Module 1

I Cement
Definition:
Cement is a binder, a substance used in building that binds other materials together by setting,
hardening, and adhering to them. It has cohesive and adhesive properties in the presence of water.
It is a product obtained by grinding clinker made by calcining raw materials consisting mainly
of lime (CaO), silicates (SiO2), alumina (Al2O3), and iron oxides (Fe2O3).
Manufacture of Cement:
The manufacture procedures of Portland cement is described below.
1. Mixing of raw material
2. Burning
3. Grinding
4. Storage and packaging
1. Mixing of raw material
The major raw materials used in the manufacture of cement are Calcium, Silicon, Iron and
Aluminum. These minerals are used in different form as per the availability of the minerals.
Table shows the raw materials for Portland cement manufacture

The mixing procedure of the manufacture of cement is done in two methods,

i) Dry process
ii) Wet process
a) Dry Process
⮚ The both calcareous and argillaceous raw materials are firstly crushed in the crushers to
get 2-5cm size pieces separately. The crushed materials are again grinded to get fine
particles into ball or tube mill.
⮚ Each finely grinded material is stored in hopper after screening.
⮚ Now these powdered minerals are mixed in required proportion to get dry raw mix.
⮚ Which is then stored in silos and kept ready to be sent into rotary kiln.
⮚ Now the raw materials are mixed in specific proportions so that the average composition
of the final product is maintained properly.
 Fig: Manufacture of Cement by Dry Process
b) Wet Process
⮚ The raw materials are firstly crushed and made into powdered form and stored in silos.
⮚ The clay is then washed in washing mills to remove adhering organic matters found in clay.
⮚ The powdered limestone and water washed clay are sent to flow in the channels and transfer
to grinding mills where they are completely mixed and the paste is formed, i.e., known as
slurry. The grinding process can be done in ball or tube mill or even both.
⮚ Then the slurry is led into collecting basin where composition can be adjusted. The slurry
contains around 38-40% water that is stored in storage tanks and kept ready for the rotary
kiln.

Fig: Manufacture of Cement by Wet Process

2. Burning of Raw Materials
The burning process is carried out in the rotary kiln while the raw materials are rotated at 1-2rpm
at its longitudinal axis.
The raw mix of dry process or corrected slurry of wet process is injected into the kiln from the
upper end. The kiln is heated with the help of powdered coal or oil or hot gases from the lower end
of the kiln so that the long hot flames is produced.
As the kiln position is inclined and it rotates slowly, the material charged from upper end moves
towards lower end at the speed of 15m/hr. In the upper part, water or moisture in the material is
evaporated at 400oC temp, so this process is known as Drying Zone.
The central part i.e. calcination zone, the temperature is around 10000C, where decomposition of
lime stone takes place. The remaining material is in the form of small lumps known as nodules
after the CO2 is released.
 CaCO3 = CaO + CO2
The lower part (clinkering zone) have temperature in between 1500-17000C where lime and clay
are reacts to yielding calcium aluminates and calcium silicates. This aluminates and silicates of
calcium fuse to gather to form small and hard stones are known as clinkers. The size of the clinker
is varies from 5-10mm.
The lower part i.e. clinkering zone has the temperature around 1500-1700C. In the region lime and
clay reacts to yield calcium aluminates and calcium silicates. This products of aluminates and
silicates of calcium fuses together to form hard and small stones known as clinkers. The size of
the small and hard clinkers varies from 5 to 10mm.
2CaO + SiO2 = Ca2SiO4 (declaim silicate (C2S))
3CaO + SiO2 = Ca3SiO5 (tricalcium silicate (C3S))
3CaO + Al2O3 = Ca3Al2O6 (dicalcium aluminate (C2A))
4CaO + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 = Ca4Al2Fe2O10 (tetracalcium aluminoferrite(C4AF))
The clinker coming from the burning zone are very hot. To bring down the temperature of clinkers,
air is admitted in counter current direction at the base of the rotary kiln. The cooled clinkers are
collected in small trolleys.
3. Grinding of Clinkers
The cooled clinkers are received from the cooling pans and sent into mills. The clinkers are grinded
finely into powder in ball mill or tube mill. Powdered gypsum is added around 2-3% as retarding
agent during final grinding. The final obtained product is cement that does not settle quickly when
comes in contact with water.
After the initial setting time of the cement, the cement becomes stiff and the gypsum retards the
dissolution of tri-calcium aluminates by forming tricalcium sulfoaluminate which is insoluble and
prevents too early further reactions of setting and hardening.
3CaO.Al2O3 + xCaSO4.7H2O = 3CaO.Al2O3.xCaSO4.7H2O
4. Storage and packaging
The grinded cement is stored in silos, from which it is marketed either in container load or 50kg
bags.

Oxides composition of cement

Four main oxides present in ordinary Portland cement are CaO,Al2O3,SiO2 and Fe2O3. The other
ingredients are Magnesium Oxide MgO, Alkalis Na2O, K2O, P2O5, Sulphur Trioxide SO3.
Oxide Composition of Typical OPC
Oxide Composition (%)
CaO 63
SiO2 20
Al2O3 6
Fe2O3 3
MgO 1.5
Na2O K2O 1
SO3 2
Others 1

Bogue’s compound
The major compounds of cement formed after the burning of the materials in the kiln form clinker
of cement. These compounds can set and harden in the presence of water.
These were mainly identified by Bogue. Hence, these major compounds are also called Bogue’s
compounds. They are
1) Tricalcium silicate (C3S) - 3 CaO.SiO2
2) Dicalcium silicate (C2S) - 2 CaO.SiO2
3) Tricalcium aluminate(C3A) - 3 Al2O3.SiO2
4) Tetracalcium aluminoferrite(C4AF) - 4 Al2O3.Fe2O3
Name of Formula Abbreviation Common Name Usual Range by
Compound Weight
Tricalcium 3 CaO.SiO2 C3 S alite 45-60
silicate
Dicalcium 2 CaO.SiO2 C2 S belite 15-30
silicate
Tricalcium C3A - 6-12
3 Al2O3.SiO2
aluminate
Tetracalcium 4 Al2O3.Fe2O3 C4AF ferrite 6-8
aluminoferrite

Major Compounds of Cement, Their Common Name, and Approximate Weight Range
Bogue’s Compound Composition (%)
C3S 54
C2S 16.6
C3A 10.8
C4AF 9.1

Four main compounds of cement are called Bogue’s compounds.

Tricalcium silicate
● It can be considered as the best cementing material.
● It makes the clinkers of cement easy to grind
● It increases the resistance to freezing and thawing
● As it hydrates in the early phase, it provides early strength to the cement
● Its hydration and character of gel developed causes hardness in cement along with 7-day
strength of cement
● Increasing its content beyond the specified limits may increase the heat of hydration to a
great extent and also increase the solubility of cement in water
Dicalcium silicate
● Its hydration takes time, so hardening occurs in later phase
● The strength is developed after a year or so
● It provides resistance to chemical attack
● Increasing its content makes grinding of clinkers difficult, decreases early strength and heat
of hydration
● After a year, the contribution of C2S to the strength and hardness is almost equal to that of
the C3S
● Together comprises 70-80 % of cement compounds. Most of the strength of cement isderived
from these two compounds only. Upon hydration, they give C 3S2H3 & Ca(OH)2. But C3S
gives early strength while C2S is responsible for ultimate strength.
 Contribution of Cement Compounds to the Strength of Cement
Tricalcium aluminate
● It can react with water quickly
● It causes flash setting of finely ground clinker by immediate stiffening of cement paste. To
prevent this, 2-3 % gypsum is added at the time of grinding of cement
● It is accountable for initial setting, high heat of hydration, and volumetric changes; thus it is
the cause for cracking
● Increasing its content reduces setting time, resistance to sulphate attack, ultimate strength,
and heat of hydration
Tetracalcium aluminoferite
● It is also responsible for flash set of cement along with C 3A, but it generates less heat.
● Its cementing value is the least of all
● Increasing its content reduces the strength

Calculation of compounds

Heat of hydration
The Chemical reaction that takes place between cement and water is called as hydration of cement.
This reacion is exothermic in nature, due to which considerable amount of heat is released during
hydration of cement. This is called as ‘heat of hydration’.
When water is mixed with anhydrous cement compounds, they form hydration compounds.
Products formed by hydration have low solubility.
Products of Cement Hydration
The products of hydration of cement are:
● calcium silicate hydrates
● calcium hydroxide
● calcium aluminate hydrates
Calcium Silicate Hydrates (C-S-H gel)
Calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H gel) is formed during the reaction of C 3S and C2S with water.
Calcium Hydroxide
Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) is formed during the reaction of C3S and C2S with water.
Calcium hydroxide is not a desirable product in concrete mass as it is soluble in water and gets
leached out thereby making the concrete porous, particularly in hydraulic structures, thus
decreasing the durability of concrete. Calcium hydroxide also reacts with sulphates present in
water and soils to form calcium sulphate which further reacts with C3A and causes deterioration
of concrete. This process is known as Sulphate Attack.
The only advantage of calcium hydroxide is that, being alkaline in nature it maintains a high pH
value in concrete which resists the corrosion of reinforcement.
Calcium Aluminate Hydrates
Calcium aluminate system (CaO-Al 2O3-H2O) is formed upon the hydration of aluminates.

Heat of hydration can be defined as the quantity of heat evolved in joules per gram of cement upon
complete hydration at a particular temperature. The heat of hydration reaction is not an
instantaneous reaction. The reaction is faster in the earlier stage and it continues indefinitely at a
decreased rate.
Compound Heat of Hydration
J/g Cal/g
C3S 502 120
C2S 260 62
C3A 867 217
C4AF 419 100

Heat of Hydration of Different Cement Components

It can be noted from the above table that C 3A gives the highest heat of hydration. The major
compounds in the sequence of the liberation of the heat of hydration are as follows:
C3A > C3S > C4AF > C2S
Importance of Heat of Hydration
● Control of heat of hydration is particularly important in mass concreting as in concrete dam
construction.
● The temperature at the inside of the concrete mass is 50 times more than that of the original
temperature at the time of placing of concrete. it continues to remain so for a prolonged time.
● Hence, the study of the heat of hydration and its control measures is important.
● Heat of hydration is desirable in cold weather concreting when the ambient temperature is too
low to activate the hydration reactions.
Rate of Hydration of Cement
Heat liberation after the setting of cement is described in the graph below:
Types of cement
1. OPC – Ordinary Portland Cement
2. RHC – Rapid Hardening Cement
3. Low heat cement
4. PPC – Portland Pozzolana Cement
5. PSC – Portland Slag Cement
6. Sulphate resisting cement
7. High Alumina Cement
8. Expansive cement
9. White cement
OPC or Ordinary Portland Cement-
1) Definition: Ordinary portland cement is a cementing material obtained by fine grinding of
portland clinkers with a little amount of gypsum to adjust the setting time and prevent flash setting.
2) Physical Characteristics of Ordinary Portland Cement:
1. Fineness
It is a measure of the size of cement particles.
It is expressed in terms of the specific surface of cement
2. Setting Time
Setting time of cement is related to the plasticity of cement paste.
Initial setting time is the time at which cement paste starts losing plasticity. While final setting
time is the time at which the cement loses its plasticity completely.
3. Compressive Strength
It is the compressive strength of cement at the end of 28 days. It is an important measure based
on which cement is graded.
4. Density
The bulk density of OPC varies considerably depending on how it is stored and handled as voids
are considered in it.
The value of bulk density of ordinary portland cement lies between 830 to 1650 kg/m 3
5. Specific Gravity
Specific gravity of OPC with voids is around 3.15.
6. Soundness of cement
Some constituents in cement undergo expansion after the setting of cement. This is an undesirable
phenomenon as the expansion of constituents after setting may cause cracks in the cement.
The cement exhibiting expansion of its constituents is unsound cement.
For OPC, the Le Chattelier value should not be more than 10 mm while the Autoclave value should
not be more than 0.8 %.
3) Classification
Classification of cement as per IS: 10262
a) Ordinary Portland Cement 33 Grade
For OPC grade 33 cement, the compressive strength should not be less than 33 N/mm2 at28 days.
b) Ordinary Portland Cement 43 Grade
43 grade Ordinary Portland Cement has a minimum compressive strength of 43 N/mm 2 at 28 days.
c) Ordinary Portland Cement 53 Grade
53 grade Ordinary Portland Cement has a minimum compressive strength of 53 N/mm 2 at 28 days.
4) Advantages of Ordinary Portland Cement
1. It has great resistance to cracking and shrinkage but has less resistance to chemical
attacks.
2. Initial setting time of OPC is faster than PPC so it is recommended in projects where props
are to be removed early.
3. Curing period of OPC is less than PPC and curing cost reduces. Hence recommended where
curing cost prohibitive.
5) Disadvantages of Ordinary Portland Cement
1. It cannot be used for mass concreting as it has high heat of hydration as compared to PPC.
2. The durability of concrete made using OPC is less than that of the concrete made using
PPC.
3. It produces comparatively less cohesive concrete than PPC, hence concrete pumping becomes
a little difficult.
4. OPC has lower fineness, hence has higher permeability and as a result it has lower
durability.
5. OPC is costlier than PPC.
6) Uses of Ordinary Portland Cement
1. It is used for general construction purposes where special properties are not required such
as reinforced concrete buildings, bridges, pavements, and where soil conditions are normal.
2. Used for most of concrete masonry units

Portland Pozzolana Cement or PPC –

Portland Pozzolana cement is integrated cement which is formed by synthesising OPC cement
with pozzolanic materials in a certain proportion. It is commonly known as PPC cement.
Properties of Portland Pozzolana Cement
● Initial setting time = 30 min (minimum)
● Final setting time = 600 min (maximum).
● At 3 days 13MPa (minimum)
● At 7 days 22 MPa (minimum)
● At 28 days 33 MPa (minimum)
● Drying shrinkage should not be more than 0.15%
● Fineness should not be less than 300 m2/kg
● Initial strength of PPC is less but final strength is equal to the 28 days strength of OPC
● PPC has lower rate of development of strength than OPC
Advantages of Portland Pozzolana Cement
● it is an eco-friendly cement as the material used in the manufacture are made of natural
recycled waste.
● It is very fine cement hence very good when used for plastering works.
● Pozzolano consists of silica material which makes it cheap and hence reduces the cost of
the cement making it economical to use.
● Pozzolana cement has very good resistance against sulphate attack hence is used in
hydraulic structures, marine structures, construction near the sea shore, dam
construction etc.
● PPC used in pre-stressed and post-tensioned concrete members.
● It reduces the carbon monoxide emission from the concrete making it environmental
friendly.
● As the pozzolano materials are very fine, it can fill gaps between the reinforcement and
aggregate , thus reducing the shrinkage, honeycomb formation and bleeding can be
reduced, which in turn increases the strength and durability of concrete.
Disadvantages of Portland Pozzolana Cement
● The initial strength obtained is less, which effect the de-shuttering of supports early.
● As it contains more fine material, handing of concrete is difficult.
● When compared to the OPC setting time is less for PPC
● Reduction in alkanity reduces the resistance to corrosion of steel reinforcement
● As the strength of this concrete gains slowly, curing process is very important. Any error
in this could cause durability problems.
Uses of Portland Pozzolana Cement
1. Used in hydraulic structures, marine structures, construction near the sea shore, dam
construction etc.
2. Used in pre-stressed and post-tensioned concrete members.
3. Used in masonry mortars and plastering.
4. As it gives better surface finish, it is used in decorative and art structures.
5. Used in manufacture of precast sewage pipes.
6. Used under harsh concreting conditions.

Rapid Hardening cement or RHC –

Rapid hardening cement is a special type of cement that achieves high strength in less time.
Normally the strength achieved by conventional cements in 7 days is same as the strength achieved
in 3 days. This type of cement is also called as High-Early Strength Portland Cement.
Properties of Rapid Hardening Cement
1. It gains strength faster than OPC. In 3 days it develops 7 days strength of OPC with same
water cement ratio.
2. Its final setting times is 30 mins and final setting time is 600mins which is same as OPC.
3. It emits more heat during setting, therefore this cement is unsuitable for mass concreting.
4. Soundness of this cement is, Autoclave - 0.8 %, Le - Chatlier's - 10mm
5. The specific surface of rapid hardening cement is greater than 3250 cm 2/gm.
6. This cement is lighter and costlier than OPC. Its short curing period makes it economical.
7. This cement should be stored in a dry place, or else its quality deteriorates due to
premature carbonation and hydration.
Advantages of Rapid Hardening Cement
The advantages of using Rapid hardening cement are,
1. It requires a short period of curing.
2. It is resistant to sulphate attacks.
3. Shrinkage is reduced during curing and hardening of cement.
4. Rapid hardening cement is used in areas like road pavements so that the traffic can be
opened early. It is also used in manufacturing precast slabs, posts, electric poles,
concreting in cold countries.
5. It gains high strength in the early days and the form work can be removed earlier as
compared to other types of cement.
6. It is a very durable cement which matches the fast pace of construction and budgets
required to make projects operational.
Uses of Rapid Hardening Cement
1. It is used where formwork has to be removed as early as possible in order to reuse it.
2. It is used where high early strength is required.
3. It is generally used for constructing road pavements, where it is important to open the
road to traffic quickly.
4. It is used in industries which manufacture concrete products like slabs, posts, electric
poles, block fence, etc. because moulds can be released quickly.
5. It is used for cold weather concreting because rapid evolution of heat during hydration
protects the concrete against freezing.

Low heat cement –

Low heat cement is a special tailored cement which generates low heat of hydration during setting.
It is manufactured by modifying the chemical composition of normal Portland cement.
Properties of Low Heat Cement
1) Specific Surface Area = 250 m2/kg Min
2) Initial Setting = 60 minutes Min
3) Final Setting = 12 hours Max
4) Compressive Strength at 7d = 13.0 MPa Min
5) Compressive Strength at 28d = 42.5 MPa Min
6) Breaking Strength at 7d = 3.5 MPa Min
7) Breaking Strength at 28d = 6.5 MPa Min
8) Heat of Hydration at 3d = 230 KJ/kg Max
9) Heat of Hydration at 7d = 260 KJ/kg Max
Advantages of Low Heat Cement
1. Assists in minimising the potential for thermal cracking in thick concrete sections.
2. Improvised durability performance.
3. Excellent performances such as high final strength, sulphate corrosion resistance, good
lasting properties, good resistance to rupture,anti-seepage.
4. Increased workability and pumpability with large pours in hydraulic engineering concrete
and marine concrete works.
5. Significantly improved later-age concrete strengths.
6. Resistant to sulphate attack on reinforcement majorly in concrete pipes.
Disadvantages of Low Heat Cement
1. Initial strength gained is lower than that of OPC concrete, but the final strength is same as
that of OPC.
2. This cement cannot be used in the cold weather conditions.
3. Cost of the cement is higher than that of Ordinary cement.
Uses of Low Heat Cement
1. To make the road and workroom surface of factories such as chemical plants and
sulphuric acid factories.
2. Majorly used in constructing dams large footings, large raft slabs, wind turbine plinths.

PSC or Portland Slag Cement –

Portland slag cement is the type of Portland cement obtained by mixing Portland cement clinker
and gypsum with granulated blast furnace slag in suitable proportions and grinding them into a
thorough and intimate mixture.
The Portland slag cement can also be manufactured by separately grinding Portland cement
clinker with gypsum and blast furnace slag. Then, later mixing them both thoroughly in suitable
proportions.
Properties
Fineness
Specific Surface Area - 225 m2/kg
Soundness
Le Chatelier - 10 mm Autoclave test - 0.8 %
Setting Time
Initial Setting Time - 30 minutes Final Setting Time - 600 minutes
Compressive Strength (minimum)
@ 3 Days - 16 MPa @ 7 Days - 22 MPa @ 28 Days - 33 MPa
Advantages of Portland Slag Cement
● The cement has low heat of hydration hence useful for mass concreting
● It can be used for refinement of post structure
● It has reduced permeability
● It has increased resistance to chemical attack
● The extensive research on Portland slag cement has shown that presence of ground
granulated blast furnace slag has led to enhancement of intrinsic properties of concrete in
both fresh and hardened state
Disadvantages of Portland Slag Cement
The Portland slag cement has a low heat of hydration, so because of that no cold weather concreting
can be done. A moderately low rate of strength development can lead to Frost damage in concrete
because of cold weather.
Uses of Portland Slag Cement
● It can be used in mass concreting
● It can be used for concreting in hot weather regions
● It can be cheaper alternative for ordinary Portland cement for common concreting works
● It can be used for construction of marine works

Sulphate resisting cement

Sulphate Resisting Cement is a type of Portland Cement in which the amount of tricalcium aluminate
(C3A) is restricted to lower than 5% and (2C 3A +C4AF) lower than 25%, which reduces the formation
of sulphate salts. The reduction of sulphate salts lowers the possibility of sulphate attack on the
concrete.
Properties
Fineness
Specific Surface Area - 10 m2/kg
Soundness
Le Chatelier - 2 mm Autoclave test - 0.2 %
Setting Time
Initial Setting Time - 80 minutes Final Setting Time - 240 minutes
Compressive Strength
@ 3 Days - 30MPa @ 7 Days - 45MPa @ 28 Days - 65MPa
Tri calcium aluminate - 0.035
Magnesia - 0.02
Loss on ignition - 0.02
Advantages of Sulphate Resisting Cement
● The use of sulphate resisting cement provides excellent protection against the
formation of sulpho-aluminates and consequent resistance to concrete against
sulphate attack.
● Very high compressive strength by economic concrete mix design.
● Very low heat of hydration helps to avoid shrinkage cracks.
● Improves life and durability of structures under aggressive conditions.
● Improves corrosion resistance of steel by preventing sulphate attack.
Disadvantages of Sulphate Resisting Cement
● Sulphate resisting cement is not suitable where there is danger of chloride attack. This
will cause corrosion of rebar.
● If both Chlorides and Sulphates are present, Ordinary Portland Cement with C3A
between 5 & 8 should be used.
● Curing process should be done properly with great care for min of 8-10 days.
● It is not prescribed to use it in marine construction.
Uses of Sulphate Resisting Cement
Sulphate Resisting Cement is recommended for following type of constructions:
● Foundations.
● Piling works.
● Construction in contact with soils or ground water having more than 0.2% or 0.3 %
g/l sulphate salts respectively.
● Concrete surfaces subjected to alternate wetting and drying such as bridge piers,
concrete surface in tidal zone, apron etc.
● Effluent treatment plans.
● Chimney, cooling towers.
● Coastal protective works such as sea walls, break waters, tetrapods etc.
● Building near seacoast.
● Chemical industries, water storage, sumps, drainage works.
● Suitable for underground works where Sulphate is present in the Soil and water.
High Alumina Cement
High Alumina Cement is manufactured by grinding the clinkers of alumina and calcareous material
such as lime by fusing or sintering process. This cement is also known as calcium aluminum cement.
Characteristics
The characteristics of this cement are,
1. It is very resistant to chemical attacks.
2. The pH level is low.
3. High resistant to chemical corrosion, due to which it is used for construction of water
pipes, sewage pipes, factory drains, coastal constructions and in factory chimneys.
4. The refractive index of this cement is high.
5. It has high durability in sulphuric acid.
6. Hardening property of this cement is fast.
7. It acts as a bonding material when added in refractory castables because it forms ceramic
bond at high temperatures.
Advantages of High Alumina Cement
The advantages of High Alumina Cement are as follows,
1. Due to the more setting time, time for mixing and placing is more.
2. The resistance for the chemical action is good.
3. Can withstand high temperature.
4. Frost action is low as the heat evolved is more during setting.
5. High alumina cement is very reactive and has very high compressive strength.
6. High resistant to fire.
Disadvantages of High Alumina Cement
The disadvantages of high alumina cement are as follows,
1. As the heat required for the manufacture of this cement is more, the manufacturing cost
of this cement is high.
2. As the fineness is kept not less than 2250 cm2/gram, which is very fine. Care to be taken
that it doesn't come in contact with human eye or mouth.
3. As the heat evolution while setting is high, it cannot be used in mass concreting works.
Uses of High Alumina Cement
1. Due the property of rapid hardening and strength, it is widely used in marine construction
and sewer infrastructure.
2. High alumina cement is also used in refractory concretes where it requires more strength at
very high temperature.

Expansive cement
Expansive cement is special type of cement when mixed with water, which forms a paste that tends
to increase in volume to a significantly greater degree than Portland cement paste after setting. The
expansion of the cement mortar or concrete is compensated for the shrinkage losses.
Properties
Setting Time – 75 min
Air Conctent – 12%
7 Days expansion – 0.04%(min.) – 0.10%(max.)
Compressive Strength
7 Days – 14.7MPa 28 Days – 24.5MPa
Uses of Expansive Cement
1. This cement is used in large, continuous floor slabs without joints
2. It work well to fill holes in foundations and to create self-stressed concrete that is
stronger than conventional portland cement concrete.
3. Pre-stressed concrete components for bridges and buildings are made using this material.
4. Used for construction of water retaining structures and also for repairing the damaged
concrete surfaces.
5. Used in grouting of anchor bolts.

White cement
The process of manufacture of white Portland cement is nearly same as OPC. The raw materials
used are high purity limestone (96% CaCo3 and less than 0.07% iron oxide). The other raw
materials are china clay with iron content of about 0.72 to 0.8%, silica sand, flourspar as flux and
selenite as retarder. The fuels used are refined furnace oil (RFO) or gas. Sea shells and coral can
also be used as raw materials for production of white cement.
Uses
Therefore followings are the 10 uses of white portland cement:
1. Premium construction projects employ white Portland cement.
2. To create vibrantly colored concrete and mortars, white cement is used.
3. When creating decorative works, often white Portland cement is chosen.
4. Roads are constructed with white cement to make the medians of highways more visible.
5. Because of its whiteness, it is utilized for both indoor and exterior decorating.
6. It is widely employed in the production of precast elements.
7. To create plaster which is used for finishing walls and ceilings, white cement is
frequently used.
8. In the manufacture of white Portland cement tiles, it is used.
9. It is used in the making of white Portland cement paint.
10. It is used in the construction of bridges, buildings, and other structures.

Tests on Cement
Fineness
Consistency
Initial setting time & Final setting time
Soundness test
Strength test
Specific gravity of cement
Fineness test –
Fineness of cement is tested in two ways :
(a) By seiving.
(b) By determination of specific surface (total surface area of all the particles in one gram of
cement) by air-premeability appartus. Expressed as cm2/gm or m2/kg. Generally Blaine
Airpermeability appartus is used.
Sieve Test
Weigh correctly 100 grams of cement and take it on a standard IS Sieve No. 9 (90 microns). Break
down the air-set lumps in the sample with fingers. Continuously sieve the sample giving circular
and vertical motion for a period of 15 minutes. Mechanical sieving devices may also be used.
Weigh the residue left on the sieve. This weight shall not exceed 10% for ordinary cement.
Air Permeability Method
This method of test covers the procedure for determining the fineness of cement as represented
by specific surface expressed as total surface area in sq. cm/gm. of cement. It is also expressed in
m2/kg. Lea and Nurse Air Permeability Appartus.

The principle is based on the relation between the flow of air through the cement bed and the
surface area of the particles comprising the cement bed. From this the surface area per unit weight
of the body material can be related to the permeability of a bed of a given porosity. The cement
bed in the permeability cell is 1 cm. high and 2.5 cm. in diameter. Knowing the density of cement
the weight required to make a cement bed of porosity of 0.475 can be calculated. This
quantity of cement is placed in the permeability cell in a standard manner. Slowly pass on air
through the cement bed at a constant velocity. Adjust the rate of air flow until the flowmeter
shows a difference in level of 30-50 cm. Read the difference in level (h 1) of the manometer
and the difference in level (h2) of the flowmeter. Repeat these observations to ensure that
steady conditions have been obtained as shown by a constant value of h 1/h2. Specific surface
Sw is calculated from the following formula:
Sw = K (h1 / h2)1/2
Where K is a constant
Fineness can also be measured by Blain Air Permeability apprartus.

Standard Consistency Test

The standard consistency of cement paste is defined as the percentage of water added
in cement which will permit a Vicat plunger having 50 mm length and 10 mm diameter to
penetrate in cement paste to a depth of 33-35 mm from the top of the mould.
Procedure –
The following procedure is adopted to find out standard consistency.
● Take about 500gms of cement and prepare a paste with a weighed quantity of water (say
24 per cent by weight of cement) for the first trial.
● The paste must be prepared in a standard manner andfilled into the Vicat mould within 3-
5 minutes.
● After completely filling the mould, shake the mould to expel air.
● A standard plunger, 10 mm diameter, 50 mm long is attached and brought down to touch
the surface of the paste in the test block and quickly released allowing it to sink into the
paste by its own weight.
 ● Take the reading by noting the depth of penetration of the plunger.
● Conduct a 2nd trial (say with 25 per cent of water) and find out the depth of penetration of
plunger.
Similarly, conduct trials with higher and higher water/cement ratios till such time the plunger
penetrates for a depth of 33-35 mm from the top.
That particular percentage of water which allows the plunger to penetrate only to a depth of 33-35
mm from the top is known as the percentage of water required to produce a cement paste of
standard consistency. This percentage is usually denoted as ‘P’.

Vicat Apparatus Vicat-Apparatus-Diagram

Setting Time Test

There are two types of setting time
1) Initial setting time
2) Final Setting time
Initial Setting Time of Cement: It is the time elapsed between the moments that the water is
added to the cement, to the time that the paste starts losing its plasticity.
The time interval for which the cement products remain in plastic condition is known as the initial
setting time. Normally a minimum of 30 minutes is given for mixing and handling operations. It
gives an idea about how fast cement can start losing its plasticity.
Final Setting Time of Cement: It is the time elapsed between the moment the water is added to
the cement and the time when cement paste loses its plasticity completely.
The final setting time of cement gives an idea about how much time cement takes to lose its
full plasticity and gain some strength to resist pressure. Normally a maximum of 600 minutes
is considered as the final setting time.
The following procedure is adopted.
● This test is used to detect the deterioration of cement due to storage. The test is performed
to find out initial setting time and final setting time.
● Cement mixed with water and cement paste is filled in the Vicat mould.
● The square needle is attached to moving rod of Vicat apparatus.
● The needle is quickly released and it is allowed to penetrate the cement paste. In the
beginning, the needle penetrates completely. The procedure is repeated at regular intervals
until the needle does not penetrate completely. (up to 5mm from bottom)
● Initial setting time =<30min for ordinary Portland cement and 60 min for low heat cement.
● The cement paste is prepared as above and it is filled in the Vicat mould.
● The needle with the annular collar is attached to the moving rod of the Vicat apparatus.
● The needle is gently released. The time at which the needle makes an impression on test
block and the collar fails to do so is noted.
 ● Final setting time is the difference between the time at which water was added to cement
and time as recorded in the previous step, and it is =<10 hours.

Soundness Test
The soundness of cement indicates the stability of any cement during the volume change in the
process of setting and hardening. The unsoundness in cement majorly occurs due to excess of lime,
excess of magnesia or excessive proportion of sulphates.
The soundness test of cement determines the expansion of cement after it starts setting. Certain
cement has been found to undergo a large expansion after setting causing disruption of the set and
hardened mass. This expansion of cement can cause serious problems for the durability of
structures when such cement is used.
The unsoundness is occurring mainly due to an excess lime that could be combined with acidic
oxide at the kiln. This is also due to inadequate burning or insufficient fineness of grinding
or thorough mixing of raw materials. It also may occur due to too high a proportion of magnesium
content or calcium sulphate content may cause unsoundness in cement.
For this reason the magnesia content allowed in cement is limited to 6 per cent,
Le Chatelier Test
The soundness (presence of lime) of cement is tested by is Le – chatelier’s test.

● The cement paste is prepared.

● The mould is placed and it is filled by cement paste.
● It is covered at the top by another glass plate. A small weight is placed at the top and the
whole assembly is submerged in water for 24 hours.
● The distance between the points of the indicator is noted. The mould is again placed in
water and heat is applied in such a way that boiling point of water is reached in about 30
minutes. The boiling of water is continued for one hour.
● The mould is removed from the water and it is allowed to cool down.
● The distance between the points of the indicator is again measured. The difference between
the two readings indicates the expansion of cement and it should not exceed 10 mm.
The difference between needle readings indicates the soundness of cement. The soundness limit
must exceed 10 mm for ordinary, rapid hardening, and low heat Portland cement.
Autoclave test
Autoclave test is sensitive to both free magnesia and free lime. Indian
Standard Specification stipulates that cement having a magnesia content of more than 3
percent shall be tested for soundness by Autoclave test

Autoclave
● The purpose of this test is to detect the presence of uncombined lime and magnesia in the
cement.
● A neat cement specimen 25 × 25 mm is prepared, placed in moist atmosphere and the
length is measured.
● After 24 hrs. the specimen is removed from the moist atmosphere placed in a standard
autoclave.
● The steam pressure inside the autoclave is raised in such a rate as to bring the gauge
pressure of the steam to 21 kg/sq cm in 1 – 11/4 hour from the time the heat is turned on.
● The autoclave is cooled and the test specimens immediately placed in water.
● The length is measured again.
The difference in lengths of the test specimen before and after autoclaving shall be calculated to
the nearest 0’01 percent of the effective gauge length and shall be reported as autoclave expansion
of cement.

Compressive Strength Test

● This test is carried out to determine the compressive strength of cement.
● The mortar of cement and sand is prepared in ratio 1:3.
● Water is added to mortar in water-cement ratio 0.4.
● The mortar is placed in moulds. The test specimens are in the form of cubes and the moulds
are of metals. For 70.6 mm and 76 mm cubes, the cement required is 185gm and 235 gm
respectively.
● Then the mortar is compacted in vibrating machine for 2 minutes and the moulds are placed
in a damp cabin for 24 hours.
● The specimens are removed from the moulds and they are submerged in clean water for
curing.
 ● The cubes are then tested in compression testing machine at the end of 3days and 7 days.
Thus compressive strength was found out.

Specific gravity:
The specific gravity is defined as the ratio between the weight of a given volume of material and
weight of an equal volume of water.
The specific gravity of Portland cement is generally around 3.15. When it comes to portland
pozzolan cements and portland blast furnace cements the value will come near to 2.90
To determine the specific gravity of cement, kerosene which does not react with cement is used.
Apparatus of measuring the specific gravity of Portland cement - Le Chaterlier”s flask and
kerosene (free from water). · Le Chaterlier”s flask, is made of thin glass having a bulb at the
bottom. The capacity of the bulb is nearly 250 ml. The bulb is 7.8 cm in mean diameter. The stem
is graduated in millimeters.
Specific Gravity Test Procedure for Cement
The specific gravity test procedure contains only four steps. Followings are the four steps to be
followed to perform specific gravity test of cement:
1. The Flask should be free from the liquid that means it should be fully dry. Weigh the empty
flask.
2. Next, fill the cement on the bottle up to half of the flask around 50gm and weigh with its
stopper.
3. Add Kerosene to the cement up to the top of the bottle. Mix well to remove the air bubbles
in it. Weigh the flask with cement and kerosene.
4. Empty the flask. Fill the bottle with kerosene up to the top and weigh the flask.

Storage of cement
Storage of cement is predominant for constructional works. It is a climate-sensitive material, so it
has to be stored carefully to preserve its quality and fineness . Properly maintained storage facilities
preserve the quality and fineness of cement to be used.
Procedures of Cement Storage
Following are some basic points that one ought to be considering whereas storing cement:
● Cement baggage ought to be held on wherever no wet or moistness is allowed to succeed
in cement either from the bottom, walls, or from the surroundings, etc.
● Do not enable hooks to facilitate the storage of cement. Exploitation hooks have been
marked as a harmful follow for the handling of baggage because it exposes the cement to
the open atmosphere, which can be damp and misty.
● Never store the cement bags with fertilizers or a different product, as any contamination
will affect the standard and performance of the screen.
● Avoid storage of cement within the basement; ideally, the storage ought to be drained on
the primary or higher floors.
● The little windows are provided at sill level and commonly unbroken tightly shut. Because
of this, the wet or rainwater is prevented from stepping into the shed.

II Lime:
A. Impurities in limestone
● Magnesium Carbonate.
1. Lime stones contain magnesium carbonate in varying proportions.
 2. Presence of this constituent allows the lime to slake and set slowly, but imparts high
strength. Further, the production of heat and expansion are low.
3. The magnesium lime stones are hard, heavy and compact in texture.
4. In burning limestone, the magnesium carbonate is converted to magnesium oxide at a
much lower temperature whereas calcium carbonate is oxidised at a little higher
temperature.
5. By the time calcium carbonate is oxidised most of the magnesium oxide formed is over
burnt.
6. Magnesium lime stones display irregular properties of calcination, slaking and
hardening. Up to 5 per cent of magnesium oxide imparts excellent hydraulic properties
to the lime.
● Clay
1. It is mainly responsible for the hydraulic properties of lime.
2. It also makes lime insoluble in water.
3. The percentage of clay to produce hydraulicity in lime stones usually varies from 10 to
30.
4. If, it is in excess, it arrests slaking whereas, if in small quantities the slaking is retarted.
5. Thus, limes containing 3-5 per cent of clay do not display any hydraulic property and
do not set and harden under water.
6. Whereas, when clay is present as 20-30 per cent of lime, the latter exhibits excellent
hydraulic properties and is most suitable for aqueous foundations.
● Silica
1. In its free form (sand) has a detrimental effect on the properties of lime.
2. Limes containing high percentage of free silica exhibit poor cementing and hydraulic
properties.
3. Limes containing 15-20 per cent of free silica are known as poor limes.
● Iron Compounds
1. Iron occurs in small proportions as oxides, carbonates and sulphides.
2. They are converted into Fe2O3 at lower temperatures of calcination.
3. At higher temperatures iron combines with lime and silicates and forms complex
silicate compounds.
4. Pyrite or iron sulphide is regarded to be highly undesirable.
5. For hydraulic limes 2-5 per cent of iron oxide is necessary.
● Carbonaceous matters
1. Carbonaceous matters in lime are seldom present. Its presence is an indication of the
poor quality of lime.
● Sulphates
1. Sulphates, if present, slow down the slaking action and increase the setting rate
of limes.
● Alkalis
When pure lime is required the alkalis are undesirable. However, up to 5 per cent of alkalis
in hydraulic limes do not have any ill effect but improve hydraulicity.

B. Classification
Fat Lime:
 ● This lime is produced by the calcination of nearly purest form of limestone, chalk,
marble, etc.
● Its color is perfectly white.
● It should have impurities of clay less than 5 percent.
● It slakes vigorously and volume becomes 2 to 3 times.
● Since the slaking process is vigorous for this lime, care must be taken to avoid any fire
hazards.
● It sets slowly in the presence of air, thus it is not suitable for thick wall joints or in wet
conditions.
● Fat lime is extensively used in the manufacturing of cement, metallurgical industry, white
washing, etc.
Hydraulic Lime :
● This lime is produced by the moderate burning of limestone which contains small
proportions of clay, iron oxide and other impurities.
● It has impurities in the range of 5 to 30 percent.
● The increase in the percentage of clay makes the slaking difficult and increases its
hydraulic property.
● Care must be taken during the slaking of this lime, as any excess addition of water will
cause the lime to harden.
● Depending on the percentage of clay present, it is further classified into feebly,
moderately and eminently hydraulic lime.
Poor Lime :
● This lime is also known as lean lime or impure lime.
● It contains clay impurities more than 30%.
● It slakes very slowly and forms a thin paste when mixed with water.
● It is muddy white in color.
● It sets or hardens very slowly and has poor binding properties.
● This lime is used for the construction of interior structures and at places where the
availability of good lime is less.

C. Slaking and Hydration

Slaking occurs when quicklime is reacted with water to form Ca(OH) 2, most commonly called
hydrated lime in its dry form or lime slurry or milk of lime in its wet form. The slaking process is
exothermic, releasing heat as the quicklime and water mix and chemically combine.

D. Hardening
Depending on the kind of lime and its hardening conditions, distinction is made of three patterns
of carbonate, hydrate and hydro-silicate.
Carbonate hardening Two simultaneous processes take place in lime mortars from slaked lime.
1. The mixed water evaporates and calcium oxide hydrate crystallizes out of its saturated water
solution. 2. Calcium carbonate is formed in accordance with the reaction.
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 + nH2O = CaCO3 + (n + 1)H2O
The crystallization process of calcium oxide hydrate is very slow. Evaporation of water causes fine
particles of Ca(OH)2 to stick together and form large Ca(OH)2 crystals which in turn grow
together and form a carcass that encloses sand particles. The rate of CaCO3 formation is significant
only in the presence of moisture. A film of calcium carbonate appearing on the surface of the
mortar during the initial period of hardening, prevents the penetration of carbon dioxide into the
inside layers, and because of this the carbonisation process, which is very intensive in the presence
of a sufficient amount of carbon dioxide stops almost entirely. The more intensive is the
evaporation of water, the quicker is the crystallisation of calcium oxide. Therefore, hardening of
lime requires an above zero temperature and a low humidity of the surrounding medium. Pure lime
paste cracks as a result of considerable shrinkage during drying; this can be prevented by adding
3.5 parts (by volume) of sand. The introduction of a prescribed amount of aggregate is advisable
not only from the economic but also from the engineering stand point, as it improves hardening
and reduces drying shrinkage.
Hydrate hardening
It is a gradual conversion of lime mortar and concrete mixes from ground unslaked lime into a
rock-like hard body, resulting from the interaction of lime with water and the formation of calcium
oxide hydrate. First, lime dissolves in water to give a saturated solution, which oversaturates
rapidly because water is absorbed by the remaining unslaked grains. Rapid and strong over-
saturation of a mortar, prepared from unslaked lime, results in formation of colloidal masses, which
appear because calcium oxide hydrate formed by mixing lime with water consists of particles very
close in size to those of the colloids. Colloidal calcium hydrate coagulates quickly into a hydrogel
which glues the grains together. As water is partly sucked in by the deeper layers of grains and
partly evaporates, the hydrogel thickens and thus increases the strength of the hardening lime. The
hydrogel formed in the process of hardening of slaked lime holds much water and its adhesiveness
is poor, which is not so for hardening unslaked lime. As slaking lime hardens, crystallisation of
calcium oxide hydrate increases its strength. Subsequent carbonisation of calcium oxide hydrate
improves the strength of the hardened mortar.
Hydro-silicate hardening
When lime-sand mixtures are treated by high-pressure steam (8-16 atm) corresponding to
temperatures between 175 and 200°C, lime and silica interact in the autoclave and form calcium
hydrosilicate which ensures high strength and durability of manufactured items. In the autoclave
method of hardening lime-sand materials, lime does not play the part of a binding material, whose
hydration and carbonisation gives rise to a stony body of required strength at usual temperatures.
In the given instance, lime is one of the two components that interact and form calcium
hydrosilicate which is the chief cementing substance. The required strength results not from the
physical cohesion of the binder hydrate formations with the grains of the aggregate, but from
chemical interaction between the chief components of the raw materials, lime and quartz sand.

E. Testing of lime
1. Visual test
2. Ball test
3. Hydrochloric test
4. Soundness test
5. Transverse Strength Test
6. Chemical test
7. Heat Test
1 Visual Test:
▪ It is performed from physical appearance of a lime.
▪ If the color of lime is off white then the lime is Class A lime or hydraulic lime.
▪ If color is slightly clear than off white then it is Class B lime.
▪ If color is perfectly white then lime is Class C lime or fat lime.
2 Ball Test:
▪ In a ball test, water is added in lime and stiff lime is formed. Then from stiff lime a ball of
about 40mm diameter are made and kept as it is for 6 hours. After 6 hours the undisturbed
ball is kept in a basin of water.
▪ If there is slow expansion and slow disintegration of ball within a minute then it show Class
C lime.
▪ If there is very small or no expansion and numerous crack then it indicate Class B lime.
▪ If it remains in its shape and ball crack then the lime is of Class A.
3 Hydrochloric Acid Test:
▪ It is done to calculate the presence of impurities
▪ 1 spoon fine dried lime is kept in a test tube and 10 ml HCL of 50 percent concentration is
put into that test tube.
▪ If lime get mixed in it completely then it is pure lime or Class C lime.
▪ If there is some precipitate in bottom of test tube then it indicates the presence of some inert
material. As the quantity of inert material increases the quality of lime decreases.
▪ If the jelly of lime and HCL is thin then it is Class C lime.
▪ If the jelly of lime and HCL is very thick then it is Class A lime.
▪ If jelly of lime and HCL is moderate thick then it is Class B lime.
4 Soundness Test:
▪ Aim of the soundness test is to find disintegration or unsoundness of a lime sample.
▪ It is performed by using Le Chatelier’s apparatus where lime is properly.
▪ Cement, Hydrated lime and sand is thoroughly mixed in the proportion of 1:3:12 and then
this mixed is filled in a cylinder of a Le Chatelier’s apparatus. Cylinder is covered by a glass
plate and kept for 1hour and the distance between the two ends of indicator is properly
measured and noted.
▪ This apparatus is kept for 48hours in damp air and then kept for 3hour in steam. Then the
temperature is cooled down to room temperature. The distance of the two end of indicator is
again measured and noted. The difference between the two distances is found out and it
should not be more than 10mm.
5. Transverse Strength Test:
▪ Test sample of size 25mm x 25mm x 100mmia prepared by taking lime and sand in 1:3
proportion.
▪ Then test sample is kept for 28days at 90 percent humid medium.
▪ Test sample is immerged in water for 30minutes before going to be tested.
▪ The sample is restrained on a two parallel roller kept 80mm apart from each other,
▪ The sample is loaded by gradual increasing load at a rate of 75 N/ minute till the test sample
fails.
The modulus of rupture of test sample can be determined by using the formula
E = 3PS/2bd²
Where
E = Modulus of rupture
P = Breaking load
S = Distance between the roller
B = Width of the specimen
D = Depth of the specimen
6. Chemical test
This test is performed to find the cementation value and hydraulic properties of lime sample.
. .
Cementation value of lime =
.
where
A = SiO2
B = Al2O3
C = Fe2O3
D = CaO
E = MgO
7. Heat Test:
A piece of dry limestone is weighed and it is heated in an open fire for few hours. The sample is
weighed again and loss of weight indicates the amount of carbon dioxide. From this data, the
amount of calcium carbonate in limestone is worked out.

F. Storage and handling

Basically lime reacts with moisture present in the atmosphere and even on the ground surface.
Hence proper care must be taken while storing lime on site.
● To avoid the air slaking of lime, they should be stored in compact heaps and in insulated
spaces.
● It should be kept under covered and closed space when in the form of hydrated lime and
they should be used within a week when in the form of quick lime.
● Limes should be stored at 48°F for optimal shelf life. Warmer temperatures will allow the
lime to decay more quickly while lower temperatures run the risk of chill damage. Limes
are very susceptible to chill damage and the longer they are exposed to excessively low
temperatures, and the lower the temperature, the worse the chill damage will be.
● Limes should kept at a consistent relative humidity of about 90%. Higher humidity may
make the limes more susceptible to mold, while lower humidity will be insufficient to
prevent the limes from suffering water loss and shriveling.
● After harvest the limes should be cleaned in a water solution with a PH of about 6.5 and
gently brushed. This will help limit the development of mold and decay diseases.
● Limes should be handled gently to prevent bruising and should not be overpacked.
● Under ideal conditions fresh limes will have a shelf life of about 6-8 weeks