08 Cis1103 Formal Logic P2

CIS 1103
DISCRETE STRUCTURES 1
FORMAL LOGIC
PART 2
MORE CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
 Recall:
 Conditional statement: If p, then q: p → q
 Converse: Reverse of the conditional statement

 Converse: If q, then p: q → p
 Inverse: Negation of the conditional statement

 Inverse: If not p, then not q : ¬ p → ¬ q
 Contrapositive: Negation of the converse

 Contrapositive: If not q, then not p: ¬ q → ¬ p
MORE CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
 Facts:
1. Implication and contrapositive are equivalent. [p → q = ¬q → ¬p ]
2. Converse and inverse are equivalent. [q → p = ¬ p → ¬ q]
3. Neither converse nor inverse is equivalent to implication.
Truth Table
p q ¬p ¬q p→q q→p ¬q → ¬p ¬p → ¬q
T T F F T T T T
T F F T F T F T
F T T F T F T F
F F T T T T T T
MORE CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS: EXAMPLE
Given:
Consider the statement “If it rains today, then I will stay at home”
Tasks:
1. Find the p proposition and q proposition.
2. Find the converse of p → q : q → p.
3. Find the contrapositive of p → q : ¬ q → ¬ p.
4. Find the inverse of p → q : ¬ p → ¬ q.
LOGIC OPERATORS: BICONDITIONAL (↔)
 Let p and q be propositions.

The biconditional statement p ↔ q is the proposition “p
if and only if q.”
 The biconditional statement p ↔ q is True when p and q

have the same truth values, and is False otherwise.
 Biconditional statements are also called bi-implications.

LOGIC OPERATORS: BICONDITIONAL (↔)
Truth Table
p q p↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
BICONDITIONAL STATEMENT: EXAMPLE
Given:
Let p be a proposition “You get promoted” and let q be a proposition

“You have connections”
Tasks:
a) Determine the p ↔ q of the given propositions.
b) Determine the four cases that can be formulated from p ↔ q and
give the corresponding truth values for each case.
c) Identify the important implications of p ↔ q.
PRECEDENCE OF OPERATORS
Operator Precedence
¬ 1
Λ 2
V 3
→ 4
↔ 5
PRECEDENCE OF OPERATORS: EXAMPLES
1) ¬p Λ q means (¬p) Λ q
2) p Λ q → r means (p Λ q) → r
LOGICAL OPERATORS IN C
Operator Meaning Example
&& Logical AND. If c = 5 and d = 2, then expression

True only if all operands are true. ((c == 5) && (d > 5)) equals 0.
Logical OR. If c = 5 and d = 2, then expression
|| True only if either one operand is true. ((c == 5) || (d >5)) equals to 1.
Logical NOT. If c = 5, then expression
! True only if the operand is 0. !(c == 5) equals to 0.
LOGICAL FORMULAS TO ENGLISH SENTENCES
 Compound propositions:
 Logical formulas that can be constructed

using the logical operators or connectives.
LOGICAL FORMULAS TO ENGLISH SENTENCES: EXAMPLE
Given:
Consider the following propositions:
Proposition p: Alice is smart.
Proposition q: Alice is honest.
Logical formulas:
a) ¬p Λ q
b) p v (¬p Λ q)
c) p → ¬q
Task:
Translate each logical formula into an English sentence
TRUTH TABLE
 It is a visual tool, in the form of a diagram with rows & columns,

that shows the truth or falsity of a compound premise.
 In logic, it is a chart that shows the truth value of one or more

compound propositions for every possible combination of truth
values of the propositions making up the compound ones.
 It can be used to test the validity of arguments.
 Every proposition is assumed to be either true or false and the

truth or falsity of each proposition is said to be its truth value.
TRUTH TABLE
 Each row of the table represents a possible combination of truth

values for the compound propositions of the compound, and
there should be enough rows to cover all possible
combinations.
 If the compound contains just two component propositions,

there will be four possibilities and thus four rows to the table.
 The truth value of the compound is indicated on each row under

the truth functional operator.
TRUTH TABLE: EXAMPLE 1
Given:
Consider the following compound proposition:
(p v ¬q) → (p Λ q).
Task:
Construct the truth table of the compound proposition.
TRUTH TABLE: EXAMPLE 2
Given:
Consider the following statement:
(¬ p Λ ¬ q) v (r Λ q) .
Task:
Construct the truth table of the compound statement.
DE MORGAN’S LAWS
 Statement 1:
The negation of an AND proposition is logically equivalent to
the OR proposition in which each component is negated.
Symbolically: ¬(p Λ q) ≡ ¬p v ¬q
 Statement 2:
The negation of an OR proposition is logically equivalent to
the AND proposition in which each component is negated.
Symbolically: ¬(p v q) ⇔ ¬p Λ ¬q)
DE MORGAN’S LAWS: EXAMPLE
Given:
Consider the following De Morgan’s Laws:
1. ¬(p Λ q) ≡ ¬p v ¬q
2. ¬(p v q) ⇔ ¬p Λ ¬q
Task:
Construct the truth table that will show the proof that each of the
De Morgan’s Laws is true.
DE MORGAN’S LAWS: IMPORTANT NOTES
 De Morgan's Laws describe how mathematical

statements and concepts are related through their
opposites.
 In set theory, De Morgan's Laws relate the

intersection and union of sets through complements.
DE MORGAN’S LAWS: IMPORTANT NOTES
 In propositional logic, De Morgan's Laws relate conjunctions

and disjunctions of propositions through negation.
 De Morgan's Laws are also applicable in computer

engineering for developing logic gates.
 Interestingly, regardless of whether De Morgan's Laws apply to

sets, propositions, or logic gates, the structure is always the
same.
TAUTOLOGY
 It is a statement form where its truth values in all rows in

the truth table are always true.
 It is a proposition form that is always true regardless of

the truth values of the individual propositions substituted
for its proposition variables.
 Note:
 A proposition whose form is a tautology is called a
tautological proposition.
TAUTOLOGY: EXAMPLE
Given:
[(A→B) ∧ A] → B
Task:
Determine if the given statement above is a tautology
using truth table.
CONTRADICTION
 It is a statement form where its truth values in all rows in the truth
table are always false.
 It is a proposition form that is always false regardless of the truth

values of the individual propositions substituted for its proposition
variables.
 Note:
A proposition whose form is a contradiction is called a
contradictory proposition.
CONTRADICTION: EXAMPLE
Given:
(A ∨ B) ∧ [(¬A) ∧ (¬B)]
Task:
Determine if the given statement above is a contradiction
using truth table.
CONTINGENCY
 It is a statement form that is neither tautology nor

contradiction.
 It is a formula which has both some true and some

false values for every value of its propositional
variables.
CONTINGENCY: EXAMPLE
Given:
(A ∨ B) ∧ (¬A)
Task:
Determine if the given statement above is a
contingency using truth table.
LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE
 Two compound propositions p and q are logically equivalent if

their truth tables are the same.
 Namely, p and q are logically equivalent if p ↔ q is a tautology.
 If p and q are logically equivalent, we write p ≡ q.
 p ≡ q if and only if p ↔ q is a tautology.

LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE: EXAMPLE 1
Given:
Consider the following two compound propositions:
p → q and q v ¬p
Tasks:
a) By using truth table, prove that the two compound
propositions are logically equivalent.
b) Using the same truth table, prove that the bi-implication of
the two given compound propositions is a tautology.
LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE: EXAMPLE 2
Given:
Consider the following two compound propositions:
p ⊕ q and ¬(p ↔ q)
Tasks:
a) By using truth table, prove that the two compound
propositions are logically equivalent.
b) Using the same truth table, prove that the bi-implication of
the two given compound propositions is a tautology.
LOGIC EQUIVALENCES
Given any statement variables p, q, and r, a tautology t and a
contradiction c, the following logical equivalences hold.
1. Commutative Laws: p  q  q  p and p  q  q  p

2. Associative Laws: (p  q)  r  p  (q  r) and
(p  q)  r  p  (q  r)
3. Distributive Laws: p  (q  r)  (p  q)  (p  r) and
p  (q  r)  (p  q)  (p  r)
4. Identity Laws: p  t  p and p  c  p
5. Negation Laws: p  ~p  c and p  ~p  t
LOGIC EQUIVALENCES
6. Double Negative Law: ~(~p)  p

7. Idempotent Laws: p  p  p and p  p  p
8. De Morgan’s Laws: ~(p  q)  ~p  ~q and
~(p  q)  ~p  ~q
9. Universal Bound Laws: p  c  c and p  t  t
10. Absorption Laws: p  (p  q)  p and
p  (p  q)  p
11. Negation of t and c ~t  c and ~c  t
LOGIC EQUIVALENCES: EXAMPLE 1
Use the Logical Equivalence Laws to verify if the following is a
logical equivalence (simplifying statement forms):
~(~p  q)  (p  q )  p
Solution:
~(~p  q)  (p  q )  (~(~p)  ~q)  (p  q ) by De Morgan’s laws
 (p  ~q)  (p  q ) by the double negative law
 p  (~q  q ) by the distributive law
 p  ( q  ~q ) by the commutative law
 pc by the negation law
 p by the identity law
PAIRWISE: EXERCISE 1
A logical equivalence is derived using the Logical Equivalence Laws.
Supply a reason for each step.
1) (p ~q)  (p  q)  p  (~q  q) by (a)
 p  (q  ~q) by (b)
 pt by (c)
 p by (d)
Therefore, (p ~q)  (p  q)  p.
2) (p ~q)  (~p  ~q)  (~q  p)  (~q  ~p) by (a)
 ~q  (p  ~p) by (b)
 ~q  c by (c)
 ~q by (d)
Therefore, (p ~q)  (~p  ~q)  ~q.
ASSIGNMENT
Use Logical Equivalence Laws to verify the logical equivalences
of the following:
1) (p  ~q)  p  p
2) p  (~q  p)  p
3) ~(p  ~q)  (~p  ~q)  ~p
4) ~((~p  q)  (~p  ~q))  (p  q)  p
5) (p  (~(~p  q)))  (p  q)  p
Reflection: In not more than 5 sentences, write your comments regarding

the complexity or significance of the assignment. Did you answer it
independently? or needed help and from whom?
MORE PRACTICE: EXERCISE 2
Use Logical Equivalence Laws to verify the logical equivalences

of the following:
1) (p  ~q)  q  p  q
2) ~p  (p  q)  ~p  q
3) [ ~ (p  q)  (p  q)]  T
4) ~ (p  (~p  q))  (~p  ~q)
LOGICAL EQUIVALENCES

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CIS 1103

 Converse: Reverse of the conditional statement

 Inverse: Negation of the conditional statement

 Contrapositive: Negation of the converse

 Let p and q be propositions.

 The biconditional statement p ↔ q is True when p and q

 Biconditional statements are also called bi-implications.

Let p be a proposition “You get promoted” and let q be a proposition

Operator Meaning Example

&& Logical AND. If c = 5 and d = 2, then expression

 Logical formulas that can be constructed

 It is a visual tool, in the form of a diagram with rows & columns,

 In logic, it is a chart that shows the truth value of one or more

 It can be used to test the validity of arguments.

 Every proposition is assumed to be either true or false and the

 Each row of the table represents a possible combination of truth

 If the compound contains just two component propositions,

 The truth value of the compound is indicated on each row under

 De Morgan's Laws describe how mathematical

 In set theory, De Morgan's Laws relate the

 In propositional logic, De Morgan's Laws relate conjunctions

 De Morgan's Laws are also applicable in computer

 Interestingly, regardless of whether De Morgan's Laws apply to

 It is a statement form where its truth values in all rows in

 It is a proposition form that is always true regardless of

 It is a proposition form that is always false regardless of the truth

 It is a statement form that is neither tautology nor

 It is a formula which has both some true and some

 Two compound propositions p and q are logically equivalent if

 Namely, p and q are logically equivalent if p ↔ q is a tautology.

 If p and q are logically equivalent, we write p ≡ q.

 p ≡ q if and only if p ↔ q is a tautology.

1. Commutative Laws: p  q  q  p and p  q  q  p

6. Double Negative Law: ~(~p)  p

Reflection: In not more than 5 sentences, write your comments regarding

Use Logical Equivalence Laws to verify the logical equivalences

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