cloth design, (5) slurry feed density, (6) composition of
slurry, (7) slurry particle size distribution, and (8) dewatering aids.

Problem 8.3 During a filtration process, a plate-and-frame press provided a total of

8 m3 of filtrate in 1800 s and 11.3 m3 in 3600 s. Estimate washing period by using
3 m3 of wash water. Cloth resistance may be neglected, and constant pressure is
applied during the complete process.
Solution:
Time taken for constant pressure filtration is
   
rμv r  μ  v  Vf
t ¼ V2 þ V
2  A2  ΔP A2 ΔP
Since the pressure difference remains constant and negligible cloth resistance is
 
rμv
t¼ V 2
2  A2  ðΔPÞ

For condition 1, t1 ¼ 1800 s and V1 ¼ 8 m3:

 
rμv
1800 ¼ 8 2
2  A2  ðΔPÞ

For condition 2, t2 ¼ 3600 s and V2 ¼ 11 m3:

 
rμv
3600 ¼ 112
2  A2  ðΔPÞ

Subtracting condition 1 from condition 2,

rμν

ð3600  1800Þ ¼ 112  82
2A ðΔPÞ
2

rμν
¼ 316
2A2 ðΔPÞ
8 Cleaning and Separation 343

dV A2 ΔP
Q¼ ¼
dt rμvðV þ V f Þ

dV A2 ðΔPÞ
Q¼ ¼
dt rμvV
dV 1 0:0158
Q¼ ¼ ¼
dt 2  316  V V
The rate of filtration at V2 ¼ 11 m3.
The final rate of filtration ¼ (0.0158/11) ¼ 1.44  103 m3s.
The complete washing takes place by penetrating the water of about twice the
thickness of cake, and about half of the cross-section area remains available for the
flow; therefore, backwash will be applied at a quarter rate of the filtration rate.

1:44  103
Rate of washing ¼ ¼ 3:6  104 m3 =s
4
3
Time of washing ¼
¼ 8400 s  2:3 h
3:6  104

Shell-and-Leaf Pressure Filter

This filter has superiority over plate-and-frame filter press in minimizing the
problems of intensive labor requirement and providing convenient operations. This
consist of several leaves coated in filter medium and attached on a hollow frame,
which act as outlet channel for the filtrate (Fig. 8.30). The arrangement of leaves may
be horizontal or vertical. In some cases, leaves may provide rotation of about 1–2
revolutions per minute to have an improvement in the cake buildup. The feed is
pumped in the shell at about 0.4 MPa till the completion of filtration and the cake is

Fig. 8.30 Shell-and-leaf pressure filter

344 F. G. Sayyad et al.

washed from the leaves. The equipment has higher initial cost but remains best
suited to routine filtration as compared to filter press.

8.4.2.2 Vacuum Filters

These filters are operated under vacuum for creating a pressure difference of about
0.10 MPa. The filtered cakes are separated at atmospheric pressure, which allows
continuous operation of the filter and eliminates the shortcoming of pressure filters.
Usually, two vacuum filters are used in food processing industries, namely, (a) rotary
drum filter and (b) rotary disc filter.

Rotary Drum Filter

A horizontal rotating drum is fixed on a shaft and the surface is divided into several
compartments (Fig. 8.31). Each compartment is covered with a filter cloth and is
associated with a centralized vacuum pump. The drum collects the liquor from the
reservoir in rotation and filtrate is allowed to pass through the filter and exits from the
drum through channels. The cake is deposited on the drum passing through the slurry
placed in the sump due to suction created inside the drum. The cake is washed
through spray of water while rotating further. Thereafter, the cake is also separated
using pressurized air blown for loosening the cake from the screen/cloth prior to
scrapping. A scraper is provided to scratch the cake from the drum, which again
enters into the reservoir/bath for filtration cycle again. Sometimes, agitator is also
provided in the reservoir, which provides mixing of insoluble particles and remains
in suspension state in the liquid.

Rotary Disc Filter

These filters have several vertical discs, which rotate gradually in a reservoir/bath
containing the liquor like the drum filters. Every disc has several separate portions/

Fig. 8.31 Rotary drum filter

8 Cleaning and Separation 345

sectors, which are covered with clothes for filtration. The discs are mounted on a
central shaft, which connects sectors marked on the discs and create vacuum on the
disc surface. The cake is deposited on the discs, which is removed continuously by a
scrapper attached. These filters are preferred due to higher capacity of filtration and
compact in size and require low labor cost; however, initial capital investment
remains a limitation. The cake obtained in these filters has higher moisture, which
needs further drying operation.

8.4.2.3 Cartridge Filters

These filters are popular for separating smaller amounts of suspended solids form the
liquor using cartridges. These filters are mainly used in the filtration of compressed
air, steam filtration, and filtration of clear water to avoid clogging of spray/drip
nozzles. A cartridge is made of filtering element, which uses cloth, canvas, paper,
mesh, and a series of discs with a tight gap. These are fitted in a container having a
provision for flow diversion to and from the filters. The cartridge filter can be easily
replaced or disposed.

8.4.2.4 Centrifugal Filters

In centrifugal filters, the flow is induced by centrifugal force. The liquor is fed into
the cylindrical bowls rotating at faster speed and has perforated walls to allow filtrate
to pass through. The suitable filter is attached to the inner wall of the bowl. The filter
cake is formed on the filter surface through which the filtrate has to pass along with
the filter and make an exit through the perforation provided on the wall of cylinder.
On the basis of working, these can be classified into two types: (a) batch centrifugal
filters and (b) continuous filters.

Batch Centrifugal Filters

A vertical shaft is fixed on a frame, which holds the cylindrical metal bowl in
suspended form. The slurry is fed into the metal bowl, while the bowl operates at
moderate speed (Fig. 8.32). A filtrate starts flowing through the perforated and filter
wall of rotating bowl and discharges through the outlet provided in stationary casing.
A lining of cake starts to be deposited on the inner side of the wall during the
filtration. The speed of bowl is increased to recover the entire amount of filtrate.
Water is sprayed for washing the cake while rotating the bowl at high speed. The
speed of the bowl is lowered, and cake is collected through scratching by unloader
knife and allowed to pass from the bottom opening. It takes about 330 min to
complete one cycle. Automatic version of such batch filters runs around the hori-
zontal axis at a constant speed and completes the operation within 0.5 to 1.5 min.
The feed and wash liquid are fed automatically for specific duration, and filtered cake
is cut using mechanized/hydraulically controlled knife.

Continuous Centrifugal Filters

These filters have a conical-shaped perforated bowl, which is enclosed in stationary
casing and rotates about the vertical axis. The bowl is inclined, which allows the
product to move upward to the basket lip and discharges in the casing by vertical
346 F. G. Sayyad et al.

Drive shaft
Wash liquor in

Feed in

Cake if solids Stationary casing

Rotating bowl with

perforated wall

Hydraulically
Unloaded knife Agitator
or plough

Fig. 8.32 Batch centrifugal filter

component of the force, while horizontal components force liquid to pass through
the filter and perforations. These are used for separation of sugar crystal from the
mother liquor. The speed of rotation is primarily an important factor for regulating
the movement of product as the product may be damaged due to discharge of
materials from the lip of the bowl by sliding the product upward at a higher speed
of operation. The washing of solid phase is generally avoided during the rotation/
motion because it can limit its efficiency.

8.4.2.5 Edge Filters

These filters consist of stacks discs/rings, which act as filters and are attached to a
header plate. The discs are fitted one on another using a fluted rod and fastened using
boss and a nut (Fig. 8.33).
The clearance is kept as small as 25 to 250 μm between the discs. The filter aid
needs to be coated on the edges of the discs. The cake starts to deposit on pre-filter
aid locations as soon as the liquor is allowed to flow under pressure, while liquid is
allowed to pass through the small clearance and exits through grooves provided on
the rod.
Another filter aid may be applied in the feed to increase the effectiveness. The
cake is removed soon after the filtration and washing operation by back flushing and
removing the cake in the form of sludge through the outlet. This filter does not
require filter cloths and requires relatively less labor. Edge filters are applied mainly
to remove the fine solids from liquids in smaller quantities.

8.4.2.6 Air Filters

These filters remain very useful for the removal of suspended dust and fine particles.
The air is forced to pass through a number of fabric layers, and the dust is removed
from the air. A bag air/baghouse filter is prepared using several vertical and
cylindrical cloth bags of 15–30 cm diameter, and the air flows through these bags
in parallel. The air passes through the cloth and dust remains on the clothes. Air
8 Cleaning and Separation 347

Fig. 8.33 Edge filter

Drain Out

Grooved Drainage

Semi circular ring

Slurry in

filters are used in flour milling industries and others. Sometimes shaking
mechanisms is provided, which removes the accumulated dust in the bags. For
removal of particles less than 5 mm diameter, paper or packed tubular filters are
also available, which may restrict the flow of spores and bacterial cells too.

8.4.2.7 Membrane Filters

The filtration of liquids according to specific requirements is carried out using a
specific filtration technology based on pore size of the filters. Figure 8.34 represents
the various components of material, which are removed using different filtration
process.

Microfiltration
The microfiltration is used for clarifying the liquids by removal of suspended solids.
They are characterized by pore size, ranging from 0.1 μm to 10 μm. The
microfiltration restricts the flow of suspended solids, bacteria, fat, and spore through
the filter and allows viruses, proteins, macromolecules, monovalent and multivalent
salts, acids, caustic, sugars, and water (Fig. 8.34). Microfiltration is used for purifi-
cation of enzymes, clarification of whole cell broth, dextrose, wine, beer, and fruit
juices. These systems are operated at relatively low pressure.
348 F. G. Sayyad et al.

Microfiltration (MF)

Monovalent Multivalent Viruses, Bacteria,

salts, acids salts, amino proteins & fat & Suspended
Water & caustic acid & sugars macromolecules enzymes solids
Ultrafiltration (UF)

Monovalent Multivalent Viruses, Bacteria,

salts, acids salts, amino proteins & fat & Suspended
Water & caustic acid & sugars macromolecules enzymes solids
Nanofiltration (NF)

Monovalent Multivalent Viruses, Bacteria,

salts, acids salts, amino proteins & fat & Suspended
Water & caustic acid & sugars macromolecules enzymes solids
Reverse osmosis

Monovalent Multivalent Viruses, Bacteria,

salts, acids salts, amino proteins & fat & Suspended
Water & caustic acid & sugars macromolecules enzymes solids

Fig. 8.34 Various filtration processes

Ultrafiltration
It is another hydrostatic pressure–based filtration technique, which forces liquid to
pass through a semi-permeable membrane. These are applied for removal of partic-
ulate material, organic material, and bacteria and alter the color, taste, and odor of the
product. Ultrafiltration works at lower pressure than reverse osmosis (RO) at about
50–1500 kPa.
The feed water flows in the shells or hollow fibers of the membrane, wherein
suspended insoluble solids are retained over the membrane and water is allowed to
pass through the membrane (Fig. 8.35). The ultrafiltration is allowed to concentrate
8 Cleaning and Separation 349

Fig. 8.35 Ultrafiltration H2O

process
External
pressure

UF
membrane

macromolecular particles, viz., protein, the mass range of 103 to 106 u. The principle
of working remains similar to reverse osmosis, but the size of molecules is different.
It has membranes of size varying from 0.005 to 0.1 μm to remove almost all
colloidal particles of size 0.001 to 1.0 μm from water. The ultrafiltration membranes
are available in the market according to filtration of specific molecular weight cutoff
(MWC), which decides the type of solids to be removed from the liquid. The
ultrafiltration restricts the flow of suspended solids, bacteria, fat, spore, viruses,
proteins, and macromolecules through the filter and allows monovalent and multi-
valent salts, acids, caustic, sugars, and water (Fig. 8.34). These are used in treatment
of drinking water, wastewater, laboratories, solvent exchange of proteins, etc.
Ultrafiltration also removes turbidity from water and all colloidal particles, but
dissolved solid may pass through the membrane.

Nanofiltration
The nanofiltration uses membranes with pore sizes between 1 and 10 nm, which
remains smaller than microfiltration and ultrafiltration. However, its pore size is
more than that of reverse osmosis. The factors affecting on pore sizes are time,
temperature, and pH. The separation capabilities of this pressure-driven membrane
lie in between reverse osmosis and ultrafiltration membranes. Nanofilters can pro-
duce water-softening effect by removing hydrated divalent ions Ca2+ and Mg2+. It
can be used in an industry for concentration and demineralization. The nanofiltration
restricts the flow of suspended solids, bacteria, fat, spore, viruses, proteins,
macromolecules, and some types of multivalent materials through the filter and
allows monovalent salts, acids, caustic, sugars, and water (Fig. 8.34). Nanofiltration
is one of the environmentally friendly procedures and can be economically used for
350 F. G. Sayyad et al.

concentration, fractionation, and purification in sugar, wine, dairy, and fruit juice
industries.

Reverse Osmosis Filtration

Osmosis is a natural phenomenon, which involves diffusion of water across a
membrane from a solution of lower concentration to higher concentration. Whereas
the process of osmosis is reversed by application of external force for the removal of
dissolved solids usually salts from the water (Fig. 8.36). It is used in drinking water
solutions and food processing industries for removing the impurities.
The reverse osmosis restricts the flow of almost everything (viz., suspended
solids, bacteria, fat, spore, viruses, proteins, macromolecules, monovalent and
multivalent salts, acids, caustic, and sugars) except water (Fig. 8.34). The selective
separation of reverse osmosis permits water while salts, aroma, and monosaccharide
having lower molecular weights are retained through a semi-permeable membrane,
which possess higher molecular weights. The dense membrane polymer absorbs
water molecule at one side and transports it to another side through diffusion,
whereas other solutes remain in the solution due to lower diffusion rate than water.
The range of pressure of about 40–80 bars (0.4 to 0.8 MPa) is required to achieve
reverse osmosis. RO can be used for concentration and purification of enzymes,
juices, etc.

Semi Salt and impurities Semi

permeable permeable
membrane membrane
Osmotic H2O
pressure
External
pressure
H 2O

Osmosis Reverse osmosis

Fig. 8.36 Osmosis and reverse osmosis phenomenon

8 Cleaning and Separation 351

8.5 Application of Centrifugation/Filtration in Food

Processing Industries

Nozzle or self-opening centrifuges can be used for the separation of gums. In

neutralization, some pigments, free fatty acids, and phospholipids are treated with
alkali to form soap stock, which can be removed by nozzle/self-opening centrifuges.
The rotary filters are used for large-scale applications, whereas plate-and-frame
filters are used for smaller processes. Rotary or plate filters can be used to clean
the bleaching earths, used in decolorizing of edible oils. Filtration also retrieves
catalysts involved in hydrogenating fats and oils. Heated filters are applied for
recovery of hydrogenated fats due to solidification at normal temperature. The higher
melting point fractions after cooling are filtered through plate-and-frame filters.
Nozzle discharge centrifuges are employed to separate rough beer from fermen-
tation vessels and racking reservoirs. The clarification of beer along with mashing
the liquid wort may be performed using self-opening centrifuges. The carbon
dioxide loss and absorption of oxygen can be restricted using hermetically sealed
centrifuges during the processing of beer.
The rotary filters, plate-and-frame press, and shell-and-leaf filter may be
employed to recover beer by filtration. The filtration is used at various stages of
wine development, e.g., after raking and decolorizing process and before bottling
using shell-and-leaf filters, plate-and-frame presses, edge filters, and rotary vacuum
drum filters.
The self-opening centrifuges are used to clear juices. Generally, apple juice has
cloudy appearance. The apple juice clarification is performed using nozzle, self-
operating, and tumbler bowl centrifuges. Hermetically sealed centrifuges avoid
undue juice aeration. The oil is also obtained from citrus fruits through centrifuga-
tion in two stages. In the first step, the extracted oil is concentrated using nozzle or
self-opening centrifuge. The concentrated emulsion can be purified using the second
centrifuge to produce the citrus oil.
The clear juice obtained from supernatant is further clarified using rotary vacuum
drum filters, plate-and-frame press, or shell-and-leaf filters. The juice recovery from
the mud settled at the bottom can be done, using rotary vacuum drum filters or plate-
and-frame presses. The fine sugar crystals can be separated using centrifugal filters
after attaining the considerable size.

8.6 Exercise

1. State and explain different cleaning and separation equipment for the food
processing industry.
2. Derive an expression for effectiveness of screen.
3. Write in detail the different adjustments of indented cylinder separator.
4. State the working principles of specific gravity separator.
5. Define sedimentation and explain different methods of sedimentation for
separation.
352 F. G. Sayyad et al.

6. Write in details about mechanical separation devices.

7. Derive an expression for constant rate of filtrations.
8. Draw a neat sketch of plate-and-frame filter press and explain how it works.
9. Write a short note on the following:
(a) UF (b) RO.
10. Pearl millet was milled in a burr mill. The ground product was later on analyzed
in a set of IS screens. The analysis is given in the following table. Calculate the
screen effectiveness of (1) IS 50 mesh and (2) IS 30 mesh:

% Materials retained over each screen

Sr.no. IS screen Width of opening, mm Feed Overflow Underflow
1 100 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2 70 0.708 9.50 12.33 0.00
3 50 0.500 13.52 45.28 2.78
4 40 0.420 26.44 26.26 9.56
5 30 0.296 29.15 10.25 42.14
6 20 0.211 13.88 4.88 26.53
7 15 0.1157 4.51 1.00 11.05
8 Pan 0 3.00 0.00 7.94

[Answer: E50 ¼ 0.7360 and E30 ¼ 0.6068]

11. The plate-and-frame presses are used for filtration and provide 10 m3 and 14 m3
filtrate in 2000 and 400 s, respectively. The water used for washing is 4.0 m3;
calculate the rate of washing and washing time. The pressure remained constant
during the filtration process. The resistance offered by the cloth may be assumed
as neglected.
[Answer: rate of washing ¼ 4.286  10–4 and time of washing ¼ 2.59 h].

References
1. Kaliniewicz, Z. (2013). A theoretical analysis of cereal seed screening in a string sieve. Technical
Sciences, 16(3), 234–247.
2. Ramsdell, R. C., Miedema, S. A., & Talmon, A. M. (2011). Hydraulic transport of sand/Shell
mixtures. In Conference: ASME 2011 30th International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and
Arctic Engineering.
3. Cheremisinoff, N. P., & Azbel, D. S. (1983). Liquid filtration. Ann Arbor Science.
4. Berk, Z. (2018). Food process engineering and technology (3rd ed.). Academic Press (Elsevier).
5. Okamura, S., & Shirato, M. (1954). On the Ruth’s coefficient of constant-pressure-filtration.
Chemical Engineering, 18(2), 59–63.
6. Dennis Z. (2019). https://www.mclanahan.com/blog/8-factors-affecting-filter-press-cycle-time.
Storage
9
Rajesh Kumar Vishwakarma, Navneet Kumar, Kalyani Sharma,
Yogesh Kumar, and Chandrasen Kumar

Abstract

In this chapter, the need of storage for perishable, semi-perishable and

non-perishable foods is highlighted. The factors affecting the food spoilage are
also discussed. The traditional, improved and modern storage structures and
economical aspect of storage are discussed. The types of foods according to the
shelf life and their specific requirement are also presented. Various destructive
agents are also mentioned and factors affecting the food spoilage are discussed. In
addition, the mechanism of moisture migration is also explained. Traditional,
improved and modern storage structures are presented using line diagrams for
easier understanding. The bag storage warehouses are also presented and their
stacking arrangement is explained with suitable example. For the storage in bulk,
lateral pressure theories are discussed along with step-by-step derivation of
Janssen’s theorem. The design of silo is also explained with solved examples.
Hermetic, modified and controlled storage structures are also discussed. Estima-
tion of refrigeration load is also presented along with economic aspects of storage.

R. K. Vishwakarma (*) · Y. Kumar

ICAR-Central Institute of Post-Harvest Engineering and Technology, P. O. PAU, Ludhiana,
Punjab, India
N. Kumar
Department of Processing and Food Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering and
Technology, Anand Agricultural University, Godhara, Gujarat, India
K. Sharma
Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidayalaya, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India
C. Kumar
Food Corporation of India, New Delhi, India

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 353
Ltd. 2022
H. K. Sharma, N. Kumar (eds.), Agro-Processing and Food Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7289-7_9
354 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

Keywords

Requirements of storage · Destructive agents · Moisture and temperature changes

in stored grains · Causes for spoilage · Traditional storage structures · Improved
storage structures · Modern storage structures · Silo design · Bag storage ·
Controlled atmosphere storage · Cold storage · Calculation of refrigeration
requirements · Economic aspects

9.1 Introduction

The shelf life and quality of agricultural produce and value-added products depend
mainly upon the raw material quality at harvest. Further, after harvest, several
interrelated factors are involved and these form very complex interrelationships
during storage. The factors, which influence produce quality during storage, include
harvest maturity, variety, application of chemicals, climatic conditions near to the
harvesting time, method of harvest, etc. Thus, the agricultural produce has to be
stored safely using scientific methods for consistent supply throughout the year.
The farmers store agricultural produce for seed purpose or own consumption,
whereas the marketing agencies and traders store the produce for economic gain.
Storage by the government agencies provides domestic food security, stabilizes
prices in the market, and earns foreign exchange by export. The storage aspect
becomes crucial in the present era due to stringent quality standards in national and
international markets.
In relation to the shelf life, the foods are grouped as shelf stable (non-perishable)
and perishable [1]. Intrinsic properties of foods (pH, structure, texture and water
activity) also affect the shelf life. Extrinsic factors, such as gaseous composition,
environment temperature and relative humidity (RH), affect the stability of the food
products during storage. These environmental factors affect the survival and growth
of pathogenic and spoilage organisms in foods. The shelf life depends upon the
category of foods, which is given below.

9.1.1 Perishable Foods

Foods, which spoil easily in short duration in the absence of using any special
methods to prevent spoilage, are known as perishable. Perishable foods have high
water activity and pH. Majority of the fruits and vegetables, high-moisture foods,
fish, eggs, poultry meat, meat, milk and milk products are perishable. These foods
need proper packaging and storage at low temperature in a specific environment to
prevent their spoilage during storage.
9 Storage 355

9.1.2 Semi-Perishable Foods

The foods that remain acceptable for human consumption for 15–45 days are usually
termed as semi-perishable. Their storage life can further increase with proper
maintenance of low temperature, requisite RH and treatments. Products of cereal
and pulses (flour, semolina, vermicelli and broken wheat), garlic, onions, potato,
oranges, apples, oils and fat are the examples of this category.

9.1.3 Non-Perishable Foods

These products are shelf stable and spoilage takes place when handled and stored
carelessly. These foods have low pH and low water activity. Most of the
low-moisture foods, grains and high sugar/salt products come into this category.
Spoilage takes place with increase in moisture, insect attacks and exposure to
adverse climatic conditions.
Improper storage results in high quantitative and qualitative losses of agricultural
produce. Losses in the storage may be as high as 10–20% of overall production in the
absence of proper storage capacities and management. India is losing about
Rs. 92,651 crores of agricultural and livestock produce every year during harvest,
postharvest operations and storage [2]. Thus, a grain saved with proper storage is a
grain produced, which emphasizes the need of proper storage management.
The factors responsible for storage losses include environmental conditions, type
of storage structure, storage practices, biotic factors, duration, etc. The environmen-
tal factors involve temperature, relative humidity (RH), rainfall, exposure to direct
sun, air velocity, etc. Other biotic factors responsible for storage loss are moisture
content, insects, mites, spoilage microorganisms and rodents.

9.2 Requirements of Storage

The stored agricultural produce quality depends on several factors; however, the
important factors are given as follows [3]:

(a) Initial condition of the material (moisture content, uniformity in size, foreign
matter, initial infestation level, surface microflora, damages and injuries, matu-
rity level, etc.)
(b) Environmental conditions inside the store during the storage period (tempera-
ture, RH, sanitation, floor and wall conditions, contamination, etc.)
(c) Biotic factors (insects/pest, rodents, microorganisms, respiration rate of stored
produce).
(d) Treatments applied on the produce to reduce biotic factors and control physio-
logical changes (aeration, fumigation, controlled environment, ripening agents,
coatings, etc.)
(e) Type of packaging used for the storage.
356 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

Storage of agricultural produce is done either at normal environmental conditions

(cereals, pulses, oilseeds and low-moisture food products) or at low temperature
(fruits, vegetables and high-moisture foods). Therefore, the functional requirements
for storage structures depend mainly upon the type of material to be stored.

9.2.1 Requirements for Non-Perishable Foods

A quality storage structure along with management practices for grains and other
non-perishable foods should provide protection against all possible causes of
damages during the storage period. The storage structure should have the following
essential features [3]:

(a) Robust to withstand environmental stresses for long time with less
maintenance cost.
(b) Prevent entry of rodents, birds and other animals.
(c) Possible to clean and sanitize easily.
(d) Walls, floor and roof must be damp proof and prevent entry of rainwater.
(e) Maintain uniform temperature and relative humidity as far as possible.
(f) Provision for aeration, sampling for observing insect pest incidence, pesticides
application and fumigation.
(g) Properly located and connected with roads with sufficient space for entry and
exit of trucks. Locations near the kilns, flourmills, garbage dumps, tanneries,
slaughterhouses and chemical industries should be avoided.
(h) Facilitate sealing for fumigation with better ventilation arrangement.
(i) Easy in loading and unloading with minimum labour requirement.
(j) Good in-store handling layout and accessibility for inspection of all the stacks.
(k) Easy maintenance.

9.2.2 Requirements for Perishable Foods

For storage of horticultural produce and perishables, in addition to the

abovementioned points, the additional requirements of storage are as follows:

(a) Short pre-cooling duration.

(b) Proper circulation of cooled air inside the store.
(c) Precisely controlled environmental conditions.
(d) Bare minimum chances of moisture spots inside the store.
(e) Insulation to reduce the energy requirement.
9 Storage 357

9.3 Control of Temperature

Temperature is the principal influencing factor for the storage quality of agricultural
produce and food products. Change in storage temperature significantly affects the
quality of the stored material. Microorganism can grow between
10  C (cold-hardy
mold species) and 60  C (heat-resistant bacteria). However, the suitable temperature
range for insect development is 10–45  C, and temperatures below 17  C or above
60  C reduce insect activity substantially [4]. The mold growth in a stored product is
affected only at freezing temperature or below. The rise in temperature increases
grain and pest respiration rates as well as enzymatic activity. Therefore, biological
activity increases and quality deterioration is rapid at high temperatures.
The rise in temperature of stored product may take place due to several factors,
such as environmental conditions, insulation of storage structure, respiration of
stored products and insects, molds and microorganisms and oxidation reactions.
The rise in temperature due to these factors, except heat gain from the surroundings,
is known as self-heating and occurs in two phases. In phase I, biological heating
occurs and temperature rises up to 55–75  C. In phase II, chemical heating occurs
and temperature increases to 75–150  C. Chemical heating also takes place due to
oxidation. Chemical reactions may rise the temperature of stored material to the
ignition point, which depends on the type of commodity and storage conditions, and
fire hazard may occur. This type of fire hazard is known as self-ignition.
Storage temperature change may alter structure of some foods due to the change
of physical state of their components. At high temperatures, the fats present in the
products may melt. At lower temperatures, sugars present in foods may crystallize
and give a gritty texture to the food. Therefore, control of storage temperature
precisely is essential for safe storage.

9.4 Control of Relative Humidity (RH)

The relative humidity plays important role in safe storage of any biological materials.
In an airtight/sealed storage structure, the RH of the air is liable to increase due to the
release of water vapour through biological activities of material and microorganisms.
This generates favourable environment for microbial growth and causes spoilage
inside the storage. The fruit tissues lose their integrity, which results in the collapse
of cellular walls, and tissue browning takes place.
Biological organisms responsible for deterioration of stored products need differ-
ent RH levels. In general, the optimum level of RH for the growth of bacteria is
>90%, spoilage molds grow >70%, storage mites need >60%, and insect need RH
of 30–50% [4]. Further, some insects may breed under dry conditions also.
The absorption of moisture from high RH environment by hygroscopic foods
may result into undesirable physical changes. Sugar can absorb moisture from the
environment at >86% RH leading to formation of sugar solution film around sugar
particles. When RH goes <86%, the sugar solution film loses moisture and tiny
sugar crystals are formed on the surface of each particle. These tiny crystals bind
358 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

Table 9.1 Lower limits of water activity for microorganism growth

Bacteria Lower limit of aw Fungi Lower limit of aw
Pseudomonas 0.97 Mucor 0.62 (maximum 0.94)
E. coli 0.96 Botrytis 0.62
Bacillus subtilis 0.95 Rhizopus 0.62
Clostridium botulinum 0.93 Aspergillus 0.85
Staphylococcus aureus 0.86 Penicillium 0.95
Enterobacter aerogenes 0.94

together the sugar particles and make the sugar caked in the form of a hard mass.
Salts behave in similar way at 75% RH. Saturated common salt solutions are highly
corrosive and can damage the walls and floors of the structure. Dehydrated fruit
products may also absorb moisture and form sugar crystals, but caking does not
occur.
Low RH conditions in fruit and vegetable storage results in physiological loss in
weight (PLW), shrinkage and quality deterioration. Thus, apart from optimum
temperature, RH of 90–95% is essential for fruits and vegetables except onion,
garlic, hard-rind squash and pumpkin where RH should be 60–70% for long-
duration storage.

9.4.1 Water Activity (aw)

The aw value is generally above 0.90 for most of the fruits and vegetables, which is
conducive for the bacterial and fungal growth. Bacteria are more sensitive to aw,
whereas molds can grow at 0.80 aw also. The lowest aw for xerophilic fungi,
halophilic bacteria and osmophilic yeasts ranges between 0.75 and 0.61. Lower
limits of aw for certain microorganism’s growth is given in Table 9.1 [4]:
Moisture content of food and water activity is correlated; however, low moisture
does not mean that the food is safe. Protection is required to prevent moisture gain or
loss (Table 9.2). Narrowing down the aw range decreases microbial growth [5].

9.5 Destructive Agents

Stored agricultural produce provides food and environments for many spoilage
organisms. These destructive agents include bacteria, mold/fungi, insects/pest,
enzymes, mites, rodents and birds.

9.5.1 Molds

Spoilage-causing molds (fungi) are always present in soil and harvesting/handling

equipment and within the storage structures in the form of spores and may be with
9 Storage 359

Table 9.2 Water content and aw of some foods and required protection
Water
Material content (%) aw Degree of protection required
Ice (0  C) 100 1.00 Protection in the form of packaging is required to prevent
Fresh meat 70 0.98 moisture loss during storage
Bread 40 0.96
Marmalade 35 0.86
Ice 100 0.82
(
20  C)
Wheat 14.5 0.72 Minimum protection in the form of packaging or without
flour packaging
Ice 100 0.62
(
50  C)
Raisins 27 0.60
Macaroni 10 0.45
Cocoa – 0.40 Protection in the form of packaging is required to prevent
powder moisture gain during storage
Boiled 3 0.30
sweets
Biscuits 5 0.20
Dried milk 3.5 0.11
Potato 1.5 0.08
crisps

grains. Spoilage fungi require a different temperature and RH level for their growth
and development. These affect the grains having moisture content above 14% in
general (Table 9.3) [1, 4, 5]. The most favourable temperature for fungus growth is
26–30  C. Spoilage fungi growth and development during storage affect the food
materials, which may change the quality adversely, and aggregation of the material
can take place along with production of toxins and allergens and damaging the
material due to heat.
Storage fungi invade the germ of the grain mainly for their development
(Table 9.3). The fungi kill the germ, discolour the grain and reduce its economic
value. The baking and cooking characteristics of grains are degraded. The fungi
cause chemical changes, such as hydrolysis of triglycerides, which results in free
fatty acids formation. These are also responsible for health risk since many fungi are
potent producers of mycotoxins.

9.5.2 Bacteria

The bacteria are not major destructive agents in the storage of food grains because
these require high RH (90–95%) for their growth. However, at high-moisture
content, growth of bacteria may cause self-heating and produce sour and rotten
360 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

Table 9.3 Minimum grain moisture content for possible fungal growth
Minimum
moisture for
Fungus Commodity growth at 20  C Type of damage
Aspergillus Wheat, 13.5% Kills and discolours germs or damages
restrictus corn 14% germs
Sorghum 12%
Soybean
Aspergillus Wheat, 14% Kills and discolours germs or damages
glaucus corn 14.5% germs, develops mustiness and caking takes
Sorghum 12.5% place
Soybean
Aspergillus Wheat, 15% Kills and discolours germs very fast, heats
candidus corn 16% the grains up to 55  C, discolours the entire
Sorghum 14.5% kernel, spoilage follows immediately
Soybean
Aspergillus Wheat, 18% Kills and discolours germs very fast, heats
flavus corn 19% the grains up to 55  C, discolours the entire
Sorghum 17% kernel, spoilage follows immediately,
Soybean produces carcinogenic toxins
Aspergillus Wheat, 15% Kills and discolours germs, produces
ochraceus corn 16% carcinogenic toxins
Sorghum 14.5%
Soybean
Penicillium Wheat, 16.5% Kills and discolours germs and the whole
corn 17% kernel, highly toxic to animals, particularly
Sorghum 16% poultry
Soybean

odours in the grains. The bacterial activity is not much at low temperatures during
the storage.

9.5.3 Insects

Insect infestation is the main criteria for quality assessment in grains, and these are
the primary agents for quality deterioration during grain storage. The insects con-
sume dry matter, contaminate the grain lot, broadcast microflora and create condu-
cive environment for spoilage molds. There are more than 100 insect species, which
infest stored grains. Most of the insects are beetles, some are moths, and the rest are
primitive insects like lice.
Weevils are the main pests of grains in the world. Granary weevil (Sitophilus
granarius) is an insect of temperate regions; maize weevil (S. zeamais) attacks in
warm and humid regions where maize is grown; and rice weevil (S. oryzae) infests
mainly in the tropical climatic conditions. Grain borers (Prostephanus truncatus)
cause more loss because they make a hole in the grains. Rhyzopertha dominica is a
serious storage insect of wheat and paddy, particularly in the warm and arid regions.
9 Storage 361

Khapra beetle (Trogoderma granarium) is the most dreaded pest because its larvae
hide in the cracks and crevices of stores and survive in adverse conditions. Khapra
beetle has become tolerant to majority of the pesticides. However, flour beetles are
secondary pests and mainly found in grain storage structures [3].
Metabolic activities of insects in grain bulks of <15% moisture may result in
heating of grains up to 42  C. Some of the insects found in stored products may even
survive low temperatures (e.g. rusty grain beetle [Tribolium castaneum] can tolerate

5 to
10  C for long durations) but cannot reproduce <17  C. These cause
extensive damage when grain temperatures are >17  C for long periods. The insect
damage becomes serious when moisture content of grains is high [6].

9.5.4 Mites

Mites are delicate creatures and are of <1 mm in size. About 54 species are found in
stored grains and flour. The mites withstand low temperatures and grow rapidly in
damp and moldy grains. These give a strong minty odour to the grain and makes the
grain unpalatable. Mites attack usually on the broken, weed seeds and fungi and
survive in moist grain. These may be either saprophytic or parasitic.

9.5.5 Rodents

Rats are the biggest and infamous vertebrates and responsible for direct and indirect
losses in storage of food grains. Rodents can cause 1% dry matter loss of grains from
the direct consumption, whereas spillage loss may exceed 10%. These contaminate
grains by urine (40–50 mL urine daily), faecal pellets (70–80 faecal pellets daily),
saliva, hair (hundreds of hairs daily) and body fragments, which is a major issue in
storage. Rodents are carrier of insects, mites and microflora and responsible for
cross-contamination of grain stocks. Besides grains, rodents can damage structure
and essential supply lines. An adult rat eats about 3 g grains daily and discards partly
eaten grain. In bag storage system, the stacks may collapse when a severe attack of
rats takes place. Rats are adaptable to all environmental conditions and have a high
fertility rate.

9.5.6 Birds

Activity of birds starts immediately after harvesting of crops and continues in storage
also particularly in the warehouses where bag storage is practiced. The birds also
bring grain insects and microflora to the stores. Major birds causing damage are
pigeons and sparrow, sometimes parrots, doves and weavers. Pigeons usually fly in
flocks and can travel up to 8 km in search of food and usually feed on the spillage.
Sparrows are smaller birds and fly in flocks by travelling up to 2–3 km in search
of feed.
362 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

9.5.7 Factors Affecting Food Spoilage

9.5.7.1 Respiration of Grains

Water availability, environmental conditions, microbial contamination, mechanical
damage, condition of storage and infestation level govern the respiration rate of
grains. Mature and dry seeds remain dormant with a very low respiration rate. Grain
respiration increases with increase in moisture content. This increase is gradual until
critical moisture content reaches. Respiration then increases faster, and then the rate
of dissipation of heat generated by the respiration and heating of grains take place.
Every 1% dry matter loss in 1 tonne grain can produce 37.6 kcal energy and increase
the temperature to 65  C, when the heat is not transmitted [7].

9.5.7.2 Enzymes
The enzymatic activity of freshly harvested seeds having higher-moisture contents is
usually high and may increase respiration rates and heat production. Green weed
seeds and foreign matter present with grains encourage enzymatic activity also.
Some of the enzymatic processes are required to a certain extent (e.g. ripening of
fruits and vegetables) after harvest. The natural enzymes present in overripe fruits
cause deterioration during storage.

9.5.7.3 Air and Light

Exposure of foods with air may reduce certain vitamins (particularly A and C), affect
colour and flavour and promote microbial growth. That is why flushing of food
containers with inert gases, such as N2 or CO2, is done to prevent deterioration in
some foods. Light-sensitive vitamins, such as riboflavin, vitamin A and C, and food
colours deteriorate due to exposure to light. Therefore, light-sensitive foods are often
packed into dark-coloured glass bottles.

9.5.7.4 Storage Period

The food material quality is at its peak at the time of harvest. The effect of quality-
deteriorating factors, such as microorganisms, insects, enzymes, heat, cold, oxygen,
light and moisture, increases with storage time. Though the quality of some foods
improves with time (e.g. cheeses, pickles, wines), but the quality of majority of foods
decreases with time.

9.6 Moisture and Temperature Changes in Stored Grains

Moisture and stored grain temperature interact and even best management practices
cannot prevent spoilage if these parameters are too high. The grain stored at 24  C at
25% moisture content will deteriorate in 4 days, whereas the same grain stored at
15  C and 15% moisture content will deteriorate after 250 days of storage. Every
10  C temperature rise increases the activity of microorganisms and enzymes by at
least twice in 0–60  C temperature range [4, 6]. For temperature above 60  C,
9 Storage 363

Fig. 9.1 Storage stability of grains at various storage conditions

enzymes may inactivate function of living cells. The influence of grain moisture
content and its temperature on storage ability of food grains is shown in Fig. 9.1.
For higher storage temperatures, the grain moisture content must be lower;
however, at low storage temperatures, the moisture content may be higher for safe
storage. Further, even at 16% grain moisture content, safe storage is possible at
temperature of 4  C or less. When grain is stored at 15  C or more, cooling of grain is
necessary through aeration with adoption of occasional curative measures [3]. For
absolutely fungus-free grains, moisture content of 12% or less and temperature
below 3  C are essential. Since the storage of grains is usually done at higher
moisture and temperature levels, particularly in tropical regions, good store hygiene
and regular disinfestation measures are necessary.
High-moisture grains are at higher risk of damage during storage as it allows
molds to develop. A higher grain moisture results in evaporation of moisture into the
natural air, which is carried to the other parts in a silo. Natural convection exists in
the dry grain though moisture accumulation at the top surface takes longer duration
to reach at the spoilage level. In sealed bins, mixing of air in the headspace with
external air cannot take place, which allows moisture migration and accumulation to
progress. Condensation of moisture in the headspace of the bins filled with freshly
harvested grains can result in damage due to moisture accumulation at the top
surface. Whenever the bin surface is cooled due to daily changes in environmental
temperature, condensation occurs at the top surface. This is termed as ‘night top silo
cooling’ or ‘silo sweating’.
The temperature gradient in stored grain is the main cause of moisture movement.
Heat loss occurs at the surface in the colder months at a faster rate than that of the
inner core of bulk. This creates temperature gradients when the grain bulk is not
364 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

Fig. 9.2 Formation of natural convection currents and moisture accumulation in a silo during cold
environmental conditions

disturbed and aerated. In the absence of aeration, cold air moves downward naturally
and displaces less dense warmer air. When the grains near to the silo wall cool off, it
replaces warmer air in the centre of the bulk leading to the air current formation. This
current circulates in a loop from the outer regions up through the warmer inner core
(Fig. 9.2) [8].
The cold air gains heat gradually as it moves up through the central core and gains
moisture from the grain. The warm, moist air moving upward from the centre of the
grain bulk starts to cool when it reaches near the grain surface at the top. Then the
capacity of air to hold moisture reduces and moisture condensation at the top grain
surface initiates and the cycle continues. This results into moisture migration from
the bottom to the top of the bulk. Grain spoilage may take place due to the moisture
accumulation at the top surface. In such case, more spoilage can take place when
convection currents are established and the grain is not disturbed for long periods.
In hot conditions, the convection current formation is opposite to the cooler
conditions and moisture accumulation takes place at the bottom of the bulk.
The presence of peak or ridge (heap formed at the top of grain bulk) influences the
air current, which act as a conduit to channelize hot moist air effectively, and
9 Storage 365

Fig. 9.3 Moisture damage due to mold and insect growth in a grain silo

moisture accumulates in the ridge area. Further, grain bulk density also influences
the natural convection current formation rate. Natural convection currents form at
faster rates in low-bulk-density clean grains stored in sealed bins. Significant damage
due to moisture accumulation takes place when large-seeded pulses are stored in
sealed silos.
Moisture migration takes place between the grains by diffusion due to moisture
and temperature differences and reaches to the equilibrium gradually in a storage
bin. Grain moisture equilibration is beneficial for some seeds, particularly pulses
where uniform moisture is an important parameter in processing. Aeration helps in
equilibration of grain moisture and disrupts the already formed natural convection
currents in the bulk.
In the growth stage, insects also produce heat and moisture. Infestation usually
starts below the surface of grain bulk and heat generated by them form a ‘hot spot’
(Fig. 9.3) [8]. Such localized increase in temperature and moisture creates conducive
environment for fast insect and mold growth and raises grain temperatures above
40  C. Thereafter, insects migrate from the core of the hot spot. The hot, moist air of
the hot spot moves towards the top surface and moisture condenses on the cooler
grain.
The main cause of damage and spoilage of food grains are summarized in
Table 9.4.
366 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

Table 9.4 Spoilage agents and cause of damages

Parameters and spoilage agents Possible damage and spoilage
Storage practices
Common structural issues like water Localized moisture gain, grain heating, risk of
entry, pest entry, harbour pests contamination, insect and mold growth
Presence of dirt and debris in the food Shelter for pests, contaminate incoming stocks,
material difficulty in proper inspection for pest detection, and
obstruction in effective pest control
Presence of infestation in the store It is the main threat to the stored commodity and pest
prior to storage infestation takes place
Improper cleaning and disinfection of Risk of disease transmission to the stored grain
stores
Moisture
Higher initial moisture content of grain Chances of spoilage in cereals and oilseeds until dried
being stored to safe limits of 14.5% and 7.5% moisture contents,
respectively
Change in grain moisture during Grain moisture is associated with RH of the
storage surrounding air. Spoilage due to insect and mold
growth is possible
Improper calibration of moisture- Poor calibration results in wrong information about
measuring instruments moisture and therefore may cause spoilage
Control of moisture content Surface layer moisture can increase or decrease due to
environmental conditions and is difficult to control.
Moisture above 18% encourages mites’ growth
Moisture and market demands Each food industry has specific demand, for example,
wheat industry may accept wheat up to 15% moisture
and malt industry asks 13% with a minimum
germination of 98%
Drying
Drying temperature Drying at high temperature reduces time and increases
capacity but damages quality of grains, especially
protein and germination
Safety factors for dryers Deposition of unclean material inside the dryer may
cause a hazard. Dust from grain and noise from
machines may cause health hazards
Improper cooling after drying Storage of grains immediately after drying results in
insect breeding
Moisture content prior to drying If grain moisture exceeds dryer limits, spoilage may
occur before all material dries uniformly. The capacity
of high-quality dryer is reduced by 15% for each 1%
moisture increase above 20%
Temperature
Storage temperature Most of the insects die within a day at
temperature > 40  C. Favourable temperature for rapid
multiplication of most of the insects is 25–33  C,
whereas these do not breed below 15  C. however,
grain weevils (S. granarius) may breed at a slow rate
even at 12  C
(continued)
9 Storage 367

Table 9.4 (continued)

Parameters and spoilage agents Possible damage and spoilage
Grain heating due to biotic and abiotic Change in environmental temperature may cause
factors moisture accumulation at the top or bottom of a bin.
High-moisture surfaces or damp pockets encourage
mold growth, heating of grains and sprouting
Insect infestation also generates heat and causes
spoilage
Improper airflow during aeration Airflow of less than 10 m3/h/ton can cause improper
cooling during aeration. Insect breeding rate may
increase and spoilage is possible
Insects
Presence of field insects Field insects like clover weevil can be present in a
freshly harvested grain, cause very low damage and die
quickly. Incorrect identification may cause spoilage
Presence of primary storage pests Primary insects intrude the grains from the previous
(beetles and moths) stored grains and can breed at low moisture and
temperature conditions and damage takes place
Some species like the grain weevil develops inside the
grain and is difficult to detect at an early stage
Attack of secondary storage insects These include fungus feeders, spider beetles and
booklice, which may enter in the bulk from nearby
sources. These insects damage poorly managed or
already infested grain only
Development of resistance in pests Resistance to pesticides can develop in some insects,
against pesticides for example, saw-toothed grain beetle, and control is
difficult. Resistance development reduces the effective
life of treatments or requires more exposure time to
control the insects
Mites
Identification and prevention problems Mites cannot be distinguished from dust by the naked
eye. It directly damages the grain by eating the germ or
making a hole in oilseeds. Practically exclusion of
mites is not possible from stores
Presence of surface moisture Mites build up at the moist surfaces. Storage at <13%
moisture minimizes the risk of mites
Control method of mites A single control option is not sufficient. Combined
conveying and cleaning kill 75–90% mites. However,
the mites present inside the grain germ survive and
grow again quickly; therefore, it is considered as a
temporary measure
Fungi
Detection at the time and level of A visible moldy grain suggests that mycotoxin
mycotoxin produced production may have started. The absence of visible
mold growth is not a sign of freedom from mycotoxins
Effect of physical treatment Cooling grains is not sufficient for longer-duration
storage of damp grain. Storage fungi cannot grow if
moisture is less than 14.5%
Chemical treatments (only for animal Sodium hydroxide–treated grains swell during storage
feed) and silo storage is not practical. This treatment is not
(continued)
368 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

Table 9.4 (continued)

Parameters and spoilage agents Possible damage and spoilage
for long-duration storage
Propionic acid–treated damp grains can be stored for
short-duration storage
Mycotoxin production Mycotoxins produced by the fungi before harvest are
stable and remain with grains during storage. Fungal
growth produces mycotoxins when grain moisture is
>15%
The risk of fungal growth is higher when dried by
spreading on the floor (near-ambient drying). Suitable
temperature for mycotoxin production varies between
15 and 25  C
Rodents and birds
Rats and mouse A young rodent can enter in the stores from a gap of
only 5 mm, damages structures and contaminates food
The loss is more in the form of spillage and
contamination
Birds Attack of birds causes direct losses. Birds are attracted
to food like spilled grain
Other issues for oilseeds
Drying to a very low moisture at a Hard and brittle grains are formed. This may cause
faster rate quality deterioration
Slow rate of drying or cooling This can encourage mold and mites’ growth, and
mycotoxin production may take place
Non-availability of insecticide Merchant grain beetle (Oryzaephilus mercator) and
saw-toothed grain beetle (O. surinamensis) may grow
to some extent in stored grains. No insecticides are
available to control such mixed insect population
Presence of immature seed in storage It causes heating and rapid deterioration of mature
seeds

9.7 Traditional Storage Structures

Indian farmers store food grains for their own consumption, seed purpose and for
sale in market during off-season. The farmers in India normally store 65% of their
produce in the traditional storage methods at the farm level. The important traditional
storage structures are given as follows [8]:

9.7.1 Folding Kothi

These structures look like carpets weaved using thin bamboo strips only. It
resembles with the woven carpet of thin bamboo strips. Two bamboos are weaved
at the ends of carpets and fixed to make a cylindrical bin for storing grains. These
structures are about 6 ft. in height and can store about 200–250 kg of grains. These
9 Storage 369

structures do not have fixed lid and base. A base is made on the ground using a fine
mixture of soil and cow dung. The structure is placed on this base in such a way that
it forms a cylindrical-shaped storage structure. A mixture of cow dung, loam and
husk is applied on the top after laying the leaves on the top of grains.

9.7.2 Underground Storage Structure

This type of storage structure is locally known as Khatti in northern India, Khani in
Orissa, Pain in Maharashtra, Patera in Tamil Nadu and Khas in Rajasthan. It is made
at places where groundwater level is low and used as indoor and outdoor structures.
The depth and diameter of the structure may be up to 5 m with a narrow circular
opening at the top. About 24–32 tonnes grain can be stored and suitable for the
storage of wheat, maize and pulses. Before storing grains, a layer of straw is placed
on all inner walls and the opening is sealed with a lid made of mud to prevent the
seepage of moisture (Fig. 9.4).

9.7.3 Earthen Pot Storage Structure

It is a small capacity (100–200 kg) storage structure locally known as Chod, Jadi,
Kudir, Vadai and Matka and made of clay mud. The structure is cylindrical, but the
diameter at the middle is more than that at the top and the bottom. There is only one
opening on the top of the structure to store and take out the grain. An outlet is
sometimes provided near the bottom. After storing grains, the top is sealed with a lid
made of moist clay. The life span of the structure is generally 10–15 years.

Fig. 9.4 Underground pit

type of storage structure Mud or soil
Cow dung
Bamboo/wood sticks
Straw lining
370 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

9.7.4 Drum Storage Structure

These are empty drums fabricated for keeping oil and coal tar or similar material,
which are used for grain storage after thorough cleaning in a small quantity
(100–200 kg) in case of reuse of drums. The structure is low cost and durable.
There is only one opening on the top to store and take out grains for use. After
storing grains, the opening is sealed with a lid made of mud with moist clay, wood or
mild steel.

9.7.5 Straw Storage Structures

These are mostly used in outdoor and in some areas indoor structures locally known
as Morai, Puri, Mora, Oliya, Burgi, Seru and Kotta. Paddy straw ropes are the
construction material, and sometimes, mud plastering is done at the bottom portion
of the structures. It is a common structure of Assam, West Bengal, Orissa, Tamil
Nadu and Karnataka. The capacity of the structures varies from 3 to 20 tonnes and
has a life span of about 1–2 years. The structure is not airtight and rainwater may
enter in some occasions. Insects and rodents cause sizeable loss to the stored grains.

9.7.6 Mud Storage Structures (Kuthla)

These structures are made from mud mixed with straw or dry grass with 25–80 mm
thick wall and are oval, rectangular or circular in shape and locally known as Kuthla
or Kucchi kothi with a capacity of 100–2000 kg (Fig. 9.5). A circular opening near
the bottom is made to take out the grains. A bigger diameter hole at the top is for
loading the grains, and then the top opening is sealed with a lid made of mud and
straw.

9.7.7 Bamboo or Reed Storage Structure

Local names of such structures are Borem, Gummy, Kudir, Bakhari, Ponaka, Gola,
Thombe, Gade and Buttas. It has a cylindrical or rectangular shape made from split
bamboo strips or reeds. The wall has only one opening for loading and unloading the
grains. The wall and floor of the structure are made of woven bamboo splits or reeds
with mud plaster on the inner wall and floor in some regions. A thatched roof is
provided on the bin and the capacity varies between 1 and 50 tonnes with a life span
of about 10 years. Although the structure is not waterproof, yet fumigation is
effective as the structure is airtight. However, the seed storage structure is liable to
damage by the rodents and the grains are consequently affected.
9 Storage 371

Fig. 9.5 Mud bin

Grain inlet cap

Cylindrical Mud wall

Grain outlet

Mud stand

9.7.8 Basket-Type Storage Structure

This is a semi-spherical structure of basket shape and widely used in Assam, India.
The structure is unsafe to insect and rodent attack and it is not a waterproof structure.
The inner surface of the basket is mud plastered and dried before paddy is stored.
The capacity of structure depends upon the number of family members because
storage is done for their own consumption only. The structure is kept on the raised
platform with a suitable cover.

9.7.9 Ground Bag Storage Structure (Thekka)

In semi-arid areas, an area is covered by bamboo sticks in which gunny bags or jute
cloth bags filled with grain are stored. The top is covered with a thatched roof. This
structure is locally known as Thekka. The capacity of such structure ranges from
100 to 800 kg.

9.7.10 Box-Like Timber Storage Structure (Kothar)

It is very common in the northern regions especially in hilly areas. The floor is made
of timber planks and has a timber ceiling with a roof of plank or corrugated
372 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

Corrugated GI sheet
Truss
Timber ceiling

750 750
mm mm
Timber plank

Timber flooring

Joist
Rat proofing cone
1.37m

Timber post

Fig. 9.6 Kothar for grain storage

galvanized steel (Fig. 9.6). The construction is done separately and placed over a
platform.

9.7.11 Wooden Storage Structures (Kothi)

These are mostly wood planks–based indoor storage structures locally known as
Pathayam and Kothi. The structure is normally of rectangular type and consists of
various trays, which are placed one over the top of the other. The capacity of the
structure ranges between 5 and 10 tonnes with a life span of about 20 years, if
maintained properly.

9.7.12 Masonry Storage Structures (Bakhari)

These storage structures are locally known as Kotha, Puccikothi, Addaw,

Kalangium, Kanaja, Amberkani, Vaderu, Kothi, Kainra and Bakhari. Brick is the
main construction material, but in some places, wood or bamboo is also used
(Fig. 9.7). In brick construction, different materials such as mud, lime or cement
are used. The structure is generally circular or rectangular and constructed as a part
of the house for use as a living room as well as for storage. The capacity of the bin
varies between 8 and 30 tonnes and has a life span of over 20 years. Sometimes, the
structure is divided into a number of columns in order to store different grains.
9 Storage 373

Reinforcing member of wall

Filling with rammed mud

Mud plaster Framework of bamboo

and bamboo splits

Timber floor
Joist
Rat proofing cone
1.37 m

Fig. 9.7 Bakhari storage structure

9.8 Improved Storage Structures

9.8.1 Double-Walled Polyethylene-Lined Bamboo Bin

This type of structure is an improved version of bamboo structure in which the

bamboo walls are plastered with mud from both sides and fitted with a lid. Such bins
are prone to the attack of insect pests. Plastic lining of the walls makes this structure
very effective against insect attacks. The structure is placed on a metal tripod having
rat barriers. A metal cone fitted at the bottom acts as outlet, which makes unloading
of grains easy. The cone always keeps the opening airtight due to constant grain
374 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

pressure head. Sometimes two rings are placed for easy handling with a capacity of
about 125 kg.

9.8.2 Pusa bin

LDPE sand-witched mud bins, also known as Pusa bin, are suitable for short-term
storage of food grains and sometimes fruits and vegetables (Fig. 9.8). It is rectangu-
lar and depth is usually 1 m. The structure depicts the features of metal or concrete
structures due to the similar insulation properties. This bin is made in capacity range
of 0.5–4 tonnes.

9.8.3 Welded Wire Mesh Bin

This bin has a capacity of about 3 tonnes for the storage of maize without affecting
their quality at the farmers’ level. The bin is fabricated using wire mesh hessian cloth
lining inside so that the air may circulate freely through it. The structure is mounted
on prefabricated steel elevated base to prevent the entry of rodents.

9.8.4 Domestic Cloth Structure

This structure is made of a cylindrical polyester cloth supported by bamboo poles on

a metal tub base. The cloth is relatively airtight and impervious to insects and
moisture. The metal base is impervious to rodents. Grains discharge from a small
opening made near the bottom.

Cement mortar
Lid to cover opening

Opening for loading

PVC lining (Bin should
be airtight to reduce
insect growth

Cement plaster on brick

wall (to prevent rats from
climbing up the bin)

Outlet for unloading

Fig. 9.8 Pusa bin

9 Storage 375

9.8.5 Masonry Storage Structure

The masonry structure is constructed using brick plastered with cement mortar. The
bin is normally constructed in two compartments with a capacity of about 1 tonne
each, but it can be extended to have more compartments.

9.8.6 Reinforced Cement Concrete Ring Bin

This design consists of prefabricated reinforced cement concrete rings placed one
over the other with gripping joints at the edge. The structure can be created with or
without masonry base. The capacity of the bin may be increased by increasing the
number of intermediate rings. The bin also suits as an indoor structure with adequate
moisture proofing.

9.8.7 Paddy Straw Mud Structure

This structure is an improved version of the straw structure. The paddy straw rope
structure is plastered on both sides with specially prepared mud. The structure has a
separate inlet and outlet and is constructed on a raised brick masonry platform to
prevent the entry of rodents.

9.9 Modern Storage Structures

9.9.1 Flat and Hopper Bottom Metal Bin

This bin is very common and made by either galvanized iron sheets or aluminium
sheets in 1.5–2 tonnes capacities. It can also be constructed on brick masonry, brick
masonry columns or prefabricated steel elevated base (Fig. 9.9). Adequate facilities
are provided for loading grains manually through a simple lifting device. The
structure is suitable for storage of wheat, paddy and maize in different climatic
conditions. Moreover, aluminium being rust proof, the periodical maintenance of the
storage structure is not necessary. Its reflecting surface has an additional advantage
in keeping grains cool by radiating heat quickly.

9.9.2 Hermetically Sealed Underground Structure

In this type of storage structure, molds do not develop on damp grains and insects die
due to the development of low oxygen concentration. The structure is hermetically
sealed. It is made with welded steel structure in 1.4 tonnes capacity and reinforced
cement concrete structure in 3 to 4 tonnes capacity. The construction is similar to that
376 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

Fig. 9.9 Metal bin used for

grain storage

of metal bins with painted external walls. The structure is placed below the ground
level leaving the top 500 mm above the ground level.

9.9.3 Reinforced Brick Bin

This design consists of two layers of brick masonry walls of 110 mm thickness with
a moisture barrier in between. The outer layer is reinforced by using steel and
plastered on both sides with cement mortar. The structure with the capacities varying
from 3.5 to 10.25 tonnes may be constructed.

9.9.4 Partly Underground and Partly Aboveground Storage

Structure

This structure has a capacity of about 7.5 tonnes and it is partially made under-
ground. The underground part of the structure is of reinforced cement concrete or
brick, while the aboveground part of the structure is of galvanized iron sheets. The
bin is suitable for construction in shallow water table areas.
9 Storage 377

9.9.5 Brick-Walled Silo

This type of structure is suitable for 1–50 tonnes capacities. The construction is
similar to the underground structure, made from brick and constructed on the ground
level. Reinforcement is essential when the height goes beyond 7–8 m, which makes
it uneconomical as a farm storage structure. The use of thick walls (gravity walls) can
reduce the need of reinforcement.
When the walls of structure are of bricks, mud or cement, moisture absorption
from the ambient air is possible. Addition of a moisture barrier material on the walls
can protect grains in humid regions. Painting of walls with coal tar or plastic paint
improves protection against moisture absorption.

9.10 Cover and Plinth Storage

The need arises on several occasions, particularly at the harvest period, for tempo-
rary storages of food grains for short term by the procurement agencies due to the
lack of covered storage space, particularly in India. Stacking of bags is done on a
wooden frame (dunnage) placed on a raised platform (plinth), and the lot is covered
with 800–1000 gauge thick polyethylene sheets (Fig. 9.10). This storage method is
known as cover and plinth (CAP) and common for the storage of wheat and paddy at
present in India [8, 9].
For CAP storage, the site should be at a higher elevation than adjoining ground
and away from drainage, canals and flood-prone area to prevent flooding of the area.
Normally the plinth is made with brick and mortar, which is at least 150 mm above
the ground level. Anti-termite treatment is essential to avoid termite attacks.
Dunnage is the structure made from wooden planks in general on which the bags
are stacked. Polyethylene sheet alone or sandwiched between two layers of mats and
bamboo are also suitable for use as dunnage for short-term storage. A wooden
dunnage is made using timber planks in which the planks are one over the other
and nailed. The lower member of dunnage is of 100  50 mm2 rectangular shape and
1 m long. In general, five planks at 362 mm distance from centre to centre are used.

Fig. 9.10 CAP storage

378 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

The upper member of dunnage is of 70  50 mm2 cross-section and 1.5 m long, and
5 planks are placed at 237 mm distance from centre to centre.
A stack of 9.3 m  9.3 m  6.2 m is generally preferred in CAP storage. The
height of stack may go up to 15 bags. The top of stack is made in inverted ‘V’ shape
for easy flow of rainwater after covering. A layer of bags filled with straw may be
suitable in some areas to minimize the damage due to rain, birds, temperature and
condensation.
After placing the polyethylene cover, the stack is lashed with ropes in some
regions where wind velocity is generally high. Plastic-net-type covers on the poly-
ethylene cover are more convenient to tie the stacks.
Aeration of the stack becomes important to control temperature and moisture.
Lifting the plastic cover is a common method of aeration in CAP system, and
frequency of aeration is once in a week in general when sky is clear. Curative
treatments, such as fumigation, are also in practice in some places.
The main disadvantages of CAP are that the fumigation is not very effective and
the covers are damaged at the time of high wind and during rains.

9.11 Cocoon Storage

These storage structures are made from plastic and fabrics for short-term storage of
food grains. The structures may be flexible or rigid depending upon the construction
material and need. The structure is also known as volcanic cubes. The volcanic cube
developed in Israel is a cubical structure prepared from 830-μm-thick PVC liners and
works as a hermetically sealed structure. These are available in 5–50 tonnes
capacities and used for outdoor storage of grains. Plasticity of the PVC liner
decreases upon use; however, gas-retention property increases. Rodents rarely
damage to the liners [3].
Rectangular-bunker-type structures are also used for temporary storage of wheat.
These are constructed on a well-drained and waterproof location using concrete or
reinforced sidewalls. Loading and unloading of grains are done with the help of
special machines. The bunkers are usually covered with PVC fabric after filling with
grains. The capacity may be up to 50,000 tonnes and fumigation is feasible in such
structures.

9.12 Bag Storage Godown/Warehouse

Usually warehouses are for the storage of bagged grains or packed food materials to
safeguard them from environmental factors. It is a very common grain storage
method in many developing countries. Any type of shaded structure or building,
such as stone structure, brick wall, walls of corrugated sheet, mud and wattle, walls
with or without plaster, earthen walls, floor of stone or cemented with a corrugated
sheet and slab or thatched roof can be used for stacking of bagged grains.
9 Storage 379

The warehouse system requires huge labour for building and liquidating the
stacks, and hence, the operating cost is very high. Losses due to pest attacks, spillage
during handling and operational difficulties are more. Seepage of water occurs in the
poorly constructed floors and ventilators, which increases the RH inside a ware-
house. Bag storage systems need less capital investment and sophisticated aeration
systems are not required for aeration and fumigation [3, 9].

9.12.1 Requirements of Warehouses

The warehouse facility includes the structure, equipment for packaging of grains in
bags, handling, ancillary facilities, quality evaluation equipment and chemicals for
pest control. The structures are constructed on a raised platform, well-drained
locations and away from flood-prone areas. The location of warehouse should be
at least at 500 m distance from waste management industries, such as bone crushing
mill, garbage dumping area, slaughterhouse, tanneries, hide curing units, sewage
water treatment plants, etc. The structures near a carriage head or a main road are
preferred. Typically, a godown or warehouse is made of the dimensions as given in
Table 9.5 [9].

The major requirements of a warehouse are as follows:

• Suitable foundation depending upon the site conditions.
• Damp proof and rigid floor, which should be free from cracks and crevices.
• Plinth at 800 mm above the ground level for truck loading and 1060 mm for the
rail-fed.
• Platform width of 1830 mm for road-head and 2440 mm for rail-fed.
• Slope of platform 1:40 (minimum).
• Longitudinal walls of brick or stone masonry up to 5.6 m height from the plinth
level and 230 mm thick.
• Steel ventilators of opening 1494  594 mm2 placed near the top on the longitu-
dinal walls.
• Air inlets steel ventilator of 620  620 mm2 placed at 600 mm above the floor
level.

Table 9.5 Bag storage godown/warehouse capacities and their dimensions

Internal dimensions (m)
Godown type Approx. capacity (tonnes) Length (m) Width (m) Height (m)
Small 1120 100 12 7.5
2700 250 20 9
5400 500 34 12
10,500 1000 35.5 18
28,510 2500 97.19 14.48
Large 57,020 5000 129.74 21.34
Note: For storage capacity above 2500 tonnes, godowns are divided in suitable compartments
380 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

• Suitable number of steel ventilators glazed with fixed wire mesh on the gable
walls.
• Single-span structural steel or tubular trusses for roof.
• Cantilever trusses are fixed on to RCC columns at 4000 mm height.

9.12.2 Estimation of Space Requirement for Stacking of Bags

For movement of bags in a godown, a 3 m wide gallery is kept along the width of the
warehouse. A gangway of 2 m is kept along the length and in the centre of the
warehouse. For inspection of stacks, a 1 m space around the entire stacking area
should be kept. In general, storage capacity of a godown is calculated using the
following expression:

L  W  ðH
1Þ  0:2
Q¼ ð9:1Þ
1:6
The factor 0.2 is used for the spaces provided between stacks, walls and stack and
inspection. Factor 1.6 is the average storage factor for different food grains and
equivalent to the space occupied in m3 by 1 tonne grain packed into the bags. A
typical stack arrangement in a godown is shown in Fig. 9.11.

Q. 9.1 Wheat stock of 1600 tonnes is to be stored in a warehouse. Make a stacking

arrangement when wheat is packed into 50 kg bags and each stack can accommodate
2000 bags. Calculate the dimensions of the warehouse and total floor area required

Stacks

Ventilators

Doors Inspection space

Inspection windows Gangways

Fig. 9.11 A typical bag storage structure with stacking floor plan
9 Storage 381

for storage. Show the stack arrangement. The length-to-width ratio of a stack should
be 1:0.6, height of a stack is 3.0 m, and size of a filled bag is 1  0.6  0.3 m.
Solution:

Weight of one stack ¼ 2000  50 ¼ 100,000 kg.

Therefore, number of stack ¼ 16,000  1000/100,000 ¼ 16 stacks.
Number of bag layers in a stack ¼ 3/0.3 ¼ 10.
Therefore, the number of bag in each layer ¼ number of bag in a stack/total
layers ¼ 2000/10 ¼ 200.
Considering the length: width, floor dimension (length  width) of each stack will be
10 m  6 m to accommodate 2000 bags in a stack of height 3 m on the basis of
bag size.
The stack arrangement is given as follows:

The inspection area is the space between the stacks and walls and between two
stacks, which is 1 m from all sides.
Total length of warehouse ¼ stack length (10 m  4) + inspection space
(1 m  4) + main handling space (3 m) ¼ 47 m.
Total width of warehouse ¼ stack width (6 m  2) + gangway (2 m) + inspection
space (1 m  2) ¼ 16 m.
Height of the warehouse ¼ stack height (3 m) + space between top of stack and truss
(1 m) ¼ 4 m.
Therefore, the floor area for the warehouse ¼ 47  16 ¼ 4716 m2.

9.13 Bulk Storage

Food grains are granular material, and therefore, individual grain has characteristics
of solids, whereas its composite mass characteristics are a combination of liquid and
solid. The composite mass of grains forms the shape of container in which it is
placed, but it does not flow downward to a slope unless the angle of slope is more
than a characteristic angle (angle of repose). Therefore, the flow characteristics of
382 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

food grains are studied as bulk materials. The theory of hydrodynamics is not
applicable to the flow of granular materials because of non-uniform pressure distri-
bution, definite grain size and shape and independence of flow rate on head (except
when head is less than the container diameter). Therefore, the properties of bulk
materials are discussed prior to the bulk storage systems.

9.13.1 Flow of Granular Material Through Orifice

The gravity flow behaviour of granular materials through small opening at the
bottom of a container is of great importance in the food industry. Extensive studies
are available on the flow pattern. Flow problems of different nature are encountered
during the discharge of granular materials. It includes jamming due to the formation
of arches, rat holing by the formation of stable open channel within a bin,
overflowing due to aeration and flow rate limitation by counter flowing air and
segregation due to different physical characteristics. When the granular material is
free flowing, two types of flow pattern are observed as shown in Fig. 9.12 [8].
Funnel flow (Fig. 9.12a) occurs in flat bottom bins or conical bottom bins when
the angle between the bottom of the bin and vertical is less than the critical angle
(hopper angle). The flow of material starts from the centre of the exit at initial stage
similar to the flow from a funnel, and then diameter expends slowly with the height
above the opening. Bin arching or jamming may occur in the case of fine particles
and material will flow erratically from the bin.
Mass flow (Fig. 9.12b) takes place when grain mass starts flowing towards the
exit at same time. The material flow and densities are uniform and first-in-first-out

Flowing
Material

Stationary
Material

(A) (B)

Fig. 9.12 Flow patterns of granular materials. (a) Funnel flow. (b) Mass flow
9 Storage 383

flow is ensured. This flow is suitable for feed hoppers of processing equipment
where material is loaded in the hopper from the top of the bin and discharge
continues from the exit.

9.13.2 Flow Rate Through Orifice

The flow of granular material forms an outlet at the flat bottom of a hopper or silo,
which is similar to the orifice flow. Several models and equations are available in
literature to obtain the flow rate through orifices. The granular flow through orifice is
continuous when orifice diameter is 5 times of the characteristic seed size, and it is
known as continuous flow regime of orifice flow. The flow is intermittent and orifice
clogs when orifice diameter is <5 times of the characteristic seed size and termed as
clogged regime of orifice flow. A correlation is proposed by Beverloo et al. for
outflow rate of material from the orifice [10]:
1
Q ¼ Cρg2 ðDo
kd Þ5=2 ð9:2Þ

where Q is the discharge rate (kg/s); ρ is the bulk density of granular material
(kg/m3); g is the gravitational acceleration (m/s2); d is the equivalent grain diameter;
Do is the orifice diameter (m); C is the discharge coefficient and k is the empirical
parametric constant.
The value of C varies between 0.52 and 0.64 and K varies in the range 1–2 for
mono-sized spherical particles. Other factors, such as friction, elasticity and shape of
the grain, hopper geometry external perturbations interstitial, etc., have only a minor
effect on flow rate. The Beverloo law is now the most applicable equation to
determine flow rate in continuous flow regime of orifice flow.
The continuous flow of grain through orifice is attained by the use of arch
breaking systems, which includes providing sinusoidal oscillation at hopper, oscil-
lation at orifice, obstacle placed above the orifice, electrical or magnetic field
application, etc. The rate of flow can also be increased by placing the orifice at
off-centres or by providing rotation to the orifice plate. The mass flow rate through
orifice increases with the increase in off-centre distances and rotational speeds. The
following equation can be used to estimate the flow rates through rotating orifices
[10]:

ðαþ12Þ
ð2R þ Do
kd Þ2 ω2 pffiffiffi
Q¼β g ρðDo
Kd Þ5=2 ð9:3Þ
gð Do
kd Þ

where R is the distance between hopper bottom centre and centre of the orifice (m);
ɷ is the rotation rate (rad/s) and α and β are the characteristic constants obtained by
experiments and depend upon the orifice location.
384 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

9.13.3 Deep Bins and Shallow Bins

The classification of bins is based on the concept of plane of rupture. A bin is called
shallow bin in which the plane of rupture meets the grain surface before it reaches to
the opposite side wall (Fig. 9.13a). When the plane of rupture coincides the wall of
opposite side before it emerges from grain surface (Fig. 9.13b), the bin is called deep
bin [8].
The shallow or deep bins are also defined based on the angle of repose as per
Rankine’s theory. In a silo of diameter L with grain depth of H and angle of repose
of grain as φ, the bins are defined as:
Shallow bin if


90 þ ∅
H < L tan ð9:4Þ
2

and deep bin when


90 þ ∅
H > L tan ð9:5Þ
2

In case the bins are not circular, the concept of equivalent diameter (4 times of
hydraulic radius) is used to define deep or shallow bins and given as follows:

For deep bin H  4R.

For shallow bin H < 4R.
The hydraulic radius (R) is defined as

Fig. 9.13 Location of plane of rupture in a bin. (a) Shallow bin. (b) Deep bin
9 Storage 385

Cross sectional area of bin

R ¼ hydraulic radius ¼ ð9:6Þ
Perimeter of bin

9.13.4 Silo

Silo is a vertical container used for storing food grains and other granular materials.
Bins and silos of varying capacities along with bulk handling, aeration and fumiga-
tion systems are very popular worldwide for grain storage. These structures are made
of masonry or reinforced concrete, or from metals (plain or corrugated), with conical
hopper or flat bottom (Fig. 9.14). In hopper bottom bins, the grains flow under
gravity and do not deposit in the bin while unloading (self-cleaning system) and
shovelling equipment is not required. The hopper slope angle of 60–70 is necessary
for continuous flow of material. Flat-bottomed bins are economical to construct and
accommodate more grain, but shovelling is required while emptying the bin, which
delays the operation. Cylindrical structures are preferred in place of shapes due to
better mechanical strength of the structure.
At present, silos have facilities for temperature recording and monitoring at
different grain depths. Temperature gradients in metal silos are high in comparison
to the wood or concrete bins due to high thermal conductivity of the metals, which
causes more moisture transfers inside the silo. Spout lines are also a concern in bulk
storages when unclean grain is stored. During filling of the bin, fine particles,
admixtures and small grains usually concentrate at the centre of a heap, whereas
whole grains flow away towards periphery. This core of high dockage in the centre
of the pile is known as spout line. It acts as a source of heat development and pest
propagation in the silo. The spout lines obstruct the air circulation during aeration,
which may affect the shelf life of grain.
Nowadays, the silos are coming sufficiently airtight so that controlled atmosphere
storage practices may be adopted and effective fumigations can be achieved. Flexi-
ble polyurethane-based sealant, acrylic-based or elastic adhesive sealants are now
used in the silos to make the joints airtight. The functioning of silos is further

Fig. 9.14 Commercial hopper bottom and flat bottom storage silos
386 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

improved using acoustic pest detection system, automated aeration and grain cooling
systems along with automatic pest control measures.

9.13.5 Silo Design

Silos are designed to bear all stresses while considering the properties of stored
grain, silo shape, material handling methods, etc. The foundation for silos is
designed to take the stresses from the upper structures, grain pressure (in the case
of flat bottom silo) and their supports. The internal surfaces of silos are finished as
per the food safety and sanitary standards.
The applicable loads include stresses from the grain, static pressure, dynamic
overpressure during filling and dynamic underpressure during discharge, arch for-
mation during discharge, collapse of arch, aeration and provision of eccentric
discharge (when applicable). The silo walls are the crucial from a design point of
view because the walls have to bear the lateral, vertical, shear, impact during filling
and self-weight. The characteristics of granular material are taken into account for
the design of silo walls [8, 11].
The static (lateral) grain pressure at any point of bin can be given as

Pl ¼ ρH ð9:7Þ

where Pl is the lateral pressure exerted by grains on the wall (kg/m2); ρ is the bulk
density (kg/m3) and H is the grain depth from the top of grain surface (m).
However, Eq. (9.7) did not consider the effects of friction. Therefore, Rankine
modified the above equation using a factor ‘K’, which is called Rankine’s earth
pressure coefficient. The Rankine’s equation is based on a principle which states that
‘the resistance to displacement by sliding along a specific plane in a non-cohesive
granular material is equal to the normal pressure exerted between the parts of the
mass on either side of the plane’ multiplied by specific coefficient, and Rankine’s
formula is given as

Pl ¼ KρH ð9:8Þ

1
sin ∅
K¼ ð9:9Þ
1 þ sin ∅
where Φ is the angle of internal friction of granular material.
Using Mohr circle diagram (Fig. 9.15), the maximum and minimum principal
stresses can be calculated as:

1
ðPv
Pl Þ
sin ∅ ¼ 21 ð9:10Þ
2 ðPv þ Pl Þ
9 Storage 387

Fig. 9.15 Mohr circle diagram for Rankine’s theory

Therefore, Pl can be given as

ð1
sin ∅Þ
Pl ¼ P
ð1 þ sin ∅Þ v

From Eq. (9.9) and Eq. (9.10), the relationship between Pl and Pv can be given as

Pl ¼ KPv ð9:11Þ

Airy proposed a theory to calculate the pressure exerted by the granular materials
in a shallow bin, which is given as follows:
( )2
1
Pl ¼ ρH pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð9:12Þ
μðμ þ μ Þ þ ð1 þ μ2 Þ
0

where μ is the internal coefficient of friction and μ0 is the coefficient of friction of

grain against the wall surface.
However, the above theories do not give the actual pressure in a silo or bin. Then,
Janssen proposed a theory to calculate pressure by accounting friction between grain
wall and grain mass. Jansen’s theory is applied for pressure distribution in deep bins,
which uses the friction between the grain and bin wall into consideration. It is widely
used for bins due to a higher safety factor.
Considering the distribution of pressure on a thin layer of grain in a bin
(Fig. 9.16), where
h ¼ Depth of bin (m)
μ ¼ Coefficient of friction of the grain on the wall
K ¼ Safety factor
Pv ¼ Vertical pressure (kg/m2)
Pl ¼ Lateral pressure (kg/m2)
388 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

Fig. 9.16 Distribution of

pressure on thin layer in a bin
Pv

dh

Pv + dPv

P ¼ Total lateral wall load (kg/m2)

ρ ¼ Bulk density of grain (kg/m3)
R ¼ Hydraulic mean radius (m)
r ¼ Radius of small disc of height dh (m)
π ¼ Constant
During storage, forces acting are:

1. Vertical downward force:

Due to mass of material ¼ bulk density  volume of material
¼ ρ  πr2dh
2. Vertical upward forces:
(a) Effective upward force ¼ unit upward force  cross-sectional area.
¼ dPv  πr2
(b) Due to friction factor grain and wall of grain:
¼ Force due to friction  area of the bin surface
¼ μPl  2πrdh

In case of equilibrium, all the downward forces will be equal to the upward forces,
so
 
ρ  πr 2 dh ¼ dPv  πr 2 þ ðμ  Pl  2πrdhÞ

Dividing by πr,

ρ r dh ¼ ðr dPv Þ þ ð2μPl dhÞ

Rearranging (dh) terms on one side,

9 Storage 389

ðρr dhÞ
ð2μPl dhÞ ¼ r dPv

ðρr
2μPl Þdh ¼ rdPv

dh ¼ ðrdPv Þ=ðρr
2μPl Þ

K ¼ Pl =Pv

dh ¼ ðrdPv Þ=ðρr
2μKPv Þ

Integrating the above expression for the limits h  (0, h); Pv  (0, Pv),

Zh ZPv
r
dh ¼ dP
ρr
2μKPv v
0 0

Let,

x ¼ ðρr
2μKPv Þ

dx ¼
2μK  dPv
dx
dPv ¼

2μK
Changing the limits with respect to x, Pv ¼ 0, x ¼ ρr; Pv ¼ PV, x ¼ (ρr
2μKPv),

Zh Z v
ρr
2μKP
r dx
dh ¼
x ð
2μKÞ
0 ρr

Zh Z v
ρr
2μKP

r dx
dh ¼
ð2μKÞ x
0 ρr

Zh Z v
ρr
2μKP
r 1
dh ¼
dx
2μK x
0 ρr

r
½ h
0 ¼
½ log e ðρr
2μKPv Þ
log e ρr
2μK
 
r ρr
2μKPv
h¼
log e
2μK ρr
390 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

 
r 2μKPv
h¼
log e 1

2μK ρr
 
2μKh 2μKPv

¼ log e 1

r ρr

Since hydraulic radius R ¼ r/2,

 
μKh μKPv

¼ log e 1

R ρR
 
μKh μKPv
e
R ¼ 1

ρR
h i
μKPv μKh
¼ 1
e
R
ρR
h i
ρR μKh
KPv ¼ 1
e
R
μ
The vertical pressure (Pv) below the top free surface at a depth ‘x’ is

ρR μKh
Pv ¼ ½1
e
R 
μK

Since K ¼ Pl/Pv; Pl ¼ K.Pv

h i
ρR μKh
Pl ¼ 1
e
R ð9:13Þ
μ

9.13.5.1 Maximum Lateral and Vertical Pressures

Equation (9.13) is valid for a relationship between lateral and vertical pressures as
the equation is derived by the extension of the same theory. Therefore, substituting
the values and rearranging gives


Pl 1
sin ∅ 2 π ∅
¼ ¼ tan
ð9:14Þ
Pv 1 þ sin ∅ 4 2

and

ρR 1
Pv max ¼   ð9:15Þ
μ tan 2 π
∅
4 2

It is considered that the pressure at the top grain surface is zero. But practically a
cone is formed at the top surface. While calculating the pressure on silo walls and
bottom of silo, the height of upper cone is calculated as
9 Storage 391

Z ¼ r tan ∅ ð9:16Þ

where r is the radius of bin.

Reimberts defined a characteristic abscissa ‘A’ as a function of internal friction
between grains and angle of friction between wall and grain, which is given as

R
A¼ ð9:17Þ
μK
The equations for ‘A’ for large bin wall can be given as

D Z
A¼ π ∅
ð9:18Þ
4 tan ∅0 tan 4
2
2 3

where D is the internal diameter of cylindrical silo or diameter of the inscribed circle
of a polygon.
The maximum pressure of a bin is expressed as

ρR
Pmax ¼ ð9:19Þ
μ
The grain load (Fl) balanced due to friction on the walls is a function of the depth
of grain (H ) and expressed as

ρSH 2
Fl ¼ ð9:20Þ
HþA
where S is the cross-sectional area of the silo (m2).
Lateral pressure at a depth ‘h’ of the grain in a silo is given as
"

2 #
h
Ph ¼ Pmax 1
þ1 ð9:21Þ
A

Total load at the bottom of silo is expressed as


1

H Z
F ¼ ρS H þ1 þ ð9:22Þ
A 3

Q. 9.2 Wheat is loaded in a smooth sheet metal silo having 4 m internal diameter up
to a height of 8 m. The bulk density of wheat, angle of internal friction and angle of
external friction are 925 kg/m3, 26 and 15 , respectively. Estimate the lateral load at
the bottom using Airy’s theory.
392 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

Solution:
∘
μ ¼ tan 26 ¼ 0:488

μ0 ¼ tan 15 ¼ 0:268
( )2
1
Pl ¼ ρH pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
0
μðμ þ μ Þ þ ð1 þ μ2 Þ
8 92
>
< >
=
1
P8 ¼ 750  8  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
>
: 0:488  ð0:488 þ 0:268Þ þ 1 þ 0:4882 > ;

n o2
1
P8 ¼ 750  8 
0:6074 þ 1:1127
P8 ¼ 750  8  0:338

P8 ¼ 2028:00 kg=m2

Q. 9.3 Paddy is loaded in a concrete silo having 3 m internal diameter up to a height

of 7 m. The bulk density of paddy, angle of internal friction and angle of external
friction are 750 kg/m3, 26 and 24 , respectively. Calculate the lateral load at every
meter using Airy’s theory from top to bottom and plot lateral pressure with depth of
grains.
Solution:

μ ¼ tan 26 ¼ 0:488

μ0 ¼ tan 24 ¼ 0:445
( )2
1
Pl ¼ ρH pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
0
μðμ þ μ Þ þ ð1 þ μ2 Þ
8 92
>
< >
=
1
Pl1 ¼ 750  1  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
> 0:488  ð0:488 þ 0:445Þffi þ 1 þ 0:4882 >
:
p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
;

n o2
1
Pl1 ¼ 750  1 
0:6748 þ 1:1127
Pl1 ¼ 750  1  0:313

Pl1 ¼ 234:74 kg=m2

9 Storage 393

2000

Lateral pressure, kg/m² 1500

y = 234.74x
1000 R² = 1

500

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Depth, m
Fig. 9.17 Variation of lateral pressure with increase in depth of grains

Pl2 ¼ 469:47 kg=m2 ; Pl3 ¼ 704:21 kg=m2 ; Pl4 ¼ 938:94 kg=m2 ;

Pl5 ¼ 1173:68 kg=m2 ; Pl6 ¼ 1408:41 kg=m2 Pl7 ¼ 1643:15 kg=m2 :

The variation of pressure with respect to depth of grain in silo is presented in

Fig. 9.17.

Q. 4 Wheat is loaded in a smooth sheet metal silo having 4 m internal diameter up to

a height of 8 m. The bulk density of wheat, angle of internal friction and angle of
external friction are 925 kg/m3, 26 and 15 , respectively. Estimate the lateral load at
the bottom using Janssen’s theory if the ratio of horizontal and vertical pressure
k is 0.40.
Solution:

ρ ¼ 925 kg=m3

μ ¼ tan 15∘ ¼ 0:268

k ¼ 0:4

R ¼ D=4 ¼ 4=4 ¼ 1
h i
ρR μKh
Pl ¼ 1
e
R
μ
h i
925  1
1
e
1
0:2680:48
Pl ¼
0:268
394 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

Pl ¼ 3451:49 ½1
0:424

Pl ¼ 1988:1 kg=m2

Q. 5 Paddy is loaded in a concrete silo having 3 m internal diameter up to a height

of 10 m. The bulk density of paddy, angle of internal friction and angle of external
friction are 750 kg/m3, 26 and 24 , respectively. Calculate the lateral load at every
meter using Janssen’s theory from top to bottom and plot lateral pressure with depth
of grains (k ¼ 0.4).
Solution:

ρ ¼ 750 kg=m3

μ ¼ tan 24∘ ¼ 0:445

k ¼ 0:4:

R ¼ D=4 ¼ 3=4 ¼ 0:75

h i
ρR μKh
Pl ¼ 1
e
R
μ
h i
750  0:75
1
e
0:75
0:4450:41
Pl1 ¼
0:445
Pl1 ¼ 1264:05 ½1
0:789

Pl1 ¼ 266:7 kg=m2

Pl2 ¼ 477:8 kg=m2 ; Pl3 ¼ 643:4 kg=m2 ; Pl4 ¼ 774:9 kg=m2 ;

Pl5 ¼ 878:5 kg=m2 ; Pl6 ¼ 959:4 kg=m2 ; Pl7 ¼ 1023:9 kg=m2 ;

Pl8 ¼ 1074:4 kg=m2 ; Pl9 ¼ 1114:9 kg=m2 ; Pl10 ¼ 1146:5 kg=m2 :

The variation of pressure with respect to depth of grain in silo is presented in

Fig. 9.18.

Q. 6 A silo of cylindrical shape with 2 m diameter and 20 m height is filled with

rice. Minimum and maximum bulk densities of rice are 750 and 850 kg/m3, respec-
tively. The angle of repose of rice is 25 , minimum and maximum angle of internal
friction are 25 and 30 , respectively, and coefficient of friction against the wall
material is 18 . Calculate the load on the bottom and the lateral thrust at 4 m below
the top surface on the walls.
9 Storage 395

1400
1200
Lateral pressure, kg/m²
1000
800 y = 399.81ln(x) + 232.16
600 R² = 0.9954

400
200
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Depth of grain, m

Fig. 9.18 Variation of lateral pressure with increase in depth of grains

Solution:

Height of upper cone surface of rice Z ¼ r  tan 25 ¼ (D/2)  tan 25 ¼ 0.4663 m.
Hydraulic radius R ¼ D/4 ¼ 2/4 ¼ 0.5 m.
Earth pressure coefficient (Eq. 9.9) K ¼ 0.4058.
Characteristic abscissa (Eq. 9.17) ¼ 0.5/(tan18  0.4058) ¼ 3.79 m.
Therefore, maximum pressure (Eq. 9.19) Pmax ¼ (850  0.5)/tan18 ¼ 1308 kg/m2.
For load at the bottom,
Height of grain against the wall H ¼ bin height
Z ¼ 20–0.4663 ¼ 19.534 m.
Therefore, load at the bottom (Eq. 9.22) F ¼ 8891.16 kg.
For lateral pressure at 4 m below the top surface (Eq. 9.21) P4m ¼ 998.39 kg/m2.

9.14 Hermetic Storage

When grain is stored in airtight containers, the CO2 concentration increases and the
O2 depletes naturally because of respiration of grains and organisms, and therefore,
grains remain safe. It is an old method of safe grain storage and termed as ‘hermetic
storage’. However, it is not cost-effective when grains to be stored are dry because of
rare chances of insect and mold growth. The hermetic structures can be made
underground or aboveground level in the form of sealed silos. The air exchange
from the environment into the grain bulk should not take place in hermetic storage
structures. The hermetic storage, particularly silos, can be equipped with fumigation
or controlled atmosphere systems. In semi-underground hermetic bins, condensation
of moisture may take place in the store when grain is stored for 3 years. The grain
losses are quite low (0.5%) for 2–3 years in hermetic storage.
Underground hermetic structures are cost-effective for small capacities; however,
for large capacities, grain handling is an issue. Economical airtight storage of grain
can also be made from PVC sheets when storage period is greater than 3 months.
396 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

Table 9.6 Material handling and ancillary equipment in a high-capacity silo storage system
Equipment type Intended use List of equipment
Transport equipment Conveying Chutes, conveyors (chain, flat belt, magnetic
belt, trough belt), bucket elevator, vibrating
conveyor, screw conveyor/elevator, pneumatic
conveyor, vertical lift, monorail or sortation
conveyors
Lift heavy object Jib, bridge, gantry/stacker cranes
Transport of Hand trucks, pallet truck, jacks, walkie stacker,
material platform truck, picker, side-loader, tractor
trailer, automatic guided vehicle
Positioning Single location Lift/tilt/turn table, ball transfer table, dock
equipment handling leveler, parts feeder, rotary index table, hoist,
manipulator, balancer, industrial robot
Unit load formation Restrict material Pallets, skids, slip-sheets, tote pans, pallet/skid
equipment load to maintain boxes, bins/baskets/racks, bags, cartons, crates,
integrity bulk load containers, strapping/tape/glue,
intermodal containers, shrink-wrap/stretch-
wrap machine, palletizers
Storage equipment Proper storage of Pallet racks, push-back rack, drive-in rack,
materials drive-through rack, sliding rack, cantilever rack,
flow-through rack, bin shelving, stacking frame,
storage drawers, storage container
Modern identification Collect and Barcodes, radio frequency identification tags
and control communicate the (RFID), magnetic stripes, voice recognition,
equipment information portable data terminals, machine vision, public
address system, etc.

9.15 Material Handling and Ancillary Equipment

Several equipment and material handling devices are required for efficient
operations of a storage system as given in Table 9.6.

9.16 Modified Atmosphere Storage

Changing the environment of a food package or store by introduction of gases (not

air) and no further modification or control are modified atmosphere (MA) storage.
Sometimes passive atmosphere modification (PAM) or equilibrium-modified atmo-
sphere (EMA) is also used for food packaging when gas modification is not done by
external means and it is allowed to establish gas equilibrium due to respiration.
Airtight packaging is the main requirement of MA operation [12, 13].
The major gases used in MA storage are N2, O2 and CO2. Nitrogen gas is used to
reduce the oxygen level that inhibits oxidation and aerobic microorganism’s growth.
A concentration of 10–15% CO2 in a food packet controls decay in fruits and
9 Storage 397

vegetables. Higher CO2 concentration can prevent mold growth in oilcakes with a
shelf life of 3–6 months.

9.17 Controlled Atmosphere Storage

Storage of produce at an altered but controlled atmosphere in respect of CO2 and O2

gas levels is controlled atmosphere (CA) storage [12, 13]. The gas composition
inside a sealed chamber changes continuously due to metabolic activity of the stored
materials and gas leakage through the minor opening in doors and walls. Therefore,
in CA storage, the gas concentrations are monitored periodically, and a preset
concentration is maintained by introducing fresh air, N2, CO2 and O2 or by using
chemical to remove CO2. CA storages are of two types depending mainly on
methods to control gas concentration inside the store. ‘Static control’ is a CA system
where the stored produce generates the required gas concentration. ‘Flushed control’
is a CA system in which the requisite gases are added into the store from an outer
source. A combination of both systems is better, in which O2 content is reduced
initially by flushing the nitrogen gas followed by CO2 injection in the store or
buildup of CO2 through respiration. Thereafter, the preset concentration of gases is
maintained in the store through ventilation and scrubbing.

9.17.1 Advantages of Storage Under CA

(a) Respiration rate of produce decreases considerably.

(b) Ethylene effect on metabolism is reduced, which delays the deterioration.
(c) Maintains fruit firmness because high CO2 concentration reduces enzymatic
activities on cellular membranes.
(d) Low nutrient loss.
(e) Reduces the degradation rate of chlorophyll and consequently the colour of
commodity remains stable for longer duration.
(f) Reduces damage due to physiological changes, such as chill injuries, formation
of spots, decay loss, enzymatic browning, water core formation and scald.
(g) Reduces growth of molds and insect due to low O2 and high CO2 in the
atmosphere.
(h) Increases shelf life of the commodity.

9.17.2 Disadvantages of CA Storage

(a) At less than 1% O2 and very low CO2, anaerobic condition prevails resulting in
alcohol formation and physiological changes in the commodity.
(b) Higher CO2 and lower O2 concentrations in the storage environment cause
abnormal metabolism of the commodities.
398 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

(c) CA storage is an expensive technology, and hence, only quality fruits are stored.
(d) CA storage suits more for small- and medium-sized fruits.

CA storage is a successful technology for food grain storage at normal temperatures.

However, in the case of perishables, low temperature storage is essential. In com-
mercial practice for fruits and vegetables, the temperature is 0  C for initial 1 week of
storage, and then required storage temperature (Table 9.7) may be maintained.
Further, the designed capacity of the refrigeration system for CA storage chamber
should not take more than 1 day to cool the produce to 0  C after filling.
Most of the fruits and vegetables require high RH conditions during storage.
Therefore, the difference between temperature of refrigerant and temperature at
which the commodity is to be stored should be less. Humidification equipment are
useful to maintain RH of air. Secondary cooling system (a system in which cooling
coils of refrigeration system do not come into direct contact with the store air) is a
better option for maintaining air humidity.
CO2 scrubbing materials, such as NaOH, Ca(OH)2, zeolites, H2O and activated
charcoals, are generally used to absorb excess CO2 generated in the store. Activated
charcoal-based scrubbers with PLC-controlled CO2 analyzer are popular nowadays.
No or very low oxygen and >20% CO2 concentrations are the best combination
for grain storage in a CA system, which destroys all the insects and inhibits mold
growth. In the case of CA storage of fruits and vegetables, higher O2 level is essential
to prevent the anaerobic respiration. CA storage conditions recommended for differ-
ent crops are given in Table 9.7 [14].

9.18 Cold Storage

Majority of perishables (fruits, vegetables, flowers, etc.) respire even after harvest.
Therefore, the most common method to increase the storage life and maintain quality
is low temperature storage. Further, the fruits and vegetables (except citrus and
chilling injury-prone crops) have longer shelf life when the storage temperature is
lower than their freezing point. The respiration rate of such commodities, within
their physiological temperature range, increases with temperature and 2–3 times
increase in metabolism rate takes place with every 10  C increase in temperature
[14, 15].
Thus, the cold storage is a complete system in which the store is equipped with
thermal insulation, and environmental temperature of store is controlled by a refrig-
eration system. The cold storage for the perishables requires low temperature and
high RH environment.
A produce is said to be ‘half cool’ when product temperature reaches to 50% of
the difference between initial produce temperature and temperature of cooling
media. After another half-cooling period, the product is said as ‘three-quarters’ cool.
9 Storage 399

Table 9.7 Recommended CA storage environments for some fruits and vegetables
Cooling Storage Freezing Optimum Storage
method temp point humidity life CO2 O2
Commodity (s)a ( C) ( C) (%) (week) (%) (%)
Fruits
Apples F 10
1.70 90–95 8–12 1–5 1–3
Banana F 13–14
0.5 90–95 6 2–5 2–5
Lemon F 9–10
3 85–90 6–8 0–10 5–10
Mosambi F 3–4
3 85–90 2–4 0–10 5–10
Orange F 5–7
3 to 85–90 4–8 0–5 5–10

20
Grapes F 0–1
3 to
2 90–95 5–12 1–3 2–5
Guava F 7–10
2 85–90 3 8–10 5–20
Litchi F 1–2
1.2 90–95 3–5 2–5 5–10
Mango F 13
1 85–90 2–3 5–8 3–7
Papaya F 10–13
2 to
1 85–90 1–3
Pineapple F 7–10
10 85–95 2–4
Pomegranate F 11
3 90–95 2–3 15–20 –
Sapota F 15–20
2 85–90 2–3
Strawberries R, F 0
1 90–95 1 15–20 5–10
Vegetables
Brinjal R, F 8–12
1 90–95 1
Cabbage R, F 0
1 98–100 4–24
Cauliflower R, H 0
1 85–90 2–4
Green onion H, I 0
1 95–100 3–4
Leafy H, I 0
1 95–100 1–2
vegetable
Lady finger R, F 7–10
2 90–95 1–2 4–10
Onion R, H 0–2
1 65–70 2–3
Green pea F, H 0
1 95–98 1–2
Field pea F, H 4–5
1 95 1
Capsicum R, F 7–10
1 90–95 2–3
Potato R, F 3–4
1 90–95 20–32
Tomato R, F 7–10
1 90–95 1 0–3 3–5
Source: Indian Horticultural database (2013)
a
R room cooling, H hydro-cooling, F forced-air cooling, I icing
400 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

9.18.1 Factors Responsible for Effective Cold Storage

1. Product quality: High initial quality of produce ensures longer storage life with
sustained quality.
2. Temperature: Reduction of time between harvest and precooling is a critical
factor. Storage at lower temperature is essential for the perishable commodities
to lower down the respiration rate and metabolic activities, softening, colour
changes, spoilage due to sprouting/cooling and moisture loss and maintain
textural integrity.
3. Relative humidity (RH): Very low RH results in wilting or shrivelling of
perishables, whereas very high RH favours decay in some cases.
4. Air circulation and package spacing: Proper air circulation ensures uniform
temperature inside the store and maintains uniform storage quality by removing
respiration heat. In the case of pellets storage, circulation of atmospheric air with
properly spaced containers/pellets is crucial.
5. Respiration rates, heat evolution and refrigeration: Respiration rate mainly
influences the refrigeration load of a cold store. Thus, calculation of heat genera-
tion is crucial.

9.18.2 Precooling

It is the first step and an integral part of the fresh produce supply chain. Precooling is
essential to remove the field heat and cool the produce to safe storage temperature as
quickly as possible. For most of the horticulture produce harvested at 35  C temper-
ature, 1-h delay in precooling can deteriorate quality equivalent to 20 h in storage at
safe storage temperature. The features of precooling are as follows:

• Reduces the respiration rate of produce.

• Retards ethylene production rate leading to delayed ripening.
• Loss of moisture and shrivelling of produce is reduced.
• Inhibits growth of microorganisms responsible for decay.
• Load on the refrigeration system of transport or storage facility is reduced.

Several methods of precooling on commercial scale are given as follows:

9.18.2.1 Icing
It is a common method for cooling of produce kept in boxes in which crushed ice
layer is placed on the top of the boxes. The ice melts by taking heat from the produce
and then cold water goes down and cools the produce at the bottom of the box.
Sometimes ice slurry is spread on the top of produce, which constitutes 60% fine
crushed ice, 40% chilled water and 0.1% NaCl. The water–ice ratios of slurry may be
altered from 1:1 to 1:4 depending upon the need. Top icing is a preferred method of
cooling during road transport. This method is also used for short-time cooling
immediately after harvest (e.g. initiating precooling of lettuce packed in the field).
9 Storage 401

9.18.2.2 Room Cooling

In room cooling, the produce is loaded in the cold store initially in the same
compartment where products are to be stored for long periods or in a separate
room and transferred to the storage compartment after precooling. The room has
high-capacity refrigeration system and cold air is passed across the produce using
normal air circulation fans. The cold air should come from the roof of the store and
circulate through the commodity by convection currents. It is a cost-effective method
but takes longer duration for cooling the produce.

9.18.2.3 Forced-Air Cooling

It is similar to that of room cooling with a difference that high-velocity blast fans are
used for air circulation. The air passes through the produce at high speed and high
temperature gradient results in rapid cooling.

9.18.2.4 Hydro-Cooling
The heat transfer between a solid and a liquid is rapid in comparison to that from a
solid material to air. In hydro-cooling, the produce is immersed in the chilled water
and the water is circulated through the chiller. It cleans the produce also during the
cooling process; however, the water may be contaminated and chances of spoilage
may increase. Two types of hydro-cooler, namely shower type and immersion types,
are commonly available. This method is not suitable for the produce, which absorbs
water and spoil.

9.18.2.5 Vacuum and Hydro-Vacuum Cooling

In vacuum cooling, partial vacuum is created and cooling takes place due to the
latent heat of vaporization in place of conduction. In leafy vegetables, the reduced
pressure around the leaves and in the centre is the same, and hence, cooling is quick
throughout the commodity. Vacuum cooling is not used for cooling the crops like
tomato. These coolers have strong construction to withstand the vacuum, and hence,
it is very expensive. Further, vacuum cooling is not effective for pellets.

9.18.2.6 Merits and Demerits of Different Precooling Methods

A comparison of different precooling methods is given in Table 9.8. Comparative
performances of these precooling methods are given in Table 9.9 [15–17].
The safe storage temperatures with their shelf life of selected fruits and vegetables
are given in Table 9.10 [14].

9.18.3 Cold Storage Layout

The required floor area of a cold store depends upon the ratio of volume of produce
to be handled and the possible stack height along with space required for material
handling and overhead space. In general, a height of 2 m is recommended, which is
equivalent to a pallet height. The vertical storage space may increase by using racks
or by stacking pallets up to 3 m height (when boxes are strong enough). Metal pallet
402 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

Table 9.8 Merits and demerits of various precooling methods

S. no. Methods Merits Demerits Commodities
1. Room Relatively Slow, water loss is very All types of produce
cooling less high
expensive
2. Forced air 6 to 10 times Requires more power to Grapes, strawberries,
cooling faster than force the air circulation/ mango and other fruits,
room cooling speed, a higher melons, tomato,
refrigeration capacity cucumber, capsicum,
system in comparison to cabbage, cauliflower,
the room cooling okra, brinjal, beans,
radish, carrot, mushroom,
etc
3. Hydro– 2 to 3 times Accumulation of decay- Leafy vegetable, lettuce,
cooling faster than causing microorganisms; asparagus, sweet corn,
room water-resistant containers celery, topped carrot,
cooling, no are needed; high radish and muskmelon
weight loss refrigeration system
required; economical only
when used round the year;
good only for water-
resistant commodities
4. Package Lesser Package and produce Prepackaged carrot and
icing expensive, should be water resistant; radish, lettuce, celery and
suitable need replenishment of ice leafy vegetables,
during for long-distance cauliflower, broccoli,
transport transport baby corn, asparagus, etc
5. Vacuum Quick and Expensive equipment, Celery, lettuce and other
cooling uniform suitable only for high- leafy vegetables,
and hydro- cooling, surface-to-volume-ratio asparagus, sweet peas,
vacuum reduced produce, high water loss broccoli, Brussels sprout,
cooling labour cost mushroom, sweetcorn,
cauliflower

bins can be stored vertically above 3 m height also. Overhead space of the height of a
box or more is also added into space for loading and unloading of pallets. Insulation
of walls, roof and floor is done with high-heat-flow-resistant materials. A layer of
vapour barrier materials between the walls and insulating material (6 mm polyethyl-
ene film to protect loose-fill cellulose, fibreglass, porous board of bead board and
fibreglass board) is sufficient to prevent moisture loss [18].

9.18.4 Airflow Design

Adequate airflow is an essential component of a cold storage for distributing cold air
throughout the storage area so that uniform air temperature is maintained. The
airflow design requirements for a cold storage are as follows:
9 Storage 403

Table 9.9 Effect of cooling on product and cost

Water
Hydro- Vacuum spray Room
Factors Forced-air cooling cooling cooling Ice cooling cooling
Cooling 1–10 0.1–1.0 0.3–2.0 0.3–2.0 0.1–0.3a 20–100
duration (h)
Moisture loss 0.1–2.0 0–0.5 2.0–4.0 – – 0.1–2.0
(%)
Contact of None Yes None Yes Yes, unless None
water and packed in
product watertight
packets
Chances of Less None Highb Highb Less Less
decay due to
contamination
Capital Less Less Medium Medium High Lessc
investment
System Less High High Medium Less Less
energy
efficiency
Requirement No Required No Required Required No
of water-
resistant
packaging
Portability Sometimes Not Common Common Common No
common
Feasibility for Rare Feasible No No Rare No
in-line cooling
a
Longer time is required when top icing is done
b
Sanitization of recirculated water is essential to reduce decay-causing pathogen load
c
Less chances when product is also stored in the same room; else long cooling times make it an
expensive system

• Designed airflow rate should be 0.3 m3/min/ton of commodity to be stored.

• The time required to achieve safe storage temperature of produce is less than
7 days after loading the store and airflow is maximum during this period.
• After 1 week of filling the commodity in store, airflow rate should be 20–40% of
the design capacity.
• Slow airflow rate reduces the chances of product moisture loss.
• Uniform distribution of air throughout the cold room is essential.
• In the case of pallets, a gap of 100–150 mm should be maintained between two
pallets.
• When the air travel length is more than 15 m in a room, air distribution through
ceiling ducts or a plenum is better.
404 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

Table 9.10 Safe storage temperature and shelf life during cold storage
Safe storage
temperature Minimum Storage Ethylene Chilling injury
Commodity ( C) RH (%) life (days) sensitivity temperature ( C)
Apple
1–4 90–95 30–180 2–3
Banana 13–15 90–95 7–28 11.5–13
Grapes 0.5–0 90–95 14–56 Sensitive
Guava 5–10 90 14–21 Sensitive 5
Mango 13 90–95 14–21 10–13
Oranges 0–9 85–90 56–84 3
Papaya 7–13 85–90 7–21 7
Peach
0.5–0 90–95 14–28 Sensitive to
Pear
1.5–0.5 90–95 60–210 freezing
Plum
0.5–0 90–95 14–35 temperature
Strawberries 0–0.5 90–95 5–7
Asparagus 0–2 95–100 14–21 Sensitive 0–2
Broad beans 0–2 90–98 7–14 Sensitive 0
Beet 0 98–100 120–180
(topped)
Cabbage 0 98–100 150–180 Sensitive
Carrots 0–2 98–100 210–270 Sensitive
Cauliflower 0 95–98 21–28 Sensitive
Capsicum 7–10 85–90 14–21 7
Cucumber 10–13 95 10–14 Sensitive 7
Eggplant 8–12 90–95 7 Sensitive 7
Ginger 13 65 180
Lettuce 0–2 98–100 14–21 Sensitive
Lemon 10–13 85–90 30–180 10
Melons 7–10 90–95 12–21 4–5
Onions 0 65–70 30–240 Sensitive 0
(dry)
Peas 0 95–98 7–14 Sensitive
Potato 4.5–13 90–95 150–300
Pumpkin 10–15 50–70 60–160 10
Spinach 0 95–100 10–14 Sensitive
Tomato 8–10 90–95 8–10 Sensitive 7–10
Fresh-cut 0 >95 2–3 weeks Sensitive 0
vegetables
(Source: NHB, 2013)
9 Storage 405

9.18.5 Ventilation

Ventilation is an essential component of the cold storage to maintain proper gas

composition inside the cold storage. The ventilation can be provided on the walls or
at the roof (attic). Rooftop mounted ventilation system reduces the moisture accu-
mulation under the roof. In flat roofs, the space is ventilated passively or mechanical
ventilation systems are used for improved air exchange efficiency. A passive system
requires 0.16 m2 area for air inlet for each ceiling area of 90m2 in cold storage.

9.19 Calculation of Refrigeration Requirements

The refrigeration capacity of a cooling system is given in kW or in terms of tons of

refrigeration. A ton of refrigeration is the heat required to convert one ton of ice into
0  C water in 24 h and it is equivalent to 12,660 kJ h. The refrigeration load for a
storage accounts for all the sources from where heat is entering into the room and
going out. The main sources of heat load are as follows [8, 15, 18]:

(a) Produce itself (heat produced due to respiration, transpiration or field heat).
(b) Walls, roof and floor through which heat loss is due to conduction or leakage.
(c) Equipment used in the store.
(d) Capacity and type of equipment selection depend upon the refrigeration load,
environmental temperature and RH of the store.

9.19.1 Field Heat

Field heat is the energy required for reducing the commodity temperature from its
harvest temperature to the recommended temperature for storage. Produce weight,
harvest temperature and cooling rate affect the field heat load. It is calculated using
the following expression:

Q1 ¼ M  C  ΔT ð9:23Þ

where Q1 is the rate of field heat removal (kcal/24 h); M is the weight of the produce
to be cooled in 24 h (tons); C is the specific heat of the produce (kcal/kg  C) and ΔT
is the temperature drop of produce in 24 h ( C).

9.19.2 Heat of Respiration

It is the heat produced by the produce during respiration. Respiration heat load
decreases with decrease in produce temperature, and it stabilizes when the required
preset temperature is reached. The respiration load is calculated using the following
expression:
406 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

Q2 ¼ M  K ð9:24Þ

where Q2 is the respiration heat load (kcal/24 h) and K is the respiration heat
production rate (kcal/24 h).
The K value for calculation is given as the average value of heat production
respiration rates at the average produce temperature during the initial 24 h of cooling.

9.19.3 Conductive Heat Gain/Loss

Heat loss in a cold storage takes place due to conduction through the floor, store
walls and ceiling. Heat loss due to conduction is a function of the temperature
gradient between the inside wall of cold storage and atmospheric temperature,
thermal resistance to heat transfer of the floor, walls and ceiling. Heat gain may
take place when the store temperature is less than the surroundings, and heat loss
takes place when outside air is colder than that of the cold storage. The gain or loss
from each side of the room is calculated separately and then summed up. Total
conductive heat gain or loss is calculated as

Q3 ¼ 24  A  ðT o
T i Þ=R ð9:25Þ

where Q3 is the total conductive heat gain or loss (kcal/24 h); A is the area of floor,
wall or ceiling (m2); To is the outside environment temperature ( C); Ti is the
temperature inside the cold storage ( C) and R is the resistance value of the
respective component (h m2 K)/kcal.

9.19.4 Equipment Heat Load

Equipment used for handling operations in the storage area generates heat, which
adds heat load to the refrigeration system. Some permanent equipment installations
and lights in the cold storage are considered for load calculation. Each kW/h of lights
used in storage adds 865 kcal/h to the cooling load. The equipment load is estimated
from the following expression:
 
Q4 ¼ 865  t o Ew þ t m  E m þ t p  Eo ð9:26Þ

where Q4 is the heat produced by equipment and other reasons (kcal/24 h); Ew is the
load of electric lights (kW); Em ¼ load for motors (kW); Eo is the load due of other
items (kW) and to, tm and tp are the operating time of each component (h).
9 Storage 407

9.19.5 Convective Heat Gain/Loss

Atmospheric air enters in the cold storage or cold air moves outside through leaks,
opening of doors, etc., which adds to the heat load. Such air exchange causes heat
loss/gain due to convection, which are on a higher side during loading of the
commodity and minimal when the doors are closed. The heat gain or loss due to
convection is expressed by

Q5 ¼ ðho
hi Þ  V  N=ρa ð9:27Þ

where Q5 is the convective heat gain/loss (kcal/24 h); ho is the enthalpy of atmo-
spheric air (kcal/kg); hi is the enthalpy of cold air inside the store (kcal/kg); V is the
volume of storage (m3); N is the number of air exchange/24 h and ρa is the average
specific volume of outside air (m3/kg).

9.19.6 Total Cooling Load

Addition of above given loads yields the total refrigeration load due to gain or loss of
heat for a cold storage. An additional load of 10–20% is added as a factor of safety
(service factor) to the total refrigeration load. This factor takes care of unusually hot
weather or unforeseen heat load of short time. The loss of time during defrost of
refrigeration system is also taken into account. Defrost of refrigeration system is
done 4 times in 24 h during loading of commodity and each defrost cycle is about
30–60 min. Thus, the effective operating time of refrigeration system is 20–22 h in a
day in place of 24 h, and hence, a time loss factor of 1.1 to 1.2 is multiplied. Hence,
the refrigeration system capacity is calculated by multiplying the total refrigeration
load with service and time loss factors.

9.20 Economic Aspects of Storage

Perishable crops are seasonal in nature and their value varies throughout the year.
The storage quantity of a commodity depends upon the returns to the storage. It is the
sum of the current price relative to the price expected at the time of disposal after
deducting the storage cost. The decision of storing a commodity depends upon the
expected increase in the commodity prices.

9.20.1 Variable Costs

This cost is incurred only when commodity is stored for certain period. The highest
variable cost linked with a storage system is the interest on investment. The cost of
interest depends on the storage duration, the existing interest rate and the purchase
408 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

price of the commodity. The variable costs include the cost of utilities for drying,
aeration, conveyance and handling.

9.20.2 Monitoring Costs

The quality of a commodity depends upon temperature, moisture content, insects

and molds. Thus, regular monitoring, after 1–2 weeks interval in summer and after
every 3–4 weeks in winters, is essential. Monitoring costs cover the cost incurred on
workers deployed for taking samples and equipment used for sampling and analysis.

9.20.3 Pest Management Costs

The pest management in grain storage is of two types, i.e. preventive and curative,
and the costs incurred on both are the pest management cost. The steps taken to
prevent insect damage include sanitation of the structure prior to storage, monitoring
for insects during storage period and intermittent fumigation.

9.20.4 Shrinkage

The weight decreases of a commodity due to moisture loss is termed as shrinkage.

This loss usually takes place when the commodity is stored at higher-moisture
contents. A gain in weight may also be obtained, for example wheat purchased at
9% moisture content in summer.

9.20.5 Quality Deterioration

Grain quality may deteriorate with the storage period, and a poor-quality commodity
receives lower prices, unless there is a gap in demand and supply. Such decrease in
price due to poor quality is a part of storage cost.

9.20.6 Fixed Costs of Storage

The fixed costs of storage are the capital investment in the facility. It includes
investments on storage structure, quality monitoring equipment, handling devices,
aeration equipment and accessories, site preparation expenditures, installation of
structures and equipment and construction of facility. The annual fixed storage costs
of a commodity cover interest, cost of depreciation of facilities and equipment, taxes
levied, insurance and maintenance cost.
9 Storage 409

The amount of interest on the fixed cost is the payable interest on the total
investment on creation of storage facility. Depreciation cost is the investment
made on the facility and equipment divided by the useful life of the storage facility.

9.20.7 Returns on Investment (ROI) in Storage Structures

The ROI for a storage facility is calculated as:

ROI ¼ Return to Storage
Cost of Investment=Cost of Investment ð9:28Þ

Example The following example illustrates the method of calculating cost econom-
ics of a storage structure for a farmer:

ROI ¼ Ps
Pp
C s

where

Ps is the cost of purchase at the time of storage (Rs.)

Pp is the selling (market) cost at the time of liquidation (Rs.)
Cs is the storage cost involved (Rs.)

The margin (%) may be calculated as the ratio of ROI and cost involved in
purchase and storage (Ps + Cs).
A farmer gets a price of Rs. 20 per kg for wheat when he sells wheat immediately
after harvest in May. When the farmer decides to store the wheat in a warehouse for
sale later (e.g. in December), the storage cost is added. The transportation cost of the
produce to the warehouse is Rs. 8 per 100 kg. The handling charge is Rs. 2 per
100 kg. The storage charge of the warehouse is Rs. 4 per 100 kg per month. There is
likely a loss of 1% grain during loading, unloading and storage. The interest rate is
12% per annum. The total cost of the storage per 100 kg will be as follows:

Transport charge (field to warehouse): Rs. 8.00

Handling charge (field to warehouse): Rs. 2.00
Warehouse charge (8 months): Rs. 32.00
Charge for losses: Rs. 20.00
Interest charge (8 months): Rs. 160.00
Transport charge (warehouse to market): Rs. 8.00
Handling charge (warehouse to market): Rs. 2.00
Total charge: Rs. 232.00

Thus, a farmer will get the benefit of storing wheat only when the market price of
wheat is more than Rs. 232.00 per 100 kg.
410 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

9.21 Exercise

Q. 1. What is the requirement of storage? How is storage of perishable foods

different from non-perishable/durable foods?
Q. 2. Specify the functional requirements of storage of foods. What is the
differeence between the requirements of perishable and non-perishable foods?
Q. 3. How do temperature, relative humidity and water activity affect the storage
of food materials?
Q. 4. Which destuctive agents are responsible for damage of food during storage?
Explain in brief.
Q. 5. Which factors affect the spoilage of food material? Discuss their
contributions.
Q. 6. Explain the phenomena of moisture accumulation of grains during cold
environmental condition with suitable sketch.
Q. 7. Discuss various traditional storage structures of grains. Explain the
constuctional features of Kothar-type storage structures.
Q. 8. What are CAP storage structures? Explain in brief.
Q. 9. Wheat stock of 100 tonnes is to be stored in a warehouse. Make a stacking
arrangement when wheat is packed into 50 kg bags and each stack can accommodate
1000 bags. Calculate the dimensions of the warehouse and total floor area required
for storage. Show the stack arrangement. The length-to-width ratio of a stack should
be 1:0.6, height of a stack is 3.0 m, and size of a filled bag can be taken as
1  0.6  0.3 m.
Q. 10. For a grain storage silo, prove the following expression for estimation of
lateral loads:
h i
ρR μKh
Pl ¼ 1
e
R
μ
where h ¼ depth of bin (m); μ ¼ coefficient of friction of the grain on the wall;
K ¼ safety factor; Pl ¼ lateral pressure (kg/m2); ρ ¼ bulk density of grain (kg/m3)
and R ¼ hydraulic mean radius (m).
Q. 11. Grains are loaded in a smooth sheet metal silo having 2.65 m internal
diameter up to a height of 9 m. The bulk density of grains, angle of internal friction
and angle of external friction are 900 kg/m3, 22 and 11 , respectively. Estimate the
lateral load at every meter depth from the top to bottom using Janssen’s theory if the
ratio of horizontal and vertical pressure k is 0.42.

[Ans: 365.5, 670.0, 949.7, 1195.6, 1410.7, 1604.3, 1773.4, 1924.0, 2056.1 kg/m2]

Q. 12. Grains are loaded in a smooth sheet metal silo having 4.5 m internal
diameter up to a height of 9.0 m. The bulk density of grains, angle of internal friction
and angle of external friction are 875 kg/m3, 25 and 19 , respectively. Estimate the
lateral load at every meter from the top of silo using Airy’s theory.
9 Storage 411

[Ans: 296.6, 593.2, 889.8, 1186.3, 1482.9, 1779.5, 2076.1, 2372.7, 2669.3 kg/m2].

Q. 13. Paddy is loaded in a concrete silo having 2.4 m internal diameter up to a

height of 6.6 m. The bulk density of paddy, angle of internal friction and angle of
external friction are 755 kg/m3, 25 and 23 , respectively. Calculate the lateral load
at the bottom using Airy’s theory.

[Ans: 1632.23 kg/m2].

Q. 14. Grains are loaded in a smooth sheet metal silo having 4.5 m internal
diameter up to a height of 9.0 m. The bulk density of grains, angle of internal friction
and angle of external friction are 875 kg/m3, 25 and 19 , respectively. Estimate the
lateral load at every meter from the top of silo using Janssen’s theory. Assume
k ¼ 0.4.

[Ans: 329.1, 621.0, 878.5, 1107.4, 1307.7, 1488.0, 1645.4, 1785.6, 1908.7 kg/m2].

Q. 15. Wheat is loaded in a concrete silo having 3 m internal diameter up to a

height of 9 m. The bulk density of wheat, angle of internal friction and angle of
external friction are 950 kg/m3, 24 and 22 , respectively. Calculate the lateral load
at every meter using Airy’s theory from the top to bottom and plot lateral pressure
with depth of grains.

[Ans: 325.2, 650.4, 975.6, 1300.8, 1625.9, 1951.1, 2276.3, 2601.5, 2926.7 kg/m2].

Q. 16. Wheat is loaded in a smooth sheet metal silo having 4.5 m internal
diameter up to a height of 12 m. The bulk density of wheat, angle of internal friction
and angle of external friction are 900 kg/m3, 27 and 12 , respectively. Estimate the
lateral load at the middle and at the bottom using Janssen’s theory if the ratio of
horizontal and vertical pressure k is 0.43.

[Ans: 1834.9, 2966.2 kg/m2].

Q. 17. Paddy is loaded in a smooth sheet metal silo having 2.10 m internal
diameter up to a height of 7 m. The bulk density of grains, angle of internal friction
and angle of external friction are 566 kg/m3, 24 and 17 , respectively. Estimate the
lateral load at every meter depth from the top using Janssen’s theory if the ratio of
horizontal and vertical pressure k is 0.39.

[Ans: 197.1, 354.4, 479.7, 579.7, 659.4, 722.5, 773.0 kg/m2].

Q. 18. Paddy is loaded in a smooth sheet metal silo having 2.0 m internal diameter
up to a height of 10 m. The bulk density of grains, angle of internal friction and angle
of external friction are 586 kg/m3, 21 and 19 , respectively. Plot a graph after
412 R. K. Vishwakarma et al.

estimation of the lateral load at every meter depth from the top using Janssen’s
theory if the ratio of horizontal and vertical pressure k is 0.41.

[Ans: 209.5, 367.1, 486.3, 575.8, 643.9, 695.0, 733.4, 762.3, 784.5, 800.6 kg/m2].

Ans of Q.15. Ans of Q.18.

3500 900
762.3 800.6
695.0
800
3000
2601.5
601. 784.5
700 575.8
2926.7
292 733.4
Lateral pressure, kg/m²

Lateral pressure, kg/m²

2500
1951.1
951 600
367.1 643.9
2000 2276.3
2276
76.3
3 500
1300.8
400 486.3
1500
1625.9
625
650.4
0.4 300
1000
975.6
975 200 209.5
500
100
5
325.2
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Depth, m Depth, m

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Processing of Cereals
10
Pragati Kaushal and Navneet Kumar

Abstract

Cereal processing is one of the essential components of the food chain in context
with its volume and consumption all over the world. In this chapter, a detailed
insight on the importance of cereals, characteristics, cereal grain structure,
properties, nutritional profile, antinutritional factors, quality standards, produc-
tion, and processing methods with special emphasis on milling techniques is
discussed. The effects of various processing techniques on quality of cereals and
cereal-based products are explained in detail. Milling plays a vital role in cereal
processing so as to convert it into edible products. The parboiling and milling
process of rice is explained. The milling of wheat includes cleaning, conditioning,
and milling with break and reduction system, and purification is explained along
with standard specification of milling products. The different unit operations used
in wet and dry milling of corn are also explained using flow diagrams. The
important milling equipment like rubber roller, hammer mill, ball mill, and
various separators are explained using simple schematic diagrams. The value-
added processed products of rice, wheat, and corn are also listed to emphasize the
recent trends of cereal processing.

P. Kaushal (*)
Department of Food Science and Technology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab,
India
N. Kumar
Department of Processing and Food Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering and
Technology, Anand Agricultural University, Godhra, Gujarat, India

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 415
Ltd. 2022
H. K. Sharma, N. Kumar (eds.), Agro-Processing and Food Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7289-7_10
416 P. Kaushal and N. Kumar

Keywords

Composition and nutrient potential of cereals · Wheat processing · Rice

processing · Corn processing · Milling equipments · Quality standards ·
Applications

10.1 Introduction

Cereals are the edible grains of Gramineae family that fulfills 70–80% day-to-day
energy needs especially in South Asia. Cereals are the supreme source of food [1]
and cereal-based foods are the chief source of energy, micronutrients (vitamins and
minerals), and protein for the global population. In general, cereals are inexpensive,
effortlessly preserved, and easily transported and do not deteriorate readily when
kept dry. Cereals are considered to have low fat content, which generally varies from
2 to 5%.
The major cereals grown in the world include wheat, rice, barley, maize, oats,
sorghum, and rye. Wheat is well-liked across the globe because of its utilization in a
number of food products such as bread, cakes, pastries, etc. Rice is the foremost food
for nearly half of the global community and constitutes almost as much as 80% of the
calories for most of Asia’s people. Wheat ranks second to rice in worldwide use and
is the principal cereal grain used in European countries. Corn is widely used in
Central and South America.

10.2 Importance of Cereals

Cereal constitutes 60–70% starch and supplies energy-rich foods for humans. A
perfect nutritious diet plan should provide 20–30 g/day of dietary fiber, which can be
attained simply by consuming cereal grain–based products. Wheat and wheat
products can comfortably provide the required amount of protein to the humans,
but wheat gluten is deficient in essential amino acids, lysine, and threonine and
therefore can be fortified with lysine-rich proteins. Rice protein, which is richer in
lysine, can be combined. To make a complete protein, it is good to combine cereal
and pulses.
Cereals are the prime source of fat-soluble vitamins. Intact cereal kernels fulfill
20–30% of the day-to-day demands of minerals like calcium, zinc, copper, etc. The
seed or the kernel of the cereal grain is composed of three main segments or parts,
i.e., bran, germ, and endosperm. The greater part of the minerals, iron and phospho-
rus, and the B-complex vitamins are concentrated specifically in the bran and germ
portion of the kernel. Wheat and rice are of utmost importance in context to cereals
due to their prime role in human nutrition and constitute about 55% of the overall
cereal production.
10 Processing of Cereals 417

10.3 Major Popular Cereals

Wheat Wheat is one of the predominant cereals consumed worldwide. The main
parts of wheat include bran, germ, and endosperm. Wheat grain is composed of
approximately 85% endosperm, 13% husk/bran, and 2% embryo. The outer portion
of wheat is known as bran that constitutes 13% of the total portion. Bran further
consists of several layers predominantly epidermis, hypodermis, tube cells, cross
cells, testa (seed coat), and nuclear tissue. Testa (seed coat) protects the endosperm
and is responsible for the color of wheat. Germ or embryo constitutes 2% of the
wheat seed and is known as sprouting section of the seed. Germ holds maximum
amount of protein, lipids, and sugar. The major portion (85%) of the seed is
composed of endosperm (Fig. 10.1), which is the storehouse of nutrients like
riboflavin, thiamine, pantothenic acid, niacin, and proteins and is used to make
white flour.

Maize It is one of the most important cereals (Fig. 10.2) that is widely consumed all
over the world after wheat and rice. Sweet corn is a kind of maize with sweet grain.
The three foremost parts of maize grain (Fig. 10.2) are seed coat, endosperm, and
germ. Seed coat is the thin layer surrounding the whole grain, whereas endosperm is
the bigger portion popularly known as storage tissue of the grain. In maize, the
endosperm is nearly two-thirds of the kernel’s volume and accounts nearly 86% of
its dry weight. In the starch and bound protein, 10% (gluten) is the major component
of endosperm [2]. The maize oil is nearly 4% by weight of the grain and germ is the
main source of vegetable oil. Mature germ (Fig. 10.2) is composed of central embryo
axis and scutellum. Germ consists of a large shield-shaped cotyledon popularly
known as scutellum. The axis of the embryo is submerged in the scutellum and it

Fig. 10.1 Structure of wheat grain

418 P. Kaushal and N. Kumar

Fig. 10.2 Structure of maize grain

Fig. 10.3 Structure of rice grain

comprises a plumule (at upper end) and radicle (at lower end). Both radicle and
plumule are confined in sheath.

Rice Rice (Fig. 10.3) is a distinctive cereal that prefers to grow scarcely in hot and
humid climate. Nearly 80% of the rice consumed in world is planted in Asia,
specifically in submerged fields known as “paddies.” The rice grain (Fig. 10.3)
consists of hull (16–28% db) and caryopsis. The detaching hull during the milling
process produces brown rice. The brown rice consists of endosperm (90–91%),
pericarp (1–2%), aleurone plus nucellus and seed coat (4–6%), germ (1%), and
10 Processing of Cereals 419

Fig. 10.4 Structure of barley grain

scutellum (2%) [3]. The aleurone layer contains numerous coatings usually 1–5 and
is comparatively thicker at the dorsal side.

Barley It is another predominantly consumed cereal after wheat, rice, and corn.
Barley grain mainly consists of endosperm, embryo, and covering layers of maternal
origin (hull) (Fig. 10.4). The starchy endosperm surrounding the aleurone layer
consists of maximum share, 75% of its weight of the barley grain [4]. The hull
ranges 7–25% and comprises nearly 13% of grain weight [5]. Barley (low in protein)
is specifically used for malting. On the other hand, high-protein barley has wider
applications in animal feed especially for pigs and cattle.

Sorghum Sorghum comes under the category of millets. Millets are the group of
tiny implanted grasses widely grown around the world as cereal crops. It is well-
liked especially in Africa and Asia and is suited best for livestock feed. Sorghum
grain is generally used in baking and its syrup is used as a sweetener. The composi-
tion of sorghum grain is generally similar to that of corn, except for lower oil content.
Sorghum grain is composed of approximately 84% endosperm (storage tissue), 6.5%
pericarp (outer layer), and 9.5% embryo.

Oats This cereal is considered as an important one predominantly in American and

European countries. It has a blend of nutrients that possess health benefits particu-
larly related to gastrointestinal problems. The main parts of oat include hull, germ,
bran, and endosperm. A hull, which contains nearly 90% of the total insoluble fiber,
is about 20–30% of the weight of oat kernel. Endosperm is rich in proteins,
carbohydrates, and B-complex vitamins. On the other hand, germ/embryo is a very
good source of essential fatty acids, trace minerals, and vitamins. Bran is also a good
source of fiber, B-complex vitamins, and trace minerals. Oats contain excellent
amounts of dietary fibers like β-glucan, lipids, phytochemicals, etc.
420 P. Kaushal and N. Kumar

Rye It is particularly used for preparing crisp bread and health cereals and has not
gained much importance in the market. The main parts of rye kernel are endosperm,
hull, and germ. A whole kernel consists of starchy endosperm nearly 80–85%, the
germ 2–3%, and hull 10–15% [6]. Rye is also an exceptionally good source of
dietary fiber.

Fonio This cereal crop is well-liked in western regions of Africa and even in
specific parts of India. This cereal is particularly employed in preparing porridge,
bread, and beer. The endosperm comprises the major part of the fonio’s kernel
weight. The foremost parts of fonio grain are bran, endosperm, scutellum, and germ.
Bran constitutes about 23% of fonio’s kernel weight [7]. The four structural parts of
endosperm are the aleurone layer and the peripheral, corneous, and floury endo-
sperm. The thick cell walls of aleurone cells contain fat/oil, protein, minerals, and
enzymes. The peripheral, corneous, and floury endosperms are beneath the aleurone
layer and fonio has a single aleurone layer that completely encircles the endosperm.
The chemical composition of fonio grains is similar to other cereals and
pseudocereals with starch as the major component. The starch content can be over
80% on the dry basis. White fonio contains 7–17% moisture, 4.4–8.5% protein,
1.1–4.7% fat, 0.5–18.2% dietary fiber, and 0.5–3.1% ash [8]. Fonio is a rich source
of micronutrients like copper, zinc, iron, and calcium and contains a moderate
amount of macronutrients like protein and fiber.

Buckwheat This cereal crop is also very popular and is mainly consumed as flour
and flour-based products. It is categorized as a pseudocereal; therefore, it shows both
differences and similarities with cereals. It is very rich in nutrients like protein and
amino acids and widely used in noodles, porridge, and pancakes. Buckwheat grain
mainly consists of endosperm, embryo, and hull (pericarp) and is considered as an
excellent source of macronutrients, micronutrients, and bioactive compounds. Buck-
wheat contains 1.5–3.7% fat and 11–14% protein with a balance of all essential
amino acids. It also consists of 0.65–0.76% reducing sugars, 0.79–1.16%
oligosaccharides, and 0.1–0.2% long-chain polysaccharides along with a good
amount of thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, folate, and ascorbic acid
[9]. In buckwheat grain, starch reserves are stored in the endosperm, as in common
cereals, and the embryo, rich in fat and proteins, extends through the starchy
endosperm [10]. The starchy endosperm layer is surrounded by the aleurone layer
(rich in protein).

Quinoa It is a very popular pseudocereal and is mainly consumed all over the world
due to its well-balanced amino acid profile, which is rare in other cereal grains. The
exceptional nutritional value of quinoa relies on its balanced composition of high-
quality protein, minerals, fibers, and minor compounds (such as antioxidants and
vitamins). Quinoa contains 52–74% starch, 7–9.7% dietary fiber, and 9–17% pro-
tein. Oil content ranges from 2 to 9.5% being rich in essential fatty acids such as
linoleic and α-linolenic and contains high concentrations of natural antioxidants such
as α- and γ-tocopherol [11]. Embryo together with seed coat represents the overall
10 Processing of Cereals 421

bran fraction present in quinoa. Embryo is a rich source of fat, minerals, and dietary
fiber.

Though wheat, rice, and maize simultaneously constitute 87% of the overall world-
wide grain production. But there are other noticeable cereals that are consumed in a
particular region. “Teff” belongs to such category of cereals, planted chiefly in
Ethiopia, but is rarely familiar in other parts of the globe. It contains a very good
amount of protein and fiber and is frequently consumed as staple food or occasion-
ally utilized as breakfast cereal.

10.4 Production of Cereals

The enormous demand and supply of cereals in the worldwide trade are creating
outstanding platform for the export of cereal-based products. According to the Food
and Agriculture Organization, the total world cereal production during 2019 reached
2980 million tons, evincing 2.4% increase as compared to 2018 (Table 10.1). China
is the largest producer of cereals in 2019 (615 million tons), followed by the United
States of America (422 million tons) and India (324 million tons). The global
production of cereals has come down from 2970 million tons in 2017 to 2910
million tons during 2018 (Table 10.1).

10.5 Properties of Cereals

The physical properties of cereal grains play a wide role in designing various
equipment related to handling, storage, aeration, etc. The most important properties
in this category are 1000 grain weight, sphericity, roundness, etc. These properties
differ extensively, depending on density, moisture content of cereal grains, etc.

Table 10.1 World cereal production statistics (million tons) [12]

Countries
Russian Unites States of
Year Brazil China India Federation America World
2010 75.16 498.00 268.00 59.61 401.00 2460.00
2011 77.58 521.00 288.00 91.78 386.00 2580.00
2012 89.90 541.00 293.00 68.75 356.00 2560.00
2013 101.00 554.00 295.00 90.36 434.00 2760.00
2014 101.00 559.00 296.00 103.00 443.00 2810.00
2015 106.00 620.00 284.00 102.00 432.00 2830.00
2016 84.16 616.00 298.00 118.00 503.00 2920.00
2017 118.00 616.00 311.00 131.00 440.00 2970.00
2018 103.00 611.00 322.00 110.00 440.00 2910.00
2019 121.00 615.00 324.00 118.00 422.00 2980.00
422 P. Kaushal and N. Kumar

Thousand grain weight is a measure of compactness or dense filling of cereal

grains. Basically, this is calculated directly by taking the weight of 1000 grains. This
property is important in storage, handling, and processing of cereal grains and
depends upon the size of grain and its density.
Sphericity refers to the resemblance of a food with a sphere, and it provides
accurate estimation of shape-related parameters, which are important for determin-
ing several important properties like drag coefficient, terminal velocity, etc [13, 14].
Bulk density is one of the most important physical properties, which is beneficial
in determining the storage requirement and can be calculated by estimating the
weight of a cereal of a known volume. Porosity is a salient property of grains that
influences various unit operations like milling, drying, etc. and is defined as the ratio
of the percentage of void space to the total volume of grain space.
Angle of repose is particularly employed to measure the flow behavior of
different grains and is defined as the angle between the conical surface of a grain
pile at rest and the horizontal surface. The coefficient of friction is very useful to
check the pressure of cereal grain against the silos and bin walls, which is an
important factor in designing various harvesting and handling equipment for cereal
grains. The coefficient of friction is dependent on various parameters like shape and
moisture of cereal kernel, roughness/smoothness of surface, etc. The details of these
properties and their estimation methods are discussed earlier in Chap. 2.

10.6 Composition and Nutrient Potential

Cereals are considered a good source of macronutrients and micronutrients. Intact

cereal kernels mainly contain bran, endosperm, and germ.

Bran Bran is the hard outer layer of grain and consists of combined aleurone and
pericarp. It is the outermost layer of grain, which is rich in micronutrients (vitamins
and minerals), omega-3 fatty acids, etc.

Endosperm The huge central part of the cereal grain, which contains high levels of
protein and starch and low levels of micronutrients (vitamins and minerals).

Germ This part of the cereal grain is the treasure of nutrients for the seed. This layer
contains enormous amounts of micronutrients, fat, and protein content. The embryo
(or germ) is a thin-walled structure that is separated by the scutellum from the
endosperm.

Aleurone This layer lies just below the bran. This part of the grain is rich in vitamin
B1, phosphorous, protein, and fat. During milling, this layer of the grain is separated
as bran from endosperm and germ.

All cereal grains possess high energy values, predominantly from the starch.
Apart from moisture content and inedible substances such as cellulose, cereal grains
10 Processing of Cereals 423

Table 10.2 Nutritional profile of various cerealsa [16]

Total
Moisture Protein Ash Total dietary Carbohydrate Energy
Grain (g) (g) (g) fat (g) fiber (g) (g) (kJ)
Wheat 10.58 10.59 1.42 1.47 11.23 64.72 1347
(whole)
Rice 9.93 7.94 0.56 0.52 2.81 78.24 1491
(raw,
milled)
Brown 9.33 9.16 1.04 1.24 4.43 74.80 1480
rice
Maize 74.40 4.16 0.36 1.35 3.30 16.42 405
(sweet)
Barley 9.77 10.94 1.06 1.30 15.64 61.29 1321
Sorghum 9.01 9.97 1.39 1.73 10.22 67.68 1398
Quinoa 10.43 13.11 2.65 5.50 14.66 53.65 1374
a
All values are expressed per 100 g edible portion

contain 65–75% carbohydrates, 2–6% lipids, and 7–12% protein along with traces of
minerals and vitamins [15]. The comparison of nutritional profile of various cereal
grains is presented in Table 10.2.

10.6.1 Health Benefits

Cereals provide numerous health benefits, including the supply of requisite nutrients
in the daily diet of individual. These health benefits are due to the presence of various
micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) and macronutrients.
Whole grains are a good source of phytonutrients (plant compound) that are
required for maintaining a healthy human body. The various phytonutrients in whole
cereal grains include saponins, lignans, and phenolic compounds that help in
lowering the cholesterol level, regulate various metabolic activities, etc. The
phytonutrient content varies considerably within and among the major cereal
varieties. Cereals like oats are very rich in dietary fiber (soluble), which help in
reducing cholesterol level in the human body. Sprouted cereals assist in weight loss.

10.7 Antinutritional Factors

Cereals contain comparatively higher proportions of phytate (phytic acid). Soft

wheat contains 1.13% phytate, whereas phytate in oats, corn, and brown rice are
0.77%, 0.89%, and 0.89% on a dry weight basis, respectively [17]. In majority of the
cereal grains, the phytate is prevalent in the aleurone layer and less concentrated in
germ portion [18]. This clearly depicts that milling can substantially affect the phytic
424 P. Kaushal and N. Kumar

acid content in cereals [19]. Phytate can easily attach with various minerals like iron
and zinc and make them unavailable.
The range up to which it influences the nutritional profile of cereals depends on
numerous attributes, which includes the concentration of minerals and antinutrients
in the food, overall diet plan, and nutritional profile of the consumer. Various
antinutrients like tannins, which are generally found in sorghum, can attach with
protein and reduce its digestibility. Various methods for improving the nutritional
profile of sorghum are sprouting and treatment with ammonium bicarbonate, cal-
cium oxide, etc. The predominant antinutrients that are prevalent in pearl millet are
phytic acid, goitrogenic polyphenols, and C-glycosylflavones [20].
Antinutrients like trypsin inhibitors, which can diminish the digestibility of
protein, have also been identified in pearl millet, but these can be inactivated by
heat treatment [21]. There are numerous antinutritional factors present in rye, but
those are of little importance because these can be reduced or eliminated by different
treatments during processing and baking.

10.8 Processing of Cereals

10.8.1 Fermentation

The various examples of fermented cereal foods include idli, dosa, dhokla, appam,
kanji, chilra, sinki, kenkey (fermented corn product) in Ghana, tapéketan (a rice
pudding) in Indonesia, etc. [22]. In the bread making process, fermentation results in
generation of carbon dioxide gas, which makes the dough to expand and increase in
volume. In the proofing step, there is a breakdown of damaged starch by the action of
amylase, which results in producing maltose that plays a very important role in
maintaining the activity of yeast in bread making.
Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are used along with yeast for producing sourdough
bread that gives acidic taste to bread. Numerous biologically active compounds are
expected to increase during fermentation of dough. Bacteria play a predominant role
in making dough stronger by influencing the proteins present in the dough. The
bioavailability of minerals in other fermented foods (cereal based) tends to be high.
This may be due to the breakdown of phytic acid and other compounds in the whole
process. Fermentation provides numerous benefits that include enhancement of the
quality of protein and improvement in digestibility. Fermentation significantly
increases in vitro starch and protein digestibility of selected cereal flours. Therefore,
fermented foods are considered better as compared to unfermented ones due to
activation of various endogenous enzymes that destroy the antinutritional factors
[23]. As a result, it can significantly influence different physicochemical and func-
tional properties.
10 Processing of Cereals 425

10.8.2 Extrusion

It is high-temperature short-time (HTST) technique that requires a screw press with a

limited gap to create different fabricated foods. Breakfast cereals and pastas are the
common examples of extruded products. This process can affect the amount of
soluble fiber, phytate, etc. The severe extrusion conditions can cause depolymeriza-
tion and damage to the integrity of the cell walls, and it may lead to dissimilarity in
density and hardness of the extrudates due to the reduction of molecular weight [24].

10.8.3 Milling

The conventional techniques of milling utilized pestle and mortar, but the product
attained from these methods retains the least part of the germ portion. Light milling
is alike to home pounding, which produces a product having the maximum
nutritional value. On the other hand, heavy milling generates a tremendously refined
product but nutritionally inferior.

10.8.4 Milling of Rice: A Case Study

Paddy (Oryza Sativa L.) is the most predominant food kernel of the world. Husk
accounts around 20–25% of the weight of paddy. The objective of rice milling
technique is to detach husk and bran coatings from paddy so as to generate intact rice
kernels with minimum broken grains. The yield and grade of milling rely on several
factors:

Cleaning
Cleaning of paddy is done so as to remove foreign matter like sand, stones, chaff,
dust, etc. Cleaning is important to reduce storage space and to help in further
processing and in proper storage of paddy.

Drying
This unit operation is done to reduce the moisture level of paddy from 18 to 25% to a
desired value and 14% to ensure good storage life. The most preferable method of
drying paddy is still sun drying in developing nations, and the best quality is
achieved in a dry weather with comparatively low humidity. The substitute to natural
drying technique is mechanical drying, in which hot air is blown through the
paddy mass.

Milling
Milling of rice is done to get the maximum benefits from milled rice by reducing
breakage to a minimum extent. Traditionally for milling, hand pounding method was
the common but became unpopular after introduction of hullers. Commercially,
426 P. Kaushal and N. Kumar

Cleaning Dehusking Separation Whitening Bran

Impurities Husk Head Rice Grading

Brokens

Fig. 10.5 Modern rice milling process

paddy is milled in a number of steps. The main stages of modern rice milling are
dehusking, whitening, and grading (Fig. 10.5).

Milling of paddy in modern rice mill is performed in different steps with the
purpose of reducing mechanical stress and heat buildup in the kernel, thereby
reducing grain breakage and producing uniformly polished grain. In modern rice
milling technique (Fig. 10.5), cleaning is the primary step that is done to separate out
various impurities (like dust, seeds, stones, light empty grains, etc.) from paddy
stock using an aspirator. If these impurities are not removed before dehusking, the
efficiency of the huller and milling recovery are greatly affected.
After cleaning, the husk is removed from the paddy by friction and the step is
known as dehusking or dehulling. It is achieved by the action of frictional force
when paddy is passed in between two abrasive surfaces. Before the brown rice goes
to the bran removal stage, husk must be separated. The main objective of using
paddy separator is to separate husk from brown rice. The fractions of paddy and
brown rice are separated on the basis of weight, physical differences, etc.
In the process of whitening (Fig. 10.5), the bran and germ layer of the brown rice
are removed. To minimize the extent of broken grains, rice is generally passed
through various whitening instruments that are linked to each other in series, and
the surface of the rice is slightly polished to give it a shiny appearance. Polishing
removes the remaining bran particles and therefore improves the appearance of
milled rice. After polishing, white rice is graded into head rice and large and small
rice broken by using oscillating screen sifters.
The milling quality of paddy is judged by means of several factors:

a. Husk content (%): It is calculated as the percentage of weight of husk to the

weight of cleaned paddy.
b. Extent of polishing (%): It is defined as the percentage of weight of the bran to the
weight of brown rice initially taken for polishing.
c. Overall rice outturn (%): It is calculated as the percentage of weight of milled rice
to the weight of paddy sample taken for milling.
d. Whole rice outturn (%): It is defined as the percentage of weight of head rice to
the weight of paddy sample taken for milling.
10 Processing of Cereals 427

10.8.4.1 Parboiling
Rice is highly prone to breakage due to cracks in rice developed during harvesting
and threshing, which cannot be retrieved by any other means except premilling
process known as parboiling. Parboiling, literally, means partial boiling. In practice,
it means boiling (i.e., cooking) of the rice within the husk (so as to retain its size and
shape) after which it is dried. In other words, parboiling (hydrothermal treatment) is
nothing but precooking of rice in paddy form. This treatment is given to paddy
before milling so as to minimize breakage and to attain maximum recovery of head
rice. This technique includes soaking, steaming, and drying the paddy (rice
with husk).
About one-fifth of the world production and more than half of the paddy produced
in India are reported to be parboiled. Cooking implies hydration and gelatinization of
starch. The degree of gelatinization can also be affected by the method of cooking.
The water-to-rice ratio can also affect textural parameters and degree of gelatiniza-
tion. The gelatinization temperature generally lies between 50 and 80  C. Parboiling
with improved soaking methods can enhance the rice quality by reducing its
glycemic index. Short- and long-grain varieties may result in loss of different
constituents and cooking characteristics during different degrees of milling [25].
The milling characteristics of parboiled rice firmly depend on various drying
conditions. While proper drying can, practically, avoid breakage of rice entirely,
improper drying could lead to even 100% breakage. Drying, thus, plays the most
crucial role in the technology and economics of parboiling. During the process of
parboiling, the husk opens slightly due to swelling of the kernel. This makes the
dehusking operations easier, thereby increasing the shelling capacity of the mill. As
a matter of fact, the improvement in the milling quality sometimes offsets the cost of
processing, and often the parboiled rice is sold at a cheaper rate than raw rice.

10.8.4.2 Crucial Steps in Parboiling Process

The three crucial steps in the parboiling are generally adopted as:

1. Soaking of paddy in water to enhance the moisture content

2. Steaming of paddy to attain partial gelatinization
3. Drying of paddy to achieve the desired (14%) moisture content

10.8.4.3 Different Stages of Parboiling

1. Soaking: Soaking of paddy is carried out by dipping in water at or below its
gelatinization temperature. Dipping in water at room temperature takes a
prolonged time (72 h) for soaking treatment, making paddy susceptible to
development of mycotoxins. Hence, soaking at elevated temperature of water is
considered better. The soaking duration varies with temperature. The lower the
temperature used for soaking paddy, the slow the process for soaking is and vice
versa (Table 10.3).

The following time–temperature combination is considered for soaking treatment

(Table 10.3):
428 P. Kaushal and N. Kumar

Table 10.3 Optimal time– S. no. Temperature ( C) Time (h)

temperature conditions for
1 60 8
soaking paddy [26]
2 65 6
3 70 4
4 72 3.5

2. Steaming: In this operation, soaked paddy is exposed to steam so that the starch
present in the rice grain gets gelatinized. Heat for gelatinization of starch is
supplied by saturated steam (pressure range of 1–5 kg/cm2) [27]. The time
duration of steaming operation varies as per the quantity of paddy. The longer
steaming time and higher temperature may result in harder and dark-colored rice.
3. Drying: After steaming, paddy is dried to 14–16% moisture content to impart
hardness to the grains required for milling and subsequent storage. Drying is done
to minimize the moisture from 45–50% (db) to 14–16% (db). Parboiled paddy
may be sun dried or use hot air. Rapid drying gives high breakage during milling.
In a continuous drying system, the breakage starts at moisture, around 18%, and
increases rapidly with further drying [28] due to the development of cracks while
cooling of grains. Therefore, the paddy is dried to 18–20% moisture content in the
first stage and left for 4–8 h for tempering, which is dried further till attaining the
moisture of about 14% in the second stage of drying. Afterwards, the dried paddy
with 14% moisture is milled using huller or rubber roll sheller to separate the
kernels and husk of parboiled paddy.

10.8.4.4 Benefits of Parboiling

Parboiling process provides numerous benefits like:

1. Higher vitamin content than raw milled rice.

2. Extensively employed in the catering industry as it is comparatively less sticky
when cooked.
3. Improvement of texture profile of rice, making it firm and less sticky.
4. Nutritionally better as it contains a very good amount of Vitamin B1 and niacin
and a moderate amount of zinc and iron. Digestibility of parboiled rice is better.
5. Increase in milling yield and improvement in quality.

10.8.4.5 Drawbacks of Parboiling

Several drawbacks associated with parboiling process are mentioned as under:

1. Rupturing of protein and decrease in solubility.

2. More susceptible to oxidative rancidity leading to deterioration of flavor.
3. Longer milling time is required due to hardening of the grains.
4. Polishing of parboiled brown rice leads to the problem of rice stickiness and
clogging of the mill screen.
10 Processing of Cereals 429

5. Polishing of parboiled rice requires more power, thereby lowering down the
capacity of the polisher.
6. It adds to the cost of drying.

10.8.4.6 Parboiling Methods

A number of methods of parboiling of paddy have been adopted worldwide, but the
commonly used methods on a large scale for parboiling of paddy are discussed as
under:

Single Boiling Method

In this method, paddy is firstly soaked in cold water in tanks for some days. The
prolonged soaking of the paddy results in fermentation that produces a bad odor.
Afterwards, steaming is carried out. The soaking time is comparatively more in this
method. This process is either performed batchwise or run on a continuous platform.
The entire technique of parboiling relies on several parameters like type, quality of
paddy, and the attributes of the final product.

Double Boiling Method

This method requires double steaming activity in a series of unit operations. The two
steaming kettles made of mild steel equipped with steam pipe are used. In this
method, steam is first injected into raw paddy in steaming kettle before soaking. Hot
paddy raises the temperature of soaking water to 45–50  C, which assists to decrease
the soaking time to 24 h. The soaked paddy is further raised backward into the
steaming kettles for another steaming process. The technique followed for this
steaming process is exactly similar as done in earlier step. The parboiled paddy is
then released from the kettles and allowed to dry using mechanical drier.

CFTRI Method
This process was created by Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore
(CFTRI), for improving the grade and yield of rice. In this method, both soaking and
steaming operations are performed in similar cylindrical tanks made of mild steel.
First, paddy is soaked in hot water (85  C) in parboiling tank for 3–3.5
h. Afterwards, excess water is drained from parboiling tank and steaming is carried
out by maintaining a pressure of 4 kg/cm2. Then, drying of steamed paddy is done in
a number of stages. The demand of water and steam during parboiling operation is
approximately 1.25 times the weight of paddy and 200 kg/ton of paddy, respectively.

10.8.4.7 Effect of Parboiling on Milling, Cooking, and Nutritional

Quality
Milling and Nutritional Quality
1. Parboiling results in the reduction of breakage.
2. There is an improvement in milling quality of rice due to gelatinization of starch,
and as a result, it increases the yield of head rice.
3. Parboiled rice is rich in protein and micronutrients like vitamins and minerals.
4. Parboiled rice contains lesser oil/fat.
430 P. Kaushal and N. Kumar

5. Bran of parboiled rice contains lesser starch and more oil as compared to raw
rice bran.

Cooking Quality
Cooking quality of rice relies on several factors like cooking time, expansion ratio,
water absorption capacity (WAC), etc. The effect of parboiling on the cooking
quality is summarized as follows:

1. Parboiled rice takes longer cooking time as compared to raw rice to achieve the
required softness.
2. The solid gruel loss is lesser in the case of parboiled rice.
3. Parboiled rice cooks flakier than raw rice.
4. Water absorption capacity (WAC) of parboiled rice when fully cooked is more
than that of raw rice.

10.8.5 Milling of Wheat: A Case Study

Wheat is the second most predominant cereal grain in South Asia after rice. Wheat is
processed to make flour, which additionally acts as a main ingredient for making
extruded products, soft wheat flour–based products (cookies, biscuits), hard wheat
flour–based products (like bread), etc.

10.8.5.1 Pre-cleaning/First Cleaning

Initially, wheat is weighed, inspected, and graded prior to cleaning. Wheat procured
from various sources may contain weed seeds, chaff, shrunken wheat, unripe and
broken wheat, sand, stones, mud balls, and seeds of other crops, viz., mustard,
maize, barley, or Bengal gram, due to prevalent agricultural and handling practices.
The pre-cleaning is performed to remove dust and coarse impurities to avoid choking
in further processing. The cleaning of wheat starts with magnetic separator to
remove the metallic parts, which is followed by sieving operation to remove bigger
impurities like maize, straw, etc. using 7–8 mm sieve and fine impurities like sand,
fine brokens, etc. using 0.2 mm sieves. The wheat received from the sieving
operation is fed to disc separators to separate the wheat from other produces,
based on size. Some weeds are very harmful or even poisonous, which must be
eliminated before grinding operation.

10.8.5.2 Conditioning/Dampening of Cleaned Wheat

The cleaned wheat is damped using a washer-whizzer and stored for conditioning in
bins to allow water to penetrate deep inside the wheat grains and to maintain uniform
moisture content. The appropriate time should be provided for grains to achieve the
desired mellowness of the endosperm and toughness of bran. Hard wheat needs more
time for conditioning. The water addition in stages renders better results than the
water addition in lot at one time.
10 Processing of Cereals 431

The desired mellowness causes endosperm to easily reduce in desired particle size
and the desired toughness of bran does not allow easier fragmentation [29]. However,
over moistening of grains should be avoided as it may create problems during sifting
operation. About 8–48 h is required for various wheat varieties to maintain moisture
level of 15–17.5% moisture, while it needs only 3–6 h in the case of durum wheat.
The good dampener of wheat should be capable of adding appropriate and correct
quantity of water up to 5% in a single stage. It should also distribute the moisture
evenly around the grain surface and among all the grains in the lot.

10.8.5.3 Second Cleaning

The polishing of outer surface of wheat grains is performed using scourer. The
second cleaning does not remove germ, but it facilitates breaking in the first breaker
rolls. The scouring due to friction among the grains provides the most ideal opera-
tion, which could be achieved holding the grains back in the machine. The dirt
generated during scouring is passed through the perforated jacket. The scoured
wheat is passed through the aspiration channel. The water is added through atomi-
zation at the rate of 0.3–0.5%, which toughens the bran and does not allow bran to be
mixed into the powder [30].

10.8.5.4 Milling
The grains are broken during milling operation, and ground endosperm portion is
collected as flour. The bran and germ portion should be eliminated from the flour.
The roller mills are used in flour milling units, which may consist of various types of
rollers, viz., grooved, fluted, striated, and plain rollers based on required operation.

Rollers
Generally, 250 mm diameter and 1000 m length rollers are used in roller mills.
Sometimes greater length may also be adopted according to the specific requirement.
These rollers are hollow in structure and made of gray cast iron, which is hardened
using appropriate chilling method. The hardened surface remains at the surface of
roller at about 15 mm, which is reduced in fluted/grooved rollers. The rollers may be
classified into two categories, i.e., break rollers/rolls and reduction rollers/rolls.

Break Rolls/Rollers
The serrations/striations are made on the roller surface in inclined directions with
respect to the axis of rolls. In the case of fluted/grooved rolls, special care of roller in
terms of damage should be taken as it affects the product characteristics. The
objective of the grooved rolls is to create the first break and scrap out the bran pieces
in subsequent breaking operations. The tensile strength of the break rolls is
about1650–1800 N/mm2 (equivalent to 480–520 Brinell hardness number). The
fineness of rollers increases with further subsequent break processes, e.g., the second
break roller is smoother than the first break rollers. The grooves/flutes become
smaller and are kept 3.2–4.1, 5.1–5.7, 6.4–7.0, 8.6–9.6, and 10.2–10.8 flutes/
grooves/cm in the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth break rolls, respectively [30].
432 P. Kaushal and N. Kumar

(A)

(B)

Fig. 10.6 (a) Spiral break rollers in arrangement and (b) left- and right-hand spirals

Pitch

Front Land
angle Back angle

Back
Front

Depth

Fig. 10.7 Nomenclature of flutes of break rollers

The top and bottom rollers run at different speeds to provide shearing action for
crushing the wheat grains (Fig. 10.6a. The rollers are driven using gears or toothed
belt drives. The faster roller runs at 480–550 revolutions/min in break rolls and the
slower roller runs at speed ratio of 1:2.5 ratios with the faster roller [30]. Higher
shearing and scraping can be attained using a greater difference in speed of both the
break rollers.
The break rollers have inclined grooves on its surface, which are termed as
spirals. The inclination is usually expressed in terms of percentage. Both the break
rollers may have either left-aligned spiral or right-aligned spiral (Fig. 10.6b). Left-
and right-aligned spirals are not used together as it does not result in desired breaking
operation. The first break roller uses about 4% spirals, which increases up to 10% till
the last break rolls. The larger angle of spiral provides more numbers of crossings of
the spirals, which results in more cutting action. The flute angle may be expressed in
10 Processing of Cereals 433

terms of front angle and back angle (Fig. 10.7). The front angle refers to the angle
formed in the cutting side, while the back angle represents the depth of the flutes.

Break System
The break system has grooved rollers and is used to open the wheat structure and
scrap the endosperm from the bran layer/skin left on the flat outer flakes. The cutting
of bran skins should be minimized. The wheat skin, which contains the bran layer,
should be left as large as possible for not mixing in the endosperm part. The main
function of the break system is to release maximum amount of coarse material, i.e.,
semolina, middling, and minimum amount of flour. The material received from the
break system is fed to plansifter for separating the coarse material/semolina and
flour. The coarse material/semolina are fed to the purifier, which separates the
branny flakes from pure endosperm. The clean endosperm is fed to the reduction
system for converting it into the flour. The effectiveness of the break system depends
on the moisture content of wheat, flutes of the rolls, and flute condition [30]. The
more numbers of break rolls used in the system minimize the possibility of cutting
the bran layer unnecessarily and help in retaining the bran layer as large as possible.
The wheat is broken in the first break, and several fractions are produced, viz.,
break stock (greater than 1000 μm), semolina (280–1000 μm), middling
(180–280μm), dunst (coarse flour, 132–180 μm), and flour [30].These fractions are
separated using plansifter, which has a screen of different sizes. The bran finishers
are also used to remove endosperm particles from the bran before sending it to the
next rollers. The coarsest break stock (greater than 1680 μm) and fine break stock
(1000–1680 μm) particles are adhered with bran [30], which are sent to the next
break roller for cutting, and similar separation is carried out. The material received
after every stage of break rollers is sent to the plansifter before sending it to the next
rollers.
The bran portion is the highest in coarse stock and lowest in flour. Every break
roller should provide maximum quantity of coarse material, which is separated from
the endosperm part from the stock. The semolina and middling proportions contain
pure endosperm particles along with particles with attached bran. This stock is sent
to the purification process to separate similar-sized material based on their mass. The
dunst is sent to the reduction system for grinding into the flour, and the flour received
from each break passes is sent to the flour outlet. The break and reduction roller
system in wheat milling is presented in Fig. 10.8 as under:

Reduction System
The reduction rollers do not have grooves/flutes and run at different speeds like
breaking rollers and are driven using gears or toothed belt drives. These are usually
smooth surfaced; however, abrasive surface can also be made to enhance grinding.
The tensile strength of the reduction rolls is about 1350–1435 N/mm2 (equivalents to
400–420 Brinell hardness number). The faster roller runs at about 380–420
revolutions per minute and the slower roller runs at a lower speed ratio of 1:1.25.
The higher differential speed generates comparatively higher heats in the rolls and
ground material and causes shearing of bran particles, which is not preferred.
434 P. Kaushal and N. Kumar

First break rollers

Coarse break stock

Plansifter
Fine break stock
Semolina
Middling
Dunst
Purifier

Endosperm Bran Bran

+ Endosperm

Reduction rollers

Flour

Second break rollers

Fig. 10.8 Break and reduction roller system in wheat milling process

The clean endosperm portion of wheat received from plansifter and purifier is fed
to the reduction rollers to produce the flour. The reduction system also consists of a
series of reduction rollers and plansifters. This system reduces the size to the desired
product size. The clean endosperm particle breaks and shattered as flour, while the
remaining branny stock is compressed into thin/flat particles. This is being removed
using plansifter. The commercial milling of wheat involves 8 to 12 reduction
passages to grind endosperm into flour [30].

Purification
The material collected from the sifters may contain bran. Therefore, purification is
carried out to separate bran from endosperm particles on the basis of their terminal
velocity by the application of air currents. Semolina (sooji) of different granulations
is handled in the purification system to separate out clean endosperm particles, which
are finally ground to flour in the reduction system [30]. Purifiers can remove bran
10 Processing of Cereals 435

Ground wheat
material

Air

Sieves

Endosperm Bran
Bran + Endosperm

Fig. 10.9 Schematic diagram of a purifier, including the flow of air and product

and produce more refined flours from middling (Fig. 10.9). In a purifier, a controlled
circulation of air is used to separate lighter-weighed bran. The separation of coarse
fractions on the basis of size is also performed. Purifiers are particularly employed in
a flour mill to separate the semolina/middling from bran particles and to classify the
semolina/middling to pure and composite stock and send it to their proper
destinations. This helps the miller to produce good-quality semolina and mill into
flours of low ash content. A portion of purified stock is packed as Semolina (sooji),
while the remaining material is reduced to the desired particle size in the reduction
system to obtain wheat flour (maida).
The average range of maida (wheat flour), semolina (sooji), atta (wheat flour),
and bran is 49–55%, 8–10%, 15–18%, and 22–23%, respectively, from the overall
wheat milling operation. In case of increasing the extraction rate of maida (wheat
flour), the reduction of semolina (sooji) can also be performed in reduction rollers.
Extraction rate is defined as the amount of wheat flour that is extracted from a given
weight of clean and conditioned wheat.
The specifications for atta (wheat flour), maida (wheat flour), and semolina are
presented in Tables 10.4, 10.5, and 10.6. Gluten is the main principal functional
436 P. Kaushal and N. Kumar

Table 10.4 Specifications for atta (wheat flour)

Coarse
ground
wheat Protein-
Low High product Fortified atta rich atta
S. no. Characteristics gluten [31] gluten [31] [32] [32] [32]
1. Moisture, % 13.00 13.00 14.00 14.00 14.00
(max.)
2. Total ash, % 2.5 2.5 2.00 2.00 2.75
(max.)
3. Acid- 0.10 0.10 0.15 0.15 0.10
insoluble ash,
% (max.)
4. Gluten, % min 7.0–9.0 Above 9.0 6.0 6.0
5. Alcoholic 0.10 0.10 0.18 0.18 0.12
acidity (max.)
6. Granularity Pass Pass – – –
through through
99.8% 99.8%
material material
through through
0.600 mm 0.600 mm
sieve sieve
7. Crude fiber, % 2.5 2.5 – – 2.5
(max.)
8. Total protein, – – – – 12.5
% (max.)
9. Fortification – – – Ca, 1500 Groundnut
(max.) mg; iron, flour, soya
60 mg; flour,
sodium iron, groundnut–
25 mg; zinc, soya flour
30 mg; mix, 10%
vitamin A,
1500 μg RE;
ascorbic
acid,
100 mg;
thiamine,
3.5 mg;
riboflavin,
4.0 mg;
niacin,
45 mg;
pyridoxine,
5.0 mg; folic
acid, 250 μg;
vitamin
B12, 2.5 μg;
vitamin D,
1000 IU
 10

Table 10.5 Specifications for maida (wheat flour)

Protein-
rich Durum
Maida maida wheat
S. no. Characteristics Maida [33] [34] Maida (bakery) [34] Fortified maida [34] [34] maida [34]
1. Moisture, % 13.00 14.00 14.00 14.00 14.00 13.00
(max.)
2. Total ash, % 0.70 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.4 1.75
Processing of Cereals

(max.)
3. Acid- 0.05 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.15
insoluble ash,
% (max.)
4. Gluten, % min 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.0 –
5. Alcoholic 0.10 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12
acidity (max.)
6. Granularity Pass material through – – – – Pass
100%, 0.18 mm material
(180 μm IS sieve) through
315 μ sieve
7. Uric acid, 10 – – – – –
mg/100 g
(max.)
8. Crude fiber, % – – – – 0.53 –
(max.)
9. Total protein, – – – – 12.5 11.0
% (min.)
(continued)
437
Table 10.5 (continued)
438

Protein-
rich Durum
Maida maida wheat
S. no. Characteristics Maida [33] [34] Maida (bakery) [34] Fortified maida [34] [34] maida [34]
10. Fortification – – Benzoyl peroxide, 40 ppm; Ca, 1500 mg; iron, 60 mg; – –
(max.) potassium bromate, 20 ppm; sodium iron, 25 mg; zinc,
ascorbic acid, 200 ppm 30 mg; vitamin A, 1500 μg RE;
ascorbic acid, 100 mg;
thiamine, 3.5 mg; riboflavin,
4.0 mg; niacin, 45 mg;
pyridoxine, 5.0 mg; folic acid,
250 μg; vitamin B12, 2.5 μg;
vitamin D, 1000 IU
P. Kaushal and N. Kumar
10 Processing of Cereals 439

Table 10.6 Specifications for semolina (sooji)

Semolina/sooji/suji [34] Semolina/sooji/
S. no. Characteristics Large particle grade Small particle grade suji/rawa [32]
1. Moisture, % 13.50 13.50 14.50
(max.)
2. Total ash, % 1.00 1.00 1.00
(max.)
3. Acid-insoluble 0.05 0.05 0.10
ash, % (max.)
4. Gluten, % min. 6.0 6.0 6.0
5. Alcoholic 0.10 0.10 0.18
acidity, max.
6. Granularity • 100% pass through, • 100% pass through, –
1.18 mm sieve 1.18 mm sieve
• 90% retained on • 10% retained on
0.73 mm sieve 0.73 mm sieve
• 98% retained on • 98% retained on
0.24 mm sieve 0.24 mm sieve
7. Uric acid, – – –
mg/100 g (max.)
8. Crude fiber, % – – –
(max.)

protein in wheat flour. The amount of gluten in maida (wheat flour), atta (wheat
flour), and semolina are 7.5, 7–9, and 6%, respectively (Table 10.4). Alcoholic
acidity is considered as an index of deterioration of sample during storage. High
alcoholic acidity value reflects changes in the sample due to enzymatic hydrolysis.
The wheat flour particle should remain less than 0.600 mm in size [30]. The
fortification of various minerals and vitamins is permissible under the category of
fortified atta (wheat flour). Protein-rich atta can also be prepared by adding ground-
nut flour, soya flour, or the mixture thereof in the ratio of not more than 10%, which
may enhance the protein content as high as 12.5%.
The maida (wheat flour) particle should remain less than 0.180 mm in size
[34]. The fortification of various minerals and vitamins is also permissible.
Protein-rich maida (wheat flour) can also be prepared by adding protein-rich source,
which may enhance the protein content as high as 12.5% and is permissible.

10.8.6 Milling of Corn: A Case Study

10.8.6.1 Wet Milling of Corn

This technique uses plenty of water for steeping of grains so as to separate out the
germ fraction. The difference between dry and wet corn milling is that wet corn
milling initiates with a squeezed soft pulp, whereas dry corn milling begins with a
raw corn seed. The flow sheet representing the wet milling of corn is presented in
Fig. 10.10.
440 P. Kaushal and N. Kumar

Incoming Corn

Cleaning
Residual
Germ Feed Products
Steeping
Separation of Germ
Food
Fiber Grinding of Germ Corn Oil
Products

Germ washing &dewatering

Separation of Starch and Gluten Gluten Feed Products

Dehydration and Drying of Starch Dried Starch

Starch Conversion Syrup Refining

Alcohol and Various
Fermentation Sweetener
Chemicals

Fig. 10.10 Wet milling of corn

1. Cleaning: The incoming corn is first cleaned so as to remove dust and various
other objects that can cause trouble in the further milling operations. It can be
achieved with the help of various screens and by the use of compressed air that
helps in removing the impurities.
2. Steeping: The prime objective of this step is to soften corn kernels. Additionally,
steeping (Fig. 10.10) is achieved by hydration of kernels that results in softening
of germ portion and disruption/formation of various internal bonds and
interactions. In this step, cleaned corn kernels are treated with lukewarm water
for a specific period of time. The temperature of water should be in between
54 and 58  C.
3. Germ separation and grinding: The softened corn is ground in mills to disinte-
grate the grain and extract germ out of the corn. The separation of germ (low
density) from the slurry is achieved by the application of cyclone separators. The
different extraction techniques can be applied to withdraw oil from the germ. The
germ residue is considered as an additional convenient ingredient for animal feed.
4. Germ washing and dewatering: The starch slurry is removed through a germ
washing stage (Fig. 10.10). Generally, germ is rinsed in few steps to detach the
leftover starch in the fluid from germ cyclones and to prepare the germ to pass
through germ dewatering press.
5. Starch and gluten separation: The separation of gluten from the starch is achieved
by centrifugation process that relies on density differences between starch and
protein.
6. Dehydration and drying: Starch can be modified into specialty starches or
transformed into corn syrups and glucose. The refined starch is further dehydrated
by employing centrifugation technique and then dried using a flash dryer.
10 Processing of Cereals 441

7. Conversion of starch into syrup: Corn starch can further be modified into other
products like corn sweeteners, corn syrups, etc. Corn starch is liquified with acid
and/or enzymes to a resultant product (dextrose solution), which can be purified
using filters, centrifuges, and ion-exchange columns. The surplus amount of
water is evaporated. Syrups are either used as such or further processed to prepare
high-fructose corn syrups (HFCS).
8. Fermentation: In this stage, glucose is transformed into alcohol or other products
by fermentation technique (Fig. 10.10) by the action of yeast and other
bioproducts through either yeast or bacterial fermentation. After fermentation,
distillation is carried out to recover alcohol from the resulting broth through
various techniques.

10.8.6.2 Dry Milling of Corn

Dry milling of corn is a lesser-capital-oriented technique that targets to produce grain
ethanol. This technique is preferably done to utilize corn by converting it into
breakfast cereals; animal feed, additional feed ingredients (e.g., corn meal), etc.
The flow sheet representing the dry milling of corn is presented in Fig. 10.11.
The dry milling of corn accompanies the following stages:

1. Cleaning: This step involves screening of particles on the basis of shape and
density so as to remove ferromagnetic metals and other unwanted materials.
2. Conditioning: After the cleaning step, conditioning (Fig. 10.11) is done for
equilibrating the moisture within the grains. The optimum moisture content of
grains should be 20% at this stage, and moistened corn is allowed to equilibrate
for 1–3 h. The aim of this operation is to loosen the germ and toughen the bran.
3. Degermination: The aim of this operation is to detach hull, tip cap, and germ by
leaving the endosperm into large grits. This can be achieved by either roller mills
and sifters/degerminator or impact machines.
4. Drying: The degermed product is further dried so as to achieve the required
moisture content (15–18%) for effective grinding and screening operations.
Drying is done by employing conventional rotary dryers (50  C).
5. Cooling: In this step, rotary coolers (cross and counter flow) are employed for
subsequent cooling of dried products.
6. Aspiration: After cooling, aspiration (Fig. 10.11) is done to separate the bran from
the mixture of germ and endosperm. The separation of bran is achieved on the
basis of terminal velocity, which in turn relies on shape, density, and particle size.
7. Gravity separator: After aspiration, the particles of a mixture with different
specific weights are separated using gravity separation. The specific gravity
separation is done using gravity separators so as to separate endosperm from
the germ.
8. Milling: The milling operation consists of a number of steps like grinding,
classifying, sifting, and purification. Grinding of endosperm fractions is done
by means of roller mills. Different endosperm fractions are first passed to break
rolls and then to reduction rolls so as to attain the required particle size. Then,
442 P. Kaushal and N. Kumar

Fig. 10.11 Dry milling of corn

different fractions are passed through the sifters and purifier to get different
products like maize meal, regular grits, maize flour, etc. (Fig. 10.11).

10.9 Equipment Involved in Handling and Processing of Cereals

Various equipment are involved in processing of cereals. Milling operations require

dehusker, pearler, grinder/size reduction equipment, mixer, polisher, etc. However,
several other equipment are also used in processing of cereals. Most of the
10 Processing of Cereals 443

equipment used for milling are made up of mild steel. Some of the important
equipment are described as under:

10.9.1 Hullers/Grinders

Dehulling is the technique of detaching hulls from seeds/grains by passing the grains
in between two abrasive surfaces that are rotating at different speeds. Following
dehusking, the husk is separated by suction and conveyed to a preservation damp
outside the mill.

10.9.1.1 Rice Dehuller

This equipment operates at a very high speed performing both dehulling and
cleaning operations simultaneously in one operation. The equipment, being light
in weight, can be easily moved to the operation sight by means of wheels provided
on its frame. The dehulled rice grains are automatically conveyed to the sieves of the
separator attached with the dehuller for removing the bran and other dust particles.

10.9.1.2 Rice Huller Polisher

In this equipment, paddy is fed into the hulling unit via hopper. The hulling unit
consists of an enclosed cylinder in which a special rotor having helical and longitu-
dinal ribs operates [35]. The polishing unit is positioned just below the huller and
comprises of emery rollers to obtain clean and polished rice. The clearance between
the rotor and cylinder is adjusted to obtain high hulling efficiency and prevent grain
breakage. This equipment is specifically used to remove hulls from paddy and to
polish the rice grain in a single unit/operation.

10.9.1.3 Rubber Roller/Rubber Roll Sheller

Numerous designs of rubber roller are extensively used in industries. These
machines are made in several forms.
The rubber roller shell comprises of two rubber rollers having the same diameter
and rotates at different speeds in opposite direction (Fig. 10.12). The space between
rubber rollers is adjusted by keeping in mind the excessive wear and tear of the
equipment, intensive heat liberation, etc. The circumferential speed variation pushes
the paddy grains to strike in between the two rubber rollers that result in shearing
operation and detach the husk from the grain.
The rubber rollers are then further cooled or refreshed by air blast around the
surface of rollers. The rate of dehusking using rubber roller shell is nearly sustained
around 85%. The longevity of the rubber rollers differs with various conditions like
type and moisture of paddy, quality of rolls and pressure applied to rolls, etc. The
rubber roller dehusker has an advantage of getting negligible breakage.

10.9.1.4 Hammer Mill

Hammer mill is employed for crushing a wide range of materials into small particles
having free-flowing properties by the application of impact force. The crushing of
444 P. Kaushal and N. Kumar

Fig. 10.12 Rubber roller

Fig. 10.13 Hammer mill

materials further depends upon the speed of the mill that varies between 1000 and
2500 rpm for comminuting large size particles. The foremost mechanism involved is
the pulverization of the material.
Hammer mill consists of series of hammers (normally fabricated with hardened
steel) confined within a metal shell and mounted on a central shaft (Fig. 10.13). It
comprises of high speed rotor revolving inside a cylindrical metal shell. The basic
principle behind working of hammer mill is the impact force. The feed material is put
10 Processing of Cereals 445

into the hopper that is coupled with the drum (Fig. 10.13). The material is crushed to
the desired size by accelerated rotating hammers by the action of impact force and
accumulated on screen. Breaker plate or screen is fitted at the bottom of the hammer
mill, which retains coarse material while permitting appropriate sized materials to
pass as final finished product (Fig. 10.13). One of the best advantages of hammer
mill is its continuity due to which jamming is minimized. The mill produces coarse
to moderately fine powder. Its accelerated speed of working sometimes creates
damage to the mill if foreign matter such as stones or metal is present in feed.

10.9.1.5 Ball Mill

Ball mill (or pebble mill) consists of a hollow cylindrical shell that regularly rotates
around its own axis (Fig. 10.14). The balls are considered as the milling elements,
and drive rollers assist to rotate the milling chamber. The comminution in ball mill is
achieved by the action of impact and attrition. More than half of the bulk is covered
with steel balls. Whenever the cylindrical shell rotates, balls are lifted up and down.
Centrifugal force plays a predominating role by keeping the ball in contact with the
mill wall and with one another during the upward movement. In the process, the
solid particles in between the steel balls and ground are comminuted by impact force.
The extent of milling using ball mill is affected by numerous factors like size,
nature, and the quantity of balls, residence time of material in the mill, rotating speed
of mill, etc. One of the best advantages of ball mill is its continuity, wide
applications, ability of producing very fine particle, etc. The major disadvantages
associated with ball mill are contamination of the product, long time of milling,
difficulty of cleaning the mill after usage, etc. Ball mill is suitable for dry or wet
grinding and widely used for crushing of various materials, producing superfine food
powders, wheat flour, fruit powders, etc.

10.9.2 Separators

Grains are always mixed with various impurities such as pod, pebble, and sand grass
during harvesting, transportation, and storage. Before processing, grains are to be
cleaned.

Fig. 10.14 Ball mill

446 P. Kaushal and N. Kumar

10.9.2.1 Cyclone Separators

This type of equipment is cylindrical or conical in shape in which a high-speed
rotating airflow in a helical pattern is entrenched. A fan sucks flour from the mill via
screen and conveys to the cyclone separator.
It is necessary to draft the cyclone separator in a proper manner so as to ignore the
losing product into the air. The distinct drafts/designs for conveying flour are
presented in Fig. 10.15. The finer the fan suction is , the faster the separation of
flour from the mill is, and the finest will be the pipe draft/design (Fig. 10.15).
In evaluating the design of a cyclone separator, pressure drop is a primary factor
that depends on the cyclone design and its operating parameters such as inlet
velocity. The best design is chosen for proper conveying of the flour using cyclone
separators as it results in higher inlet velocity, less kinetic energy loss, and frictional
loss due to minimum pipe bends (Fig. 10.15). The extent of suction relies on the
various components like diameter of the air intake, smooth corners to ducting and
pipes, etc.

10.9.2.2 Magnetic Separators

The magnetic separators are not complex in operation and their working is simple as
compared to other seed cleaners as few settlements are required for its fabrication.
The separation of cereal grains using magnetic separator is done on the basis of
stickiness and textural properties of cereal grains. The grains must be pretreated with
a magnetic material such as finely ground iron powder. The grain mixture is fed to a
screw conveyor that tumbles and mixes the grains with a required amount of water to

Fig. 10.15 Different bend designs

10 Processing of Cereals 447

Fig. 10.16 Magnetic separators

adhere iron particles (Fig. 10.16). If the iron powder can be made to cling on inert
material and other unacceptable components present in the seed mixture, then these
materials will respond to a magnetic field. For this purpose, the mixture of cereal
grains preconditioned with water is fed to the top of revolving magnetic drum
through hopper (Fig. 10.16). The smooth grains that do not contain iron powder
fall along the sides of the drum by the impact of gravity. Further, grains/particles that
contain iron powder are attracted by magnetic drum and are further taken away by
rotary brush. The magnetic separator is illustrated in Fig. 10.16.

10.9.2.3 Specific Gravity Separator (SGS)

Specific gravity separator (SGS) separates on the basis of variation in density of the
materials. This operates on the attributes of grains to run over an inclined plane and
movement of particles due to upward motion of the air.
The triangular-shaped perforated deck is the foremost portion of the SGS. The
mixture of cereal grains is fed into the hopper where air is blown up through the deck
surface and bed of cereal grains by a fan to such an extent that material is substan-
tially lifted in association with the deck surface. The air is adjusted so that only the
lightweight seeds are lifted up off the desk surface. Therefore, lighter materials are
lifted to the top of the stratified stack that proceeds with the direction of conveyance
due to vibrating movement of the deck and released from the left corner of the deck.
On the other hand, the heavier seeds having velocity greater than that of the air
column will not be lifted and lie on the deck surface.

10.9.2.4 Inclined Draper

The inclined draper separates cereal grains in context with their potential to roll or
slip. Separation is done on the basis of difference in texture and shape of the material.
These attributes are further dependent on the shape and texture of the cereal grains
and by the frictional behavior of the surface of draper they are contacting. The
mixture of the cereal grains is put on the center of the belt in ascending direction
448 P. Kaushal and N. Kumar

Flat Feed
impurities hopper

Grains
Conveyor
draper

Fig. 10.17 Inclined draper

Fig. 10.18 Indented cylinder separator

(Fig. 10.17). The smooth-shaped cereal grains easily slip down at a comparatively
accelerated rate than the upward movement of the belt, and then these required cereal
grains are released at the other end. The flat-shaped cereal grains are conveyed to the
top of the inclined draper, which further slide into another hopper (Fig. 10.17). It is
very important to keep the feed rate slow for the effective separation of each grain.
The inclined draper is presented in Fig. 10.17.

10.9.2.5 Indented Cylinder Separator

As per the required grading criteria, the incoming cereal grains are separated
according to roundness or length. The mixture of cereal grains is put into one end
of the horizontal rotating cylinder, which has indents on its interior surface
(Fig. 10.18). The indents are in close proximity and hemispherical in configuration.
Short cereal grains are collected by the collaborative consequence of fitting into the
indents and by the action of centrifugal force. Grains are released into adaptable
trough inside of the cylinder near the apex of rotation (Fig. 10.18). Conveying auger
is provided in the bottom of the trough, which conveys the material. The cereal
grains, which are larger in size than the indents, will persist inside the cylinder and
conveyed to the outlet where the shell unloads into the outlet casing. The indented
cylinder separator is illustrated in Fig. 10.18.
10 Processing of Cereals 449

10.10 Quality Standards

1. Quality of raw materials: Poor quality of grains is one of the most common
problems and is associated with improper post-harvest practices and storage
facilities in the mill. Generally, millers purchase grains from farmers and do a
check on the practices associated with plantation, harvesting, storage, and trans-
portation. Agreements with the farmers in the beginning can render quality raw
materials and finished products.
2. Moisture content: The important step in storage is to remove excess moisture
from the cereal grains. The Codex standards for maximum moisture contents to
secure storage with good shelf life of cereal grains are presented in Table 10.7.
3. Quality checks on flours: The tests most commonly employed to authenticate the
wheat flour quality are moisture content, protein, ash, minerals, fat content, water
absorption, dough resistance, gluten quality, flour starch viscosity, diastatic
activity, maltose value, damage starch, flour color grade value, particle size
estimation, etc. These tests are carried out under strict control and regulations
approved by the American Association of Cereal Chemists, (AACC), Interna-
tional Association for Cereal Science and Technology (ICC), FSSAI, etc. These
quality checks are important to predict the quality and authenticity of the
products. Besides, the weight packed into sacks is not below the weight declared
on the label or listed on the sack.

10.11 Applications

10.11.1 Processed Rice Products

The different rice processed products and by-products along with their uses are
presented in Table 10.8 as under:

Table 10.7 Maximum moisture (%) of main selected cereals

Grain Moisture contenta (%, max) Codex standards
Wheat 14.5 199-1995
Rice 15.5 198-1995
Maize 15.5 153-1995
Oats 14.0 201-1995
Durum wheat 14.5
Whole and decorticated pearl millet grains 13.0 169-1989b
a
Lower moisture range essential in context with environmental conditions, transportation, and good
shelf life [36–41]
450 P. Kaushal and N. Kumar

Table 10.8 Processed rice products, by-products, and uses

Processed products Popular uses
Rice flour Preparation of papad, vermicelli, and other products
Puffed rice As breakfast cereal or snack food and as an ingredient of bhelpuri
Flaked rice (beaten To make poha, weaning food, etc.
rice)
Quick cooking rice Vegetable pulao
Polished rice Rice pudding, breakfast cereals
Parched rice Consumed as such or utilize with milk/buttermilk
Extruded products Murukku instant mix, vadagam, idiappam mix
Rice beverages Rice milk, rice water, black vinegar
Rice starch In puddings, custard powders, ice creams, etc.
Rice broken To make idli, upma, dosa, snack mix, and brewery and in cattle feed
Rice bran Source of vegetable oil, animal feed, and dietary fiber
Husk As fuel, feed, and in production of white ash
Rice hulls As packaging material during shipping and as a fuel in power plants
Rice straw As animal feed, fuel, and mushroom bed and in preparation of paper and
compost

10.11.2 Processed Wheat Products

The different processed wheat products and by-products of wheat processing along
with their utilization are summarized in Table 10.9:

10.11.3 Processed Corn Products

The different processed corn products and by-products of corn processing along with
their utilization are summarized in Table 10.10:

10.12 Exercise

1. If 300 g of paddy was dehusked in a rubber roller, 75 g of husk and 35 g of rice

broken were acquired. Enumerate the husk content (%). [Answer: 25%]
2. In the above numerical problem, after dehusking of paddy, head rice was
polished for 2 min, out of which 20 g of bran and 25 g of rice broken came
out of the polisher. Calculate the overall rice outturn, whole rice outturn, and
extent of polishing. [Answer: 68.3%, 48.33%, 10.53%]
3. Give generalized flow sheet for processing of wheat. How is wheat turned into
flour step by step?
4. How thermal properties of cereal grains are beneficial for designing equipment
for various heat transfer operations?
5. How different by-products of wheat, rice, and corn processing are utilized?
10 Processing of Cereals 451

Table 10.9 Processed wheat products, by-products, and their uses

Processed products Uses
Whole wheat flour Chapatti, cookies, biscuits, bakery products like bread, pastries, cakes
Refined wheat flour Cakes, pancakes, wafers, bread, pizza, breakfast cereals, etc.
Wheat gluten Used as a binding ingredient and source of protein in pet foods,
production of leavened products, useful ingredient in pasta and meat
products
Puffed wheat Used as breakfast cereal/snacks
(golden crisp)
Wheat starch Used in bakery products, ethanol production, thickening agent (soups,
sauces, and gravies)
Semolina Used for formulating extruded snacks like breakfast cereals, pasta
products (spaghetti and macaroni)
Noodles Extended and fine strip of pasta or alike flour paste
Porridge Particularly consumed as weaning foods
Roasted wheat Consumed as such
kernels
Wheat bran To produce alkaline protease and in the production of value-added
product, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
Wheat germ Used in extraction of oil, binder in meat loaf, etc.
Wheat germ oil Used in salad dressings, substitute for other oils
Chaff As animal feed

6. What is the impact of milling on various antinutrients present in cereals?

7. Give flow sheet of rice milling. Briefly discuss the various steps of modern rice
milling technology.
8. Differentiate wet milling from dry milling in context with corn. Explain the
technique of corn flour production by wet milling.
9. What are the crucial steps in parboiling of rice? What are the dominant physico-
chemical and nutritional changes prevailed after parboiling of rice? How double
boiling method is different from single boiling method in context with
parboiled rice?
10. What is the principle of specific gravity separators (SGS)? How do they work?
452 P. Kaushal and N. Kumar

Table 10.10 Main processed corn products and uses

Processed products Uses
Corn flakes As breakfast cereal, making upma, butter crunch biscuits, crusted
fried chicken, etc.
Popcorns Consumed as such
Corn nuts (toasted corn) and Snack food
tortilla chips
Maize flour In confectionery, wheat flour additive, thickening agent, etc.
Corn syrup As sweetener in hard candies, cold drinks, fruit drinks, etc.
Ogi In preparation of pap (similar to custard) and puddings
Corn starch As a thickener for sauces, gravies, fruit pie fillings, etc.
Corn gluten meal As livestock feed
Corn germ meal Valuable in poultry and swine rations
Nixtamalized maize To make ready-to-eat finished masa products (masa is a maize
dough from ground nixtamalized corn) and sold as shelf-stable
product
Corn steep liquor Feed ingredient, pellet binder, etc.
Corn fiber (maize coarse As animal feed and in manufacturing of ethanol
bran)
Maize fine bran As animal feed
Corn germ To extract oil and as animal feed
Maize oil In cooking, used in soap salve, paints, ink textiles, insecticides,
etc. and in pharmaceutical industry
Cobs Used as a biofuel, animal feed, and in charcoal production
Maize hulls Used as animal feed

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Processing of Pulses
11
Chandrakala Ravichandran and Ashutosh Upadhyay

Abstract

Pulses or grain legumes are dry edible seed with the pod. Pulses contain essential
micronutrients, complex carbohydrates, and dietary fiber and are commonly
referred as poor man’s meat because of the rich source of protein at low cost.
This chapter discusses the nutrient potential of pulses and the various unit
operations involved in processing. The chapter summarizes the major factors that
can affect the milling efficiency, and also the effect of milling on the composition,
functional properties, cooking quality, etc. of pulses. Case studies of important
pulses like chickpea, pigeon pea, and black gram are also explained with process
flow diagrams. The estimation of milling efficiency in terms of dehulling index
(DI), dehulling efficiency (DE), split yield, and percentage of brokens is worked
out using examples. The quality characteristics and functional properties of pulses
are also discussed.

Keywords
Nutrient potential of pulses · Unit operations in pulse processing · Milling ·
Grinding · Milling calculations · Value addition of pulses · Quality standards

C. Ravichandran
Department of Food Processing Technology, Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences,
Coimbatore, India
A. Upadhyay (*)
Department of Food Science and Technology, National Institute of Food Technology
Entrepreneurship and Management (NIFTEM), Sonipat, Haryana, India
e-mail: [email protected]

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 455
Ltd. 2022
H. K. Sharma, N. Kumar (eds.), Agro-Processing and Food Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7289-7_11
456 C. Ravichandran and A. Upadhyay

11.1 Pulses: Importance

Pulses are among one of the important food sources in the world next to cereals.
These are edible seeds from species of plants belonging to the family Fabaceae
(Leguminosae) and are often referred as grain legumes, legumes, or dhal/dal. Pulses
in general may be defined as the edible seeds of leguminous plants. According to
FAO classification of commodities, the pulses include only the crops that are
harvested solely for dry grain. The pulses exclude the crops harvested for oil
extraction (groundnut) and vegetable purposes (green peas and green beans). This
covers eleven primary pulses as per Table 11.1. Table 11.1 enlists the vernacular
name (common name) and its corresponding botanical name of pulses as per updated
taxonomic database published by FAO in 1994.
India is the world leader in the production of pulses where legumes have been
categorized into three types: grain legumes, peas, and beans [2]. The whole legumes
are called as legume grains, whereas the dehusked and split part are called as dhals.
Production of the top 10 countries in the world is shown in Fig. 11.1.
Realizing the importance of pulses, United Nations (UN) General Assembly
declared 2016 as the International Year of Pulses. Pulses have different formats of
consumption. The products such as noodles and baked and canned beans are part of
the value chain, whereas other Asiatic splits/dhal types are eaten in raw or cooked
form in regular diet. Pulses are known to have a distinct significance of improving
the fertility of the soil as nitrogen-fixing crops, and the taproot system in pulse crop

Table 11.1 Primary pulses considered as per FAO classificationa [1]

Class Common pulses/legumes Botanical names
Dry beans Bean/wild bean Phaseolus species as per FAO, but some
countries include other beans also from Vigna
genus
Dry broad Horse bean, broad bean, field Mainly Vicia faba
beans bean faba bean
Dry peas, Garden and field peas Pisum sativum and P. arvense
Chickpeas Chickpea, Bengal gram, Cicer arietinum
garbanzos
Dry Cowpea/black eye pea/bean Vigna unguiculata
cowpeas
Pigeon Pigeon pea, cajan pea, Congo Cajanus cajan
peas bean
Lentils Lentils Lens esculenta, Ervum lens
Bambara Bambara groundnut, earth pea Voandzeia subterranea
Beans
Vetches Spring/common vetch Vicia sativa
Lupins Lupins Lupinus spp.
Pulses nes Lablab or hyacinth bean, jack Dolichos spp., Canavalia spp., Psophocarpus
or sword bean, winged bean tetragonolobus
a
All species listed in this table come under the category of pulses, but some also fall under the
category of vegetables when harvested unripe
11 Processing of Pulses 457

Pulse Producon
1000000
900000
Producon in Tonnes

800000
700000
600000
500000
400000
300000
200000
100000
0

Country

Fig. 11.1 Production statistics of pulse

makes the soil porous thereby improving physical health of soil. They can grow on
relatively poor soils even without the application of fertilizer under rainfed
conditions. Being short-durational crop, farmers can take two crops of pulses in
the same year. In India, people found to have some organoleptic preference also
among the pulses grown in different seasons. Pulses are considered as a source of
protein and can be used as a tool to eradicate malnutrition.

11.2 Nutrient Potential of Pulses

Pulses are generally called poor man’s meat as they are widely consumed by people
from developing countries, due to high-quality proteins. They are a very important
source of complex carbohydrates, protein, and dietary fibers along with vitamins and
minerals. Carbohydrate is observed as the highest among other nutrients found in
pulses, with an average range of 60–65%. A maximum portion of carbohydrate
occurs in the form of starch. Content of oligosaccharides and dietary fiber may vary
depending on the degree of removal of husk. A higher percentage of amylose and
complex carbohydrates in pulses makes them rich in resistant starch content, which
makes pulses a low-GI foods. The presence of oligosaccharides in pulses is linked
with anti-colon-cancer potential by promoting the growth of bifidobacteria in the gut
[3]. Dietary fiber present in legumes may play a role in reducing the incidence of
occurrence of various diseases like diabetes, cancer, diverticulitis, etc. Both edible
and non-digestible carbohydrates are found in pulses: flavonoids and isoflavanones.
Stachyose is the main oligosaccharide in lentils, exceeding 50 mg/g, whereas
raffinose is 39.9 mg/g in chickpea [4].
Legume seeds or pulses store the protein in the membrane-bound organelle of
cotyledon, which makes them rich sources of protein (18–35%) with essential amino
458 C. Ravichandran and A. Upadhyay

acids and bioactive peptides. Globulin is the most abundant storage protein present
in pulses. The protein in pulses is twice than that of cereals, and it is also superior in
qualitative terms. Apart from storage protein, legumes also contain minor proteins
like trypsin inhibitors, lipo-oxygenase, urease, lectins, etc. Pulse proteins are rich in
lysine, leucine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, and arginine but devoid of sulfur-
containing amino acids, methionine, cysteine, and tryptophan. This deficiency is
complemented as pulses are consumed with cereals like rice or wheat. Pulses as the
source of protein have a potential to partly replace wheat flour in products like
crackers, cookies, bread, pizza, noodles, cakes, etc. Pulses are low in fat, particularly
if consumed as splits. In contrast to many pulses, chickpeas are reported to have a
relatively higher fat content. Fat in pulses is mainly composed of polyunsaturated
fatty acids [5].
Legumes are good sources of micronutrients and vitamins B and K, in general.
Potassium is the main macronutrient in pulses. Calcium is highly variable, ranging
from 0.92 to 0.28 g/kg in pea and yellow lentil, respectively [5]. The bioavailability
of these vitamins will change depending upon the method of cooking and form of
consumption. In addition to vitamin B, other vitamins like thiamin, riboflavin,
pyridoxine, and folic acid are also reported in pulses [6]. Other than potassium,
calcium and iron are important minerals that are present in a good concentration.
Chickpeas are a rich source of iron, while lentils and chickpeas have the highest
concentration of folate [5]. Beyond nutritional importance, pulses are important
components in diets and cropping systems. An overall nutritive profile of some
legumes and pulses is shown in Table 11.2.
Nutritional and functional potential of pulses showed that snacks with lower
levels of flatulence factors and higher amounts of dietary fiber can be formulated
successfully by extrusion techniques based on dry pea, lentil, or chickpea and may
provide an alternative to the traditional cereal-based snacks. Though some anti-
nutritional factors like trypsin inhibitors, lectins, phytic acid, saponins, cyanogens,
α- amylase inhibitor, etc. may be present in pulses, but they can be eliminated by
appropriate heating and processing during preparation. Pulses also help to lower
cholesterol and triglycerides and the proteins from pulses are easily available [5].

11.3 Antinutrients in Pulses and Effect of Processing

Antinutritional compounds are present in human food or animal feed, which inter-
fere in assimilation of nutrients and affect nutrient absorption [8]. The antinutrients
are widely present in the case of plant and animal foods, for example, solanine in
tomatoes and potatoes, which is a glycol-alkaloid poison retarding mitochondrial
functions, and avidin in raw egg that inhibits biotin absorption. In the case of pulses,
antinutrients are relatively present in higher quantities and can be categorized as
protein antinutritional compounds (ANCs) like lectins and trypsin and non-protein
antinutritional compounds (non-protein ANCs), which include phytic acid,
saponins, tannins, etc.
11 Processing of Pulses 459

Table 11.2 Nutritive value of pulses [7]

Energy Moisture Protein Fat Minerals Carbohydrate Fiber
(kcal) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g)
Bengal 372 10 21 6 3 60 1
gram dhal
Black gram 347 11 24 1 3 60 1
dhal
Cowpea 323 13 24 1 3 54 3
Field bean 347 10 25 1 3 60 1
Green 348 10 24 1 3 60 1
gram dhal
Horse 321 12 22 0 3 57 5
gram dhal
Khesari 345 10 28 1 2 57 2
dhal
Lentil 343 12 25 1 2 59 1
Moth bean 330 11 24 1 3 56 4
Green peas 93 73 7 0 1 16 4
Kidney 346 12 23 1 3 61 5
beans
Red gram 335 13 22 2 3 58 1
dhal
Soybean 432 8 43 20 5 21 4

Several other antinutritional compounds, which include oxalate, lathyrogen,

oligosaccharides, goitrogens, etc. are also present in several pulses. The most
common and important antinutritional compounds in various pulses are listed in
Table 11.3.
The processing methods significantly affect the physicochemical and nutritional
properties of raw pulses. The effect of some of the processing methods is discussed:

11.3.1 Soaking

Soaking is a common process before cooking. It helps in the reduction of

antinutrients and improves the cooking quality and digestibility of raw pulses.
Extrusion after soaking in water (30
C) for 16 h yielded the following results for
peas, chickpeas, faba beans, and kidney beans (Table 11.4).
Extrusion is carried out at feed moisture and barrel temperature of 18% and
140
C, respectively. From the data, it is evident that soaking also helps in reducing
the amount of antinutrients in raw pulses.
460 C. Ravichandran and A. Upadhyay

Table 11.3 The different antinutrients present in pulses, effect, and elimination approaches
Antinutritional Effect on nutrient Elimination
compounds Occurrence assimilation ways Reference
Trypsin Kidney beans, Inhibits the activity Moist heat, [9]
inhibitors cowpea, pigeon pea of proteolytic germination,
enzymes and autoclaving,
therefore decreases extrusion
the nutritional quality cooking
of proteins and intake
of amino acids.
Lectins Castor beans Lectins can influence Aqueous heat [10]
(Ricinus communis hydrolysis and treatment like
L.), soybeans, kidney absorption of soaking and
beans, faba beans, carbohydrates in the cooking
and lupin seeds gut because of the
bindings.
Tannins Pigeon pea, urdbean, Lower protein Dehulling, [11, 12]
cowpea, chickpea, digestibility/ soaking
mung bean and pea decreases amino acid overnight,
availability germination
Lathyrogen Seeds of lathyrus, A toxic amino acid Soaking, [13, 14]
commonly known as known as β-N- parboiling,
khesari or teora Oxalyl-amino-L- roasting, and
alanine (BOAA) in degerming
the seeds causes
paralysis of the legs
Oxalate Pink bean, black Oxalic acid forms Blanching [15]
bean, navy bean, water-soluble salts and sprouting
soybean, small red with Na+, K+, and
bean, small white NH4+ ions. It also
bean, and anasazi binds with Ca2+,
bean and also in nuts Fe2+, and Mg2+,
and grains rendering these
minerals unavailable
for absorption and
causing diseases like
osteomalacia and
rickets
Phytate China’s legumes, Phytate may bind Germination, [15–17]
pea, faba pea, dry with dietary minerals soaking,
bean, lentils, black including proteins cooking,
bean, whole grains, and starch to reduce autoclaving,
oilseeds, nuts the bioavailability roasting
Saponins Soybeans, peas, Inhibiting enzymes Soaking, [12, 18]
potato, yams, (metabolic and germination,
asparagus, alliums, digestive) and bind cooking
oats, sugar beet, tea, with nutrients such as
ginseng zinc
11 Processing of Pulses 461

Table 11.4 Effect of soaking and extrusion on tannins and phytic acid [19]
Antinutrient Unsoaked and extruded Soaked and extruded
1. Phytic acid (mg/g)
(a) Faba beans 6.4 6.1
(b) Peas 8.97 8.5
(c) Chickpeas 8.21 8.00
(d) Kidney beans 11.03 9.95
2. Tannins (mg/100 g)
(a) Faba beans 492 485
(b) Peas 330 269
(c) Chickpeas 260 210
(d) Kidney beans 233 229

11.3.2 Dehydration

Dehydration helps in bringing down the antinutrient levels of pulses. Dehydration

results in a general decline of phytic acid in lentils, white beans, and pink mottled
beans and reduces the levels of enzyme inhibitors and lectins. Dehydration also
helps in improving protein digestibility, thus making dehydrated pulse flours a
suitable raw material for the development of ready-to-use special meals.

11.3.3 Cooking

Cooking not only improves the palatability, nutrition, and digestibility but also
reduces the antinutritional compounds present in raw pulses. A significant reduction
in tannin has been reported in cooked samples of beans and chickpeas [20].

11.3.4 Extrusion

Extrusion is one of the oldest techniques for the production of ready-to-eat and
convenience foods like puffed snacks, pasta, noodles, etc. Pulse flours can be used
either directly or in combination with other cereal and legume flours for production
of healthy snacks and convenience foods. Extrusion significantly affects the nutrient
and antinutrient compounds in pulses, and the process variables like barrel tempera-
ture, feed moisture, pressure, screw speed, etc. play a decisive role. Extrusion of
legume flours has potential for the production of extruded ready-to-eat foods by
partially or totally replacing cereals for starch and proteins modification, improving
digestibility, and reduces the content of trypsin inhibitors, lectins, phytic acid, and
tannins [21]. Table 11.5 describes the effect of extrusion of pea seed and lentil seed
and its effect on nutrients and antinutrients. Extrusion at 148
C temperature,
100 rpm screw speed, and 25% feed moisture for pea seed (cv. Ballet) shows
reduction in antinutritional factors [17].
462 C. Ravichandran and A. Upadhyay

Table 11.5 Effect of extrusion on nutrients and antinutrients present in pea seed (cv. ballet) [17]
Raw pea seed Extruded pulse product (pea seed)
Nutrient/anti nutrient [16] [16]
Protein (g/100 g DM) 21.6 21.8
Phytic acid (g/100 g DM) 1.19 1.12
Condensed tannins (mg eq cat/100 g 23.8 2.34
DM)
Polyphenols (mg/100 g DM) 50 23
Trypsin inhibitor (IU/mg DM) 6.32 0.34
Chymotrypsin inhibitor (IU/mg DM) 4.85 1.68
Hemagglutinins (IU/mg DM) 6.0 0.1

11.4 Unit Operations in Pulse Processing

Major unit operations, other than milling, involved in pulse processing are described
below:

11.4.1 Cleaning and Grading

Raw pulses are harvested and received contaminated with a foreign matter like pod
walls, weeds, soil, diseased and deformed seeds, and stones. Scalpers and air screens
are used to get rid of such unwanted material. After cleaning, grading is done to
achieve uniform-sized grains for further processing. The cleaning and grading
equipment include [22]:

a. Scalpers, for removing trash and fines. A rotating or reciprocating screen may be
used for cleaning operations.
b. The separation is based on size and weight. Aspiration removes the lighter
materials and large materials are removed by passing through screens. A second-
ary screen is used to separate fine seeds from the desired size of seeds.
c. Width and thickness separators consist of rotating, cylindrical, perforated shells.
Width and thickness are adjusted in a way so that the large unwanted material is
unable to pass through and gets discharged.
d. Gravity-based separators are used to separate grains based on specific gravity and
surface characteristics. Fluidizing apparatus is used to fluidize the seeds before
feeding onto an oscillating deck. The mixture gets stratified, i.e., light seeds stay
up and heavy seeds go in the lower layer, which results in the separation of seeds
at the discharge end.
e. Spiral separator exploits the relationship between grain size and its rolling rate.
Based on the pulse variety, an angle of the spiral can be adjusted to different
values.
f. The color sorter is effective and convenient grading equipment but demands good
capital investment.
11 Processing of Pulses 463

11.4.2 Pitting

Pitting is the process in which abrasive roller machines are used for scratching and
cracking the husk of whole pulses. The purpose of pitting is to facilitate the
penetration of oil/water in subsequent steps.

11.4.3 Premilling Treatments

Oil treatment: In wet milling, pulse grains are soaked in water for few hours to
overnight, while in dry milling, pulses are subjected to pitting and then oil treatment,
and 0.7–1.0% edible oil like linseed oil is applied. Screw conveyor is used for oil
treatment of scratched/pitted pulses. Pitted pulses are mixed with edible oil and then
passed through a screw conveyor for effective oil penetration [23]
Conditioning: Conditioning is the term used for alternate wetting and drying of
pitted and oil-treated pulses. The purpose of conditioning is to further loosen the
husk so that dehusking and splitting can be carried out effectively with a minimum
breakage. During conditioning, pulse grains are sun dried for a certain period, and
then 3–5% moisture is added and left for tempering for about 8 h and then again
dried in the sun [23]. This whole process is repeated for 2–4 days until the pulses are
conditioned properly.
Drying: Sun drying is usually practiced. Pulses are dried to a final moisture
content of about 8–10%. For commercial milling plants, batch- and continuous-
type mechanical driers are used. Forced hot air drying and dehumidified air drying
are the artificial drying techniques commonly used where the conditions are not
suitable for natural drying. In forced hot air drying, the artificially heated air is forced
through the grains in bulk to absorb the released moisture. In dehumidified air
drying, the grains are dried by circulating the unheated dehumidified air, until the
desired moisture content is reached.

11.4.4 Dehusking and Splitting

Conditioned pulses are dehusked using emery rollers, which are also known as Gota
machines. In one pass, around 50% of grains are dehusked. Dehusking is followed
by the splitting of pulse grains into two. The aspirator is used to remove the husk and
sieving is done to obtain split pulses. The process is repeated twice or thrice until the
complete dehusking and splitting are done. Roller mill tangential abrasive dehulling
device (TADD) [24] is one of the several dehusking devices available in the market.
Roller mills are generally used for the splitting of dehusked pulses. Roller mills
consist of two discs in which one stays stationary while the other one rotates. A
rubbing action is produced, which splits the dehusked whole pulses into two. The
size and speed of the disc determine the capacity of the roller mill. Roller mills are
used for the splitting of pulses like urad bean, lentil, chickpea, soybean, and
mung bean.
464 C. Ravichandran and A. Upadhyay

11.4.5 Polishing

A small quantity of oil or water may be used for polishing of dehusked and split
pulses. Rubber rollers, leather belts, or emery cone polisher can be used for polishing
of pulses. In operation, polishing equipment are similar to oil/water treatment
equipment.

11.5 Milling

The processing of pulses aimed for dehusking and splitting is also popularly called in
the region as milling of pulses. It contributes in increased digestibility and improved
sensory characteristics like aroma and texture, to the pulses. This processing step
mainly aims to remove hulls as cleanly as possible. Traditional methods of pulse
milling may broadly be classified as wet milling and dry milling. The process flow
chart involved in the wet and dry milling process is shown in Figs. 11.2 and 11.3,
respectively.
The major difference between dry and wet milling is in the premilling treatment.
In wet milling, after pitting/scratching, soaking in water is done followed by mixing
with red earth. The grains are mixed completely with the red earth paste after soaking
in water and heaping for about 16 h followed by final drying. Whereas in dry milling,

Fig. 11.2 Flow chart of wet milling (illustrated as per [25, 26])
11 Processing of Pulses 465

Fig. 11.3 Flow chart of dry milling (illustrated as per [22, 23])

emery roller machines are used for pitting followed by oil/water treatment, whereby
linseed oil is used generally at the rate of 1%, which is mixed thoroughly with grains
followed by drying for 2–3 days. At the end of drying, conditioning is carried out
overnight by 2–5% water application. Dry milling (as shown in Fig. 11.3) also
includes an extra step of polishing after dehusking and splitting.
These milling methods are mostly used in Indian subcontinents. Various
organizations and research institutions, particularly in India, have made a significant
contribution in the development of methods and machinery to process the pulses
with higher efficiency and in an economical way. However, the designs vary in terms
of capacity, efficiency, ease in use, pulse specificity vs multi-pulse milling, eco-
nomic viability, and power consumption. A mini-dhal-mill model is shown in
Fig. 11.4. This mini dal mill can be used for dehusking and splitting of all type of
preconditioned pulses with the capacity of 50 kg/h with the recovery of 78–80% of
head pulses and 1–3% of broken. The mill consists of a hopper and a vibratory sieve
of different sizes, placed in an inclined position for cleaning and grading as per the
type of pulse to be milled, which are operated using a motor-driven shaft. It performs
the function of an emery roller machine for pitting of pulses and dehusking followed
by an aspirator for removal of husk. The setup also consists of polisher through
common shaft arrangement for conditioning of pulse with oil.
466 C. Ravichandran and A. Upadhyay

Secondary hopper Hopper for sieving unit

Grain hopper Cylinder with cover

Blower

Oil and water tank

Sieve unit

Screw conveyor

Fig. 11.4 Mini dal mill for dehusking and splitting of grain legume

11.6 Grinding

The pulse flour is produced using various grinders, which reduces the size of pulses.
The milling operation produces different particle sizes, which affects the functional
properties of flour, viz., water absorption, texture and porosity of flours, etc. Gener-
ally, two types of milling techniques are used for the size reduction process:

1. Impact milling process: This technique is used to mill the hard materials by
striking and producing fractures. These usually consist of rotating hammers or
hammer-type blades. These are preferred in pulse milling due to good control
over the size of particles through the size of the opening at the outlet.
2. Attrition milling process: These mills consist of horizontal rotating vessels with a
hardened rough surface. The material has to pass through between the place,
which provides shear force, and crushing of cotyledons of pulses takes place.

11.7 Major Factors Affecting Milling Efficiency

The properties of pulses play a vital role in the milling process and affect the dhal
yield. The milling of pulses depends upon the variety due to variation in thickness,
waxiness of husk, size, shape, hardness, and storage conditions. The main factors
that affect milling efficiency are:
11 Processing of Pulses 467

11.7.1 Seed Size

The bigger diameter grains provide higher recovery due to the advantage of bigger
cotyledons. The abrasive rolls provide the required forces to detach the husk from
the grains.

11.7.2 Legume Type

Some pulses contain thin-layered seed coat of about 5–10% of seed mass, viz.,
cowpeas and green gram, whereas chickpeas and pigeon peas have a higher amount
of about 14–18% of the grains. A layer of gum also decides the binding of the kernels
with the husk, which also varies in texture, nature, and hydration level.

11.7.3 Variety

Variety and agro-climatic conditions affect milling quality of pulses. Milling yield
ranges 64–75% in traditional milling as compared to 79–84% by improved milling
methods/process.

11.7.4 Moisture

Moisture reduction accelerates the splitting, while the addition of moisture helps in
dehusking. Scouring losses can be reduced by separating, dehusking, and splitting
operations against simultaneous dehusking and splitting.

11.8 Effect of Milling

Milling can influence various parameters, some of the important ones are described
as follows:

1. Composition: The seed coat fraction accounts for 7–15% of whole kernels. The
major portion of protein, fat, phosphorus, and iron is present in cotyledons. An
appreciable amount of crude fiber and calcium content is available in the seed
coat, which remains available in a limited amount due to the removal of husk
during the milling of kernels.
2. Antinutritional factors: The removal of the seed coat is expected to reduce the
tannin as it is mainly located in the seed coat of beans, while a marginal increase
in phytic acid, trypsin, chymotrypsin, and amylase inhibitory activities may be
seen as these are found in cotyledons.
3. Protein digestibility: Tannins present in the seed coat form complexes with
proteins; therefore, it is associated with poor digestibility of proteins. Dehulling
468 C. Ravichandran and A. Upadhyay

decreases the tannin content significantly and thus improves the digestibility of
legume proteins.
4. Functional properties: The oil and water absorption ability of pulse is improved
after dehulling, which remains lower due to the seed coat in the whole seed. This
may be due to probable interactions between the endosperm protein components
and seed coat materials. The process of milling also affects the functional
properties. The ground pulses using the hammer mill produces maximum antiox-
idant capacity, phenolic content, and resistant starch contents due to the produc-
tion of finer particles.
5. Cooking quality: The permeability of water during cooking in pulses is improved
due to the removal of the seed coat, and hence, faster cooking time is observed. It
reduces about 40–70% cooking time by removal of the seed coat.
6. Consumer acceptance: Consumer acceptance has various considerations of taste,
cooking quality, cooking time, pre-treatments, etc. The consumers generally
accept (a) freshly milled pulses because it tastes better, (b) red pigeon pea over
the white pigeon pea due to taste and cooking quality, (c) late-maturing cultivars
due to good cooking quality and shorter cooking time, and (d) specific
pre-treatment of oil/water/salt.

11.9 Milling of Pulses: A Case Study

11.9.1 Black Gram: A Case Study

Black gram kernels (Fig. 11.5) have seed coat, cotyledons, and embryos in the
proportion of 12–14%, 83–85%, and 3%, respectively. The protein, lipid, and ash are
contained in cotyledons, whereas crude fiber and calcium are available in an embryo.
It contains about 18.1–24.6% oil. The protein is present in the form of about 80% of
globulins, 13% albumin, 4% prolamin, and 2% glutelin.
Black gram is found rich in thiamin, niacin, and pantothenic acids along with
calcium, phosphorus, and iron. It contains antinutritional factors like protease

Fig. 11.5 Structure of

black gram
Cotyledon

Testa (Seed coat)

Embryos
11 Processing of Pulses 469

inhibitors in the form of trypsin and chymotrypsin, which can be reduced using heat
treatment. Steam at 5 psi and 108
C can reduce inhibiting activity by 33%. Black
gram also contains 1.46–1.70% phytic acid. Phytates make insoluble complexes and
reduce the bioavailability of proteins, minerals, and vitamins.
The seed coat also contains 1.1% tannin but remains negligible in cotyledons. It
also produces flatus after intake due to the presence of oligosaccharides, viz.,
raffinose, stachyose, verbascose, etc. Flatus can be reduced by germination and
fermentation, but roasting enhances the flatus. Interestingly, methionine content of
black gram and rice blend is increased in traditional fermentation while reducing
inhibitors. Cooking inactivates trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitor activity.
The typical flow chart for dry milling of black gram is shown in Fig. 11.6. The
black gram selected must be sound, whole, and free from insects because the quality
of the final product is proportional to the quality of raw material. Selected pulses are
cleaned for the removal of unwanted impurities like dirt, chaffs, stones, soil, etc.
They are graded for uniformity in size and quality. Graded black gram is prickled/
pitted through a rough roller mill to scrape the surface for oil adsorption and to
remove the waxy layer on black grams. The pitted grains are treated with 1–0.5% oil

Fig. 11.6 Flow chart of dry Raw black gram

milling of black gram [23]

Cleaning and Grading Chaff, dirt etc.

Pitting

Mixing with oil (0.5%) and overnight heaping

Sun drying for 4-6 h

Sprayed with 2- 5% water and equilibrated

Sun drying for 2-3 days

Dehusking and Splitting

Aspiration (Husk + Powder)

Polishing the splits (with soap stone powder)

Processed black gram

470 C. Ravichandran and A. Upadhyay

and are heaped overnight for sufficient oil penetration into grams. Followed by oil
treatment, the black gram is spread in the drying surface to employ sun drying for
4–6 h for partial dehydration. The partially dehydrated grams are sprayed with 2–5%
water and equilibrated overnight. The wetted black gram is thoroughly dried for 2–3
days and can be dehusked in an abrasive, carborundum roller machine for several
passes. Around 40–50% pulses are dehusked in the first milling operation, and then
husked and unhusked pulses are separated. Unhusked pulses are dried again and the
same process is repeated until complete milling is achieved. The average yield of
black gram is 70–71%. Dehusked split/whole dhal are polished using soapstone
powder to improve the glow and enhance market value.

11.9.2 Chickpeas, Lentils, and Bengal Gram: A Case Study

The cotyledons of chickpeas (Fig. 11.7) contribute to 82.9–84%, whereas the

remaining 14.5–16.4% is contributed by the seed coat and 1.2–1.5% by the germ.
The crude protein and starch content of seed vary between 18 and 30.6% and 37.2
and 50.8%, respectively. The amylase present is about 31.8–45.8% of the total
starch, while the remaining is present in the form of amylopectin. The distribution
of protein is more in the outer part.
Non-protein nitrogen and glutelin of pulses are mainly found in the seed coat of
chickpea. The crude fiber, 7.1–13.5%, mainly with cellulose and hemicelluloses is
also found in chickpea. Lipid content in the chickpea ranges from 3.1 to 6.9%.
Linoleic and oleic acids are 67.13% of the unsaturated fatty acid fraction found in
this legume [27]. The chickpea also provides minerals such as calcium, phosphorus,
magnesium, iron, and potassium in diet.
It is the richest source for iron availability as compared to other legumes. A
considerable amount of ascorbic acid makes chickpea good for germination of seeds.

Fig. 11.7 Diagram of Radicle

chickpea
Hilum

Testa (Seed coat)

Cotyledons
11 Processing of Pulses 471

Vitamins like thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine, and folic acid are also present
in chickpea. Most of the seed calcium may go off if seed coat is removed, but vitamin
contents of whole seed and dhal do not differ significantly. The presence of
non-digestible short-chain carbohydrates or oligosaccharides like raffinose,
stachyose, and verbascose may give flatulence effect. Due to the higher amount of
unavailable carbohydrates, the digestibility of chickpea carbohydrates is lowest as
compared to commonly consumed Indian pulses.
Two inhibitors, namely, chymotrypsin and trypsin, are present in the chickpeas,
which can be eliminated/reduced using germination, heating, and fermentation. The
processing methods also reduce the flatus producing oligosaccharides. The pancre-
atic amylase inhibitor can be controlled by boiling the chickpea for at least 10 min.
The number of tannins in the whole seed and cotyledons is 70–272 mg and
16–38 mg per 100 g, respectively, which reduces the bioavailability of vitamins
and minerals [27]. Pressure cooking and open pan cooking can lead to significant
reduction in beneficial flavonoids and isoflavanones present in chickpea and
lentils [28].
Unlike black gram, Bengal gram, chickpeas, and lentils could be dehusked easily
as the husk is comparatively loose. However, the preconditioning is done for a short
period of time after pitting. For conditioning, Bengal gram is uniformly treated with
water (1:3) by a mixer and is heaped for few hours for sufficient diffusion for water
into pulses. The wet pulses are dried for 1–2 days with overnight tempering for
complete removal of moisture before milling. The first milling is carried out,
whereby 60–70% of pulses are dehusked and split to obtain dhal. The split,
dehusked, and unhusked pulses are separated by aspiration and sieving. The
remaining unhusked pulses are again treated with water, dried, and tempered
followed by milling, and the same process is repeated until maximum pulses are
converted to dhal. The complete process takes 3–5 days. The typical flow chart for
milling of chickpeas, lentils, and Bengal gram is shown in Fig. 11.8.

11.9.3 Pigeon Pea: A Case Study

Pigeon pea is a rich source of nutrients and is also known astur, tuver, arhar, red
gram, adhaki, etc. Pigeon pea seeds contain starch-dominating carbohydrates rang-
ing 57.3–62.9%. The starch content in pigeon pea seeds varies from 39.0 to 58.9%.
The amylose is about 26.5–38.6%, while amylopectin constitutes 70–73% of the
total starch in pigeon pea. Crude fiber, mainly cellulose and hemicelluloses and some
amounts of lignin and pectic substances, ranges from 1.2 to 8.1%. The pectic
substances may affect the cooking quality of beans. The pigeon pea seeds also
contain some amounts of raffinose, stachyose, and verbascose. Supplementation of
pigeon pea in diets with limiting methionine and/or tryptophan can improve its
protein quality and protein efficiency ratio [27].
Total lipid content in pigeon pea ranges from 0.6 to 3.8%, of which 95% of the
total lipids are present in cotyledons. Unsaturated fatty acids dominate (71.8%)
oversaturated fatty acids (20.5%). The linoleic and oleic acid among the unsaturated
472 C. Ravichandran and A. Upadhyay

Raw pulse

Cleaning and Grading Chaff, dirt etc.

Pitting

Addition of water (1:3) and heaping

Sun drying for 1-2 days

Dehusking and Splitting

Aspiration (Husk) U n- hus k e d

p ul se

Split pulse

Fig. 11.8 Flow chart of dry milling of lentils, chickpeas, and Bengal gram [23]

fatty acids and palmitic acid in the saturated fatty acids are the major fatty acids. It is
reasonably a good source of calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, sulfur, and
potassium. Phosphorus is mainly present as phytic acid. Vitamins of B group
particularly thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and choline are also present in this legume.
Pigeon pea seeds contain trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors (protease
inhibitors), phenolic compounds, cyanogenic compounds, phytate, lectins, and
saponins. It also consists of polyphenols, 0.37–1.51%. The amount of the
polyphenols in the seeds depends upon the variety, color, and other factors. The
lesser content of polyphenols is reported in white seeds than the dark-red to light-red
seeds. The polyphenols are mainly located in the seed coat, which can be easily
dehulled [27].
Most of the pigeon peas are consumed in the form of dhal in northern India and
sambhar curry in southern India. Immature green seeds may also be used as a
vegetable. To reduce long cooking time, it is preferred to soak the splits, but solid
loss up to 5% may occur during soaking [29]. Thus, cooking in pressure cookers
without soaking can serve a better option. The canning of green seeds of pigeon pea
is a common practice in African countries including the West Indies and the
Dominican Republic. Green pigeon peas are nutritionally superior to mature seeds
of dhal because the seeds are harvested at a stage, where the concentration of
desirable nutrients, such as sulfur-containing amino acids, is higher.
Pigeon pea is milled by both dry and wet milling method. In contrast to Bengal
gram, black gram, lentil, and chickpeas, pigeon peas are considered a difficult kind
of pulses to mill as the husk is tightly attached to the seed coat making the process
11 Processing of Pulses 473

Fig. 11.9 Flow chart for

chemical and thermal
treatment of pigeon pea
milling (Pantnagar process
and CFTRI process)

complicated. As already discussed, the dry milling uses oil and conditioning in the
process aiding in a loosening of husk. Whereas red earth treatment loosens husk in
wet milling treatment. Only 50% of pulses are milled in the first pass in dry milling,
whereas 95% is dehusked in wet milling. However, the recovery of is 68–75%,
depending on the variety milled and the method used. Apart from wet and dry
milling, several premilling treatments like heat, chemicals, and enzymes are used
specifically for pigeon pea. Due to crucial milling needs of pigeon pea, various
organizations have come up with different methods of pigeon pea milling as shown
in Fig. 11.9.
The cleaned and graded pulses are pitted to scrape off the outer seed surface. The
common objective of the process is to loosen the husk and aid milling. In the CFTRI
process, hot air is used as a medium to loosen the husk, making it fragile and brittle
providing an average yield of 80%. This method has been developed to overcome
the problem observed due to the weather. However, high electrical consumption and
high cost of machinery are the limiting factors. In the Pantnagar process, sodium
bicarbonate is employed for loosening the husk with the recovery of dhal up to 80%.
Even though this method eliminates the use of oil, the application of chemicals
during this process results in the husk with chemical residues limiting its use as
animal feed. CIAE method has also been developed to eliminate the use of oil in the
474 C. Ravichandran and A. Upadhyay

milling of peas. Here, pitted grains are soaked in water to attain 35% moisture
followed by drying to 10% moisture content, which gives a recovery of 75% [27].

11.10 Milling Calculations

Some important milling calculations are summarized as follows:

11.10.1 Dehulling Efficiency (DE)

Dehulling efficiency is the yield of dehulled whole seed as a percentage of whole

unhusked pulse seeds [30] and also called as the degree of dehulling, and it is
expressed as

ðDWS þ DÞ  100
DE ð%Þ ¼
Wt
where total dehulled fraction ¼ DWS (mass of dehulled whole seeds) + D (mass of
dehulled dhal), Wt ¼ original weight.

11.10.2 Dehulling Index (DI)

It is also called pearling index and ranges from +1 (maximum) to 1 (minimum)

[31]:

ðMc þ MhÞ  ðMuh þ Mf Þ

n¼
Mg

where Mc, Mh, Muh, Mf, and Mg are the mass of cotyledons and broken cotyledons,
mass of removed hulls, mass of kernels that remained undehulled, mass of fines in
the final product, and total mass of original grain fed into the dehuller, respectively.
However, dehulling index (DI) can also be expressed as [32]

100  SR
DI ¼
AF
where
 
W3
SR ðSeed coat removedÞ ¼ 100   100
W4
11 Processing of Pulses 475

W1  W2
AF ðAbraded finesÞ ¼  100
W1
W1, W2, W3, and W4 are the weight of the original sample, weight of partially
dehulled seed, weight of dried seed coat, and weight of dried fully dehulled seed,
respectively.

11.10.3 Splits Yield (SY)

Also known as dhal yield is the yield of split product material (dhal) as a percentage
of original whole seeds [30, 33], and it can be expressed as

D  100
SY ð%Þ ¼
Wt
where D ¼ mass of dehulled splits and Wt ¼ original weight.

11.10.4 Percentage Kibble or Brokens

Percentage kibble or brokens are the yield of brokens as a percentage of the original
seed weight [30, 33], and it can be expressed as

K  100
Kibble ð%Þ ¼
Wt
where K ¼ mass of brokens and Wt ¼ original weight.

Problem 11.1 A mill receives 500 kg of pulses for processing. The cleaning
operation separates about 15 kg of chaffs, dirt, sand, stones, twigs, etc. from the
raw material. The whole seeds obtained from the cleaners are subjected to dehuller
and about 100 kg of whole kernels remained and 300 kg of split dhal is obtained.
Calculate the dehulling efficiency.
Solution:
Total dehulled fraction ¼ DWS (mass of dehulled whole seeds) + D (mass of
dehulled dhal) ¼ 100 + 300 ¼ 400 kg
Wt ¼ original weight ¼ 500 kg

ðDWS þ DÞ  100 400

DE ð%Þ ¼ ¼  100 ¼ 80%
Wt 500
476 C. Ravichandran and A. Upadhyay

Table 11.6 FCI quality standards for procurement of pulses [34]

Pulse Quality parameters
Tur, urd, and moong • Foreign material: 2% max. including sand, dust, etc.
dhal (split) • Kachri (damaged grains that included colored, immature, shriveled
grains, etc.): 3% max
• Retention on 4 mm sieve: 2% max
• Red seeds: 95% max
• Moisture: 12% max
• Weevilled pulses: 4 % max
• The material shall be tested on a 4 mm sieve
• No live infestations should be there
Bengal gram (whole) • Foreign matter: 3% max. of which 0.5% max. shall belong to the
mineral or animal origin
• Other edible grains: max. 2.0% by weight
• Damaged/slightly damaged grains: max. 3% by weight
• Immature, shriveled, and broken grains: 5% max
• Admixture: max. 2% by weight
• Weevilled pulses: max. 5% by count
• Moisture: max. 12% by weight
Lentils (masoor whole) • Foreign matter: 3% max. of which 0.5% max. shall belong to the
mineral or animal origin
• Other edible grains: max. 2.0% by weight
• Damaged/slightly damaged grains: max. 3% by weight
• Immature, shriveled, and broken grains: 3% max
• Admixture: max. 2% by weight
• Weevilled pulses: max. 3% by count
• Moisture: max. 12% by weight

11.11 Quality Specifications for Pulses

In the interest of both the buyers and sellers, practical legal standards need to be adopted
in order to ensure quality of the product. Table 11.6 summarizes the quality standards
adopted by Food Corporation of India (FCI) for procurement of some pulses.
As per Food Safety and Standard Regulations (2010), the standards for food
commodities are described under various categories. The standards laid down for the
quality of pulses are shown in Table 11.7.

11.12 Value Addition of Pulses

Value addition may be defined as adding value to a product by means of processing,

cooking, fortification, etc. to make it more marketable and appealing to consumers.
Post-harvest operations are either aimed at value addition of raw material or reduc-
tion of wastage. Every stage of processing adds some value to the product, and it is
estimated that primary processing adds 75% value to raw materials, and secondary/
tertiary processing methods add 25% value, respectively. Thus, the role of primary
processing in uplifting the income of farmers can’t be neglected. Development of the
11 Processing of Pulses 477

Table 11.7 Quality standards for pulses [35]

Parameter Standard
Moisture • Not more than 14% by weight for masoor whole and split, urd whole
and split, and moong whole and split
• Not more than 14% by weight for channa whole and split channa dhal
Foreign mattera • Not more than 1% by weight
Other edible grainsa • Not more than 3% by weight for masoor whole and urd whole
• Not more than 4% for moong whole dhal, split moong dhal, and split
pulse urd dhal and channa dhal
• Not more than 2% by weight in split dhal channa and split pulse
masoor dhal
• Not more than 0.5% by weight for split arhar dhal
Damaged grainsa • Not more than 5% by weight for all split and whole dhal
Weevilled grains • Not more than 6% by count for masoor whole, urd whole, and moong
whole
• Not more than 10% by count for channa whole and split channa dhal
• Not more than 3% by count for split arhar, urd, channa dhal and split
masoor and moong dhal
Uric acid • Not more than 100 mg/kg for all split and whole dhal
Mycotoxin including • Not more than 30 mg/kg for all split and whole dhal
aflatoxin
a
Provided that the total of foreign matter, other edible grains, and damaged grains shall not exceed
8% by weight

following category of foods from pulses through secondary/tertiary processing can

be considered an effective way of adding value to pulses:

11.12.1 Baby Foods

Baby foods can be supplemented with pulse powders in order to increase the protein
content and overall nutritive value. Pulse protein extract or specific bioactive
peptides can also be used for fortification of baby foods. Boiled mung bean along
with rice soup has been reported to be an effective protein supplement for babies
[7]. Traditional processing practices like soaking, germination, malting, roasting,
etc. can be employed for the development of nutritionally balanced, readily avail-
able, affordable source of weaning foods for infants [36].

11.12.2 Imitation Milks

Imitation milk is manufactured as a substitute of original milk and contains plant-

based fats, proteins, water, and stabilizers like gums or alginates. Soy proteins are
known to be the most effective plant-based proteins for use in imitation milks. The
use of pea and lentil protein extracts has also been reported. Lentil protein extract
gives intermediate-quality imitation milk as compared to soy protein isolates and the
478 C. Ravichandran and A. Upadhyay

pea protein extract. A study on chickpea- and lupin-based legume beverage as an

alternative to milk resulted in protein contents varying from 1 to 1.5 and 1.8 to 2.4%,
respectively. Chickpea beverage with cooking water showed best results in terms of
sensory quality with the yield of 1221 g/100 g of seed [37].

11.12.3 Bean Curd

Tofu is one of the most popular soy foods, which is made from soy milk and
resembles the texture of cottage cheese. With a protein concentration of 2.3–3%
and the use of 1.5% CaSO4 as coagulant, pulses like chickpea, lentil, smooth pea,
mung bean, faba bean, and winged bean yield a good-quality bean curd.

11.12.4 Meat Products

Pulse flours can be used as an ingredient in the meat products like burgers, sausages,
nuggets, etc. [30]. Black-eyed bean flour, lentil flour, and chickpea flour have been
successfully used as ingredients in meatballs at a 10% supplementation level.

11.12.5 Baked Goods, Glazers, Frosting, and Pastes

Pulse flours can be used to dilute wheat flour to improve the nutritional potential of
baked goods. Protein, ash, fiber, and the amino acid scores can be increased by
replacing wheat flour with chickpea or soybean flour.

11.12.6 Extruded Products

Pulse flours can be incorporated into extruded products like pasta, noodles, puffed
snacks, etc., which will enhance the nutrient value of such products.

11.13 Quality Standards

Pulses may be marketed as raw whole or dehusked split. Quality plays an important
role in marketing of pulses. Clean and properly graded pulses usually fetch higher
prices in the market. Proper packaging also plays an important role in increasing
consumer acceptability and reducing post-harvest losses.
11 Processing of Pulses 479

11.14 Exercise

Q.1. 25 kg of pigeon pea is received in a commercial milling plant, which is

subjected to processing. Preliminary operations like cleaning and grading are carried
out to remove chaffs, dirt, sand, stones, twigs, etc. After cleaning and grading, the
seeds are dehulled using advanced pigeon pea dehuller. After dehulling, 14.5 kg of
whole seeds and 8.5 kg of split dhals are obtained. Calculate the DE (%).
[Answer: 92]
Q.2 50 kg of black gram is subjected to cleaning and grading. The cleaned gram is
then subjected to dehulling by high-speed gram dehuller and splitting machine
resulting in 37.6 kg of dehulled split dhal. Now calculate the split yield (%).
[Answer: 75]
Q.3. 100 g of sambar made from tur and moong dhal contain protein content of
22 g. Considering the nitrogen intake as grams of protein divided by 6.25. During the
process of assimilation, it is observed that 1.26 g of nitrogen is lost. Calculate the
biological value (BV). [Answer: 64]
Q.4. 100 kg of chickpea seed is milled to obtain 70 kg of dehusked whole dhal,
10 kg of broken dhal, 15 kg of removed hulls, 2 kg of underhulled seeds, and 3 kg of
fines in the final product. Calculate the following:

a. Dehulling index [Answer: 1.2]

b. Kibble (%) [Answer: 14]

Q.5. Freeda weighs 40 kg with the height of 5 ft, 2 in. She is motivated to follow
vegan protein-rich diet for her weight gain plan. If she consumes 400 g of pea-based
menu containing 100 g of protein for 7 days, she can increase her weight to 42.5 kg,
and then calculate the protein efficiency ratio of proteins present in her diet.
[Answer: 3.5]
Q.7. Draw the process flow for wet milling process and indicate the critical
process parameters.
Q.8. Elaborate the importance of premilling operations.
Q.9. Define dry milling of pulses and enlist the types of pulses that are dry milled.
Q.10. Discuss in brief about two milling techniques commonly employed in size
reduction.
Q.11. Describe the effect of milling on nutritional, cooking, and functional
quality of pulses.
Q.12. List the antinutritional factors in pulses and their effect on nutrient
assimilation.

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07.002
Processing of Oilseeds
12
Mandeep Kaur, Harish Kumar Sharma, and Navneet Kumar

Abstract

Edible oils are among essential commodities of the world. In this chapter, the
information regarding the status of oilseed production, composition of oilseeds,
properties of fats and oils, processing methods of oilseeds, their packaging,
FSSAI standards and utilization of by products is covered. The physical
properties, thermal, electrical and optical properties of fats and oils are also
discussed. Understanding of various processing techniques of oilseeds is very
important. Pre-treatments like cleaning, dehulling, decortications, flaking and
heat treatments assist to enhance the recovery and quality of oil during
processing. Oil extraction methods including ghanies, hydraulic press, screw
press and solvent extraction are discussed in detail. The crude oil after extraction
contains various impurities, waxes, gums, free fatty acids, phosphatides, etc.,
which may impart off odour and colour to the oil. Due to the presence of these
components, the crude oil obtained needs to be refined by either physical or
chemical refining process. Therefore, refining techniques are discussed in detail
including the factors influencing these steps. In hydrogenation process, hydrogen
gas is used to convert unsaturated fatty acids into saturated form, which is more
stable. This process and factors influencing this process are also explained. This
chapter also includes case studies for individual oilseeds processing techniques

M. Kaur (*)
Amity Institute of Food Technology, Amity University Campus, Noida, India
H. K. Sharma
National Institute of Technology (NIT) (An Institute of National Importance), Agartala,
Tripura, India
N. Kumar
Department of Processing and Food Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering and
Technology, Anand Agricultural University, Godhra, Gujarat, India

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 483
Ltd. 2022
H. K. Sharma, N. Kumar (eds.), Agro-Processing and Food Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7289-7_12
484 M. Kaur et al.

like rapeseed, soyabean, groundnut, sunflower oil, cottonseed oil and castor seed
oil. Important parameters for different refined oil are given as per FSSAI
guidelines. Huge amount of oil cake is obtained after processing of various
oilseeds. These oil cakes are very good source of protein, fibre, acid insoluble
ash, etc.; hence, these cakes can be used for food supplementation or important
antibiotics, vitamins, etc.

Keywords
Composition of oils · Properties of oils · Oilseed processing · Oil extraction ·
Physical and solvent extraction · Refining · Hydrogenation · Packaging · Case
studies (rapeseed, soybean, groundnut, sunflower, cottonseed and castor seed
processing) · Quality standards, by-product(cake) utilization

12.1 Introduction

Oils/fats are important part of human diet along with other components including
carbohydrates, protein, minerals and vitamins. One gram of fat supplies about 9 kcal
of energy, which is more than double the number of calories provided by
carbohydrates and proteins. The fat-soluble vitamins required by our body,
i.e. vitamin A, D, E, K, are also supplied by oils and fats. Oils consumed in diet
play various roles in our body; (1) these are stored in the form of fat in adipose tissue
for future usage; (2) fatty acids are involved in the formation of cell membranes,
protoplasm, as they combine with proteins. (3) The fats are oxidized to carbon
dioxide and water and the energy produced during this process is useful for doing
work and to maintain the body temperature. Major sources of oils and fats are
oilseeds and animals.
At global level, India is among the major oil-producing countries. Processing of
oilseeds has an important position in Indian economy since India is a major producer
and consumer of oilseeds like rapeseed, peanuts, sunflower seed, soybeans, cotton-
seed, and their derived products. On the basis of consumer tastes and diversity,
consumption of cooking oils vary from region to region.
As per the latest USDA report (June 2019), oilseed production across the globe
has seen the steady rise during the last few years (Fig. 12.1). On the other hand,
oilseed consumption at global level is forecasted to rise since the demand for protein
feeds is growing, and it continues to drive the market.
India exports various oilseeds and is ranked seventh in world production. Indian
peanuts find great demand in countries such as Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand,
Ukraine, Indonesia, Algeria, Vietnam, Russia and neighbours. The countries pro-
ducing groundnut in major amount are India, China, USA, Argentina and some
tropical African countries. Indian soybeans find markets in Canada, Sri Lanka,
Spain, Belgium and the United States. Whereas copra has demand in the UK,
Nepal, Canada, the United States and Australia.
12 Processing of Oilseeds 485

3000
Oilseed production, thousand tonnes

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
China, Pakistan Malaysia Ethiopia Italy Ukraine India Tanzania Uganda Korea
mainland
Major oilseed producing countries

Fig. 12.1 Oilseed production from major oil-producing countries during 2018 (FAOSTAT)

12.2 Composition of Oils

Vegetable oils are composed mostly of triacylglycerols and very small amounts of di
and mono acylglycerols, tocopherols/tocotrienols and phytosterols. The vegetable
oils are characterized by the type of triacylglycerols and other minor components
present, which decide the use in various formulations and manufacturing of foods.
The colour of oils is dependent on the presence of fat-soluble pigments,
e.g. chlorophyll, carotenoids, which may be affected by oxidation or polymerization
during processing.
Fatty acids are hydrocarbon chains with methyl group at one end and carboxylic
functional group at the other. A number of fatty acids are present in vegetable oils
characterized by the length of chain, degree of saturation and presence of functional
groups. The important fatty acids are saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsatu-
rated fatty acids (PUFA). In saturated fatty acids (SFA), carbon atoms are linked by a
single bond, whereas in unsaturated fatty acids, one or more carbon atoms are joined
by double/triple bonds in the chain. In the present scenario, demand of nutrition has
attained prime focus; presence of unsaturated fatty acids in diet has become impor-
tant. The importance of n-3 α-Linolenic acid (ALA) and n-6 linoleic acid
(LA) among PUFA is well established. The n-3 fatty acid provides anti-
inflammatory, anti-thrombotic, anti-hypertensive and anti-arrhythmic derivatives,
whereas n-6 fatty acid provides inflammatory, thrombotic, hypertensive and arrhyth-
mic metabolite. Inflammatory metabolites are helpful in case of infections or wounds
too, which necessitate a balance in n-6/n-3 to avoid immune deficiency in human
body. These fatty acids can be determined and separated by gas chromatography,
nuclear magnetic resonance techniques and mass spectrometry. A comparison of
fatty acids present in vegetable oils is shown in Table 12.1.
Oil usually contains about 95% triglycerols before refining and after refining this
value reaches nearby 99%. Presence of some haze after refining in some oils may
Table 12.1 Fatty acid composition of vegetable oils
486

Others
Palm Mustard Rice
Soybean Oil palm Rapeseed Cotton seed Coconut Sunflower Groundnut kernel Olive seeds bran
Glycine Elaeis Brassica Gossypium Cocos Helianthus Arachis Elaeis Olea Brassica Oryza
Name max guineensis napus hirsutum nucifera annuus hypogea guineensis europaea alba sativa
8:00 – 0.1 – – 7.6 – – 4.1 – – –
10:00 – 0.1 – – 6.5 – – 3.7 – – –
12:00 – 0.4 – – 48.2 0.5 – 46.0 – – –
14:00 0.1 1.1 0.1 0.8 18.5 0.1 0.1 17.8 0.0 – 0.4
16:00 10.8 43.8 5.1 24.2 8.7 6.4 10.4 8.4 12.1 – 18.2
18:00 3.9 4.4 1.7 2.3 2.7 4.5 3.0 1.6 2.6 – 1.9
20:00 0.3 0.3 0.6 0.2 0.1 0.3 1.2 – 0.4 1.6 0.7
22:00 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.1 – 0.8 2.3 – 0.1 1.2 0.2
24:00:00 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.1 – 0.2 1.4 – 0.1 0.6 –
Total SFA 15.7 50.4 8.0 27.8 92.6 12.8 18.3 81.9 15.3 3.4 21.3
16:1 n-7 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.7 – 0.1 0.2 – 0.8 – 0.2
16:1 n-9 – – – – – – – – – – –
17:1 n-7 – – – – – – 0.1 – 0.2 – –
18:1 n-9 23.9 39.1 60.1 17.4 6.0 22.1 47.9 16.4 72.5 23.2 41.7
18:1 n-7 – – – – – – – – – – –
20:1 n-9 0.1 0.1 1.4 0.1 0.1 0.2 1.3 – 0.3 8.8 –
20:1 n-7 – – – – – – – – – – 0.5
22:1 n-9 – – 0.4 0.0 – 0.1 0.1 – – 36.5 –
24:1 n-9 – – 0.3 – – – – – – – –
Total 24.2 39.4 62.4 18.2 6.1 22.4 49.6 16.4 73.8 68.5 42.4
MUFA
18:2 n-6 52.1 10.2 21.5 53.2 1.8 65.6 30.3 3.1 9.4 8.9 34.6
M. Kaur et al.
 12

18:3 n-3 7.8 0.3 9.9 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.4 – 0.6 12.5 1.2
18:3 n-6 – – – – – – – – – – –
18:4 n-3 – – – – – – – – – – –
20:2 n-6 – – 0.1 – – – – – – – –
20:3 n-6 – – – – – – – – – – –
20:4 n-6 – – – – – – – – – – –
20:5 n-3 – – – – – – – – – – –
Processing of Oilseeds

22:2 n-6 – – – – – – – – – – –
22:4 n-6 – – – – – – – – – – –
Total 59.8 10.5 31.5 53.4 1.9 66 30.8 3.1 10.0 21.4 35.9
PUFA
Total n-6 52.1 10.2 21.6 53.2 1.8 65.6 30.3 3.1 9.4 8.9 34.6
Total n-3 7.8 0.3 9.9 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.4 – 0.6 12.5 1.2
Ratio n-6/ 6.7 34 2.2 266 18 131 76 – 16 0.7 29
n-3
References [1–7] [1, 2, 8– [3, 5, 6, [1, 2, 4, 6, [1, 2, [1, 2, 4, 7, [1, 4, 7, [1, 16] [1–3, [1, 2, 4] [1, 3,
10] 11] 7, 12, 13] 14–16] 8, 17, 18] 19–21] 22–25] 26–
28]
487
488 M. Kaur et al.

indicate the presence of wax esters, monoacylglycerols and sterol glucosides.

Phospholipids are present in crude oils, which are removed during refining process.
Soybean oil contains 1.5–2.5% phospholipids, whereas this percentage is approxi-
mately 1% in sunflower oil and less than or equal to 2.5% in rapeseed oil. This is the
reason for considering soybean as a major source of lecithin. Another major compo-
nent of fats and oils is sterol. It is present in rapeseed oil in quantity of about 7.5 g
sterol per kg of oil. The presence of cholesterol in vegetable oils is not very
significant (20–50 ppm) as compared to fats from animals (up to 1000 ppm), fish
(nearly 700 ppm) and egg yolk (12,500 ppm).

12.3 Properties of Oils/Fats

The important characteristics of oilseeds for designing equipment, transportation,

storage bins are density, specific gravity, porosity, angle of repose, refractive index,
coefficient of friction, etc. The physical properties generally depend upon the
molecule’s organization, structure and interaction between molecules and their
packing.

12.3.1 Density

The density of liquid is the mass of oil per unit volume. Factors affecting density are
fatty acid composition of oil, other minor components and temperature. The infor-
mation is very important for designing storage tanks and pipes. The density of oil
generally ranges between 910 and 930 kg/m3 at ambient temperature [29], whereas
densities of completely solid fat ranges between 1000 and 1060 kg/m3 [30]. The
density decreases with increase in temperature and increases with increase in solid
fat content (SFC). The density of oils remains higher with the presence of saturated
fatty acids or lower density is evident due to the presence of unsaturated fatty acids in
oil [31]. This remains the reason for higher density of solid fat; however, lower
density of solid fat may be sometimes observed due to incorporation of air inside the
solid mass.

Mass of oil ðkgÞ

Density of oil kg=m3 ¼ ð12:1Þ
Volume of oil ðm3 Þ

Mass of any volume of oil
Relative density of oil 4 C ¼ ð12:2Þ
Mass ofequal volume of water
12 Processing of Oilseeds 489

12.3.2 Rheological Properties

Oil follows Newtonian behaviour at room temperature (25  C) between 30 and

60 mPa. The viscosity of liquid oil decreases with increase in temperature and
follows logarithmic relationship. Rheological properties are dependent on the con-
centration, interactions and morphology of fat. The solid fat demonstrates plastic
behaviour, and the force required to flow the material is known as yield stress. The
rheological behaviour can be expressed by the following equation:
Case I: Shear stress is less than yield stress:

Shear stress ðτÞ ¼ Shear modulus ðGÞ  Shear strain ðγ Þ ð12:3Þ

Case II: Shear stress is equal or greater than yield stress:

Shear stress ðτÞ  Yield stress ðτ0 Þ ¼ Viscosity ðηÞ

 Shear strain rate ðγ́ Þ ð12:4Þ

Normally, fat does not behave like an ideal solid and also exhibits flow
characteristics to show plastic behaviour. Above the yield stress, non-Newtonian
behaviour is exhibited by solid fats. Yield stress increases with the increase in solid
fat content. The structure formation of solid fat is possible due to the ability of fat
crystals to form three dimensional networks through bonding.

12.3.3 Thermal Properties

The main thermal properties of oils are specific heat, thermal conductivity, melting
point and latent heat. The specific heat of most of the liquid oils is about 2 kJ/kg K at
ambient conditions, which increases with the increase in temperature. The conduc-
tivity of oil, 0.170 W/mK, is lesser than the water, 0.60 W/mK. The melting point of
saturated fatty acids is higher due to more stable structure. The smoke, flash and fire
points are also important characteristics of oil and can be defined as the temperatures
at which generation of smoke, initiation of volatile oil production and initiation of
thermal decomposition respectively take place under continuous combustion [32].

12.3.4 Electrical Properties

Fats have relatively low dielectric constants, high electrical resistances and are poor
conductor of electricity. The dielectric constant of pure triacylgycerols increases
with the increase in chain length. The value of dielectric constant for oil is about 3 as
compared to 80 for water.
490 M. Kaur et al.

12.3.5 Optical Properties

These properties can be used to monitor the compositional quality and overall
appearance of oils which can be related to molecular arrangements within the
liquids. The refractive index determines amount of scattering of light. Refractive
index is used to determine the quality of oil. The refractive index usually increases
with the increase in chain length, double bonds and conjugation of double bonds.
Refined triglyceride is nearly colourless and does not absorb any light in visible
spectrum. The impurity of pigment can also be adjudged by optical properties.

12.3.6 Solid Fat Index

Solid fat index (SFI) is defined as the percentage of solid fat in a total mixture of
liquid and solid fat. SFI is an important parameter for establishing parameters for
process control and formulations in oil and fat industry. SFI can be measured by
various techniques like volumetric (dilatometric) technique, DSC, NMR, etc. In
dilatometric technique, samples are loaded into dilatometer and immersed into
water bath at different temperatures so that the samples can be tempered which
causes the crystallization of samples under controlled conditions for comparative
purpose. Volumes of the tempered samples at increasing temperatures are measured.
Volumes versus temperature responses give the SFI values at different temperatures.
Dilatometric techniques takes approximately 5 h. Therefore, advanced techniques
like DSC and NMR can be applied. DSC measures heat flow into a sample and from
a sample when it is heated, cooled or held at a temperature isothermally. The samples
can be cycled through a heat, cool and reheat cycle and the melting endotherms can
be used to analyse the SFI values. As the hydrogenation increases, the melting
transition shifts to higher temperatures.

12.4 Oilseed Processing

Several post-harvest practices and unit operations are involved for minimizing losses
during handling, extraction and purification of oil. Selection of appropriate technol-
ogy not only enhances the oil yield but also reduces the cost of processing.
Some of the important post-harvest unit operations are described as follows:

12.4.1 Handling and Storage

The oilseeds undergo losses due to animals, birds, insects, deteriorative auto-
catalytic reactions, enzymatic action and microbial spoilage. The presence of imma-
ture seeds may increase the rate of deterioration due to active enzymes; therefore, it
is necessary to separate such seeds during the initial stage of processing. The dirt,
sand, dust, leaves, stems, stones, weed or metal may also be separated for saving
12 Processing of Oilseeds 491

additional cost in further processing; however, it may be performed after drying in

case of very high moisture content of raw oilseeds received for processing.
The moisture content of seeds is usually high and is improper for safe storage.
The oilseeds can be dried up to a temperature of 105–110  C to shorten the drying
period. This also helps in the retention of nutritional value of the oil and by-products.
Usually, traditional sun drying practices may also be adopted according to the
availability of time, space and labour requirement. After attaining the appropriate
moisture content (7–11%) after drying, damaged and immature seeds can be
screened again to reduce the respiration rates. Oilseeds are generally stored for
some time to minimize the effect of chlorophyll content in oil for restricting the
induction of greenish colour and enhancing the oil recovery. Most of the oilseeds are
stored in heaps, bags, bins or silos.

12.4.2 Sorting/Grading

The stored oilseeds are checked for soundness, impurities, moisture content and
other milling characteristics. The parameters such as type and quality of impurities/
foreign material, moisture content, quality of shrivelled/immature seeds, oil content,
colour and acid/iodine value of extracted oil are considered for sorting.

12.4.3 Pretreatments

Pretreatments assist to enhance the recovery and quality of oil. Some important
pretreatments are:

a. Cleaning: The oilseeds from field/storage are obtained with different

contaminants, viz. stones, stalks, sand, weed seeds, etc. and retained during
harvesting, handling, transportation and storage. Larger impurities such as stones,
metal/wooden pieces can damage the machinery involved in different unit
operations. Proper cleaning enhances the crushing efficiency, quality of oil and
cake and reduces plant maintenance.
b. Dehulling/decortications: As oilseeds contain appreciable amount of hull, which
do not contribute to the extraction of oil; therefore, the oilseeds should be
dehulled before further processing.
c. Size reduction/flaking: The size of oilseeds is reduced by mechanical expression
through grinding or rolling. Large amounts of oil-bearing cells are disintegrated,
and cells lose oils through their wall by the action of appropriate heat and
pressure. The efficiency in the reduction of size of oilseeds affects the oil
recovery. The size reduction in ghani takes place due to the action of pestle,
sometimes small amount of water is added to provide grip for shearing due to
smooth and slippery surfaces of oilseeds.
Primary milling is required for hydraulic press; however, it can be avoided in
screw press due to creation of thin flakes by shearing stress generated in the barrel
492 M. Kaur et al.

of expeller. Flaking is inevitable for the extraction of oil through solvent extrac-
tion through rolling operation. About 0.20–0.25 mm size of flakes are preferable
for solvent extraction. The moisture content of oilseeds should be adjusted to
about 10–11% and heated up to 75  C temperature; else seeds may be steamed
prior to oil extraction.
d. Heat treatment: Oilseeds release oil more easily after heating prior to mechanical/
solvent extraction due to coagulation of protein and creation of coalescence of oil
droplets. This reduces the affinity of oil from the solid surface and also destroys
moulds and bacteria. The rupture of oil cell wall takes place due to volumetric
expansion of oil droplets, which makes it easier to ooze out the oil from the cells.
Generally, the temperature 105–130  C for 30–120 min is sufficient for heat
treatment. However, optimization of process conditions is dependent on the type
of oilseeds, initial moisture content, chemical and biochemical characteristics,
heat treatment method, equipment used and oil extraction method. The moisture
content of oilseeds should remain about 9–15% during heat treatment for efficient
crushing operation. Over-heating/cooking produces oil with dark colour and low
nutritive values. The moisture content remains critical for extraction of oil.

12.4.4 Oil Extraction

The extraction of oil from oilseeds is performed using ghanies, rotary oil mills,
mechanical expellers and solvent extraction units.

12.4.4.1 Ghanies
Raw oilseeds are directly fed into ghanies without any pretreatments. The ghanies
have power-driven rotating metallic mortar with a wooden pestle. The heat is
generated while crushing of oilseeds between mortar and pestle, which remains
insufficient for efficient extraction of oil (Fig. 12.2). Water is also added for
hydration of protein and release of oil. The oil cake obtained from the ghanies are
left with about 12–14% oil.

12.4.4.2 Hydraulic Press

The hydraulic press has higher efficiency and easiness in operation. It operates on
physical extraction process and provides high yield from high oil-bearing seeds, viz.
almonds, peanuts, sesame, walnut, flaxseeds, etc. The temperature of oil-bearing
material is kept constant while processing for maximum retention of organic
compounds. The extraction in hydraulic press can be performed either using cold
processing of various oil-bearing crops, viz. almond, flaxseeds, walnut, etc. or hot
processing of other oil-bearing crops such as peanut, sunflower, sesame, corn/wheat
germ, etc. The quality of oil in terms of original flavour, purity, freshness, health and
nutritional attributes are excellent due to extraction through physical process and
remain popular amongst consumers. The cold pressing provides better quality of oil
and cake due to minimal loss of nutrients and lesser impurity.
12 Processing of Oilseeds 493

Pestle

Rotating
mortar

Power
supply
Pulley

Oil outlet

Fig. 12.2 Traditional oil expression using Ghani

The hydraulic press works on hydraulic transmission systems, which provides

higher performance and lower failure rates (Fig. 12.3). The field press uses higher
degree of automation using integration of mechanical and electrical mechanism.
The feed cylinders are fabricated according to the crop for maximum oil extraction.
The line cylinders, which have very small gaps between the metallic bars, are used
for the extraction of oil from peanut, mustard, sesame, sunflower, while circular
perforated cylinders are used for walnut, almond and flaxseeds.

12.4.4.3 Screw Oil Press/Expellers

Screw press is used to extract the oil through exerting pressure through dynamic
extrusion by pushing the feed through a tightly packed barrel with a screw. The
pressure generated through screw or worm also generates heats, which results in
oozing out of oil from the oilseeds (Fig. 12.4). These are capable of producing higher
yield through continuous operation and are robust in nature. An efficient expeller can
extract almost 94% of oil. Sometimes, double pass is required, which is carried out
on the basis of economy, oilseed type, end use of cake and acceptable quality. It
extracts oil from a number of oil-bearing seeds, viz. rapeseed, peanut, vegetable
seeds, cotton seeds, sunflower seeds, soybean, palm seeds, etc. High-grade material
is used in the fabrication of screw press to achieve greater performance, durability,
easier operation and lower maintenance. In case oil left is more than 8% in screw
press, the cake may be subjected to solvent extraction. About 44% energy can be
saved using mechanical expellers as compared to conventional ghanies.
494 M. Kaur et al.

Fig. 12.3 Hydraulic press

Screw nut
On top
Barrel

Pressure
gauge
Nozzle
Cylinder
Pillar
(Screw)

Tank

Hopper

Heating coils
Barrel
Screw
Pulley

Motor

Fig. 12.4 Oil expeller

12 Processing of Oilseeds 495

An oil expeller mainly consists of:

a. Frame: It provides housing to all the parts of oil expeller including hopper, barrel,
main shaft, motor, pulley/gear, etc. It is usually made of heavy cast iron to ensure
the stability to the expeller parts. It is also fabricated with heavy welded angle iron
(MS angles of L-shaped structural steel). A motor is fitted on the frame to provide
power to the expeller.
b. Hopper: It is used to feed the cleaned oilseeds to the screw press. It is designed to
maintain consistent supply of oilseed by providing smooth flow and holding
considerable amount of oilseeds for feeding.
c. Bed: It is provided to support the oil expeller to ensure balancing and alignment of
various parts of the machine. It also helps to absorb vibration created during the
working of expeller.
d. Main shaft: It consists of worm gear, cone, collar, gear, etc. It gains power from
the motor through pulley and gear. The pulley is made through casting; however,
the gears are made of alloy steel with proper quenching to increase hardness. The
gears are usually fitted with oil bath case for smooth operation. The worms are
provided on the shaft to exert compression on the oil-bearing material.
e. Barrel: A hollow and strong cylindrical barrel provides caging to the oil expeller. It
is usually made from mild steel assembly with caging bars and frames. Sometimes
heating coils along the barrels are provided for optimum recovery of oil.

The diameter of screw and barrel is designed with decrease in volumetric space
that there is forward travel of oilseeds and the oil is expelled. The compression ratio
in screw press is estimated by the volume moved in one revolution at feeding side to
the volume moved at discharge end. The pressure and volume curves have three
sections namely feed section, ram section and plug section (Fig. 12.5). The pressure
increases in the feed section and reaches to a maximum. Thereafter, material moves
to the ram section, and the pressure is reduced. In the plug section, pressure is
released at the discharge end.
Various models based on capacities are prevalent in the commercial market such as:

Small Screw Oil Press

These are preferred to be installed in medium or small oil processing units. Their
advantage of being simpler in structure, higher production rate and continuous
seamless operation makes them popular in oil processing units. The high tempera-
ture and pressure generated through the process are effectively handled by high
carbon steel or heat-treated steel.

Large Screw Oil Press

The large screw press can be used alone in oil plant or may be used as pre-pressing
machine in bigger capacity plant. The automation is the need of the hour to provide
consistent quality and minimum human interaction, which can also arrest the labour
cost. The temperature of barrel can be controlled using online data acquisition and
control systems. The vacuum filtering system can also be added to the system to
enhance production efficiency and oil yield.
496 M. Kaur et al.

Feed section Ram section Plug section

Pressure
Volume

Distance along the barrel

Fig. 12.5 Volume and pressure diagram along the length of barrel in screw press

12.4.5 Filtration of Oil

The crude oil obtained from hydraulic press and screw press needs filtration, which
is performed using filter press (Fig. 12.6). The filter press contains papers or cloth as
filter, which is supported by vertical plates and fixed on frames. The edible oil
containing insoluble particles is pumped into the press, which allows liquid to pass
through the filters and move to the drain provided as an outlet from each plate
separately. The deoiled cake is deposited between the limited space provided
between the plates, which continues till complete filling of space. The pressure is
applied to build up to certain defined value for maintaining the flow of liquid. Plates
are dismantled on complete deposition of cake in the space provided, which is
removed and then filter press starts operating for next filtration process.
Centrifugal filter press uses centrifugal force to extract the oil at higher rotation
velocity and separates impurities present in oil (Fig. 12.7). It has simpler operation in
comparison to filter press. The oil enters the centrifuge under pressure, which is
escaped through nozzles provided in tangential direction, and the speed of
centrifuges is kept about 800 revolutions per minutes. The dirt and insoluble solids
12 Processing of Oilseeds 497

Fig. 12.6 Filter press

Scraper

Feed inlet
Water
Cake
Perforated basket
Casing

Oil outlet Solid cake

outlet

Fig. 12.7 Centrifugal filter press

are deposited on inner wall of rotor, which is collected through scratching by

unloader knife and allowed to pass from the bottom opening.
Q1: Rape seeds contain about 48% oil and 8% moisture, and 500 kg is fed to a
hydraulic press for extraction of oil. The moisture and oil content of the cake,
received from the filter press, is 12% and 6%, respectively. Estimate the amount of
oil extracted, oil recovery and moisture present in oil received through outlet in the
hydraulic press extraction and filtration process.
Solution: The mass balance flow diagram of oil extraction considering steady
state condition is presented in Fig. 12.8.
498 M. Kaur et al.

Rapeseeds (R), 500 kg

Oil – 0.48 (48%) Cake, C kg
Water – 0.08 (8%) Oil – 0.06 (6%)
Solid – 0.44 (44%) Water – 0.12 (12%)
Solid – 0.82 (82%)

Oil outlet, O kg
Oil (fo) =?
Oil extraction Water (fw) =?
& filtration

Fig. 12.8 Process flowchart

Applying total mass balance equation,

R¼CþO

Applying component mass balance for solid, the solid is present in rapeseeds and
cake produced

R  0:44 ¼ C  0:82

500  0:44 ¼ C  0:82

C ¼ 268:29 kg

By putting the value of C in total mass balance equation,

O¼RC

O ¼ 500  268:29

O ¼ 231:71 kg

Considering the oil balance equation,

R  0:48 ¼ C  0:06 þ O  fo

500  0:48 ¼ 268:29  0:06 þ 231:71  fo

fo ¼ ð500  0:48Þ  ð268:29  0:06Þ=231:71 ¼ 0:9663 OR 96:63%

12 Processing of Oilseeds 499

Actual amount of oil recovered in oil outlet :

Actual Oil ðOact Þ ¼ fo  O ¼ 0:9663  231:71 ¼ 223:90 kg

Actual amount of oil received from oil outlet

Oil recovery ð%Þ ¼  100
Total amount of oil present in oilseeds
223:90
¼  100
ð0:48  500Þ

¼ 93:29%

Amount of water in oil received from oil outlet can be calculated by deducting the
amount of oil received by amount of actual oil received:

Amount of water in oil ¼ O  Oact ¼ 231:71  223:90 ¼ 7:81 kg

7:81
Moisture content of oil received ð%Þ ¼  100 ¼ 3:37%
231:71

12.4.6 Solvent Extraction

The solvent extraction is also termed as liquid extraction method. In this, solute is
separated based on the different solubility. In the extraction, mixture is allowed for
phase separation, wherein the solvent-rich product is referred as extract and the
residual liquid from which solute is removed is termed as raffinate (Fig. 12.9). The
dissolved material is recovered, and the solvent is reused in the extraction process.
Solvent extraction is used as a final separation process of oil from oil-bearing
(oleaginous) materials. The oil-bearing material is processed mechanically, if the
material contains more than 30% oil, e.g. rapeseeds, groundnut, sunflowers, copra.
While in case of less oil containing material (<30%), e.g. rice bran, corn germ, the
oilseed material can be processed and directly used in solvent extraction for separa-
tion of oil. The capacity of solvent extraction plants varies from 1500 to 5000 tons/
day.
A number of solvents are used in the extraction process, viz. alcohols, pentane,
carbon disulphide, benzene, hexane. Commercial hexane is generally prepared using
65% normal hexane and remaining 35% of cyclopentane and hexane isomers. It has

Dispersed phase Continuous phase

Solvent Extract

Feed Raffinate
Mixing Phase
separation

Fig. 12.9 Process flowchart of solvent extraction

500 M. Kaur et al.

Fig. 12.10 Solvent extraction process

high solubility with edible oils, excellent diffusivity through oilseed cell walls, low
solubility with water, relatively low cost, low specific heat, low latent heat of
vaporization and moderate boiling range. However, hexane is to be recovered
completely to avoid environmental problems and for the economic viability. Usu-
ally, solvent extraction process structure is installed at a distance from other sections,
viz. seed preparation process, oil refining process and other facilities. Schematic
diagram for solvent extraction process is given in Fig. 12.10.
Solvent extraction units have five main key sub-units, viz. solvent extractor,
desolventizer, dryer/cooler for meal, miscella distillation and solvent recovery.

12.4.6.1 Solvent Extractor

The oil-bearing material is primarily processed into flakes for increasing the surface
area and then fed into the solvent extractor (Fig. 12.11). The solvent extraction is
used to dissolve oil fraction from oil-bearing material in the solvent. It takes about
30–120 min residence time and miscella is generated. The miscella (oil + solvent) is
washed several times (4–10 times) to extract edible oil and last wash is performed
using fresh solvent to complete the extraction process.
The extraction process starts with diffusion of miscella at the surface followed by
movement into oil-bearing material and quickly goes into the solution with oil. The
internal pressure increases within cell due to continuous entering of miscella, and
therefore, concentrated miscella moves back into the solution. The concentrated
miscella diffuses with adjacent cell wall and finally reaches at the surface of the
particle. As concentrated miscella meets with the miscella, it goes into the solution
12 Processing of Oilseeds 501

Flakes In
(Oil – 20%)
Solvent In
Miscella stages

Extractor bed motion

Miscella Out

Flakes Out
(Oil – 0.6%)

Fig. 12.11 Solvent extractor

and thus increases the concentration of the solution. The process continues till
material maintains equilibrium with miscella outside the material.
The extractor with higher bed depth requires smaller surface area, which uses
immersion of oil bearing material in miscella. The sufficient flow rate is provided to
ensure good contact of oil bearing material and miscella. The extractor with low bed
depth requires larger surface area, which provides flow of miscella percolating down
through oil bearing material. About 40–50% surface is usually covered with mate-
rial, and the material is surrounded with miscella liquids and solvent vapours.
The performance of extraction process depends on the following process
parameters:

Contact Time
Total time in the extraction process is termed as residence time, wherein it can be
divided into wash time (time during oil bearing material remain under washing
nozzles) and drain time (time from last nozzle to the discharge outlet). The wash time
again can be subdivided into contact time and dormant time. Thus, contact time is the
duration spent in contact of oil-bearing material with miscella in washing zone of
extractor, which remain actual time for extraction process. While dormant time is
considered as the remaining non-contact time of oil-bearing material with miscella.
The ratio of contact and dormant time remains important and may vary according to
the system. The deep bed depth extractors have very high ratio of contact time to
dormant time, which remain lower in case of low bed depth extractors. The variation
of contact, dormant and drain times can be observed in Table 12.2, which shows that
502 M. Kaur et al.

Table 12.2 Residence time in extractors

Time, min Deep bed extractor Shallow bed extractor

0
6
12
Wash Contact time Contact time

Residence time

Residence time
18
time
24
Wash time
30
36 Dormant time
42
Dormant time
48
Drain time
54
60 Drain time
Contact time: 5:1 5: 4
Dormant time ratio

for similar contact and residence time, the dormant and drain times vary in the
different extraction processes for 1 h extraction process.
It is always desirable to provide adequate contact time for getting the maximum
extraction efficiency and minimum loss of oil in the oil-bearing material. The
increase in contact time increases the efficiency, whereas it limits the capacity of
the extraction unit. Therefore, optimization of process parameters is of prime
importance for deciding the contact time.

Particle Thickness
The thickness of the oil-bearing material is reduced using flaking process, which
reduces the distance between miscella and oil in material for easier diffusion of oil. It
also reduces the time to attain equilibrium between material and miscella, which
eventually results in less processing time. The least possible thickness is desirable
for extraction of oil; however, the power consumption in flaking remains a major
controlling factor as more power is required for creating thinner flakes.

Extraction Temperature
The temperature increases the diffusivity of miscella through the oil-bearing material
and therefore improves the efficiency of extraction. Usually processed flaked/cake
attains the temperature of approximately 60  C, which eliminates the requirement of
preheating of oil-bearing material to heat further. Boiling point of commercial
hexane remains 64–69  C, indicating 63  C is the limiting temperature for solvent
extraction process. Which can further be brought to about 60  C to provide safety
margin for boiling. Insulator conveyors are good option for conveying the
oil-bearing material to the extractor.
12 Processing of Oilseeds 503

Miscella Flux Rate

The miscella flux rate is defined as maximum volumetric flow rate through the bed of
material per unit surface area of bed or downward velocity of material through the
bed (m/min or m/h). The material has about 40–50% of area covered with solids, and
remaining area 50–60% is set free for the movement of miscella. The flow rate of
miscella is restricted by perforated screen (30% in case of shallow bed and 10% in
case of deep bed) and entire oil-bearing material is immersed in the miscella, which
is termed as flooding of the material bed.
The hexane is not soluble in water, and hence, repulsive forces exist, and
therefore, it reduces difficulty in penetrating through the oil-bearing material. The
deposited moisture on the surface of screen also narrows down the perforation and
thus decreases in miscella flux rates, which can be controlled using brushes on the
screen surface.
Q2: The deep bed extractor with 2.8 m bed thickness is used for solvent
extraction. The forward flow velocity of the material is 0.32 m/min. The downward
velocity of miscella is 0.30 m/min (Fig. 12.12). Calculate the distance of washing
nozzle till miscella collection vessel.
Solution:

Downward velocity of miscella ¼ 0:30 m= min

Forward velocity ¼ 0:32 m= min

Depth of bed ¼ 2:8m

Distance of washing nozzle to collecting vessel ¼ ?

The downward movement is restricted by pores, assuming 55%pores space available

¼ 0:30=0:55 ¼ 0:545 m= min

Time for miscella to pass through bed ¼ 2:8=0:545 ¼ 5:14 min

Distance between washing nozzle to miscella unit ¼ 5:14  0:32 ¼ 1:65 m

Fig. 12.12 Deep bed Miscella

extraction of oil
0.30 m/min

2.8 m
55% pores
Material
0.32 m/min
504 M. Kaur et al.

Number of Miscella Stages

The single stage extraction of oil from 20% to 0.5% concentration needs about
17 times more solvent. Therefore, multi-stages are required to extract the oil, which
need lesser solvent. Usually for energy efficient distillation systems, the ratio of
solvent and material should be maintained as 1:1. The number of stages required for
20% to 0.5% concentration oil in material is kept as 4. However, increase in stage
increases the extraction efficiency, but it also increases the cost in terms of more
pumping energy and processing time. Commercially, the stages may be limited
between 5 and 9.

Solvent Retention
The oil-bearing material is drained in the range of 5 min in low depth extractor to
20 min in deep bed extractor. The drained material has about 25–32% of solvent.
The solvent retention is also defined as weak miscella retention, which has about 1%
of oil in the drained material. The efficient extraction drain line should minimize
weak miscella retention, which can be attained using appropriate miscella flux rate,
maintaining proper flake thickness, minimizing fine materials and surface moisture
in the material bed.

12.4.6.2 Meal Desolventizer Toaster (DT)

The meal desolventizer toaster is used to remove the solvent from the meal fraction
(Fig. 12.13). It receives material from the extractor at about 60  C with 25–35%
solvent by weight. Desolventizer is cylindrical in shape and installed vertically with
a number of horizontal trays. The extracted material enters from the top tray, which
is conveyed downward tray to tray by agitating anchor attached to the rotating shaft.
The meal is heated by steam to evaporate the solvent. The desolventizer has different
trays, viz. predesolventizing trays, counter current trays and sparge tray.

Predesolventizing Trays
The steam is generally held at a pressure of 10.5 kg/m2, which increases surface
temperature of tray to 185  C. The material is spread in a shallow layer of
150–300 mm over the trays. These trays may be placed in numbers and allow
vapours to pass around the material and exit from the top. Some trays allow vapours
through the annular gap between tray outer perimeter and cylinder and other
provides concentric hollow disc-shaped trays having opening at the centre. A larger
tray is also preferred in some case to avoid number of trays. The temperature of the
material is increased up to 68 C and about 10–25% solvent is evaporated in these
trays.

Counter Current Trays

These trays provide conductive heat transfer through their upper surface for keeping
the material warm and provide convective heat transfer through lower surface of
trays by swirling of steam. A desolventizer may have 1–4 counter current trays.
These are placed just below the predesolventizing trays. The apertures provided in
these trays have 1–10% of open area, which allows steam to pass through the meal.
12 Processing of Oilseeds 505

Fig. 12.13 Desolventizer Wet meal Vapours

toaster

Predesolventizing
Desolventizing

Stripping

Stripping
Stripping
Steam drying
Steam Cooling
Cooling

Meal

A deep layer of about 1000–1200 mm is held above these trays, and the material is
stirred using rotating sweeps. The condensation of steam adds 17–21% moisture in
these trays. The wet meal obtained after top counter currents tray loses 99% of the
solvent, while 1000 mm deep layer may be used to provide residence time to allow
stripping and toasting of solvent.

Sparge Tray
These trays provide uniform induction of steam into a meal layer and provide
conductive heat transfer in the material placed onto it. The upper surface temperature
is maintained at about 100–110  C and may reduce moisture content as low as 1%.
More than 99% of the solvent is removed in the first counter current tray, while other
counter current and sparge trays are used to provide sufficient solvent stripping and
toasting. This reduces the residual solvent to 100–500 ppm level.

12.4.6.3 Meal Dryer Cooler

The meal obtained from desolventizer is fed to the meal dryer cooler (DC). The meal
received from desolventizer is at about 108  C, and it may contain 18–20% moisture.
506 M. Kaur et al.

The meal dryer cooler is used to reduce the moisture to a predetermined level
according to the commercial values prior to storage. It is also a cylindrical vessel
installed vertically with a multiple of horizontal trays. Sometimes, combined cham-
ber for desolventizer and meal dryer cooler may be installed. It may have different
types of trays, viz. steam drying trays, air drying trays and air cooling trays.

Steam Drying Trays

These trays are designed to hold pressurized steam between upper and lower plates,
which provides conductive heat transfer to wet meal. These trays may be limited to
five in numbers. The steam is held at 10.5 kg/m2 pressure and 185  C for drying
purposes.

Air Drying Trays

These trays are designed to hold low pressure air, which is evenly distributed into the
meal. The size and numbers of apertures are calculated according to the designed air
flow rates. The air flows in the upward direction with a nominal velocity of 14–21
m/min to attain fluidization of meal. The temperature of meals drops from 108 to
38  C, and the moisture content is reduced to 6.5%. The cold air has lower moisture-
carrying capacity due to higher relative humidity. In case of higher relative humidity
of ambient air, it needs to be heated to evaporate the moisture.

Air Cooling Trays

These trays are designed to hold low pressure air and cool the meal. The cool and
damp air exits at the top of meal layer and moves through the side wall of meal
cooling trays to cyclone separator in order to remove fine particles and to discharge
air into the ambience. The material received from the cooling trays may be fed into
size reduction unit to enhance the flowability and reduction of solidification for
transport and storage.

12.4.6.4 Miscella Distillation System

The miscella received from the extractor contains about 1% of meal particles.
Initially, the meal particles are separated. The larger meal particles above 80 mesh
size should be separated using filtration or centrifugation for restricting settling in
distillation apparatus. In some cases, extractors are fitted with internal miscella filter
for sending miscella received from the extractor directly in the distillation process.
After the separation of larger particles, the material is kept for storage in surge tank/
full miscella tank. The tank maintains continuous supply of miscella in the distilla-
tion process. The miscella contains about 25–30% oil and 70–75% solvent and
maintained at temperature of 60  C.
The full miscella tank supplies miscella to first rising evaporator, which is termed
as economizer, and utilizes the waste heat received from desolventizer toaster and
receive the material at 60  C. The tube side of the evaporator is maintained at
300–400 mmHg absolute pressure and temperature of miscella reduces to 43–48

C. The solvent starts boiling, and the bubbles start to rise. Additional heat provided
from desolventizer vapours add heat to the miscella, which make it possible to drag a
12 Processing of Oilseeds 507

thin layer of miscella to inner wall of tubes creating high heat transfer rates. The
foams of solvent vapour are broken and then centrifugally separated in evaporator
dome. The concentrated miscella exist at the base of dome. It enhances the concen-
tration of miscella up to 75–85% oil and maintained at a temperature of 48  C.
The miscella is heated to about 75  C before entering into the second-stage
evaporator. The pressure in the second-stage evaporator is also maintained at
300–400 mmHg absolute pressure, which reduces the temperature similarly for
vigorous evaporation. It enhances the concentration of miscella up to 95–98% oil
and 2–5% solvent.
The material received from the second stage evaporator is fed to the oil stripper,
which is a tall, thin and cylindrical vessel and usually operated at 150–300 mmHg
absolute pressure. The steam is used into the vessel to initiate evaporation. The
solvent and steam vapours exit at the top. The oil received from the stripper consists
of 0.1–0.3% moisture and 5–200 ppm solvent at a temperature of 95–110  C. The
temperature is brought down to 70–80  C and soft water at a concentration of 1–2%
is added and agitated about 30–60 min in a tank for hydration of gums, which are
then separated using high-speed centrifugal separator. The oil after degumming
contains about 0.5% moisture, which is heated to 110  C and fed into vertical
cylindrical vessel, which is maintained at 50–80 mmHg absolute pressure for drying
of oil. The oil received from oil dryer has 0.05–0.10% moisture and about
5–100 ppm of solvent only.

12.4.6.5 Solvent Recovery System

The modern processing plant recovers about 99.9% of solvent used in extractor. The
process of recovery starts from condensation of solvent and water vapours followed
by the separation of solvent and water, stripping of solvent from water and air
streams and heating of solvent.
The vapours generated in all the processes in extraction system are usually
condensed in common vacuum condenser. The vacuum condensers are generally a
shell and tube heat exchanger having vapours on the shell side. The uncondensed
vapours from the oil dryer are evacuated using steam ejector maintained at
50–80 mmHg absolute pressure.
The vapours of solvent and water received from the desolventizer are required to
pass through a scrubber for the removal of meal particles from the vapours. The
centrifugal and water spray scrubbers are used. The clean vapours received from the
scrubbers are condensed. About 94% of solvent and 6% of steam is obtained at this
stage.
The solvent and water collected from all the condensers are sent to a decanting
tank, which removes the lighter solvent with a specific gravity of 0.65 and collect
separately. The turbulence is avoided in the decanting tank to allow gravity decanta-
tion. The solvent received from the decanting tanks contains about 0.05% water,
which is moved to solvent work tank. The solvent work tanks hold ample amount of
solvent to reuse in the extractor. It also has a provision to allow excess solvent in
solvent storage tank. The solvent is heated to 55–60  C prior to use in extractors.
508 M. Kaur et al.

12.4.7 Refining Process

Crude oil is passed through filter press at higher speeds for sediment-free oil. The
crude oil after extraction contains various impurities, waxes, gums, free fatty acids,
phosphatides, etc., which may impart off odour and colour to the oil. Due to the
presence of these components, the crude oil obtained needs to be refined either by
physical refining process or by chemical refining process.
In this process, the FFA level is reduced to lesser than 0.1%. Generally, the
refining is carried out either by physical or chemical method. The oil refined by
chemical process produces lesser amount of free fatty acids and is better cost
effective. The refining includes degumming, neutralization of fatty acids, bleaching
and deodorization.
Usually degumming process requires 1–3% water addition at 60–80  C for about
30–60 min based on the type of oilseeds; however, small amount of acid may
increase the solubility of phospholipids, which are capable of binding calcium and
magnesium.
The neutralization of oil is achieved by the reaction of oil with the solution of
caustic soda (7–12%) and bleaching is performed with clays (adsorbents), such as
silicates, activated carbon activated earth, etc. by mixing at 80–110  C followed by
filtration. The deodorization process is performed by steam distillation of oil at a
temperature, generally in the range of 180–270  C and at low pressure of about
1–6 mmHg to remove undesirable aroma compounds like aldehydes, ketones and
alcohols.
In physical refining process, the free fatty acids are removed by distillation
process, at high temperature and high vacuum conditions by injecting steam directly
(Fig. 12.14a). The oil is neutralized using physical process which may include
selective adsorption/experimentation of free fatty acids (FFAs). In a selective
adsorption process, adsorption of FFA on selective ion exchangers is done. If the
oils contain very high concentration of FFAs (>20%), then selective extraction
process is employed in which oils can be extracted with ethanol or furfural to
bring down the concentration of FFAs.
In the next step, oil is bleached by activated bleaching earth (ABE). The process
temperature varies in between 60and 90  C and the pressure is maintained at 50–200
mbar. After completion of the process, the used bleaching earth is removed by
filtration process (1–2 mbar of residual pressure). After bleaching, deodorization is
carried out in which steam is used at 180–240  C under high vacuum conditions.
In chemical refining process (Fig. 12.14b), a pretreatment is given with diluted
acid (e.g. phosphoric acid, citric acid). The acidic oil obtained is treated with alkali
(7–12% NaOH) to neutralize the free fatty acids present in the oil; after that the soap
is removed by centrifugation or by settling process and the oil obtained is washed
with water to remove traces of alkali. Water is then removed by vacuum drying and
reduced to minimum. The various by-products are separated during the refining,
which can be further used for different applications (Table 12.3).
12 Processing of Oilseeds 509

Crude oil Crude oil

Degumming Degumming
(Hydration) (Phosphoric acid)

Neutralization/
Physical neutralization Deacidification (NaOH
solution)

Decolorization/ Bleaching Decolorization/ Bleaching

(Bleaching earth) (Bleaching earth)

Deodorizing Deodorizing

Refined oil Refined oil

(a) (b)
Fig. 12.14 Flowchart of oil refining process. (a) Physical refining. (b) Chemical refining

12.4.7.1 Bleaching
Bleaching is performed to remove the colour pigments, which was performed
initially using bleaching clay. It is an essential process and is performed in single
stage or multistage processes, which removes oxidation products, soaps, metals,
phospholipids and other contaminants. This process is usually followed by deodor-
ization. The vacuum bleaching was initiated to avoid oxidation and colour fixation
and improvement in oxidative stability. Semi-continuous process remains energy
efficient for bleaching process and produces improved bleached oil quality.

Bleaching Earth
Plate and frame filters were used to improve the process, while these had a limitation
of producing high residual oil content about 35–40% in spent bleaching earth. The
improved pressure filters restrict the residual oil content about 25–30% in bleaching
earth. The residual oil content in bleaching earth remains a prime criterion for the
selection of process as it reduces oil recovery and on the other hand increases the
requirement of bleaching earth. The disposal cost of the bleaching affects the overall
operating cost of the oil-processing plant. Therefore, lowering the requirement of
bleaching earth enhances the efficiency of system.
510 M. Kaur et al.

Table 12.3 The by-products/waste during refining processes

Refining step By products removed
Degumming/ 1. Hydratable non-oil constituents, mostly carbohydrates and proteins, are
washing removed
2. Hydratable non-glyceridic lipids such as phospholipids are partially moved
3. Chlorophyll is partially removed, especially if phosphoric acid is used
Alkali refining Saponified fatty matter containing the following constituents are removed/
reduced
1. Free fatty acids (FFA) and other materials such as phospholipids (gums),
oxidized products, metal ions, etc.
2. Residual phospholipids
3. Proteinaceous materials
4. Colouring matter
Bleaching Spent Earth containing following constituents are removed
1. Carotenoids
2. Chlorophyll and its derivatives
3. Gossypol-like pigments
4. Toxic agents, such as polycyclic aromatic (PCA) hydrocarbons
(if carbon is used)
Deodorization Volatiles collected in catchall containing the following constituents are
removed/reduced
1. FFA, peroxide decomposition products, colour bodies and their
decomposition products
2. Sterols and sterol esters
3. Tocopherols
4. Pesticide residues and mycotoxins

The efficiency of bleaching earth can be improved by acid activation using

sulphuric or hydrochloric acid by increasing the surface area. The activated earth
is commercially available for bleaching of oil. However, in case of palm oil,
nonactivated earth is preferred for bleaching due to the formation of potentially
toxic 3-monochloropropanediol (3-MCPD). Sometimes, natural and less activated
soils are also used as bleaching earth. The decrease in particle size of bleaching earth
also improves the bleaching process, but separation of oil from bleaching earth using
conventional filtration remains problematic. The electrically charged agglomeration
of fine particles followed by conventional filtration may remain effective in such
cases.
The bleaching process is usually a single-stage process; however, it does not
effectively use the capacity of bleaching earth. Therefore, multistage bleaching
processes are preferred in the form of co-current, counter current or any other
combination. The counter current process saves more bleaching earth in comparison
to parallel combination but is quite complex in use. The prefiltration for removal of
solid impurities, phospholipids and soaps are performed, which saves 10–15% of
bleaching earth. Sometimes, silica hydrogel (silicon dioxide with high amount of
water) is used to remove polar impurities like phospholipids, soaps and trace
elements; but it has little effect on colour pigments. The silica of about 0.05–0.1%
is added to the neutralized oil at temperature in the range of 70–80  C and left for
12 Processing of Oilseeds 511

15–30 min in contact at atmospheric pressure. The oil contained silica should be
dried and then transferred to bleaching earth, and it saves about 40% of the bleaching
earth due to enhanced ability of bleaching earth to absorb the colour pigment and
improvement in filterability due to addition of silica.

Activated Carbon
Activated carbon is also used for bleaching the edible oils. It is produced using
carbon-rich material, that is steam activated at very high temperature about 1000  C
to provide high surface area. However, the use of activated carbon is limited in oil
processing due to availability of efficient bleaching earth. Activated carbon is used to
remove polycyclic hydrocarbons from edible vegetable oils that might have gained
by oil during heating during extraction of oil. Recently, it is also used for decontam-
ination of sunflower and rapeseed oils.
The cost of activated carbon is higher than bleaching earth. Also, activated
carbons have lower filtration capacity and high oil retention. That is why, these are
used with bleaching earth. Activated carbon is added to the bleaching earth in a
proportion of 10–20%. The high filterability filters like pressure leaf filters, pulse
tube filters and membrane press filters are used with activated carbon powders.
These filters can be squeezed to ooze out the oil from the activated carbon and
provide reduction in used/spent carbon cake. The enzymatic bleaching can be used
for the removal of specific colour pigments, viz. chlorophyll. The enzymes can drop
down the chlorophyll content up to 50 parts per billion (ppb), which eliminates the
need of bleaching earth. A cost-effective bleaching technique is needed to be
established. The silica pretreatment, prefiltration with spent/used beaching earth,
bleaching with bleaching earth and decontamination with activation carbon are used
in multistage purification process. The efficiency of refining plants can be enhanced
by adopting pretreatment and prefiltration process.

12.4.7.2 Deodorization
The vegetable oils retain undesirable odours after passing through processing steps
including bleaching and hydrogenation. Due to the presence of substances like
organic compounds, free fatty acids, alcohols, aldehydes, peroxides and ketones,
off odours arise. Such substances are removed in deodorization process using
vacuum steam distillation process at elevated temperature. This is very important
and the last processing step of oils which influences the final quality of oil. Important
process conditions for the minimum production of trans fatty acids and maximum
removal of volatile compounds during this process include temperature, pressure,
stripping time and stripping steam amount.

Temperature
An increase in deodorization temperature increases the rate of removal of
compounds, responsible for off odours. Vapour pressure of such substances
increases with increase in temperature. Vapour pressure of palmitic acid is 1.8 mm
at 176.7  C which increases to 72 mm at 260  C. With increase in deodorization
temperature, deodorization time decreases. However, very high temperatures may
512 M. Kaur et al.

result in formation of trans fatty acids, polymeric triacylglycerols and colour rever-
sion. Trans formation during deodorization process is significant between 220 and
240  C. Above 240  C the trans formation is almost exponential. The tocopherols
start thermally degrading significantly above 260  C. An appropriate combination of
time and temperature must be determined because deodorizers operating at very high
temperature may cause degradation of naturally present pigments in oils. Free fatty
acid content in chemically refined oils is less as compared to physically refined oils.
Therefore, chemically refined oils are much easier to deodorize. The oils with short
chain fatty acids require lower temperature for deodorization as compared to the oils
containing long chain fatty acids. During hydrogenation process, more distinctive
odours and free fatty acids are produced; hence, hydrogenated oils are more difficult
to deodorize.

Pressure
The vapour pressure of odorous substances decreases with decrease in absolute
pressure. Therefore, if the odorous substances are to be distilled at low temperature,
the distillation process must be carried out under vacuum. Vacuum systems used for
low pressure generation consist of combination of mechanical vacuum pumps, steam
jet ejectors and vapour condensers. The required vapour pressure for this process
ranges between 2 and 4 mbar.

Steam
The amount of steam required depends on the operating pressure of the system,
efficiency of mixing, depth of oil and type of oil. Agitation of oil is very important to
expose the surface to low pressure. Excess amount of steam may cause hydrolysis
and also increases energy consumption. For chemically refined oils, the amount of
steam varies from 5 to 15 wt% of oil for batch type systems, whereas 0.5–2% for
continuous systems.

Time
To remove the odorous substances from oil, stripping time should be selected very
carefully. The stripping time at elevated temperatures for batch type system is more
due to the depth of oil, as compared to continuous type deodorizing systems. For
batch-type systems, the holding time varies between 3 and 8 h, whereas for continu-
ous systems, it varies between 15 and 20 min. A specific retention period is provided
by deodorizing systems at particular temperature to allow heat bleaching of oils and
for certain reactions to occur for stabilized oil. The other factors, which may affect
deodorization is material of deodorizer and chelating agents.

Material of Deodorizer and Chelating Agents

Some metallic compounds present naturally in soil are transferred to oils or during
processing steps trace amounts enter into oil stream. Rate of oxidation of oil
increases due to the presence of heavy metals. Copper acts as a good catalyst for
oxidative reactions. The concentration of copper to produce noticeable oxidative
effect is 0.005 ppm and for iron is 0.03 ppm. It has been reported that copper is the
12 Processing of Oilseeds 513

most harmful metal followed by iron, manganese, chromium and nickel. These
metals act as prooxidants. To minimize the effect of prooxidants, chelating agents
can be used before and after deodorization. Most commonly used chelating agents
are citric acid, lecithin and phosphorus. Citric acid is used in the range of 50–100
ppm. But it can get decomposed at around 175  C; therefore, it is added during the
cooling stage. Phosphoric acid is used at a concentration of not more than 10 ppm,
since excess amount may cause off flavours. Similarly, amount of lecithin used as
chelating agent is about 5 ppm.

Deodorization Equipment
Deodorization equipment can be batch type, semicontinuous type and continuous
type. Simplest form of deodorizers is batch-type systems which are insulated vertical
cylindrical vessels with cone or dished head. Depth of oil varies between 8 and
10 feet and sufficient head space is required for efficient deodorization process.
Steam is injected through a distributor into the bottom of deodorizer. Batch
deodorizers also include systems for heating, cooling, pumping, temperature mea-
surement, pressure measurement and filtration. Systems operating at low
temperatures or high operating pressures may require up to 10–12 h for deodoriza-
tion process. Amount of steam required may vary from 10 to 50 lb per 100 lb of oil.
To prevent oxidation of oil, it should be cooled to a temperature as low as practicable
(38–49  C).
The semicontinuous systems consist of tall cylindrical structures with five or
more steel trays stacked one above another which is under same relatively high
vacuum. The trays do not contact the outer cylindrical structure. Each tray is fitted
with steam sparger system and holds a measured amount of oil. The oil is deaerated
while heating (160–166  C) with steam on the top tray. Then the charge is dropped to
the second tray automatically, and the upper tray is refilled with measured amount of
oil. Again, the oil is heated, and this process continues as the oil reaches the bottom
tray, cooled to 38–54  C and discharge to a tank.
Continuous deodorizers can be tray type or thin film type. In continuous tray
deodorizers, multiple trays are stacked one above another inside a vertical cylindrical
structure. Oil levels of 0.3–0.8 m are maintained by overflow weirs. Discharge
valves are used for drainage purpose. Thin film deodorizers have packed columns
to create maximum surface to volume ratio. Oil comes in contact with sparging
steam to strip off free fatty acids. Heat bleaching also takes place in the retention
section of this system. The negative impact of thermal processing during deodoriza-
tion can also be minimized by integration of packed columns.

12.4.8 Hydrogenation

In hydrogenation process, hydrogen gas is used to convert unsaturated fatty acids

into saturated form, which is more stable as the saturated fats contain single bonds.
The hydrogenated fats have higher melting points at room temperature. The main
advantages of hydrogenation process include:
514 M. Kaur et al.

1. Conversion of liquid oil into solid fat; which can be handled more easily, with
sharp melting points.
2. Stability of fats towards oxidative changes increases.

Depending upon the degree of hydrogenation, type of oil used and processing
conditions, a wide range of fats can be produced. Most commonly employed method
is the liquid phase hydrogenation process with catalytic reactions. This process
involves addition of hydrogen (99.8% or more purity) in the presence of a nickel
catalyst (0.01–0.2%) to double (unsaturated) bonds. The moisture content in oil
should be less than 0.05%. The unsaturated fatty acids such as oleic, linoleic acid,
etc., which are liquid at room temperature, can be converted into stearic acid by
hydrogenation process. After completion of process, the hot oil/ fat is filtered for
removal of metallic catalyst. A general reaction of hydrogenation process is
illustrated as follows:

Ni
Oil þ H 2 ! Solid fat ð12:5Þ
Δ

ð12:6Þ

The reactions occurring during hydrogenation process may result into the pro-
duction of saturated fats, trans fats, and fats with shifts in location of double bonds.
Trans fats result from conversion of unsaturated fats into trans fatty acids due to
twisting of the cis configuration into trans.
A schematic diagram of hydrogenation tank used at industrial level is shown in
Fig. 12.15. During this process, it is very important to dissolve hydrogen gas into
liquid oil in the presence of catalyst. Hence, the unsaturated fatty acids react with
hydrogen atoms to complete the saturation of double bonds or to convert them into
trans form or to change the position of double bonds. The completion of
hydrogenation process can be measured using Solid Fat Index.

12.4.8.1 Factors Affecting Hydrogenation Process

During hydrogenation process, edible oil and hydrogen gas molecules react on the
surface of catalyst when brought in close contact. Hence, any parameter that
influences the catalyst surface, concentration of gas, level of catalyst, mixing
speed, conditions for reaction to take place, e.g. temperature, pressure, will affect
the overall process. Main factors influencing this process are:

a. Type of unsaturated fatty acid: The hydrogenation process depends on the type of
unsaturated fatty acid and the number of unsaturated fatty acids present in a
12 Processing of Oilseeds 515

Motor
Slurry in
Gas in
Gas out Slurry out

Heating
Jacket Liquid surface
Solid particles
Impeller Gas bubbles
Gas Sparger

Fig. 12.15 Hydrogenation tank

triglyceride. Oils containing high levels of linoleic or linolenic acid tend to

hydrogenate more quickly and possess higher melting points as compared to
oils with high content of oleic acid.
b. Catalyst concentration: As the concentration of catalyst is increased, the rate of
hydrogenation also increases up to a certain point and then it levels off. The
reason being increased surface of catalyst available for the reaction to take place.
At very high levels, the hydrogen dissolution will not be fast enough to supply the
increased level of catalyst. Also, at very high concentrations, trans isomer
formation and selectivity increase slightly.
c. Reaction temperature: Temperature is a very important factor influencing
hydrogenation process. The rate of reaction increases with increase in tempera-
ture. But at high temperatures, the solubility of gas in oil decreases, which results
in quicker removal of hydrogen, hence the quantity of hydrogen present on
catalyst surface will be less. It also leads to the formation of trans-isomers. The
maximum temperature of the reaction remains within 230–260  C for most of
the oils.
d. Agitation speed: During hydrogenation process, agitation is required to have a
proper contact between hydrogen molecules and oil, and to supply dissolved gas
to catalyst surface. Agitation is also required to maintain the required temperature
during hydrogenation process.
e. Pressure: At high pressure, hydrogen can saturate the double bonds quickly.
Therefore, maintenance of appropriate pressure is important because at low
pressure the gas dissolved does not cover the catalyst surface. Normally this
process is carried out at 0.7–4 bars. Increase in pressure results in increased
hydrogenation rates and lower amount of trans isomers.
f. Type of catalyst: The selected catalyst for the process has a strong influence on the
rate of reaction and isomerization. For hydrogenation of oils commonly used
catalyst is nickel, which can be prepared by various techniques. For the produc-
tion of nickel catalyst, usually nickel salt is reduced and supported on a solid
516 M. Kaur et al.

surface. Number of active sites present on the surface of catalyst decide the
activity of catalyst. These sites can be located either on surface of solid or deep
inside the pores. Products with good stability to oxidation and lower melting point
can be produced with high selectivity catalysts. All catalysts produce almost same
level of trans fats under similar conditions. Hence, the selectivity of catalyst is not
related to the ability of catalyst to form trans isomers. Reaction with sulphur
inhibits the catalyst to adsorb and dissociate hydrogen hence reduces the activity
of catalyst. Catalyst treated with sulphur produces larger quantities of trans
isomers.
g. Reuse of catalyst: It is always economical to reuse the catalyst if sufficient activity
of catalyst remains after the previous use. But sometimes it may affect the
reaction and selectivity for the process and may also result in filtration problems
like fatty acids in oils can react with nickel to form nickel soaps which can result
in blockage of filters. Secondly, the mechanical agitation results in colloidal
nickel, which can pass through the screening filters. There might be decreased
selectivity and increased production of trans isomers with each use of catalyst.
After usage when catalyst is exposed to air, then there might be higher probability
of production of trans isomers, when it is reused.
h. Presence of impurities: Oils after refining process may contain some impurities
like soaps, free fatty acids, moisture, phosphatides, etc. Similarly, hydrogen gas
may also contain impurities like ammonia, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulphide,
etc. which can poison the catalyst. These impurities can reduce the catalyst
concentration and may influence the selectivity, rate of reaction and isomerization
process. It has been reported that 1 ppm sulphur can poison 0.004% nickel.
Similarly, same amount of phosphorus, bromine and nitrogen can poison
0.0008%, 0.00125%, and 0.0014% nickel, respectively.

12.4.9 Packaging

Crude, filtered and refined oils are packed in LDPE pouches, LDPE/HDPE bottles,
glass bottles and metal containers.

12.5 Oilseed Processing: Case Studies

12.5.1 Rapeseed and Mustard

Rapeseed and mustard are very popular oilseeds for the extraction of oil. Mustard is
available in white, brown and black colours. The oil extraction technology contains,
drying, cleaning, grading, storage of oilseeds, oil expression and storage of oil.

12.5.1.1 Drying
The rape seeds generally can attain 8% moisture content at 70% relative humidity
under ambient temperature. The harvested rapeseeds usually have 25–35% moisture
12 Processing of Oilseeds 517

content, which needs to be dropped to the level of 12–20% for threshing followed by
further drying for safe storage up to the level of 7–8%. The storage room may be
disinfected. Spraying by malathion in the ratio of 1:15 at a rate of a litre for 100 m2
surface area before 24 h is recommended to keep the rapeseed inside the go
down [33].

12.5.1.2 Cleaning and Conditioning

Mustard seeds are cleaned properly to remove any foreign particles, dust, straw, etc.
using air screen cleaners. After cleaning the seeds, the next important step is
conditioning. The main aim of conditioning is to make the oilseeds soft so that oil
could be extracted more easily. The seeds are moistened by soaking in hot water for
1 h followed by steaming for 10 min. Conditioning causes coalescence of the small
droplets of oils into bigger drops, which can be easily extracted during extraction
process. High temperature also decreases the viscosity of oil; hence, maximum
amount of oil recovery is obtained during pressing.

12.5.1.3 Decortications/Flaking
The moistened oilseeds may be fed to decorticator/flaker, which have pair of large-
diameter rolls to press the seeds into required thickness flakes (Fig. 12.16). The main
purpose of the decorticator/flaker is to rupture the outer shell and weaken the oil cells
hence to facilitate the oil expression. The temperature and moisture contents are the
important key factor for effectiveness of decortication. Optimum flake thickness
varies between 0.25 and 0.38 mm. To obtain a uniform thickness of flakes, it is
important to maintain high roll pressure using hydraulic systems. Rapeseeds being
very small in size need to be handled carefully, so that all the seeds pass through the
two rolls.

Fig. 12.16 Parallel cylinder

decorticator
518 M. Kaur et al.

12.5.1.4 Heat Treatment

The moistened grains are dried for inactivation of enzymes, destruction of bacteria
and moulds. Optimum heating temperature is 90–105  C for drying up to 9–10%
moisture content.

12.5.1.5 Extraction of Oil

Most commonly, screw press (expeller) is used for the extraction of oil. Conveyors
are used for feeding purpose and the feeder controls the flow of material. Oil
extracted during this process is collected at the base of the expeller. Residual
material obtained during this process is removed for further processing.

12.5.1.6 Clarification of Oil

The oil extracted in press also contains some solid particles and impurities. These
larger particles can be removed by using a screen, whereas smaller particles can be
removed in the next stage using filters. Centrifugal separators are used instead of
filters on large scale. If the solids obtained after filtration process contain high
amount of oil, then theses solids are returned to the feed stream of press. Oil refining
if needed can be done as discussed in the preceding section.

12.5.2 Soybean

Soybean is a rich source of protein as it contains all the essential amino acids except
sulphur containing amino acids. Due to its high protein content, about 40%, it was
initially introduced as a protein-rich food crop, but later, it has been found to be a
crop mainly used for oil extraction, and the protein-rich meal is used as a by-product.
Depending upon variety, beans vary in colour from yellowish to dark brown. The
yellow bean is considered as the richest variety with respect to oil content. Generally,
soy oilseed has moisture, 9–14%; oil, 18–22%; carbohydrate, 15–25%; protein,
33–39%; fibre, 7%; and ash, 6%. Cultivation of soya can be done in tropical
or subtropical areas on various soils. The cultivation of soya is expanding mainly due
to its high protein and oil content and seeds can be stored without major damage.
Processing steps for soybean are shown in Fig. 12.17.
Cleaning is the important step in soybean processing. During cleaning, all the
foreign particles, stones, etc. are removed. Cleaning, if not done properly may even
lead to damage of equipment sometime. Cleaning is done using screens of variable
mesh number. Oversized impurities like stones, leaves, sticks, etc. are retained on the
upper screen, medium size impurities are retained on the second screen, whereas
very fine impurities like sand, etc. pass through the third screen. Grading of seeds is
important as uniform size of feed reduces the energy consumption of machine.

12.5.2.1 Preparation
The oil, present inside the cells, cannot be extracted effectively without pretreatment
of seeds. This pretreatment is called preparation of seeds. The major benefits of
12 Processing of Oilseeds 519

Fig. 12.17 Processing steps

for soybean Preparation

Gritting

Conditioning

Flaking and Extrusion

Extraction of oil

Refining of oil

Refined oil

Fig. 12.18 Dry soybean

cracking machine
Hopper

Screw
Grinding conveyor
rotors

Motor
Product
outlet

preparation are to rupture the cells containing oil so that extraction could be made
easier.

12.5.2.2 Gritting
This is a process in which soybeans are split into small pieces in mills. These mills
are also called cracking mills, which are equipped with corrugated rolls (Fig. 12.18).
520 M. Kaur et al.

Soybeans are fed into the hopper, which is conveyed using screw conveyor to the
corrugated rollers, which has two grinding plates, i.e. stator and rotor for breaking it
into smaller grits.

12.5.2.3 Conditioning
Anti-nutritional factors, in raw soybean can be inactivated by applying heat treat-
ment. Secondly, soybeans get softened due to heat treatment. Heat treatment is given
at 60–70  C and moisture content is then adjusted to around 10–11%. Two types of
conditioners may be used: vertical and horizontal. Vertical conditioners are equipped
with pans, which are stacked one above another in a vertical shell. These pans are
connected to a rotating shaft. Small grits enter at the top and move to the bottom.
Horizontal conditioners are commonly used by large capacity plants. These are
made up of parallel steam heated tubes in a cylindrical shell. In some designs, the
tubes keep on rotating, whereas in others the entire shell rotates which helps in
uniform heating of grits.

12.5.2.4 Flaking and Extrusion

The flaking process is same as mentioned in rapeseed processing. The hot, soft
cracks leaving the conditioner are finally sent to flaking. The cells containing oil are
ruptured and it becomes easier to extract oil from these weakened cells. Due to
flaking process, the surface to volume ratio increases which facilitates the enhanced
solid-liquid contact and the efficiency of oil extraction process. Followed by flaking
process, extrusion is the optional step which is primarily done to increase the bulk
density of the product and it reduces the retention of solvent in the material during
extraction process. The extrusion equipment is made up of a horizontal barrel with a
restriction. Materials are pushed through that restriction, and steam is introduced or
desired temperature is maintained in the barrel. Due to moisture evaporation,
expansion takes place as the material passes through the restriction; hence, the
material attains a sponge like texture.

12.5.2.5 Extraction of Oil

Soybean oil can be extracted mechanically by using hydraulic or screw press or
chemically by using solvent. Efficiency of mechanical process is low as compared to
chemical process. In mechanical process, oil is not fully recovered since it is difficult
to remove last 10% oil from the seeds. But in case of solvent extraction process,
approximately 99% oil is extracted. Since the nature of oil is impervious, it has been
found that oil extraction from whole or half beans is not possible without applying
the pretreatments to break the cell wall. Therefore, flaking treatment is very impor-
tant before extraction of oil.

12.5.3 Groundnut (Peanut)

Groundnut consists of mainly three parts: (a) nut, which contributes 69–73% of the
total weight of the groundnut; (b) germ, 2–3.5%; and (c) hull, 2–3% of the total
12 Processing of Oilseeds 521

Fig. 12.19 Processing of

groundnut Stripping

Drying

Decortication

Extraction of oil

Refining of oil

Refined oil

weight. Oil content varies from 31 to 46%, whereas carbohydrate 21–37%, and
protein is 20.7–25.3% in groundnut. Groundnut is also rich source of vitamin B
content and minerals. It is commonly consumed raw, in roasted form and fried form.
Peanut butter is also prepared from crushed peanuts. Processing steps of groundnut
are given in Fig. 12.19.

12.5.3.1 Stripping
First step for groundnut oil extraction is stripping, i.e. removal of groundnut pod
from the plant. Stripping can be done manually or by using strippers, in which, the
operator must hold the bundles of crop firmly against the rolling drum, on which
spikes are provided to strip the pods from the vine (Fig. 12.19). In the next step,
groundnut grading machines are used for grading purpose.

12.5.3.2 Drying
Groundnuts are dried from 26% to around 13% moisture content. Over drying of
kernels must be avoided as it may lead to brittleness of kernels. It may also cause
colour and flavour changes, which affect the final quality of groundnut. The method
adopted for drying should not affect the economic viability of groundnut kernels;
however, it has been reported that when groundnut is dried by mechanical methods,
1% oil content is reduced as compared to the natural shade dried methods
(Figs. 12.20 and 12.21).

12.5.3.3 Decortication
Once the groundnuts are decorticated, it is difficult to store them for long period
without any treatment, since the kernels may get rancid. For decortication process,
522 M. Kaur et al.

Fig. 12.20 Power operated

groundnut stripper

Fig. 12.21 Manual

groundnut decorticator

corrugated rolls are used; and thereafter, centrifugation process is used for separation
of husk. Using traditional process, groundnuts may be decorticated manually, but the
process is very slow. Advanced decorticators have been found most suitable, and by
use of these equipment, there is no adverse effect on germination of seeds. Power-
operated groundnut decorticator has one HP electric motor with 94–96% efficiency,
and this decorticator can decorticate about 150 kg pods/h. No breakage occurs
during the process and 57–63% sound kernels are obtained.
Decorticated groundnuts should be stored carefully to prevent any damage from
insects and loss of vitamins and high temperature. Sound and unbroken groundnuts
12 Processing of Oilseeds 523

are less likely to be attacked by insects. Once the groundnuts are decorticated, the
chances of oil acidification increase. Groundnuts can be stored for at least 2 years at a
temperature of 2–4  C at relative humidity of 65%. Further improvement to storage
conditions can be made by modifying the oxygen and nitrogen gas compositions.
Polyethylene bags have been found most suitable for storage of groundnuts. If the
groundnuts are not carefully stored, then fungi may develop, which can produce
mycotoxins. Usually, Aspergillus flavus develops due to poor storage conditions,
which produces Aspergillus flavus. This mycotoxin may be of carcinogenic under
some specific temperature and humidity conditions. To retard the growth of
A. flavus, temperature above 30  C is safe with a relative humidity value below
65%. To prevent the production of aflatoxin, treatment with 5% hydrochloric acid
for 1 h and 6% hydrogen peroxide for 1/2 h at 80  C can be adopted. Groundnut cake
treated with 1.5% ammonia becomes completely free from toxin, but if the cake is to
be used as animal feed, treatment with 1% ammonia is recommended.

12.5.3.4 Extraction of Oil

Methods for extraction of groundnut oil are hydraulic press and screw press.
Hydraulic press consists of a cylinder and a cage with a system of levers. Pressure
is applied to the seeds inside the cylinder by means of piston. Due to increased
pressure inside the cylinder, oil is released from the groundnut seeds and flows
through the cage slots. The major disadvantage of this system is high cost and higher
maintenance. There may also be chances of contamination of oil by hydraulic fluid.
In screw press, the main components are: expelling unit, driving pulleys, speed
reduction gear, hopper, etc. Seeds are fed through the hopper, then crushed inside the
machine and transported by a rotating screw in a barrel. Pressure level required is
achieved by continuous transport of material by the screw shaft, which increases the
friction inside the barrel hence increases the temperature. Due to increased tempera-
ture, viscosity of oil decreases; hence, flow rate increases. Seeds can be preheated by
roasting and optimum speed of screw for better extraction of oil is can be fixed.

12.5.4 Sunflower Oil

Sunflowers are botanically known as Helianthus annuus. Sunflower seeds are

generally 0.6 cm long and 0.3 cm wide with a black seed coat having dark stripes.
Oil content of seeds is around 38–50%. The high linoleic acid (44–75%) makes it
prone to rancidity. The storage warehouses must be properly ventilated with low
temperature and low humidity. For storage, seeds must have a low moisture content
(nearly 10%). The various steps involved for processing of sunflower are explained
below.

12.5.4.1 Cleaning, Dehulling and Grinding

The sunflower oilseeds are passed over magnetic separators to remove any trace of
metal and passes through other cleaning machines to remove foreign particles before
being de-hulled. To obtain a good quality of oil and meal, seed hulls (20–30%) are
524 M. Kaur et al.

sometimes removed before oil extraction. For de-hulling appropriate moisture con-
tent is 3–5% after cleaning. The process consists of cracking the seeds by the
mechanical action (by abrasion or using pneumatic sheller). Winnowing process is
used to separate the separated hulls from the kernels. To enhance the surface area,
de-hulled kernels are ground to obtain a coarse meal. Grooved rollers or hammer mill
can be used for this purpose. Heat treatment can be applied in the next step to
facilitate extraction of oil.

12.5.4.2 Pressing
Screw press is used for pressing purpose. The heated meal is then fed continuously
into a screw press. As the meal passes through the barrel of screw press, pressure
increases from 68,950 to 206,850 kPa, and the oil is pressed out through the barrel
slots.

12.5.4.3 Extraction of Oil with Solvents

Although a major portion of oil is expelled by mechanical pressing and squeezing, to
obtain higher yield, the cake may be treated with solvents, so that residual oil can be
extracted.

12.5.4.4 Oil Refining

The degumming process involves heating the oil to 200  C, then centrifugation is
used to remove the gums. In neutralization process, the oil is heated to 107–188  F
and an alkaline substance like sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate is added to
remove free fatty acids. This soap in the form of foam is removed by centrifugation
process. Phosphatides present as ‘gums’ are also removed during this step. To get rid
of undesirable colours bleaching process is carried out. Oil is filtered through
activated carbon or clay, Fuller’s earth that can adsorb the colour pigments from
oil. The oil used for salads is rapidly chilled and filtered to remove the waxes in the
form of crystals.
To remove undesirable odours, deodorization process is employed where steam is
passed over hot oil in vacuum at 210–270  C to distil the volatile compounds. After
that, 1% citric acid is added to prevent any oxidation due to presence of any trace
metals that may cause oxidation.

12.5.5 Cotton Seed

Cotton is a shrub of warm-weather and belongs to Malvaceae family. It is grown as

an annual crop and mainly cultivated to obtain cotton fabrics. Principal species of
cotton are: barbadense, hirsutum, herbaceum and arboretum. Further, various
varieties of these species can be developed by conventional breeding process.
Production of cotton seed is highest in China whereas India stands on the second.
Cottonseed oil is used as a cooking oil obtained from decorticated cottonseeds.
Percentage of oil in cottonseed is about 18–25% along with 18–25% good quality
protein. High smoke point of this oil (232  C) also makes it suitable for cooking
12 Processing of Oilseeds 525

Fig. 12.22 Bar and drum

decorticator

purpose. Cottonseed oil also finds applications in biodiesel production and in paint
industry. The stability of oil is more due to inhibition of rancidity by tocopherols
(65 mg/100 g). Presence of linoleic (55%), linolenic, oleic (19%), palmitic (22–26%)
and some portion of stearic and myristic, fatty acids make it healthy for
consumption.
Cotton ginning is the important step in its processing, in which the fibres are
separated from the seeds. Double roller ginning method is the most widely used over
single roller ginning because of high ginning cost.
Cotton seed oil can be extracted either by traditional method in which seeds are
crushed without delinting or by mechanical pressing method using bar and drum
decorticator (Fig. 12.22). In this method, pressure rolls are used for pressing the
seeds and to form thin flakes. These flakes are then cooked in steam pressure to
rupture the oil containing cells. Then the flakes are processed in screw expellers or
hydraulic press for the extraction of oil. Solvent extraction can be used for the
extraction of cottonseed oil.
The oil is mixed with alkali to remove free fatty acids, resins, etc. in the form of
soap for neutralization process. Then by centrifugation process, the soap part is
removed. Then bleaching is performed to remove the trace elements, pigments and
other impurities, which is performed using bleaching clay. It is an essential process,
which removes oxidation products, soaps, metals, phospholipids, and other
contaminants.
Winterization/dewaxing is a process to maintain the clearness of oil at lower
temperature. The process is performed by cooling and lowering the temperature to
below the crystallization of waxes, which is then removed by filtration. This process
is mainly beneficial for the oil to be used as salad oil so that it does not show
cloudiness at lower temperatures. Deodorization by steam distillation process is
carried out under vacuum. Cottonseed oil can be deodorized at low temperatures,
and in this way, tocopherols can be retained.
526 M. Kaur et al.

12.5.6 Castor Seed Oil

Castor plant is resistant to pests and droughts, it can be grown anywhere easily. In
various geographic regions, it grows naturally under a wide range of climatic
conditions. The castor oil-producing countries in large amount are Brazil, China
and India. The seeds are dried and then oil extraction is done either by solvent
extraction method or by mechanical pressing.
Oil content of castor seed is approximately 30–50% depending on the variety,
climatic conditions and the method used for oil extraction. Castor seeds have been
reported to be toxic due to the presence of toxic castor bean allergen (CBA),
glycoprotein, ricin and toxic alkaloid, ricinine. But castor oil does not contain
these toxins. The density, viscosity, thermal conductivity, specific heat, flash
point, melting point, pour point and refractive index of castor oil are 0.959 g/ml,
889.3 centistokes, 4.727 W/m  C, 0.089 kJ/kg  K, 148  C, 2 to 4  C, 2.7  C and
1.480, respectively. Castor oil in crude form appears in a pale colour, which turns
colourless after going through refining processes. The major fatty acid of castor oil is
the ricinoleic acid, 87–90%. A hydroxyl group at C12 of the ricinoleic acid, double
bonds, presence of the ester linkages cause polarity. This is the reason that it is used
in waxes, natural and synthetic resins, polymers, etc. After oil extraction, the meal
contains toxic protein called ricin; therefore, the meal is not suitable for animal feed;
hence, it is used as a fertilizer since toxic compounds are not carried to soil. Castor
oil has applications in the following fields: fuel and biodiesel, polymer materials,
soaps, waxes, greases, lubricants, hydraulic and brake fluids, fertilizers, coatings,
pharmacological and medicinal use.
Castor oil can be extracted using different methods like solvent extraction,
mechanical pressing or a combination of solvent extraction and pressing. Screening
process is used for cleaning of seeds. Iron particles or other magnetic particles can be
removed by magnetic conveyor belts. Drying is done until the outer shell of the seeds
splits. Beans are dried to moisture content of about 5–7%. It can be done either
mechanically using a dehuller or the shell can also be removed manually. The shells
are removed by winnowing process using air at high velocity. During this process,
seeds are heated in steam cookers. This process helps in oil extraction process, which
makes the seed hull open. The dried seeds are fed to the hydraulic press or screw
press for crushing of seeds. Size reduction is important to rupture the cell walls to
make the oil extraction easier. A high-pressure continuous screw press is used for oil
extraction. The extraction of oil using screw press is termed as preprocessing. It
provides about 45% of oil recovery at normal temperatures, which can be enhanced
up to 80% by elevating the temperature. Cold press oil contains lower iodine and
acid content and lighter in colour. Filter press is used for filtration process. Refining
can be done as per the method illustrated in processing section.
12 Processing of Oilseeds 527

12.6 FSSAI Standards for Different Refined Oils

As per the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI, 2006), 25 oils were
categorized in refined oils category including cottonseed oil, coconut oil, soybean
oil, sunflower oil, rapeseed oil, mustard oil, and groundnut oil. The oil should be
clear and free from rancidity and adulterants. Some important parameters for differ-
ent refined oil are listed in Table 12.4.
It is also suggested to keep the flash point above 250  C except coconut oil for the
oils obtained using solvent extraction process. The flash point must remain above
225  C in case of coconut oil.

12.7 Utilization of By-Products/Waste from Oilseed Processing

After extraction of oil, the cake is obtained as a by-product. Huge amount of oilcake
is obtained after processing of various oilseeds. These oil cakes are very good source
of protein, fibre, acid insoluble ash, etc.; hence, these cakes can be used for food
supplementation or important antibiotics, and vitamins. Enzymes can be produced
from these cakes using biotechnological tools. Composition of various oil cakes is
given in Table 12.5. The de-oiled cake is also sent to cattle feed processing industries
or directly fed to the animals. The residual amount of oil affects the storage life of the
cake. Several factors affect the composition of oilcake, which include variety of
oilseed, oil extraction method, storage conditions, etc.
Soybean oil cake is rich in various amino acids like tryptophan, threonine and
lysine. Dehulled sunflower oil cake contains about 34.1% crude protein. Rapeseed
cake has 33% protein content and it is rich in amino acids but deficient in lysine.
Cottonseed cake contains 40% protein and 15.7% fibre.

12.7.1 Food Supplementation

As the oilseed cakes are rich in fibre, protein, antioxidants, minerals and vitamins,
therefore efforts can be made to make use of these cakes for food supplementation.
Suitable processes and treatments can be applied to enhance the palatability of the
cakes and may be tried in various food products. Sesame cake is excellent source of
antioxidant activity. Heat treatment can be used to inactivate the antinutritional
compounds like pepsin and trypsin inhibitors, phytates and tanins, etc. Incorporation
of some of the treated oilseed cakes may enhance the fibre content of food material.
High fibre content is associated with treatment of number of diseases like coronary
heart diseases, colonic cancer, diabetes, etc.
 528

Table 12.4 Qualifying parameters for refined vegetable oils

Butyro Iodine
Moisture refractometer value Acid Unsaponifiable
content, % by reading at Saponification (WIJS value matter % by
Name weight (max.) 40  C value method) (max.) weight (max.) Additional requirements
Coconut oil 0.10 34.0–35.5 240 (min) 7.5–10.0 0.5 1.0 Polenske value—14.0 (min)
Cottonseed 0.10 55.6–60.2 190–198 98–112 0.5 1.5 No turbidity after keeping filtered
oil sample at 30  C for 24 h. Bellier test
19–21  C
Mustard/ 0.10 58.0–60.5 168–177 96–112 0.5 1.2 Bellier test 23–27.5  C, Test for
rapeseed oil hydrocyanic acid—negative, test of
argemone oil—negative, polybromide
test—negative
Soybean oil 0.10 58.5–68.0 189–195 120–141 0.5 1.5 Phosphorus—not more than 0.02%
Sunflower 0.10 57.1–65.0 188–194 100–145 0.5 1.5 –
oil
Safflower 1.10 62.4–64.7 186–196 125–148 0.5 1.0 Bellier test (turbidity temperature
oil acetic acid method) not more than
16  C
Source: Food Safety and Standards Act 2006) [34]
M. Kaur et al.
12 Processing of Oilseeds 529

Table 12.5 Oil cake composition

Crude Crude Dry
Calcium Phosphorus Ash fibre protein matter
Oil cake (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Reference
Mustard oil 0.05 1.11 9.9 3.5 38.5 89.8 [35]
cake
Soy bean 0.13 0.69 6.4 5.1 47.5 84.8 [35]
cake
Coconut oil 0.08 0.67 6 10.8 25.2 88.8 [36]
cake
Palm kernel 0.31 0.85 4.5 37 18.6 90.8 [37]
cake
Cottonseed 0.31 0.11 6.8 15.7 40.3 94.3 [38]
cake
Sesame oil 2.45 1.11 11.8 7.6 35.6 83.2 [35]
cake
Sun flower 0.3 1.3 6.6 13.2 34.1 91 [39]
oil cake
Groundnut 0.11 0.74 4.5 5.3 49.5 92.6 [35]
oil cake
Canola oil 0.79 1.06 6.2 9.7 33.9 90 [40]
cake
Olive oil – – 4.2 40 6.3 85.2 [41]
cake

12.7.2 Enzyme Production

Cakes can be used for the production of enzymes using solid state fermentation
process or these can be used as a supplement for the production medium. Physiolog-
ical and biological conditions can be optimized for the process. Lipase enzyme can
be produced from oil cakes using fungal strains, Penicillium spp. Groundnut oil cake
and cottonseed oil cake can be used as substrate for phytase production in solid state
fermentation process using strains of Rhizopus spp. Similarly, soybean oil cake can
be used for the production of protease enzyme using Bacillus clausii and α-amylase
can be produced from A. oryzae using groundnut oil cake as substrate. Sunflower oil
cake has been used for production of pectinolytic enzyme by Cryptococcus
albidus var.

12.7.3 Mushroom Production

Waste oil cakes (soybean oil cake, sunflower oil cake, cottonseed oil cake, etc.) can
be used for the production of mushrooms. The supplementation of oil cake with rice
straw substrate can increase the yield significantly. Cottonseed oil cake
supplemented mushrooms have higher amount of protein and fat but lesser carbohy-
drate content.
530 M. Kaur et al.

12.7.4 Antibiotics Production

Antibiotics can also be prepared using oil cakes. Oil cakes can be used as carbon
source and buffers for production of antibiotics.

12.7.5 Utilization as Feed

The deoiled cake may be used as high protein cattle feed. The high protein diet plays
a major role to increases the milk production in the milking cattle. This high protein
cake can also be used to feed poultry and fish. The sunflower deoiled cake can be
used as feed for swine and poultry and can also be used as fertilizer.

12.8 Exercise

Q1. 650 kg of groundnut seed (43.5% oil and 5.8% moisture) is fed to hydraulic
press for oil extraction. The cake obtained after oil extraction contains 5.3% oil and
11.7% moisture. Determine the quantity of oil extracted and amount of moisture
present in oil.
Ans: Oil recovered: 261.68 kg; Moisture in oil: 8.7%
Q2. A system involves mixing of rapeseed cake (83% solids, 7% oil, 10% water)
with sunflower oilseed cake (79% solids, 6% oil, 15% water) to make a 100kg
mixture containing 12% water. Determine the amount of rapeseed cake and sun-
flower oilseed cake.
Ans: Rapeseed cake ¼ 60 kg, Sunflower oilseed cake ¼ 40 kg
Q3. Determine the amount of oilseed cake containing 72% solids and another
oilseed cake containing 85% solids that must be mixed to produce 100 kg of a
mixture containing 80% solids.
Ans: 38.47 kg of cake with 72% solids, 61.53 kg of cake with 85% solids
Q4. How much weight reduction would result when the moisture content of an
oilseed sample is reduced from 12% to 2%?
Ans: 10.21%
Q5. In a solvent extraction process, deep bed extractor with 3.1 m bed thickness is
used. Determine the distance of washing nozzle till miscella collection vessel, if
forward flow velocity of the material is 0.32 m/min and downward velocity of
miscella is 0.29 m/min.
Ans: 1.88 m
Q6. What is role of solid fat index (SFI) for the determination of oil quality? Also
discuss the techniques for SFI measurement.
Q7. Discuss the importance of rheological properties of oil.
Q8. Enlist the advantages and disadvantages of solvent extraction technique for
oil extraction.
Q9. Discuss various process parameters influencing the solvent extraction
process.
12 Processing of Oilseeds 531

Q10. Elaborate the deodorization process in oil refining. Also discuss advantages
and disadvantages of this process.
Q11. Illustrate various oil extraction techniques.
Q12. Explain the importance of pretreatment for oil extraction.
Q13. Differentiate between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids with examples.
Q14. Discuss about fatty acid composition of vegetable oils.
Q15. Why study of optical properties of oils is important?
Q16. Enlist various points to be considered for appropriate handling and storage
of oilseeds.
Q17. Why heat treatment is important to be carried out prior to mechanical/
solvent extraction of oil?
Q18. Elaborate the working of hydraulic press for extraction of oil.
Q19. Enlist different parameters to be considered for sorting and grading of
oilseeds.
Q20. Discuss the working operation of major parts of an oil expeller.
Q21. What are important parameters influencing the oil extraction process.
Q22. Describe the role of meal desolventizer toaster and sparger tray.
Q23. Demonstrate the working of miscella distillation system.
Q24. Explain the factors affecting quality of deodorized oil.
Q25. What do you understand by hydrogenation process? Discuss the factors
affecting hydrogenation process.
Q26. Comment on utilization of by-products from oilseed processing.
Q27. Explain the role of catalyst in hydrogenation process.

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28. Orthoefer, T. (1996). Rice bran oil. In Y. D. Hui (Ed.), Bailey’s industrial oil and fat products.
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of the American Oil Chemists' Society, 74(12), 1559–1564.
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Web Resources

Maymone, B., Battaglini, A., & Tiberio, M. (1961). Ricerche sul valore nutritivo della sansa
d’olive. Alimentazione Animale, 5, 219–250.
http://www.smalloilpress.com/hydraulic-oil-press/index.html
https://www.seedoilpress.com/seed-oil-press/hydraulic-oil-press.html
Processing of Fruits and Vegetables
13
Aamir Hussain Dar, Navneet Kumar, Shafaq Shah, Rafeeya Shams,
and Mohsin Bashir Aga

Abstract

In this chapter, proximate composition and important properties and nutritional

profile of fruits and vegetables are discussed. Processing technologies involved in
the preservation and retention of key quality parameters have also been discussed.
Thermal processing and preservation techniques are employed for the preserva-
tion and value addition of fruits and vegetable-based products. Key unit
operations involved in the processing of fruits and vegetable products have
been elaborated. Processing of fruits and vegetables aseptically is also explained.
Recent techniques including high pressure processing, ultrasonic, electromag-
netic radiation microwave processing, electromagnetic radiation radio frequency,
and high-intensity pulse electric field are also briefly discussed. The effect of
different processing techniques on the quality physicochemical characteristics
and quality attributes of fruits and vegetables has been explained. The interven-
tion of various processing technologies involved in the manufacturing of various
fruits and vegetable-based products is discussed in detail. Value-added products,
viz., pickles, jam, jelly, and pectin, are also discussed using flow charts. Hand
tools and mechanized equipment for peeling are explained using schematic
diagrams. The cutting mechanism and effectiveness are explained using worked

A. H. Dar (*) · M. B. Aga

Department of Food Technology, Islamic University of Science and Technology, Awantipora,
Jammu and Kashmir, India
N. Kumar
Department of Processing and Food Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering and
Technology Anand Agricultural University, Godhra, Gujarat, India
S. Shah · R. Shams
Division of Food Science and Technology, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Science and Technology,
Jammu, India

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 535
Ltd. 2022
H. K. Sharma, N. Kumar (eds.), Agro-Processing and Food Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7289-7_13
536 A. H. Dar et al.

examples. The different shaped cutting knives for specific purposes are also
discussed.

Keywords

Proximate composition · Properties · Processing and preservation (techniques,

storage, chemicals) · Processing of value added products (pickles, jam, jelly,
marmalade and pectin) · Types of peelers and peeling mechanisms · Cutting
mechanism, and different cutting devices

Fruits and vegetables represent an essential part of the world agriculture and are
broadly acclaimed for consumption owing to their health-promoting properties. If
consumed every day in adequate amounts, fruits and vegetables can help to protect
from common diseases like CVDs and various cancers. Fruits and vegetables have
importance in dietary guidance as they contain vitamins, minerals, and
phytochemicals. In addition, fruits and vegetables are considered good source of
dietary fiber. The WHO and FAO of the United Nations suggest adults to consume at
least five servings of vegetables and fruits per day excluding starchy vegetables
because of large number of biologically active phytochemicals.
Vegetables and fruits, besides the yield, possess additional prominence in the
world economy. India is also the second leading producer of vegetables followed by
China. In fruit production, China ranks first with 246.6 MT, then India (104.2 MT) at
the second position, and Brazil (40.1 MT) at the third position among the total fruit
production of 883.4 MT in the world during the year 2019. As per the general
recommendations, FAO/WHO suggested that the fruit and vegetable intake is at
least 400 g/person/day [1]. Likewise, Indian national nutrition guidelines suggest an
average intake of 300 g/day for vegetables and 100 g for fruits [2].

13.1 Proximate Composition of Important Fruits

and Vegetables

The average composition of some of the important fruits and vegetables are given in
Table 13.1.

13.2 Important Properties of Fruits and Vegetables

13.2.1 Appearance

Color is one of the desirable factors responsible for consumer acceptance of fruits
and vegetables. The color changes with the maturation and ripening stages. Vital
pigments, which impart color to fruits and vegetables, are anthocyanins (blue, red),
betalains (red), flavonoids (yellow) soluble in water, chlorophylls (greenish), and
Table 13.1 Proximate composition of important fruits and vegetables [3]
13

Moisture Minerals Carbohydrates Energy

S. no. Name of the food product (g) Protein (N
6.25) Fat (g) (g) Crude fiber (g) (g) (kcal)
Fruits
1. Amla 81.8 0.5 0.1 0.5 3.4 13.7 58
2. Apple 84.6 0.2 0.5 0.3 1.0 13.4 59
3. Avocado pear 73.6 1.7 22.8 1.1 – 0.8 215
4. Bael fruit 61.5 1.8 0.3 1.7 2.9 31.8 137
5. Banana (ripe) 70.1 1.2 0.3 0.8 0.4 27.2 116
6. Bilimbi 94.4 0.5 0.3 0.3 1.0 3.5 19
7. Cherries (red) 83.4 1.1 0.5 0.8 0.4 13.8 64
8. Fig 88.1 1.3 0.2 0.6 2.2 7.6 37
Processing of Fruits and Vegetables

9. Grapes (blue variety) 82.2 0.6 0.4 0.9 2.8 13.1 58

10. Grapes (pale green 79.2 0.5 0.3 0.6 2.9 16.5 71
variety)
11. Guava (country) 81.7 0.9 0.3 0.7 5.2 11.2 51
12. Guava (hill) 85.3 0.1 0.2 0.6 4.8 9.0 38
13. Jackfruit 76.2 1.9 0.1 0.9 1.1 19.8 88
14. Lemon 85.0 1.0 0.9 0.3 1.7 11.1 57
15. Lichi 84.1 1.1 0.2 0.5 0.5 13.6 61
16. Lime 84.6 1.5 1.0 0.7 1.3 10.9 59
17. Mango (ripe) 81.0 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.7 16.9 74
18. Orange 87.6 0.7 0.2 .03 0.3 10.9 48
19. Pears 86.0 0.6 0.2 0.3 1.0 11.9 52
20. Tomato (ripe) 94.0 0.9 0.2 0.5 0.8 3.6 20
Vegetables
21. Ash gourd 96.5 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.8 1.9 10
22. Beans (scarlet runner) 58.3 7.4 1.0 1.6 1.9 29.8 158
537

(continued)
Table 13.1 (continued)
538

Moisture Minerals Carbohydrates Energy

S. no. Name of the food product (g) Protein (N
6.25) Fat (g) (g) Crude fiber (g) (g) (kcal)
23. Bitter gourd 92.4 1.6 0.2 0.8 0.8 4.2 25
24. Brinjal 92.7 1.4 0.3 0.3 1.3 4.0 24
25. Cabbage 91.9 1.8 0.1 0.6 1.0 4.6 27
26. Cauliflower 90.8 2.6 0.4 1.0 1.2 4.0 30
27. Cucumber 96.3 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.4 2.5 13
28. Knol-khol 92.7 1.1 0.2 0.7 1.5 3.8 21
29. Ladyfingers 89.6 1.9 0.2 0.7 1.2 6.4 35
30. Pumpkin (fruit) 92.6 1.4 0.1 0.6 0.7 4.6 25
31. Pumpkin (flower) 89.1 2.2 0.8 1.4 0.7 5.8 39
32. Sword beans 87.2 2.7 0.2 0.6 1.5 7.8 44
33. Tinda (tender) 93.5 1.4 0.2 0.5 1.0 3.4 21
34. Tomato (green) 93.1 1.9 0.1 0.6 0.7 3.6 23
35. Lettuce 93.4 2.1 0.3 1.2 0.5 2.5 21
36. Mint 84.9 4.8 0.6 1.9 2.0 5.8 48
37. Parsley 74.6 5.9 1.0 3.2 1.8 13.5 87
38. Safflower leaves 91.1 2.5 0.6 1.3 – 4.5 33
39. Spinach 92.1 2.0 0.7 1.7 0.6 2.9 26
40. Turnip greens 81.9 4.0 1.5 2.2 1.0 9.4 67
A. H. Dar et al.
13 Processing of Fruits and Vegetables 539

carotenoids (orange, yellowness, and crimson), which are fat-soluble. Water-soluble

grey-, black-, and brown-colored pigments are affected by enzymatic and
non-enzymatic browning. The polyphenol oxidase (PPO) accelerates the browning
reaction by oxidation of phenolic compounds. The chlorophylls are prone to acid and
heat but are stable in alkali. Carotenoids are considered sensitive to oxidation but
remain moderately stable to heat. The presence of lipoxygenase accelerates the
degradation of carotenoids, which also catalyzes the polyunsaturated fatty acids
and lipids. Anthocyanins are prone to pH and heat effects. Betalains are also
destroyed by heat. The flavonoids are heat sensitive and these are oxidized using
polyphenol oxidases [4]. Shape and size are affected by maturity, cultivar, environ-
ment, and production inputs. Some traders associate greater size with advanced
quality.

13.2.2 Acidity

Fruits are classified as acidic fruits and contain substantial amounts of naturally
occurring acids. Malic acid is predominantly found in apples and pears. Apple also
contains a good amount of citric acid, whereas quinic acid is present in pears.

13.2.3 Flavor

Aroma compounds are volatile in nature and are sensed primarily using the nose;
however, taste receptors are in the mouth, which provide information whenever food
fragments are chewed. Taste is mainly distributed into five prime tastes—sour, bitter,
salty, sweet, and umami. Umami is the taste associated with the salts of nucleotides
and amino acids [5]. Sourness of fruits and vegetables is produced due to the
presence of citric acid, sweetness of fruit is induced by quality and composition of
sugar, bitterness is reflected in fruits due to tannins and in vegetables due to
glucosinolates and calcium, while saltiness is due to the presence of sodium chloride.
Aroma volatiles are considered to be inhibited throughout the storage period of
10 months at 1  C in the atmospheres having 3% CO2 or 1–3% O2.
Vegetables can be divided into two main categories, depending on the flavor
attributes. The first category is with aroma, which could be attributed to a single or
group of compounds present. Allium species (onions), for example, with character-
istic sulfur compounds, bananas with isoamyl acetate, and celery, with distinct
phthalides, are some of the examples of the first group. In the second category,
aroma is due to volatiles, and they do not carry the distinctive aroma. Some examples
in the second group are snap muskmelons, beans, and tomatoes.
The off-flavors are developed by the enzymatic activities like peroxidase or
lipoxygenase, which form responsive hydroperoxide free radicals and may catalyze
the oxidation of lipids. Whenever these types of reactions take place, the impact
could possibly be the development of off-taste considered as stale. Nevertheless,
there are examples of enzyme-catalyzed reactions, which provide characteristic
540 A. H. Dar et al.

flavor like hydroperoxidelyase, which catalyzes the production of characteristic

tomato flavors [5].

13.2.4 Texture of Fruits and Vegetables

Textural properties are generally sensed with touch, when picked up by hand or in
the mouth, when chewed, and are the groups of physical characteristics. The
physical characteristics are derived from the structural formation of the food and
are sensed by the touch. The physical properties are measured by functions of time,
distance, and mass and are related to the disintegration, deformation, and flow of the
food under a force. The word texture is used primarily for semi-solid or solid foods.
Tomatoes are example of a fruit vegetable, comprising approximately 93–95% water
and 5–7% total solids (roughly 10–20% insoluble solids and 80–90% soluble solids).
The insoluble solids are the major contributor to the consistency of tomato products.

13.2.5 Nutritional Value

Fruits and vegetables mainly contain both “macro” nutrients like carbohydrates and
fiber and “micro” nutrients like vitamins, minerals, and the trace constituents such as
polyphenolics, carotenoids, and glucosinolates. Water-soluble nutrients contain
vitamin C, vitamin B complex, glucosinolates, and polyphenolics. Fat-soluble
nutrients comprise of vitamin A, D, E, and K and various other carotenoids like β-
carotene and lycopene. Vitamin C is a highly sensitive vitamin and is degraded
rapidly by light, oxygen, and heat.
Various features add to the nutritional value of a vegetable/fruit such as the
growing conditions (light, temperature, etc.), genetics, maturity at harvest, produc-
tion practices (fertilization, irrigation.), and postharvest handling conditions. Cutting
increases the production of ethylene, which enhances respiration and senescence
causing brisk loss of essential vitamins. Vitamin C can be considered as an index of
freshness.

13.3 Processing and Preservation

13.3.1 Thermal Processing

Fruits and vegetables are processed to add value and preserve them for a long period
of time. These are generally blanched and then pasteurized or sterilized depending
upon the requirement. Juices, RTSs and nectars are generally pasteurized at 85  C for
about 25–30 min, depending on the nature and size of the container [6].
13 Processing of Fruits and Vegetables 541

13.3.1.1 Blanching
Blanching is generally considered as a pre-treatment technique, mainly carried out in
hot water or steam, prior to processing. Foods can be blanched, by hot air, micro-
wave, or infrared radiation. The heating deactivates enzymes in the products and the
extent of inactivation of enzymes authenticates the efficiency of the blanching
process. The action of polyphenol oxidase is traced within many fruits, compared
to vegetables that contain peroxidase/catalase. Blanching has direct or indirect effect
on color. At elevated temperatures, a greater rise in green color is found, followed by
a quick loss at different treatment times such as in the case of peas, asparagus, green
beans, and broccoli. In these green vegetables, chlorophyll is chiefly responsible for
green color. Chlorophyll (a) and chlorophyll (b) ingredients of green vegetables are
influenced by blanching time and temperature with the transformation of chlorophyll
into epimers and pheophytin. Blanching can:

a. Reduce drying time

b. Assist to get rid of the intercellular air within the tissue cells
c. Help in softening of the texture and to retard the production of objectionable
flavors and odors during storage by inactivation of enzymes
d. Eliminate bitterness, mostly in onions
e. Cause soluble solid loss

Air removal from the tissues may cause the following: (1) In vegetables, tissues
are distorted and the cellular material beneath the surface gets protection to a greater
extent from the impact of oxygen. This is mainly evident in products, which consist
of sufficient amount of starch, such as potatoes. (2) In fruits, it can cause crystallinity
in the cellulose-rich produces, which may bring changes in texture.

Individual Quick Blanching (IQB)

Lazar [7] coined the term steam bleaching as the individual quick blanch (IQB)
procedure. IQB consists of heating and holding steps. Heating is generally carried
out in a condensing steam entity to inactivate enzymes (>87.7  C). Lazar [7]
additionally explained that “pre-conditioning” carrots prior to blanching by heating
and fractional drying could reduce the waste. The green vegetables blanched by IQB
technique using heat pre-conditioning exhibited no change in the quality to the
commercial blanched samples and a sharp reduction in the solid loss can be
achieved.

13.3.1.2 Pasteurization/Sterilization
Beverages and juices from fruits and vegetables are generally processed through
thermal techniques. Other technique alternatives to thermal processing have also
been successfully developed due to certain inherent drawbacks of thermal processing
such as lesser retention of nutrients, degradation of functional compounds, lesser
sensory score, and slow heat transfer. Generally, the juices and the beverages are
processed at either mild or high temperature, and low temperature is generally not
preferred. Generally, the pasteurization of juices is based on 5 log reduction of the
542 A. H. Dar et al.

most resistant organism [8]. For juices and beverages, the temperature can be
classified as pasteurization (lesser than 100  C), canning (approximately 100  C),
and sterilization (greater than 100  C).

1. Mild-temperature, long-time (MTLT) thermal processing: The temperature for

thermal treatment is kept below 80  C but for more than 30 s of holding time to
enhance the shelf life [9]. It provides retention of vitamin C, β-carotene, and
phenolic compound, preserving the color. Amla juice, apple juice, apple-orange-
blend juice, banana, orange, strawberry smoothie, black jamun juice, bottle gourd
juice, and carrot juice can be successfully processed using MTLT thermal
processing.
2. Mild-temperature, short-time (MTST) thermal processing: The temperature of
thermal processing and time in MTST is limited to 80  C or lesser for a period of
30 s or lesser than 30 s [9], which shows minimal changes in product
characteristics. The sensory quality is preserved and inhibition of peroxidase
activity is attained. The MTST thermal processing is used in pineapple, mango,
and orange juices, apple smoothie, sweet cherry juice, and tomato juice.
3. High-temperature, long-time (HTLT) thermal processing: The temperature of
thermal treatment is kept equal or higher than 80  C for more than 30 s
[9, 10]. The juice with more than 4.5 pH requires more thermal treatment, i.e.,
higher temperature and/or longer time. These are used for amla, aonla, bottle
gourd, ginger, lemon , apple, banana, blackberry, beetroot, and carrot juices.
4. High-temperature, short-time (HTST) thermal processing: The temperature of
thermal treatment is kept equal or higher than 80  C for lesser than or equal to 30 s
[9]. The method is preferred due to easy handling of large volumes, high energy
efficiency, minimal changes in food, and effective regeneration. It is successfully
used for enzymatic and microbial inactivation in juices.

It has the following advantages:

1. Minimizes the flavor loss and maximize retention of vitamins

2. Economy of space and time.
3. Consistent heating (Thus, the cooked taste is minimum.)

13.3.1.3 Sterilization
Sterilization refers to the destruction of all microbes. By this process, all microbes
are killed at elevated temperature. The time–temperature combination is essential for
sterilization and differs from product to product. Products from tomato are sterilized
for 30 min at 100  C to destroy the microbiota, which are highly sensitive to acidity
[11]. Vegetables like okra, beans, green peas, etc., having non-acidic nature and
having extra starch, need more severity of the treatment to destroy the spore-forming
microbes.
13 Processing of Fruits and Vegetables 543

13.3.1.4 Important Parameters to Describe the Effectiveness of Heat

1. Decimal reduction time (D-value): The time needed at a given temperature or set
of conditions to achieve a log reduction is referred as D-value. One log reduction
indicates killing of 90% of microorganism. D-value remains the same for each log
cycle. In other words, D-value is the heating time at constant temperature that
results in reducing microorganism by a factor of 10 D-value with a subscript
indicating the temperature.

Mathematically,

t
D¼
log N 0  log N

where D is the decimal reduction time, t is the processing time, and N0 and N are the
number of microorganisms initially and after processing at time t.

2. Thermal resistance constant (Z-value): It is the defined as the change in tempera-

ture required to achieve one log reduction in D-value or temperature change for
one log cycle reduction in D-value that gives Z-value. It can be expressed as

T2  T1
Z¼

log D
D2
1

where D1 and D2 are the decimal reduction time at temperatures T1 and T2,
respectively.

3. F-value: It is defined as the time required to kill a specific microorganism at a

particular temperature. For a process, F-value can be defined as the time in
minutes required to kill a known population of microbes in a food under the set
of specified conditions.

The standard reference temperature is usually set as 121.1  C, and the relative
time (in min) needed to sterilize a particular selected microorganism at 121  C is
referred as the F-value of that microorganism. F-value can be calculated as

F ¼ D ð log N 0  log N Þ

where F and D are the thermal death time and decimal reduction time and N0 and
N are the number of microorganisms initially present and after processing. The
commercial sterility for low acid foods is attained at F-value of 12D, which indicates
12 log reductions in the population of spores per gram. If a low acid food contains
106 spores per gram, it will be reduced to 106 spores per gram.
Further, F-value for a process can also be presented as
544 A. H. Dar et al.

Z t
TR
F zR ¼ 10 Z dt
0

where R is the reference temperature and T is the desired processing temperature. In

the case of processing at constant temperature with time, the equation can be reduced
to
TR
F zR ¼ t
10 z

In the case of self-stable food, F is generally set to 12 D at 121  C, and F 10

121
indicates the time needed for a given microbial spore population reduction at Z-value
of 10  C at 121  C. F0 without a subscript indicates temperature of 121.1  C.
Q1. Concealed tubes contain the same number of spores obtained from a spoiled
food. The food sample is subjected to heating for 12 and 17 min at 118  C,
respectively; the numbers of survivors are 4000 and 120, respectively. The lag
time for heating tube is 0.5 min at the heating temperature.
Solution: The heating times (12 and 17 min) are greater than lag time (0.5 min) at
118  C. As we know,

t
D¼
log N 0  log N

ð17  12Þ 5 5
D¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 3:28 min
logð4000Þ  logð120Þ 3:602  2:079 1:523

Q2. During the thermal processing of the suspension containing spores at 117  C
for 98 s results in a 7-log killing of the spores. To attain the same reduction at 102  C,
20 min is required. Estimate the D- and Z-values for thermal destruction of spores.
Solution: The decimal reduction time at the two temperatures is

98
D117 ¼ ¼ 14 s
7
20
60
D102 ¼ ¼ 171:4 s
7
The Z-value for the process can be expressed as

T2  T1
Z¼

log D
D2
1

102  117 15 

Z¼  14  ¼ ¼ 13:79 C
log 171:4 1:088
13 Processing of Fruits and Vegetables 545

Q3. A pasteurization process is recommended to use reference temperature of

72  C with a Z-value of 8  C. Estimate F-values at reference temperature, if
pasteurization process is operated at temperature of 90  C for 30 s.
Solution: We know that
TR
F zR ¼ t
10 z

9072
F 872 ¼ 30
10 8 ¼ 5334:84 s

13.3.1.5 Drying
A number of techniques are used for the drying of agricultural produce. Sun drying is
one of the important conventional techniques of drying food products and is still
prevalent throughout the world.

Tunnel Drying
Tunnel dryers are widely employed by several food industries due to ease and
versatility. Food of particular size and shape can be dehydrated. Within this process,
trays holding the material are gathered on trolleys that go into the tunnel at one end
and travel through the tunnel and leave at the other end. Hot air passes between the
trays, which contain food materials. Tunnel dryers can also work in co-current,
counter-current, or mixed current manner. The trolleys can move steadily (continu-
ously) throughout the tunnel or the movement might be semicontinuous. In general,
tunnel dryer may be 25 m long with cross-section area of 2
2 m2. The loading of
the vegetables in trays may vary in the range of 10–30 kg/m2.

Spray Drying
It is mostly used for drying of liquid foods and slurries. This method works on the
principle of atomization. The feed is converted into a spray or fine mist in a spray-
forming device called as an atomizer. The size of the droplet varies from 10 to
200 μm; however, larger droplets can also be produced for certain applications. The
spray is brought in contact with hot air in a drying chamber. Due to relatively smaller
droplet size, larger surface area is available for evaporation of the moisture, and
moisture has to migrate relatively shorter distance to the drying surface. Thus, the
drying time takes only 1–20 s. Most of the drying occurs under constant rate
condition. Heat damage is limited, if the particles are eliminated rapidly from the
drying chamber after drying is completed. Thus, spray drying is used to dry heat-
sensitive food products.
In the drying process, air is drawn from the inlet fan and passes through the filter
and then heating unit before entering the drying chamber. The pump brings the
materials from reservoir to an atomizer, which transforms feed into spray and comes
in contact with hot air in the drying chamber, in which drying occurs. The dried
product is removed by the valve and carried pneumatically via duct into a storage
bin. Air subsequently leaves the chamber and moves through separators to recover
the fine powder. The exhaust air from the drying chamber carries with it some fine
546 A. H. Dar et al.

powder that should be removed from air, because it may pollute environmental
surroundings near the plant. Big dry cyclone separators are generally employed,
either singly or even in sets, to handle this process. Powdered dust/particles are
washed out from the air using sprinkler system and reprocessed to the drying
chamber. These devices are referred as wet scrubbers.
The droplet size produced by the atomizer is an important parameter for deter-
mining the efficiency of spray drying. If the droplet size is too large, drying can be
non-uniform. The drying conditions should be in such a way that the bigger droplets
reach the desired level of moisture content. This could possibly make tiny droplets
getting overexposed to the hot air. Size of the droplets may have negative impact on
certain essential characteristics of the dry powder, like its flow and rehydration
characteristics. Atomizers can be classified as centrifugal atomizer, pressure nozzle,
and two-fluid nozzle.
A centrifugal atomizer consists of a disc, wheel, or bowl. The slurry is fed onto
disc close to the middle of its rotary motion. Because of centrifugal force, it moves
toward periphery of the disc and is spun off, in the threads, which splits into tiny
droplets. Disc diameter varies from 50 to 300 mm and revolves at 50,000–10,000
rpm. They produce uniform droplets and are able to handle viscous material without
any blocking or abrasion by insoluble solids.
Feed is pumped at high pressure, 5.0–50.0 MPa through a pressure nozzle that has
a small orifice, having 0.4–4.0 mm diameter. Spinning motion to the liquid can be
produced from the insertion of a grooved core before the orifice. Pressure nozzles
produce uniformly sized droplets, if the pumping pressure is kept steady. However,
nozzle can be blocked by the insoluble solids; therefore, nozzles are mainly used to
handle homogeneous liquids, of relatively low viscosity.
A pneumatic nozzle, also known as two-fluid nozzle, has an annular opening for
the gas, mostly air that exits at high velocity. Feed exits through an orifice, which is
concentric with the air outlet. A venturi effect is produced, which leads to the
transformation of liquid into a spray. The lower feed pumping pressure is needed
as compared to pressure nozzle. The presence of insoluble solids in feed can result in
abrasion or blocking these nozzles also. The uniformity in size of the droplets is
generally lesser by two-fluid nozzle as compared to other two types of atomizers,
when high viscosity liquids are handled.

Freeze-Drying
In this technique, the shelves are cooled to 5  C quickly, which is maintained for
20 min, and temperature again is dropped to 50  C rapidly. The product tempera-
ture reaches to 45  C and high vacuum (0.1 mmHg) is maintained. The primary
drying starts initially and the temperature is brought to 10  C and it took about
65 h. The temperature is increased to 5  C, holding for 5 h and finally to 35  C for 4 h
for the completion of drying. In this technique, sublimation of ice to vapor takes
places without being passed into the fluid phase. The product remains extremely
hygroscopic, better in flavor and taste, and could be reconstituted easily. Orange
juice concentrate, mango pulp, and guava pulp can be dehydrated by this technique.
13 Processing of Fruits and Vegetables 547

Osmotic Dehydration
This phenomenon includes the removal of water from vegetables and fruits, from
lesser concentration of solute to higher concentration via a semipermeable mem-
brane that allows water to pass through till the equilibrium is achieved. In osmotic
dehydration, the solutes used are usually salt (sodium chloride) with vegetables and
sugar with fruit slices. In this process, water flows from vegetables or fruits to
solution, and along with water, certain other compounds of fruits and vegetables
like vitamins, minerals, fruit acids, etc. also move toward the solution. It is basically
a dynamic method, where water and acid are removed at first and then move slowly,
while penetration of sugar is slight at first and rises with the time. Thus, the
properties of the product could be altered by controlling sugar syrup concentration,
temperature, concentration of osmosis solution, and time of osmosis. Osmotic
dehydration is widely used to preserve fruits and vegetables, as it reduces the
water activity. It is preferred over other processes due to better retention of flavor,
texture, color, and nutritional constituents.

13.3.1.6 Canning
Canning is a technique of sealing the food hermetically in cans/containers and
sterilizing them using high temperature for long duration. In 1804, Nicholas Appert
in France designed a method of sealing food items hermetically inside cans as well as
sterilizing. Nicolas Appert is known as the father of canning. Peter Durand, in 1810,
gained the first UK patent of invention regarding canning of food items in tin cans.
William Underwood, in 1817, established canning of many fruits at industrial level
in the USA. Canning process extends the shelf stability of food products and makes
their availability round the year.

Process
Destruction of microbial load within a sealed container by using high temperature is
the fundamental principle for canning. The canning is achieved by filling the food
product in pre-sterilized cans and then hermitically sealing them for long-term
storage. The following flow sheet illustrates the canning method (Fig. 13.1).

Selection of Fruits and Vegetables

• Fresh and dirt-free fruits and vegetables are to be picked up.
• Firm and mature fruits are to be selected. Fruits that are overmatured should be
prohibited because they may be infested by microbes. Unripe fruits should be
omitted because these fruits may usually shrivel.
• Vegetables must be tender excluding tomatoes.
• Vegetables must be fixed, firm, ripe, and deep red in color especially tomatoes.

Grading
The designated vegetables and fruits are categorized as per their color and size to
attain a uniform quality. This can be done manually or by machines like screw and
roller grader. Plums and cherries are sorted whole, whereas mangoes, pears, peaches,
apricots, pineapples, etc. are generally graded after cutting into slices or pieces.
548 A. H. Dar et al.

Sorting and Cleaning

Raw Fruits and vegetables Peeling
grading

Exhausting of Filling in
Cooling Blanching Cutting
filled cans cans

Sealing of cans Processing Cooling Storage

Fig. 13.1 Flow sheet for canning process

Washing
It is essential to eliminate pesticides and filth from vegetables and fruits. One gram of
soil comprises roughly of 1012 spores. Thus, the elimination of microbes by washing
with water is important. Vegetables and fruits can be washed by different methods.
Root crops are washed by soaking in water having 25–50 ppm chlorine. Other
methods of washing consist of steam washing, spray washing, etc.

Peeling
The primary purpose of peeling is always to remove external covering. Peeling can
be done as:

• Hand peeling: It is primarily carried out for erratic fashioned fruits, like papaya
and mango.
• Steam peeling: Peaches are steam peeled in a variety of methods. Tomatoes and
potatoes are peeled using boiling water or steam.
• Lye peeling: Peaches, oranges, apricots, and vegetables, e.g., sweet potatoes and
carrots, are peeled by sinking them in 1–2% hot caustic soda mixture for half a
minute to a couple of minutes depending upon the product. Lye slackens the
surface skin simply by breaking up the pectin. A trace of alkali is eliminated
simply by cleaning with water or sinking for a couple of seconds inside 0.5%
citric acid mixture. It is an instant procedure wherein wastage and cost of peeling
are decreased.
• Mechanical peeling: Mechanical peeling is now carried out to save time and
thoroughly for different fruits such as peaches, apples, cherries, and pineapples
and veggies like turnips, carrot, potatoes, etc.

Cutting
Pieces of desired dimensions are chopped for canning. Core, stone, and seeds are
eliminated. Various berries (plum, etc.) are canned as a whole.
13 Processing of Fruits and Vegetables 549

Blanching
Normally fruits are not blanched; occasionally fruits are reheated for half a minute to
5 min, depending on the variety at 180–200  F in water, followed by cooling by
immersion in cold water. This softens the texture and thus can result in a higher
weight to be pushed in the container without any damage to the fruit. Blanching is
generally accomplished for vegetables simply by dipping in boiling water for
2–5 min and then cooling. The following can be achieved:

a. It deactivates the plant enzymes that may cause discoloration (polyphenol oxi-
dase), mustiness, toughness, off-flavor (peroxidase), nutrient loss, and softening.
b. It reduces the area of leafy vegetables by wilting or shrinkage, which makes
packaging easier.
c. Inside the tissue, it eradicates gases that minimize sulfides.
d. It diminishes microbial population.
e. It improves the color of a number of vegetables like broccoli, peas, and green
spinach.
f. It eradicates saponins in peas.
g. It removes the sharp taste of peel and undesirable acids.

Cooling
Fruit and vegetables are submerged inside cold water after pasteurization for conve-
nient handling and maintaining the natural conditions.

Filling
Metal cans are rinsed by using hot water. Automated can filling equipment are
employed in many countries; however, top-quality fruits are likely to be packed
manually to prevent bruising in some countries.

Exhausting
It is the method of elimination of air from the cans. It is very essential to avoid the pin
holing and corrosion of tinplate during the storage. For exhausting, heating method
is generally used but can also be done by mechanical means. The metal cans are
subsequently moved through a reservoir of heated water having a temperature of
82–87  C for 5–10 min. After exhausting, temperature at the center of the metal cans
needs to be around 79  C.

Sealing
Metal cans are sealed airtight, immediately after exhausting. In the event of glass
containers, a rubber band is positioned in between the lid and hook area of container,
to ensure that it is airtight. The temperature of the can may not be below 74  C during
the sealing process.
550 A. H. Dar et al.

Processing
In the processing, heating or cooling of canned foods is done in order to ensure the
destruction of most heat-resistant bacteria. Temperature and processing time vary
with can size and nature of food.

Storage
After labeling of cans, they must be packed in corrugated cardboard cartons or strong
wooden cases and stored in a cool and dry place.

Aseptic Canning
Aseptic canning is a method where the foodstuff is sterilized separately in the can
and then aseptically placed in pre-sterilized cans followed by sealing in aseptic
conditions. This process is known as Martin aseptic canning, which had been firstly
commercialized in 1950. The process is basically a high-temperature, short-time
(HTST) sterilization technique. It comprises of instant heating followed by rapid
cooling and aseptic product packaging. This process includes four individual steps
and is done one after another within an enclosed coordinated equipment:

a. Product sterilization is done by suitable rapid heating for a specific holding time
and then cooling.
b. Sterilization of can/containers and shelter.
c. Aseptic nourishing of cooled and sterilized product into the sterile containers.
d. Aseptically sealing of the cans under sterile condition (Fig. 13.2).

Food in pumpable Packages

state

Inflow thermal processing Sterilization

(Sterilization, Holding and Cooling)
Aseptic enclosure

Filling in sterile
pouches/ containers

Sealing/ closing

Aseptically
Packaged product

Fig. 13.2 General process for aseptic canning

13 Processing of Fruits and Vegetables 551

Aseptically, sterilization temperature may go to 149  C and the product can be

kept for 1–2 s to retain the quality of the product.

13.3.1.7 Aseptic Processing of Juices

The word “aseptic” is originated from the Greek word “septicos” that means the
absence of putrefactive microorganisms. Aseptic process is actually a heating
technique in which the can and the product are sterilized individually and then
brought together in aseptic environment. It involves all the unit operations such as
pumping, deaeration, and sterilization, followed by holding for a specific period,
then cooling, and finally packaging in a sterilized container. The use of HTST
(as compared to conventional canning) in aseptic conditions yields a high-quality
and shelf-stable product under the ambient conditions.
Aseptic packaging material should be designed as per the product requirements
and compatibility with the product. Physical structural integrity of the package is a
must to maintain the sterility and containment of the product. The package should
protect the product and retain all its quality attributes in its original form to the extent
possible. The most common forms of aseptic packaging are Tetra Pak cartons. Tetra
package possesses six coatings. These types of packages have the ability to survive
for extended time period. These types of cartons are made by three standard
substances, which produce a secure, reliable, and low-weight package. Every mate-
rial executes a specific purpose. These types of materials consist of paper (75%) to
provide rigidity and durability, polyethylene (25%) to manufacture packages fluid
proof and to offer an obstruction to microorganisms, and aluminum foil (5%) to stop
air, light, and off-flavors (https://www.tetrapak.com/en-in/sustainability/planet/
good-for-you-good-for-the-earth/tetra-pak-cartons-recyclable#:~:text¼Tetra%20
Pak%20cartons%20are%20primarily,%2C%20air%2C%20dirt%20and%20
moisture).
The combination of these materials, such as paper, polyethylene, and aluminum
foil, has led Tetra Pak to create a packaging with excellent characteristics. This
packaging gives safe, hygienic, and better retention of nutrients in foods. It preserves
freshness and taste of the product and keeps juices for months without preservatives
and any refrigeration. These packs are lighter in weight. The packed juices and
nectars, to the proportion of nearly 61%, are now packed in Tetra Pak.

13.3.2 Other Processing Techniques

13.3.2.1 High Pressure Processing (HPP)

HPP is an advanced non-thermal food processing technique and offers numerous
advantages such as freshness, minimum damage by heat, and retention of vitamins
and flavor. Moreover, high hydrostatic pressure (up to 700 MPa) can inactivate/
destruct enzymes and microbes responsible for the spoilage of food. Pressure at
500 MPa and 600 MPa can decrease the number of Escherichia coli O157:H7 by 3.5
logs and 5.7 logs, respectively [12]. HPP can sometimes damage the tender tissues of
fruits and vegetables that may affect the quality. Although in treating cut carrot and
552 A. H. Dar et al.

cabbage, the application of 500 MPa can lead to total microbial destruction but
results in change in texture and appearance during the 2-weeks storage [13]. In high
pressure processed vegetables, pathogenic microbes can be eliminated and hardly
cause any profound effect on sensory and nutritional properties. It has also been
observed that the tissue and texture of fresh-cut carrot and tomatoes treated with
500 MPa for 5 min or 400 MPa for 20 min remain unchanged [14].

13.3.2.2 Ultrasonic
Ultrasound process is a rapid, reliable, and nondestructive method, which can be
used in food processing industries to increase the shelf life and other purposes.
Power ultrasound, 20–100 kHz, can be potentially applied to decontaminate fresh
produce. High-power ultrasound can be used as single treatment to destroy the most
resistant microbes. The process of ultrasonication in combination with chlorine can
result in a reduction of 2.7 logs of Salmonella typhimurium in iceberg lettuce and
shredded carrots, which is comparatively greater than ultrasound alone, because it
can help to release the microbes from difficult access locations in the vegetables
[15]. However, the combination of ultrasonic and chlorine can cause destruction of
yeast and molds in shredded carrots more effectively than the chlorine alone [16].

13.3.2.3 Electromagnetic Radiation Microwave processing

Electromagnetic radiation, wavelength of 1 mm to 1 m with a frequency range of
300 MHz to 300 GHz, is known as microwave radiation. The microwave frequencies
of 915 MHz, 2450 MHz, 5.8 GHz, and 24.124 GHz can be used for domestic,
scientific, industrial, and medical applications. Microwaves can be produced by a
device called as magnetron and interact with the material by either ionic conduction
or dipolar rotation. The microwave radiation penetrates food deeper than infrared
radiation (IR); thus, “volumetric heating” is attained with microwaves. The interac-
tion of microwave radiation and food depends on water. Additionally, an inorganic
ion from salts and other constituents of food and ingredients dissolved in food also
interact with microwave.
The major drawback in microwave drying process is the occurrence of cold and
hot spots due to non-uniform electrical field in the cavity and the rapid increase in
temperature with the reduction of water. To overcome such limitations, the material
needs to be in constant motion during microwave processing so that the whole
material gets the same energy and/or low levels of microwave power density. The
temperature of foods can be controlled through the controlled duty cycle, i.e.,
combinations of “on” and “off” cycles for a specific power level.

13.3.2.4 Electromagnetic Radiation Radio Frequency

The radio frequency (RF) band includes the longest wavelengths of electromagnetic
spectrum in the range of 3 kHz to 300 GHz with a wavelength of 1 mm to 100 km,
which also includes microwave radiation. RF radiation, when absorbed, can generate
volumetric heating throughout the material [17]. RF heating is affected by the square
of the applied voltage, frequency, the product dimensions, and the dielectric loss
factor of the material. RF energy can penetrate deep into the food and generates more
13 Processing of Fruits and Vegetables 553

uniform heating as compared to microwave processing and is suitable for heating

large particles [17]. However, RF drying is less common in food industries than
microwave drying. Postharvest disinfestations of fruits, blanching, and microbial
deactivation of liquids are some of the common applications of RF processing.

13.3.2.5 High-Intensity Pulsed Electric Field (HI-PEF)

The treatment of material with a direct current electric field at a strength of 0.5–1.5
kV/cm for a treatment time within micro- to milliseconds to produce uniform drying
but without heating the sample is referred to as high-intensity pulsed electric field
(HI-PEF). This technique has been shown to be effective in increasing the drying
rate of vegetables like carrot [18]. HI-PEF processing depends on the factors like the
number and duration of pulses, field strength, and total treatment time. HI-PEF can
effectively be combined with osmotic dehydration to improve the rate of mass
transfer. The short pulses of electricity are created in food material for inactivation
of microbes. It is a non-thermal processing method, while microwave created heat
through ionic and dipolar radiation of water molecules. Therefore, it triggers lesser-
quality changes.

13.4 Preservation

13.4.1 Cellar Storage

Cellars (underground rooms) are in which products are kept nearly at 15  C. This
low temperature is enough to inhibit the activity of various spoilage-causing
microorganisms or plant enzymes. The decomposition of fresh produce slows
down considerably. Potatoes, apples, onions, root crops, and similar food products
could be stored during the winter season.

13.4.2 Chilling (0–5  C)

The chilling temperatures are achieved using mechanical refrigeration or ice.

Vegetables, fruits, and their products could be well preserved for several days to a
couple of weeks at this temperature. The most effective storage temperature for a
variety of food items is above 0  C; however, this varies with the foods. Addition-
ally, the relative humidity, temperature, and the composition of gases can affect the
shelf life and preservation of food products. Industrial cold stores having proper
ventilation system and automatic control over temperature have become useful for
extending the shelf life of semi-perishable foods like apples and potatoes. This helps
to make these products available throughout the year and cost-effective.
554 A. H. Dar et al.

13.4.3 Freezing (218  C)

In this method, microbial growth is inhibited along with reduction in the chemical
reaction rate. In frozen storage, plant foods should be blanched prior to freezing to
improve and avoid undesirable quality defects. At temperatures less than the freezing
point of water, the microbial growth and enzymatic activity are retarded. The
majority of sensitive food products can be preserved for months, when temperature
is reduced rapidly (quick freezing) and is stored at such temperatures. Food freezing
can be achieved rapidly by:

1. Keeping the produce in touch with the coil springs in which the refrigerant
circulates
2. Keeping inside blast freezer, where colder air blows over the products
3. Sinking in liquid nitrogen

Frozen foods keep their freshness and their quality even after thawing because of
very small ice crystal formation during rapid freezing.

13.4.4 Freezing of Fruits and Vegetables

Under frozen storage, the microbiological growth is prohibited entirely and the
activity of food enzymes is arrested. The freezing rate of food rests upon a number
of features like the temperature, method used, air or refrigerant circulation, shape and
size of the package, type of food, etc. At 18  C, fresh fruits mostly hold excellent
value for a year and 8–12 months in the case of vegetables.
The different freezing methods are discussed below:

13.4.4.1 Slow Freezing

This process was initially employed in 1861 that consists of freezing via air circula-
tion, employing fans. In slow freezing, temperature may vary from 15 to 20  C
and freezing takes nearly 3–72 h. The longer duration of freezing results in large
crystal formation, which causes cell disruption. Therefore, the thawed tissues are
unable to regain their initial structure.

13.4.4.2 Quick Freezing (Rapid Freezing)

In this process, heat is removed so quickly that very little time is there for dehydra-
tion of cells. The maximum ice crystal formation occurs in less than 30 min at 0 to
4  C. This method is responsible for the development of very small ice crystals and
thus causes the minimum disruption to the cell structure. The three quick freezing
methods used for foods are:
13 Processing of Fruits and Vegetables 555

By Direct Contact Systems

Immersion Freezer
The unpacked food material comes in contact with the refrigerant and sharp freezing
takes place. The refrigerant should remain clean, pure, odorless, and nontoxic in
nature, as food material gets direct exposure of refrigerant.
Immersion with Low-Freezing-Point Liquid
Liquids are good conductors of heat. Foodstuffs are directly immersed in a liquid at
lower temperature. Products are frozen using sugar solution, sodium chloride, and
glycerol, which have lower freezing point. The refrigeration liquid remains
unfrozen/in liquid state at 18  C. In this process, there is a close contact between
the refrigerant and food or package, so resistance to heat transfer is reduced. This is
essential with irregularly shaped food pieces to be frozen very quickly like
mushrooms, loose shrimp, and other foods.
Immersion with Cryogenic Liquid
The products like sliced tomatoes, mushrooms, raspberries, and whole strawberries
need rapid freezing. Products are dipped in liquid carbon dioxide/liquid nitrogen in
which temperature is kept below 60  C. When liquid nitrogen is used as refriger-
ant, freezing is accomplished by (1) spraying of liquid, (2) immersion in the liquid,
or (3) circulation of its vapors over the product to be frozen. The liquid nitrogen has
several advantages, viz., lower boiling point for greater heat transfer, spreading all
around irregularly shaped fruits or vegetables, eliminating the need of primary
refrigerant, nontoxic and inert, to reduce the oxidation by removing air from food
material.

By Air Blast (Air Blast Freezing)

This technique refers to the dynamic flow of cold air to freeze the food product. In
this method, the temperature is in between 30 and 45  C and the air velocities are
kept as 10–15 m/s. This method is cheap and a variety of fruits in different shapes
and sizes can be frozen. This process can work as a batch or continuous process.
In continuous process, freezing is performed by placing the products upon trays
or on belt, which are passed through an insulated tunnel comprising cold air within
it. The freezer tunnel may remain simple, multi-teared, and spiral for effective
utilization of space. The uniformity of airflow and direction remain important factors
for designing the system. The direction of material flow may remain in parallel,
counter, and cross flow arrangement. The counter-current arrangement remains
effective than other methods. In the case of batch air blast freezer, air cooler with
fans is fitted in a well-insulated container, and material may be loaded through a
moveable belt or stacked trays in freezing containers. The different designs of air
blast freezers can also be used in indirect contact freezing application.

Fluidized Bed Freezing

This technique is a modified version of air blast freezing. Food is fluidized to make
bed of particles, which is then frozen by passing cold air from the bottom of the
freezer by the belt, which partly lifts or suspends the particles. The depth of the bed
556 A. H. Dar et al.

of particles varies from product to product. Products having a size from pea to
strawberry can be frozen by this method with a depth of 1–5 inches. Corn, peas,
green beans, and French beans are the most common products frozen by this method.

By Indirect Contact Systems

This technique refers to the freezing by the interaction between the produce and a
metallic surface, which is cooled itself by freezing with refrigerating media or with
brine. It is an old technique of freezing in which the food product is placed in
proximity with the channel through which the refrigerant passes.

Plate Freezing
In this technique, food is brought in contact with the cold surface, most commonly
using a metal surface, which is constantly kept cold using a refrigerant. Fruit juices
are frozen using tubular scraped surface heat exchangers. Plate freezing is consid-
ered as an economical method.
Batch Plate Freezers
These freezers handle the material in batches and have horizontal and vertical
arrangements of plates. Horizontal plate freezers have horizontal pockets between
adjacent freezing plates and provide double contact freezing. In horizontal freezers,
the material is loaded on the bottom plate initially; the next upper plates are lowered
for loading till complete loading. Horizontal freezers are used for the bare and the
packed products.
The vertical plate freezers are best suited to the unpackaged products, which are
fed directly between the plates. After freezing, product falls out from the bottom of
the freezer. Rapid rate of cooling is achieved in these freezers, and freezing plates do
not allow bulging of the product, which makes the product suitable for easily
stackable. Horizontal plate freezers are used for freezing chopped vegetables,
ready-made meals, meat pulps, and seafood, while vertical plate freezer are used
for freezing the fish, meats, fruit puree, and liquids. These are commonly available in
250–1800 kg per batch capacity.
Continuous Plate Freezers
The plate freezer handles the material continuously and operates on drum systems or
belt systems. The drum system holds the material between the two rolling plates
through the conveyor belts. In belt freezers, either continuous moving plastic films
are used to convey the material between two stationary refrigerated plates or two
continuously moving stainless steel belts are used to hold the product. The configu-
ration having stainless steel belts does not allow the product in direct contact with
refrigerant evaporator and therefore is not considered as the plate freezer in true
sense. These are usually used for thin or flat product, which require shorter freezing
times.

13.4.5 Innovative Freezing Technologies

Some of the novel freezing technologies are presented in Table 13.2:

13 Processing of Fruits and Vegetables 557

Table 13.2 List of novel freezing techniques and their applications [19, 20]
Name of
S. no. freezing Details Application Advantages
1. Impingement The fluid is directed through Burgers or Freezing times and
freezing a jet or jets at the surface to fish fillet, weight of the
bring a change. Impingement carrot product is reduced
jets, having high velocity
(up to 50 m s1), are used to
break the layer of gas in the
surrounding of the food
product [20]
2. High pressure freezing
(a) Pressure- A pressure range of 100 to Meat, kinu The uniform
assisted 1000 MPa is generally used tofu distribution of
freezing [19]. It is the process in small ice crystals
(PAF) which temperature is lowered can be achieved
to the freezing point of the
sample under constant high
pressure.
(b) Pressure shift In this, temperature is Carrot, Less tissue
freezing reduced below zero degrees potato, damage, smaller
(PSF) centigrade under pressure broccoli, ice crystals, and
and then pressure is quickly strawberry better nutrient
released. Consequently upon retention
releasing the pressure, rapid
nucleation takes place
throughout the food, which
results in uniform,
homogenously distributed
small ice crystals
3. Ultrasound- Ultrasound wave with low Potato, apple, Decreases freezing
assisted frequency (18–20 kHz to strawberries, time, increases
freezing 100 kHz) and high intensity mushrooms, freezing rate
(generally higher than broccoli
1 W/cm2) [21] is used in
ultrasound freezing
4. Pulsed It generates high-voltage Potato, Cell wall structure
electric field intense electric pulses for spinach remains unaffected
(PEF)- extremely short period of leaves, apple and improves the
assisted time in foods placed between freezing process
freezing two conductive electrodes. It
affects the permeability of
cell membranes and
improves the mass transfer
5. Magnetic Very small (<1 milli tesla) Sweet potato, Small ice crystals
resonance– field strengths are used spinach, are formed with
assisted [20]. In this technique, garlic less cellular
Freezing induction coils and damage
permanent magnets are used
to produce a weak magnetic
field in the freezing chamber.
(continued)
558 A. H. Dar et al.

Table 13.2 (continued)

Name of
S. no. freezing Details Application Advantages
This oscillating magnetic
field acts on polarized water
molecules to delay formation
of ice crystals

Table 13.3 List of class I and class II preservatives [23]

Class I preservatives Class II preservatives
Sugar Sulfurous acid
Common salt Benzoic acid
Dextrose Calcium and sodium propionates
Glucose syrup Sorbic acid and its Na, K, and Ca salts
Spices Nitrates or nitrites of K or Na
Vinegar Methyl or propyl parahydroxybenzoate (parabens)
Honey Propionic acids
Edible vegetable oils Lactic acid

13.4.6 Preservation by Chemicals

Preservative Any substance that can prevent, delay, or stop the process of acidifi-
cation, fermentation, or food decomposition from its incorporation is generally
referred to as preservatives. These substances are also capable of preventing and
retarding microbial spoilage in food products. As per the food laws in different
countries, the preservatives are categorized as:

1. Class I preservatives: These preservatives widely include naturally occurring

substances, and there is no maximum limit for their uses under the law.
2. Class II preservatives: These are basically chemical substances incorporated into
the food material. These preservatives being chemical substances have a maxi-
mum limit beyond which these should not be added into different food products.
When two or more preservatives are incorporated into the food material, their
ratio can be calculated proportionally to their maximum limit [22]. Examples of
class I and class II preservatives are given in Table 13.3.

Microbial decomposition of foods can be kept under control by using various

chemical preservatives. The preventive effect arises from their interference and
inhibition to the growth of bacteria as well as enzymatic activity. The weak organic
acids inhibit the fungal and bacterial outgrowth. Sorbic acid also inhibits the
13 Processing of Fruits and Vegetables 559

bacterial growth. The preservative works effectively at lower pH because uncharged

molecules move freely in the plasma membrane and enters the cell. The major
factors associated with the inhibition of growth due to weak acid preservatives are
accumulation of toxic anions [24], membrane disruption [25], inhibition of essential
metabolic reactions [26], stress on intracellular pH homeostasis [27–30], and bio-
chemical reactions. The antimicrobial peptides such as nisin and pediocin are also
used as food preservatives and their mode action is also considered as the disruption
of the cell membrane.
Cordials, crushes, and squashes that are pasteurized possess cooked taste. When-
ever the vessel is unsealed, they spoil and ferment in less time, mostly in tropical
climatic conditions. To evade this specific problem, it is very important to utilize
preservatives (chemicals). Crushes and squashes conserved by chemical
preservatives could be retained for an extended duration even after unsealing the
container. The practice of using chemical compounds is properly regulated, due to
the fact that their unproportionate usage can be detrimental. These chemicals should
not be detrimental to health. The two significant preservative chemicals acceptable in
several nations are:

1. Benzoic acid (include benzoates)

2. Sulfur dioxide (including sulfites)

Benzoic Acid Benzoic acid is considered to be the vital compound in its soluble
form of water. Sodium salts of benzoic acid (sodium benzoate) are mostly used as
preservative. The requirement of sodium benzoate depends upon the nature of the
product and the need to be preserved.

Sulfur Dioxide Potassium metabisulfite is generally employed as the source of

sulfur dioxide. It reacts with the juice and forms potassium salt and sulfur dioxide.
The liberated sulfur dioxide reacts with the water of the juice and produce sulfurous
acid. Sulfur dioxide has detrimental effect against bacteria and mold spores than
yeast and also prevents enzymatic activity. It may act as an antioxidant to retain
carotene, ascorbic acid, and other oxidizable compounds. It can also hinder discol-
oration or non-enzymatic browning of the food material. Its efficiency depends on
the temperature, pH, acidity, and other compounds present in the fruit juice. The
preservatives in fruit juice and beverages as per Food Safety and Standards Author-
ity of India (FSSAI) are given in Table 13.4.
560 A. H. Dar et al.

Table 13.4 Limits for permitted preservatives in fruit juice and beverages [23]
Part per million
Fruit juice/beverages Preservative (ppm)
1.Fruit pulp or juice for conversions into jams and other
products
a. Cherries SO2 2000
b. Strawberries and raspberries SO2 2000
c. Other fruits SO2 1000
2. Fruit juice concentrate SO2 1500
3. Fruit juice, squashes, fruit syrup, crushes, sharbats, SO2 350
cordials, and barley water or 600
Benzoic
acid
4. Sweetened ready-to-serve beverages SO2 70
or 120
Benzoic
acid

13.5 Effect of Processing on Physicochemical Properties

and Quality of Fruits and Vegetables

These processing methods have varying impact on physicochemical properties of

vegetables and fruits and the magnitude of impact largely depends upon the
processing conditions (temperature and time) of product as shown below:

• Conventional methods of processing have a substantial effect on minimizing the

microbiological load and inactivation of undesirable enzymes. However, unde-
sirable changes are induced in texture, color, aroma, pigments, firmness, and
nutrient composition of the fruits and vegetables.
• High drying temperature harms heat-sensitive bioactive compounds, primarily
identified as natural antioxidants with health-promoting benefits (polyphenols,
flavonoids, glucosinolates), reduces the nutritional value (amino acid destruction,
oxidation of fatty acids, protein denaturation), degrades the heat-sensitive
vitamins, and decreases the weight and volume of the produce. However, it
causes a significant reduction in moisture content, restricts the microbial growth,
and increases shelf stability [31].
• High operational process temperature during cooking, boiling, sterilization, pas-
teurization, steaming, and frying causes disruption of surface cells and rupturing
of the plasma membrane and reduces the external resistance to mass transfer [32].
• Osmotic dehydration affects on minerals, vitamins, pigments, phenolic
compounds, and toughness due to leaching out of compounds from produce.
• Fluctuations in freezing rate and temperature during freezing damage the texture
and physical appearance of fruits and vegetables because of the ice crystal
formation and the resultant breakdown of cellular structure, which affects the
quality of produce. Ineffective freezing–thawing process affects on the nutritional
composition and the taste of the product.
13 Processing of Fruits and Vegetables 561

• Thermal processing such as canning is widely applied to increase shelf stability

but affects on firmness and texture due to the disintegration of cells and tissues
because of the high temperature [33].
• Fruits and vegetables undergo serious deterioration in color, flavor, pigments
(chlorophyll, carotenoids, and anthocyanins), and water-soluble compounds dur-
ing processing due to browning reactions and high temperature [28].
• The dehydration of cell takes place during freezing and the amount of damage is
dependent upon the formation of crystal and rate of freezing.
• Structural damage induced by rupturing the cells during slow freezing does not
allow water to be reabsorbed in the cell and contributes to drip loss during thawing.

13.6 Value-Added Products

13.6.1 Pickles

It is the most ancient process to preserve fruits and vegetables. Pickles are excellent
appetizers and enhance the palatability of a meal and increase the flow of gastric
juice, which aids in digestion. Pickling is caused by the fermentation by lactic acid–
forming bacteria that are present in enormous numbers on the fruit and vegetable
surface. Mango pickle ranks first followed by onion, cauliflower, lime, and turnip
pickles. The growth of spoilage microorganisms can be prevented by brine containing
10–12% salt. Figure 13.3 shows the general outlines of pickle preparation.
Mango pickle is prepared using cut mangoes and is popular than any other pickles
especially in South Asia. It is prepared from the mango variety, which can remain
crisp during pickling and storage. However, it can be prepared from any raw mango.
It is served as a condiment with the meals especially in India. The process flow chart
for the preparation of mango pickle is shown in Fig. 13.4.

Selection of Size reduction

Washing
vegetables/fruits using cutters

Pickling (Salt/ Brine (10-12% salt + 1%

Desalting/
vinegar/oil/ Glacial acetic acid +
Freshening
combination) 100ppm KMS)

Add preservative Store at ambient

Packing
(SO2 100 ppm) temperature

Fig. 13.3 General flow chart for pickling process from fruits and vegetables
562 A. H. Dar et al.

Mango
Washing Peeling (Optional)
(Mature, green)

Putting slice
Sprinkling salt Slicing
in jar

Store at ambient
Moisture adjustment Mixing spice temperature (in cool
dry place)

Fig. 13.4 Flow sheet for mango pickle

Cleaning/
Fruits Peeling Pulping
washing

Judging end point (by Addition of Addition of

Boiling
sheet test) citric acid sugar

Storage (at
Filling in hot Capping ambient
Cooling
bottles temperature)

Fig. 13.5 Flow sheet for preparation of jam

13.6.2 Jam

Jam is a produce made by boiling the fruit pulp with an adequate amount of sugar to
a reasonably thick, uniform, and firm consistency enough to keep the fruit tissues in
place. Pear, apricot, sapota (chiku), loquat apple, papaya, plum, raspberry, carrot,
strawberry, mango, muskmelon, grapes, tomato, etc. are used to prepare jams. Jam
can be prepared from one or more fruit. Tutti frutti can be manufactured from fruit
scraping, pieces of raw fruit, and core, which are there in canning industries
(Fig. 13.5). Jam consists of 0.5–0.6% acid and invert sugar mustn’t be raised
above 40%.
13 Processing of Fruits and Vegetables 563

Table 13.5 Specifications for jams, jellies, and marmalades [23]

Product Specifications
Jam/jelly/ • Minimum percentage of prepared fruit in the final product except
marmalade strawberry/raspberry ¼ 45%
• Minimum percentage of prepared fruit in strawberry/raspberry ¼ 25%
• Total soluble solids (TSS), greater than 65%
• Citric/fumaric/L-tartaric/malic/ascorbic acid, GMP
• Artificial sweetener
– Aspartame, maximum 1000 ppm
– Sucralose, maximum 450 ppm
– Sorbitol, maximum 30%
– Aspartame, maximum 1000 ppm
• Preservatives
– Sulfur dioxide (SO2), maximum 40 ppm
– Benzoic acid, maximum 200 ppm
– Sorbic acid, maximum 500 ppm
• Antifoaming agent
– Dimethylpolysiloxane, maximum 10 ppm
– Mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids of edible oils, GMP
• Colors
– Chlorophyll, GMP
– Synthetic, maximum 200 ppm
• Firming agent: calcium chloride (for Jam and jelly only), maximum
200 ppm for use on fruit pieces only
• Natural/artificial flavoring substances, GMP
• Thickening agent (calcium alginates), GMP
Where GMP means “good manufacturing practices” and the food additives can be used under the
following conditions: (1) It should be added in the lowest possible quantity to food to accomplish its
desired effect. (2) The quantity of the additive becomes a component of food as a result of its usage
in processing or packaging. (3) It is handled and prepared in the same way as any other food
ingredient

Problems in jam making involve:

• Crystallization: The finished jam must have 30–40% glucose or invert sugar to
avoid crystallization of cane sugar during storage.
• Sticky or gummy jam: 55 parts of sugar is necessary for every 45 parts of fruit. Due
to the high % of total soluble solids (TSS), jams tend to become sticky or gummy.
• Premature setting: This is because of high pectin content and low soluble solids in
the jam and hence could be avoided by incorporating more sugar.
• Microbial spoilage: Occasionally molds can spoil jams during storage (Table 13.5).

13.6.3 Jelly

Jelly is semi-solid product, made by boiling (at about 105  C), clear, strained
solution of pectin containing fruit extract, free from the pulp, after the incorporation
of acid and sugar till it sets. A perfect jelly must be well set, transparent, but not
stiffer and must possess unique flavor of the fruit. It must be of attractive color and
should keep its shape even when it is removed from the mould. It must be stable
564 A. H. Dar et al.

Boiling with water

Incorporation of
Dicing in (1.5 times the
Cleaning/ citric acid at the
Fruits small weight of fruits
washing time of boiling (2
pieces for about 20 - 30
g per kg of fruit)
min)

End point Incorporatio Test for

determina Boiling n of refined Strainin
pectin (for
tion sugar g of
addition of
extract
sugar)

Removal of
scum or foam Addition of
(edible oil color and
can be Filling Capping Storage
remaining
added) citric acid

Fig. 13.6 Flow sheet for preparation of jelly

enough to keep a sharp edge. It must not be gummy, syrupy, or sticky or have
crystallized sugar. It must be free from dullness, with no syneresis and should have
45% of fruit juice, TSS 65%, and 0.5–0.75% acid.
As per the pectin and acid contents, fruits are grouped as:

1. Rich in pectin and acid: Grape, sour and crab apple, sour guavas, jamun, plum
(sour)
2. Rich in pectin but low in acid: Unripe banana, apple (low-acid varieties), ripe
guava, fig (unripe), pear, sour cheery, peel of grapefruit and orange
3. Low in pectin but rich in acid: Sweet cherry, apricot (sour), sour peach, pineapple,
strawberry
4. Low in pectin and acid: Pomegranate, ripe apricot, raspberry, strawberry, and
various overripe fruit

Important Considerations in Jelly Making

Sugar (65%), acid, pectin, and water are the four vital elements for the jelly. Pectin
test and endpoint of jelly are the significant parameters. The preparation of jelly is
shown in Fig. 13.6.

13.6.4 Pectin

Pectin substances existing in the form of calcium pectate are accountable for the
firmness of fruits. It is considered as an integral part for jelly. Pectin under appropri-
ate conditions forms a gel with acid and sugar.
13 Processing of Fruits and Vegetables 565

13.6.4.1 Pectin Preparation

Pectin is a structural heteropolysaccharide present in the primary cell walls of
terrestrial plants. It is manufactured commercially as a white to light-brown powder.
It can be extracted from citrus fruits or its peel such as passion fruit, lime, orange,
and lemon or from apple “pomace” (material remaining after juice is extracted).
In pectin extraction, peels are cut into thin slices (1cm width) and other fruits are
coarsely chopped. They are added to 8:1 ratio (raw material:water) and heated gently
(simmered) for 20–30 min. This extracts pectin and also removes water to concen-
trate the pectin. However, overheating can degrade the pectin quality and loss of its
gelling power. The extracted pectin can be stored for few days. The peels are then
removed and the pectin solution can be used as an ingredient in various food
preparations such as jam/jelly making. The pectin is extracted under reflux using
acidified water (97 C for 30 min). The pulp is then removed from the acid extract
using cheese cloth as the filtration medium. The filtrate is then cooled (4 C) followed
by precipitation by using twice the volume of ethanol. The mixture (solvent and
precipitate) is then mixed till the pectin floats. Pectin is filtered by cheese cloth or
centrifugation followed by drying, as shown in Fig. 13.7.

13.6.4.2 Determination of Pectin Content

The pectin content of the extract can be estimated by alcohol test and jelmeter test:

1. Alcohol test: In this method, precipitation of pectin with alcohol occurs in a

beaker, one teaspoon of drained extract is obtained, which is cooled down,
followed by three teaspoons of methylated spirit that are added along the side
of the beaker followed by rotating the mixture and then held for several minutes.
(a) An individual, crystal clear mass or coagulum is created in case the extract
consists of significant pectin. An equivalent amount of refined sugar has to be put
into the extract to make jelly. (b) When the extract possesses average amount of
pectin, then the coagulum will likely be less firm and disconnected. Three-fourths
the amount of refined sugar has to be incorporated. (c) If the extract consists of
significantly less pectin, several smaller-sized granular coagula is going to be
developed. One-half the amount of refined sugar has to be included.

Mixing with Precipitation

Citrus peel water & Filtration of pectin using
heating Ethanol

Dry pectin Drying Pectin Centrifuge

Fig. 13.7 Flow chart for pectin extraction

566 A. H. Dar et al.

2. Jelmeter test: In this test, the equipment is hold in the left hand by using the
forefinger and thumb. The base of jelmeter tube is shut with the tiny finger. The
extract is put into the jelmeter using a scoop and held in right hand, till it is stuffed
up to the top. Following this, the tiny little finger is gradually taken off the base
and the extract is allowed to trickle for a moment, and after that, the little finger is
placed back once again. Reading of the jelmeter is determined.

13.6.5 Marmalade

Marmalade is actually a fresh fruit jelly in which pieces of fruits or its peel are
suspended. The word marmalade is generally used for the food products, prepared
from lemons and oranges where the tattered peel is utilized as suspended ingredient.
Marmalades are categorized into (a) jelly marmalade and (b) jam marmalade.

1. Jelly marmalade: The excellent quality of marmalade can be obtained from:

a. Orange (Malta)/mandarin orange/sweet orange, khatta or sour orange (Citrus
aurantium), and galgal (Citrus iimonia) are used in the proportion of 2:1 by
weight. Scraps of Malta orange peel are used.
2. Jam marmalade: The making is similar to jelly marmalade. In this preparation,
whole fruit pulp is used. Sugar is incorporated conferring to the weight of fruit,
usually in the ratio of 1:1. The pulp–sugar mixture is prepared till the TSS content
reaches 65%. The preparation of marmalade is shown in Fig. 13.8.

13.6.5.1 Problems in Preparation of Marmalade

The browning reaction during the storage is a common phenomenon that can be
stopped by using 0.09 g of KMS per kg of marmalade and not filling in tin containers
[35]. KMS is liquefied in a small amount of water, which is then incorporated to the
marmalade while cooling. KMS also assists to stop the decomposition due to molds.
Table 13.6 shows the detailed specifications for jams, jellies, and marmalades laid
down by the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India [20].

13.7 Peeling of Fruits and Vegetables

The removal of peel from fruits and vegetables is one of the important unit
operations for the different value-added products. Peel contains various nutrients
(fiber, antioxidants, vitamins, minerals, etc.); therefore, it can be utilized as
by-product in various food products. The raw apple with skin contains about 1.5
and 3 times more vitamin A and K, respectively; unpeeled boiled potato has 70%
more vitamin C as compared to peeled boiled potatoes.
The different devices and machines used for peeling are described as follows:
13 Processing of Fruits and Vegetables 567

Cutting yellow portion

Peeling outer
into shreds (1.9 - 2.5 cm
Ripe fruits Washing yellow portion
long and 0.8 – 0.12 cm
(Flavedo) thinly
thick)

Boiling (2-3
Cutting of 0.3-0.45 cm
Straining the times its weight
Pectin test thick slices of peeled fruit
extract of H2O for 40-
or crushing into pulp
60 min.)

Cooking to 103-
Addition of (Shredded peel boiled
105° C Addition of
sugar (as per for 10 to 15 min, add @
(Continuous shreds
requirement) 62 g per kg of extract)
stirring)

Cooling (82-
Flavoring 88°C with Judging for end Boiling till jellying point
(Orange oil) continuous point (with continuous stirring)
stirring)

Filling
Storage (room
(sterilized Sealing
temperature)
bottles)

Fig. 13.8 Flow sheet for the preparation of jam/jelly marmalade [34]

Table 13.6 Microbiological limits [23] of food products (jams, jellies, and marmalades)
Microorganism Permissible limits
Mold count Positive in not more than 40.00% of the field examined
Yeast and spores Not more than 125 per 1/60 mm3
Escherichia coli Absent in 1 g/ml
Staphylococcus aureus Absent in 25 g/ml
Shigella Absent in 25 g/ml
Salmonella Absent in 25 g/ml
Clostridium botulinum Absent in 25 g/ml
Vibrio cholerae Absent in 25 g/ml

13.7.1 Knife Peeling

The manual knife is used to peel the skin from fruits and vegetables. The sharp edge
is forced tangentially on the vegetables, which removes the peel in a thin layer. The
effectiveness of peeling is dependent on the sharpness of knife, thickness and
hardness of peel, and expertise of the workers. Turning knife is a flat knife and the
blade is curved to ease the peeling operation. The slotted peeling knife has a thin
568 A. H. Dar et al.

Fig. 13.9 Knives: (i) turning knife and (ii) slotted peeling knife

blade, which is pivoted on the head and base that allows free movement of the blade
on the surface of fruits or vegetables for effective peeling (Fig. 13.9).
The slotted peeling knife performs better than turning knife as one edge slides
over the surface of fruits and vegetable and maintains a thin layer of peel through the
slotted space provided in the knife. While the peel layer in turning knife depends on
the expertise of the worker.

13.7.2 Mechanical Knife Peeling Machine

These machines have circular plate, which is rotated in a clyndirical vessel. These are
used in batch operations and suits well for potato peeling. The peeling of the product
depends on the rotating speed, raw material, and duration of peeling operation. The
removeable blades may be increased/decreased and may differ in size to increase the
efficiency. The peeling effectiveness can also be improved by adjusting the blades.
The drum also have rubbery wall to minimize the bruises and loss. Projection with
small heights on the plates is also provided for providing tumbling action and
controling the thickness of peel (Fig. 13.10). These machines operate with 1 horse-
power motor and are available in 10–20 kg/h capacity.

13.7.3 Abrasive Peeling Machine

The abrasive peeling machine works on the principle of rubbing the surface of fruits
and vegetables with the abrasive surface. The machine has base, which has housing
for motor and related parts necessary for rotating the abrasive plate. The material is
fed into the cylinder (Fig. 13.11(i)). The plate also has projections to provide
tumbling action to the material fed inside the cylinder (Fig. 13.11(ii)). The flow of
water is also provided to remove the torn skin from the cylinder abrasive surface and
13 Processing of Fruits and Vegetables 569

Small blades

Shaft

Projections

Long Blades

Fig. 13.10 Knife disc of mechanical knife peeling machine

Feeding inlet Water jet

Projections
Abrasive Discharge
cylinder outlet Abrasive surface

Shaft

Platform Water
inlet

Fig. 13.11 (i) Abrasive peeling machine and (ii) abrasive disc

make the vegetable surface clean. The effectiveness of the cleaning machine can be
controled by speed of rotation, feed rate, and cleaning time. These are operated with
1–3 hp motors and are available in 5–30 kg/h capacity.
Another version of abrasive peeler has a number of rotating abrasive rollers,
which are arranged in such a way to create a channel (Fig. 13.12). The fruits or
vegetables to be peeled are fed in the channel with rotating rollers, which moves due
to the slope provided. The material gets scratching action and the peeled material is
obtained at the outlet. The speed of operation, slope of rollers, and feed rate affect the
peeling efficiency. These are available in large handling capacity of 3500 kg/h and
can work in continuous operations.
570 A. H. Dar et al.

Fig. 13.12 Abrasive roller

peeler

Unpeeled
potatoes

Abrasive
rotating rollers

Semi-peeled
potatoes

Peeled potatoes

Unpeeled potatoes

Abrasive fixed rollers

Semi-peeled potatoes

Serrated knife fixed rollers

Rotating spiral

Peeled potatoes

Fig. 13.13 Combi (abrasion and knife) peeler

13.7.4 Combination Peelers

The abrasive surface rollers can also be modified to have stainless steel–based sharp-
edged rollers, which provides knife action for peeling the material. The material
peeled by this peeler provides clearer surface than abrasive peeler. The abrasive
surface rollers may remain fixed, and spiral/auger moves the material from inlet to
outlet (Fig. 13.13). The rollers are placed to form a circular drum for movement of
the material. These are compact and have a capacity of about 600–1100 kg/h.
13 Processing of Fruits and Vegetables 571

13.8 Cutting of Fruits and Vegetables Using Knife

The fruits or vegetables should be supported well with the fixed platform and should
remain strong and able to resist the cutting. The failure may occur due to impact or
shear stresses or it can be combination of both. In general, material is compressed,
which induces bending as a deformation initially.

13.8.1 Mechanism

The organic matter has got more flexibility and the molecules have got binding
through weak interactions such as van der Waals forces and hydrogen bonding;
therefore, cutting is a straightforward process. The knife with straight edge blade, in
general, is held perpendicular to the fruits/vegetable surface, and force is applied to
push under the applied force, F. The material starts to deform and indent of
the surface is formed up to the maximum thickness δ till the cutting initiates. The
deformation (δ) may show the plastic or elastic behavior, which depends on the type
of fruits or vegetables. As the knife moves further, a crack is started, and blade
moves into the material, and force is increased till a steady state is obtained. The
length of cut in the material is denoted by h. As the knife is removed from the
material, the deformation (δ) is usually recovered, and effective cut remains equal to
distance h (Fig. 13.14).
The cutting force can be represented using stiffness graph with cutting distance
travelled by the knife (Fig. 13.15). Initially, the stiffness increased up to certain

Fig. 13.14 Cutting force and

strain

F Blade

h
572 A. H. Dar et al.

Stiffness

Force
Stiffness, N/mm

Force, N
A B C D

Blade displacement, mm

Fig. 13.15 Variation in stiffness with distance while cutting a material using knife

stiffness, which is an indicator of increase in force induced for the indentation on the
material (A). After the initiation of the cut, the stiffness remains constant, which
represents a new surface is created due to cut of fruits or vegetables, and almost
similar stiffness is observed in this region (B). Thereafter, stiffness reduces as now
the knife moves ahead to cut the remaining material, while the material surface
regains almost its initial shape, and this indicates a decrease in stiffness (C) till the
steady state of the cutting force is achieved (D).

13.8.2 Knife Effectiveness Parameters

13.8.2.1 Indentation Parameter

This parameter is measured by applying equal amount of stress and measuring the
indentation made in millimeters on specific fruits or vegetables with similar physical
characteristics. The higher value of indentation indicates higher sharpness of knife in
comparison to other knives. This parameter is used by dropping a knife till the
average depth of indentation/depression is achieved.

13.8.2.2 Blade Sharpness Index (BSI) Parameter

This is measured by moving a knife at a constant speed and measuring the force and
can be estimated using the following expression [36]:
R δi
F ðxÞ dx
BSI ¼ 0
δi
J IC
t
13 Processing of Fruits and Vegetables 573

Ei
BSI ¼
δi
J IC
t
where F(x) is the force at the indentation of x, N; δi is the distance from top to the
point of indentation till the cutting initiates, mm; JIC is the fracture toughness of
material, kJ/m2; and t is the thickness of material, mm. The fracture toughness is an
intrinsic property of the material, and it is equal to the amount of energy required to
create a unit area of cut surface. The facture toughness can be estimated by cutting
test in steady state:

ðX  P Þ
u
J IC ¼
Aknife
where X is the force applied during steady-state cutting, N; P is the force applied
during cutting of the material in the second run at the same location of the first cut, N;
u is the distance of indentation, mm; and Aknife is the area of surface in contact, mm2.
The blade sharpness index (BSI) of sharp blades of knife remains smaller than the
blunt blades in a similar set of conditions. Therefore, sharpness of two blades can be
compared for cutting specific fruits and vegetables.
Q4. A sharp knife is used to cut a vegetable; the δi ¼ 2.03 mm, JIC ¼ 3.67 KJ/m2,
Ei ¼ 3.87 N mm, and t ¼ 2.25 mm. Estimate the blade sharpness index of the knife
used for cutting the vegetable.
Ans.

Ei
BSI ¼
δi
J IC
t
3:87
BSI ¼ ¼ 0:231
2:03
3:67
2:25
Q5. A blunt knife is used to cut a vegetable; the δi ¼ 4.07 mm, JIC ¼ 3.67 KJ/m2,
Ei ¼ 9.9 N mm, and t ¼ 2.25 mm. Estimate the blade sharpness index of the knife
used for cutting the vegetable.

Ei
BSI ¼
δi
J IC
t
9:9
BSI ¼ ¼ 0:525
4:07
3:67
2:25

13.8.3 Cutting Device: Knife

A knife is used in peeling, cutting, slicing, and dicing of fruits and vegetables.
Knives are ancient tools known and used by the people from the time immemorial.
Initially, these were fabricated using sharp stone, bones, and stones. Over the period
574 A. H. Dar et al.

Tapered gourd edge knife Granton knife

Serrated knife Scalloped slicer

Single gourd edge Japanese knife Turning knife

Slicing knife

Chinese cleaver

Mezzaluna Pizza cutter

Fig. 13.16 Types of knives for cutting and peeling operations

of time, these are generally made of steel; however, the pattern and styles vary
according to the use or origin (Fig. 13.16) [37].

13.8.3.1 Types of Knife

Tapered Ground Edge Knife

The tapered ground edge knife has a thin and long blade, which is tapped from spine
to cutting edge. This is also known as general purpose knife and is popular in slicing
and chopping of fruits and vegetables.

Granton Knife
This knife has identical oval depression/identical dimples on each side of the knife
blade. It has straight edge similar to the general purpose knife. The air pockets are
formed while cutting of material, which do not allow the material, especially spongy
textured material, to stick on the blade of knife. These work well for moist food
material.
13 Processing of Fruits and Vegetables 575

Serrated Knife
A serrated knife has a number of sharp teeth on the cutting edge of the blade. The
distance between two consecutive teeth may vary according to the requirement. If
the serrations are very close, these appear as V-shaped serrations, and in the case of
distant serrations, these appear as U shaped. The knife has advantages in cutting the
tough skins, e.g., tomatoes, cucumber, breads, etc., for slicing operation.

Scalloped Slicer
These knives are longer than serrated knife and do not have conical tip. The tip is
also not pointed. These blades remain sharp for longer durations. The teeth also help
to protect the cutting edges. These remain ideal for large fruits, e.g., melons, breads,
and cakes.

Single Ground Edge Japanese Knife

These knives are sharp, hard, and brittle. These have supreme edge, which is
protected by the hard spine for providing stability. The cutting edge remains exposed
to the material and provides great strength and stability. These are beveled on one
side only and usually sharpened using waterstones.

Turning Knife
This knife has a short, curved blade and known as peeling blade. This works well in
peeling the round-shaped fruits and vegetables. The tip of the knife is being used for
carving various shapes.

Slicing Knife
These knives are thin with a pointed tip. These are used for cutting slices of cooked
fruits and vegetables. These are also used for slicing cooked or smoked meat,
poultry, and fish.

Chinese Cleaver
Chinese cleavers have large rectangular blades. These are available in various blade
thicknesses. Thin blades are used for fine slicing of vegetables; however, thick
blades are used for butchery. These are used for slicing, chopping, and mincing of
ingredients, e.g., garlic cloves.

Mezzaluna
Mezzaluna has single or double blades and is used to chop the coriander, mint
bunches, and garlic cloves effortlessly. This is preferred for providing tireless
chopping. It has a curved blade, which is used to rock safely to chop the soft and
hard ingredients. Usually, large handles are provided on both sides. More ingredients
can be handled in double-blade-based mezzaluna. These are also preferred for
preparing topping of the food recipes. The cutting is performed by rocking it
backward and forward till the chopping is achieved.
576 A. H. Dar et al.

Pizza Cutter
These are made of stainless steel and are generally popular for cutting pizza
smoothly and swiftly, which provide less contact area with the sticky materials. A
safety ground with handle is usually provided.

13.9 Exercise

1. State the importance of fruits and vegetables in diets.

2. What is the role of blanching in processing of fruits and vegetables? State its
effect on the processing and storage stability of the finished product.
3. What is difference among MTLT, MTST, HTLT, and HTST thermal processing
technologies? Explain in brief.
4. A food is heated up for 20 and 25 min at 110  C. The numbers of survivors are
4600 and 160, respectively. Determine D-value. The prior experiments reported
the lag time as 0.5 min. [Ans.: 3.43 min]
5. D0 value for a microorganism is 1.5 min. What is the heating time required to
reduce given microorganism from 10,000 to 10 at 121.1  C? [Ans.: 270 s]
6. Calculate the processing time required for 12 log cycle reduction of Bacillus
stearothermophilus microorganism at 130  C. The D-values at 121.1  C and
140  C are 1.2 min and 0.02 min, respectively. [Ans.: 2.09 min]
7. F0 for a microorganism is 2.6 min. If each container contains 10 spores having a
D0 of 1.206 min. What will be the possibility of spoilage? [Ans. 7 in 100 cans]
8. Find equivalent process time, at 101  C, which will deliver the same lethality as
the required F121 value of 5 min (Z-value ¼ 10  C). [Ans. 500 min]
9. Write the advantages and limitation of spray drying. Also, explain the working
of spray dryers.
10. Write various processes involved in canning of fruits and vegetables.
11. Draw a flow process for aseptic processing and discuss its advantages.
12. What are advantages of using high pressure processing over thermal processing?
13. Discuss the use of various freezing processes involved in fruits and vegetables.
14. Which chemicals are used for preservation of fruits and vegetables? Discuss
their uses as per FSSAI guidelines.
15. Which changes occurred during processing of fruits and vegetables? Discuss in
brief.
16. Draw process flow diagrams for pickling/mango pickle and explain the process
in detail.
17. What is pectin and how is it prepared from fruits and vegetables? Discuss in
detail.
18. What are the problems faced during the marmalade preparation?
19. Which equipment or tools are used for peeling operation? Explain their working
with a suitable sketch.
20. Discuss the cutting mechanism by a knife and how effectiveness of knives is
being measured.
13 Processing of Fruits and Vegetables 577

21. Estimate the blade sharpness index of the knife used for cutting the vegetable, if
the distance from top to the point of indentation till the cutting initiates is 1.03
mm. Fracture toughness of material ¼ 1.67 KJ/m2, Ei ¼ 2.87 N mm, and
thickness of the material ¼ 3.25 mm. [Ans.: BSI ¼ 0.513]
22. Draw diagrams of various knives used for cutting of fruits, vegetables, and
value-added products and explain their working.

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Websites
https://www.potatopro.com/news/2012/formit-and-ekko-develop-next-generation-combi-and-
knife-peeler
http://en.worldbase.cn/product/Horizontal-plate-freezer-25.html
Food Freezing System: Direct and Indirect|Food Technology|Biotechnology (biotechnologynotes.
com)
https://www.zwirnerequipment.com/blog/what-is-htst-pasteurization/#:~:text¼HTST%20pasteuri
zation%20uses%20stainless%20steel,*%2C%20followed%20by%20rapid%20cooling
Appendix A

Table A1 Selection for the type of bucket elevator according to food material
Bulk density/ Belt/
S. No. Food material kg/m3 chain Type of elevator
1. Baking 800–900 Chain/ Positive discharge or continuous
powder belt
2. Barley 600 Chain/ Positive discharge or continuous
belt
3. Castor beans 580 Chain/ Centrifugal discharge or continuous
belt
4. Coffee 350–510 Chain/ Centrifugal discharge or continuous
belt
5. Corn Chain/ Centrifugal discharge
(a) Cracked 680–720 belt
(b) Sugar 500
(c) Meal 600–640
6. Cotton seed
(a) Dry and 400 Belt Centrifugal discharge
delinted
(b) Dry with lint 290–400
(c) Cracked or 640–720 Belt/
cake chain
(d) Hulls 190 Continuous
(e) Meal 560–640 Chain Centrifugal discharge
(f) Meats 640
7. Flaxseed Belt/ Centrifugal discharge
(a) Cake 780–800 chain
(b) Meal 400
8. Wheat flour 560–640 Belt Centrifugal discharge
9. Ice—crushed 560–720 Chain Centrifugal discharge or continuous
10. Linseed meal 680 Belt/ Centrifugal discharge
chain
(continued)

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 581
Ltd. 2022
H. K. Sharma, N. Kumar (eds.), Agro-Processing and Food Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7289-7
582 Appendix A

Table A1 (continued)
Bulk density/ Belt/
S. No. Food material kg/m3 chain Type of elevator
11. Malt Belt/ Centrifugal discharge or positive
(a) Dry and 320–335 chain discharge
ground
(b) Dry and 430–480
whole
(c) Meal 570–640
(d) Wet and 640–720
green
12. Rice Belt/ Centrifugal discharge
(a) Bran 320 chain
(b) Grifts 670–720
13. Salt Belt/ Centrifugal discharge or continuous
(a) Dry fine 1120–1280 Chain
(b) Dry coarse 720–800
14. Soybean Centrifugal discharge
(a) Cracked 510–580 Chain
(b) Flour 430 Belt
15. Starch 720 Belt Centrifugal discharge or continuous
16. Sugar beet
(a) Dry pulp 170–240 Chain Positive discharge or continuous
(b) Wet pulp 400–720 Chain Continuous
17. Sugar Centrifugal discharge
(a) Raw 880–1040 Belt/
chain
(b) Refined 800–880 Belt/
chain
18. Wheat— 640–720 Belt/ Centrifugal discharge
cracked chain
Reference: Indian Standards (1974). Code for selection and use of bucket elevators, IS 7167: 1974,
Indian Standard Association, New Delhi, India
Table A2 Type of buckets, specifications, and recommended applications
Bucket L (mm)  P (mm)  Capacity,
designation Design/description D (mm) liters Recommended application Elevator type
Appendix A

A1 L 150  95  100 to 1000  0.87– Powdered, free flowing material Centrifugal and
P
65°
250  260 36.50 positive discharge
D 90°

A2 L 150  100  110 to 1000 0.87–38.0 Pulp and chemicals Centrifugal and
P
65°
 255  270 positive discharge
D
75°

A3 L 150  90  130 to 410  0.71–6.80 Wet and sticky material or coarsely Centrifugal and
P
165  230 broken food material positive discharge
65°

87°30'

A4 P L 150  115  100 to 410  0.735– Sugar, salt, and pulverized material Centrifugal and
180  140 4.470 positive discharge
D

35°

B1 L P
150  75  145 to 610  0.81–41.0 Pulverized and sluggish material on Continuous
300  460 inclined elevators
D
35°

B2 L P
150  75  145 to 610  0.81–41.0 Average material for vertical Continuous
300  460 elevating
D
45°
583

(continued)
Table A2 (continued)
584

Bucket L (mm)  P (mm)  Capacity,

designation Design/description D (mm) liters Recommended application Elevator type
B3 L 150  75  145 to 610  0.93–48.6 Material with large lumps Continuous
P
300  460

D
30°
30°

0.75P

B4 L P
150  75  145 to 610  0.81–41.0 Not more than 70 inclination from Continuous
300  460 horizontal

D
30°

Where L length, W width, P projections

Reference: Indian Standards (1973). Specification for bucket and bucket elevators, IS 6883: 1973, Indian Standard Association, New Delhi, India
Appendix A