Appetite 159 (2021) 105046

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Appetite
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/appet

Mealtime resistance: Hispanic mothers’ perspectives on making healthy

eating changes within the family☆
Amber Hammons a, *, Norma Olvera b, Margarita Teran-Garcia c, Elizabeth Villegas d,
Barbara Fiese e
a
Department of Child and Family Science, California State University, 5300 North Campus Drive, Mailstop FF 12, Fresno, CA, USA, 93740
b
Psychological, Health, and Learning Sciences Department, University of Houston, A Carnegie-designated Tier One Public Research University, 4800 Calhoun Rd,
Houston, TX, 77004, USA
c
Cooperative Extension, University of Illinois at Urbana – Champaign, 2103 N.Dunlap Ave. Suite A, Champaign, Illinois, 61820, USA
d
NORC at the University of Chicago, 1155 E. 60th Street, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA
e
Family Resiliency Center, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign 2, 904 W. Nevada MC-081, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Several perceived barriers to healthy eating within the family (e.g., cost, lack of time, energy, accessibility) are
Healthy eating documented. However, few studies have assessed Hispanic mothers’ perceived barriers and strategies in
Hispanic families implementing healthy eating changes in the family’s meals. The primary goal of this qualitative study was to
Barriers
investigate Mexican and Puerto Rican mothers’ barriers and strategies to creating healthy eating changes within
Mealtimes
the family at home. A sample of 46 Mexican-American and Puerto Rican mothers in California, Illinois, and Texas
participated in this study. An average of 5 mothers participated in a focus group session in Spanish and
completed a demographic survey. Focus group thematic analysis revealed that major barriers to implementing
healthy eating changes within the family include child and spouse resistance as well as meal preparation time.
The resistance mothers reported encountering magnify their meal preparation workload. Mothers shared that
they sometimes prepared multiple meals in a single mealtime to please family members. Several strategies to
promote healthy eating at home, including serving as role models, providing easy access to healthy food items at
home, and not purchasing, or hiding, unhealthy food at home, were also discussed. The current study expands
the existing literature by emphasizing the need to empower parents to make healthy changes within their family
and the importance of taking fathers and children into account in programming so that the whole family is
involved in making healthy changes.

1. Introduction overweight or obese (Skinner, Ravanbakht, Skelton, Perrin, & Arm­

strong, 2018; Warren et al., 2019).
In spite of efforts to reduce obesity, the national rates of obesity Maternal feeding practices and parenting styles are associated with
continue to increase. Thirty-three states have experienced significant child risk of obesity and eating behaviors (Moens, Braet, & Soetens,
increases in adult obesity in the past 5 years (Warren, Beck, & Delgado, 2007; Rhee, 2006). The family environment, primarily parents, play an
2019). In particular, Hispanic adults have the highest rates of over­ important role in shaping children’s weight, eating habits, and practices.
weight and obesity of any racial or ethnic group, with greater than Children regularly eat breakfast, dinner, and snacks at home, making
three-quarters of Hispanic adults classified as overweight or obese (CDC, home the location where the majority of children’s daily calories are
2019). Similarly, Hispanic children have the highest incidence of consumed (Adair & Popkin, 2005; Rosenkranz & Dzewaltowski, 2008).
childhood obesity, with nearly half of all Hispanic children classified as A study by McIntosh et al. (2010) showed that mothers’ mealtime

☆
The Abriendo Caminos Research TeamThe Abriendo Caminos Research Team includes Drs. Margarita Teran-Garcia (PI) and Barbara Fiese (PD) at University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Angela Wiley (PD) at Auburn University, Amber Hammons (PD) at Fresno State, Kimberly Greder (PD) at Iowa State University, Maria
Plaza-Delestre (PD) and Nancy J Correa Matos (Co-PI) at the University of Puerto Rico, and Norma Olvera (PD) at University of Houston.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A. Hammons), [email protected] (N. Olvera), [email protected] (M. Teran-Garcia), Villegas-Elizabeth@
norc.org (E. Villegas), [email protected] (B. Fiese).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2020.105046
Received 16 April 2020; Received in revised form 8 November 2020; Accepted 12 November 2020
Available online 21 November 2020
0195-6663/Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
A. Hammons et al. Appetite 159 (2021) 105046

intentions and behaviors strongly influence child behavior. Maternal 2. Materials and methods
planning of family meals is associated with a higher frequency of shared
family mealtimes, and the importance that children place on mealtimes 2.1. Sample selection
tends to match their mothers’ perception of the importance of meal­
times. When mothers believe they are important, their children are more Eligibility criteria included being of Mexican or Puerto Rican
likely to participate in family dinners (McIntosh et al., 2010). descent, and having a child between the ages of 6–18. Mothers were
Parental behaviors can affect child eating practices through myriad recruited through referrals and fliers that were posted at schools, com­
pathways. In Hispanic families, the availability and accessibility of food munity centers, laundromats, recreation centers, churches, and super­
in the home as well as parents’ food preferences have been connected to markets. Fliers were also passed out at flea markets and in front of stores.
the child’s eating behaviors, and seem to be especially important factors This study is part of a larger study, Abriendo Caminos, a culturally
in Hispanic children’s diet quality (Santiago-Torres, Adams, Carrel, tailored obesity prevention program aimed at reducing obesity in His­
Larowe, & Schoeller, 2014). Hispanic mothers are considered the pri­ panic families (Hammons et al., 2019; Hannon et al., 2019). Participants
mary persons responsible for shopping and preparing foods in the home, for this study resided in one of three states (California, Illinois, and
as well as key decision makers in these areas (Ayala et al., 2001; Dave, Texas), which were selected due to their large concentrations of His­
Evans, Pfeiffer, Watkins, & Saunders, 2010; Villegas, Coba-Rodriguez, & panic populations (ranging from 17% to 39% of the overall state’s
Wiley, 2018). population). Additionally, participants were selected from these states
Cultural values may influence family eating practices and nutrition to allow possible regional differences to emerge and be detected in the
within Hispanic families both directly and indirectly. Familism, the data. Focus group interviews were staggered across sites and occurred
strong value placed on the importance of a united family in the form of before the prevention began as a way to facilitate the local adaptation of
support and interconnectedness in the Hispanic culture (Stein, Gonzalez, the program. The study was approved by each University’s Institutional
Cupito, Kiang, & Supple, 2015) highlights the importance of taking Review Board and all mothers signed consent forms before participating
family into account when designing and implementing nutrition in­ in the focus group interviews.
terventions. Familism, though generally viewed as positive, may also
present its own challenges, specifically when it comes to healthy eating. 2.2. Data collection and participants
Inherent in familism is the desire to maintain harmony within the family
system (Rodriguez, Mira, Paez, & Myers, 2007). Mexicans feel pressure Forty-six Mexican and Puerto Rican mothers participated in 11 focus
to please family members, sometimes overeating, especially at family groups between June 2015 and August 2018. Focus groups lasted
get-togethers, so as to not be perceived as disrespectful or rude by approximately 1 h and had an average of 5 mothers in each group. All
refusing food (Thornton et al., 2006). In one study consisting mainly of focus groups took place in Spanish and were led by trained bilingual
Puerto Rican women with diabetes, women shared that they felt obli­ (Spanish/English) facilitators. Interview questions were designed by the
gated to serve unhealthy food for the family because that was what the research team and based on previous studies and a review of the liter­
family wanted, even when the food they served was particularly un­ ature. Focus group questions are listed in Table 1. Focus group in­
healthy for someone with diabetes (Adams, 2003). Making food spe­ terviews were selected as the methodology of choice because they can be
cifically for themselves led to feelings of isolation and exclusion (Adams, sensitive to the various ways in which culture influences our daily lives.
2003; Horowitz, Tuzzio, Rojas, Monteith, & Sisk, 2004). Similarly, Previous research has found that focus groups can be especially useful
Mexican women report changing their eating habits (leading to over- or when working with Latino populations due in part to the presence of
under-eating) to accommodate their husbands’ food preferences and one’s peers and the minimization of the power differential between the
work schedules (Thornton et al., 2006). This same study found that researcher and study participants, thereby helping to position the par­
healthy eating changes for Mexican women were dependent on the ticipants as “experts” of the topics being discussed (Umana-Taylor &
instrumental, emotional, and financial support of their husbands Bamaca, 2004). Additionally, trust can be more easily built between the
(Thornton et al., 2006). researcher and participants, facilitating an open exchange of informa­
Changing the family eating environment from less healthy to more tion, in focus group methodology than in less direct methods (e.g.,
healthy may result in resistance from family members. Family systems survey methodology) (Umana-Taylor & Bamaca, 2004).
theory proposes that true change necessitates whole family participation Mothers completed demographic questionnaires at the beginning of
(Brown, 1999). If only one person tries to change, individual efforts may each focus group interview that included information about date of
be thwarted by family members as a way to maintain familiar eating birth, place of birth, generation status, language preference (both
practices. Thus, the whole family has to be on board with implementing spoken and written), educational attainment, religion, marital status,
healthy eating changes in order for changes to be sustainable. number of children, number of people living in the household,
Given the high rates of obesity in the Hispanic population and the employment, income, and health status rating. Mothers received $10
role that Hispanic mothers play in shaping the food environment, it is gift cards or cash for their participation.
important to explore Hispanic mothers’ perspectives, which could
inform future intervention programming. The primary goal of this
2.3. Data analysis
exploratory study was to understand Mexican and Puerto Rican
mothers’ perspectives on creating healthy eating changes within the
Focus groups were audio-recorded. They were transcribed verbatim
family at home. We sought answers to the following research question,
in Spanish, translated to English, and then back-translated to Spanish by
“Do Mexican and Puerto Rican mothers, who are typically responsible
for food shopping and meal preparation for the family, feel empowered
to make healthy changes within their families?” Few studies have spe­ Table 1
Interview questions.
cifically examined Hispanic mothers’ perspectives on implementing
healthy food changes in the family, anticipated family members’ re­ What does a “family meal” look like in your house?
sponses, and strategies they would employ to effectively promote Sometimes we want to makes changes to be even healthier in the way we live.
What might stop you from trying to make healthy changes (in food, meals, physical
healthy food changes. activity)?
Are there traditions/ideas that might make change hard?
How would your family react to these changes you might make?
Would you try any particular strategies for successfully making changes?
What might help you make healthy changes (in food and/or meals)?

2
A. Hammons et al. Appetite 159 (2021) 105046

two proficient bilingual (Spanish/English) researchers. They were then “He was used to, well, the daycare where he was, and they gave him a
double-checked for accuracy. The analysis was guided by Braun and lot of pizza, mac n cheese, and after when he went to school, it was
Clarke’s six-step thematic analysis approach (Braun & Clarke, 2006). difficult to make him eat food I cooked because he would not eat that
Two researchers thoroughly familiarized themselves with the transcripts food! If he ate, later he told me that he is craving a pizza, a
and then initially created codes independently. The codes were then hamburger, a hotdog. It’s like I said, you don’t get to eat that kind of
compared, discussed, and refined, and a master set of codes was created. food all day. You have to eat vegetables, a piece of cheese, a glass of
Codes were reapplied and broadened to capture nuances. Themes were milk, or beans. That is, food that I made, and there are times that he
later identified within and across codes, and quotes were selected that fit does not want it.”
these themes (Olson, McAllister, Grinnell, Walters, & Appunn, 2016).
“Well, my children not liking what I cook. I think that is the only
Investigators discussed the appropriateness of the quotes, and a
thing that could interfere, even though they leave their food there.”
consensus was reached when disagreement was present. Preliminary
findings were shared with a note-taker of the focus groups to establish “My son is the one who is most grumpy. He says “Oh mom, well you
the findings’ credibility further and for researchers to enhance the eat that because it’s what is there. I am not going to eat a sandwich.
themes. Dedoose 8.3.10, a qualitative analysis software, was used to No, you are going to eat that.””
code and organize the data.
Some mothers also discussed how they would make different meals
3. Results for their children or multiple variations of the same meal, sometimes
even a meal for each family member present to deal with picky eating.
The participants’ demographic characteristics indicate that mothers This would ultimately increase the amount of time and energy spent in
ranged in age between 17 and 74 years (M = 40.04, SD 11.49). Most meal preparation.
(34/46, 73.9 %) of the mothers reported that their families’ annual
“A girl well of 8 and one of 15, and my husband also, and like I am
household income was U.S. $29,999 or less, which is considered low trying to eat healthy, also to make them do it with me, and it makes it
income for a family of four in the U.S. The large majority of mothers (34/
difficult for me because one likes one thing and the other wants
46, 74%) were born in Mexico and 17% of mothers were born in the another thing, and I give my husband another thing and I eat another
United States (8/46) or other countries not disclosed by mothers (4/46,
thing, and so it is like 3 or 4 meals.”
9.0%). Almost half (20/46, 44.0%) of the mothers reported that they
spoke only Spanish. See Table 2 for additional demographic “I have a daughter of 7 and a son of 16, so the food that she likes he
information. does not like. So, for me this also costs me more work.”
Themes.
“If there’s something they like well it’s like whatever, I make it. I will
We identified several themes that characterized challenges to mak­
make spaghetti, and I will make ground meat and I’ll make half with
ing healthier meals in Mexican and Puerto Rican families. Mothers dis­
spaghetti sauce and the other half with potatoes. Oh, and if someone
cussed child and spouse resistance, trying to please all family members,
wants pork chops, I will make pork chops, mash potatoes, and for my
and family member responses to change. Specific creative strategies
husband I will put that aside and I will add salsa because he likes his
mothers currently use and would use to make changes, and the need for
Mexican style. It’s the same meat I just cook it differently.”
educational programming were also discussed. We provide examples
from each of these major themes. First, we highlight areas where com­
monalities across the sites emerged, and then in the last theme, where 3.2. Fathers/significant others present challenges for mothers when trying
mothers discussed specific strategies, we indicate the sites where the to implement healthy changes
strategies came up.
Some mothers anticipated that their partner would be a barrier to
3.1. Children refuse to eat served food and/or healthy foods implementing healthy changes, with a few sharing that their partner is
currently a challenge.
Mothers discussed children with picky eating habits. Children do not
like what is being served, or would prefer something else. They stated “Well I think mostly my husband. He is quite special when it comes to
that their children often refuse to eat healthy foods when they are food, but I try to make him eat what there is.”
served, and that this would potentially negatively influence maternal “My son eats what I give him, but my husband, no.”
efforts to make healthy changes.
“But what impedes me a lot is that my husband buys a lot, a lot of
food, like bread. That is fattening.”

Mothers discussed how their partners would eat unhealthy foods and
Table 2 it would test their willpower to resist indulging as well, with some
Demographic information. sharing that they would often give in.
Sample Characteristics For example,
Married “At night, almost always my husband wants his chocolate with bread
N (%) 25 (54)
and he prepares it and then I have the craving too. And then I have
Avg # of children
M(SD) 3.33 (2.10) two.”
Avg # of years formal education
In United States M(SD) 4.21 (5.27)
“My husband will not eat that. He wants his beans, his salsa, and his
In home country M(SD) 7.78 (3.60) carnitas or steak, or whatever with fat. Then well, the smell gives you
Number of years in the U.S. M(SD) 17.94 (8.18) cravings and you make a taco or two.”
Language spoken
Only Spanish N (%) 20 (44)
Speak Spanish better than English N (%) 18 (39)
Language Read
Only Spanish N (%) 19 (41)
Read Spanish better than English N (%) 16 (35)

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A. Hammons et al. Appetite 159 (2021) 105046

3.3. Mothers perceive the amount of time to prepare healthy meals as an their families to promote healthy eating. These strategies include: 1) role
issue modeling (CA and IL), “And he sees me, and my daughter sees me, and they
see me drinking from a water bottle and well now they too drink a bottle [of
Mothers’ schedules, as well as the schedules of their children, are water]”; 2) leaving healthy food out in the open (IL), “I leave the fruit out,
very busy, so it is not always possible to make healthy meals. Mothers so they are available to whoever passes by”; 3) not buying unhealthy food
discussed how meals that are made in a shorter amount of time are not so that it is not available (all sites), “So as long as there are not any of these
always the healthiest. foods in the house, we will not eat them and we do not buy junk, we avoid it”;
4) eating more calories first thing in the morning (CA and IL), “When
“It is a question of time and money. And it is not like before. If you
eating, eat carbohydrates and all the calories that one will burn, eat them in
both work you only come home to cook what is fastest, you want
the morning.“; and 5) including others in mealtime preparation (CA), “I
what will be healthy, but you cannot always do it.”
have realized, that she [daughter] likes to eat what she prepares”.
“Because there is no time to cook or to go shopping for things that Several additional strategies were identified for eating healthier such
you need for a meal.” as: 1) drinking a lot of water (CA and IL), “Drink more, sufficient water”;
2) reducing sugar intake (CA and TX), “Definitely remove all the sweets”;
“The time in which we are, before for example, retaking it from my and 3) having better mealtime organization (CA and TX), “Well, I think
husband, my mother-in-law didn’t work and she had all morning to planning my food out more. Thinking about what they like but in a healthier
cook. And to us now, it costs us more work because to cook is to have option such as using more fruits and vegetables”. Mothers (CA) also sug­
magic because in half an hour they already are on top of us, “I’m so gested 4) using food as a reward, or a bargaining tool, “Take away the cell
hungry.” Then sometimes there is not enough time to say “we are phone now, and you are going to eat that, if not, I will not give it to you.“, and
going to make this stew, we are going to bake this.” That is, I know “Give them little stars or a sticker or, something that they like and that mo­
that it is healthier but there have been times we do not have enough tivates them.”
time.” Some mothers (CA and TX) discussed focusing on the consequences
of healthy eating on health status. One mother stated that her daughter
“In my case I get home, I don’t eat a lot during the day and I get home
with so much hunger that I don’t want to take the time to cook.” had a fear of becoming overweight, so helping her to understand what to
eat to avoid gaining weight might be a useful way to help her eat healthy
foods. “Well — my daughter of 7, she says she does not want to be fat. So if I
3.4. Mothers anticipate resistance to healthy food changes tell her, look this food is more healthy so that you keep growing and do not get
fat, then this is good for you.” Another mother shared, “to help them little
The majority of mothers believed that family members would react by little, to make them see the foods that are harmful umm, with time as they
negatively and it would be a struggle to implement healthy food grow they will be getting sick in the heart like umm, obesity and this is bad.”
changes. When asked about family members’ responses, many said Mothers (TX) also mentioned the need for programming, as illustrated
outright that it would not go over well by the quotes below. They shared that having access to community
nutrition programming would be helpful in making changes within the
“No, no they would not accept it.” family.

“Well with mine it’s likely they would get mad. Because it is a “Well I, my family, what we need is to learn more healthy recipes
change.” because I really know very few. And always when I think, “What am I
going to cook?” I always remember what my mom gave us when we
“Well it would be a change in their diet and my husband would tell
were children and I start cooking that. What did she give us and also
me that I am the one on a diet, not him.”
for drinks? I think a class or something. When they called me for this
“Honestly, at mealtime, they would leave everything there but when I thought we were going to be taught (participants laugh) like how to
I clean it up, in a couple of hours, then they would say that they are eat healthily so I said, “oh yes, I would like to go”. Because this way I
hungry. But for the reason that it is a change and they react in a way can learn because I am going to let my boy learn. I want him to learn
that they react like if they were force-feeding themselves, picking at to eat healthy because what I make healthy he does not like it.”
their food … and that is how that would go.”
“It would be more information, or recipes, or classes of different
things.”
In my family, my husband, like when sometimes … I tell him “we are
eating healthy, 3 times per week”. One in a chicken salad, or grilled, “I have had a chance to go to nutrition classes or when my older kids
or vegetables, like a diet meal. He agrees with me; my child throws were in middle school or in elementary. I had the opportunity to
the vegetables to the floor. attend a few classes, and you learn.”

“Boring.”
4. Discussion
“They would scream like hell.”

For theme 3.5, mothers were asked to share particular strategies they Results of this study indicate that when it comes to making healthy
would employ to make changes successfully. Responses were varied and eating changes within the home, mothers encounter resistance on mul­
usually expanded on by other mothers within the same focus groups. tiple levels, both from fathers and children. Child refusal came up most
Because responses were diverse, strategies that were discussed by mul­ frequently as the reason mothers might not make a change. Family
tiple mothers within the same site (but not necessarily across sites) are resistance to making healthy eating changes may increase maternal
included here. The specific site/state in which the strategy was shared is household workload as several mothers talked about having to make
indicated in parentheses. multiple meals in a single mealtime to appease all family members. This
finding is consistent with previous research indicating that across
varying socioeconomic statuses, mothers report struggling to find time
3.5. Mothers are aware of many strategies to promote healthy eating to create meals that everyone in the family will eat (Bowen & Elliot,
within the family 2014).
Time was discussed as a barrier to healthy eating at home. The
Mothers first shared strategies that they currently use that work for

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A. Hammons et al. Appetite 159 (2021) 105046

present study corroborates and extends current research by noting time vegetables are available (Santiago-Torres et al., 2014). In this study,
as a significant factor that exacerbates the issue in Hispanic families. mothers were aware of the negative impact of having junk food available
When mothers find themselves making different meals in a single sitting, and said that keeping it out of the home or hidden is an effective strategy
this further compounds the problem, which can become cyclical as in keeping their families healthy. This approach has been referred to as
research has found that making special meals for children to accom­ intentional consumption in the literature (Greder & Reina, 2019). Some
modate picky eating is associated with continued refusal to eat the mothers also discussed strategies that have been discouraged in the
original foods being served (Hendy, Williams, Riegel, & Paul, 2010; literature, such as using fear-based approaches (Dooley, Deshpande, &
Petty, Escrivão, & Souza, 2013). While picky eating is a problem Adair, 2010) or using food as a reward (Cooke et al., 2011; Garcia et al.,
mothers often encounter regardless of ethnicity or socioeconomic status, 2019; Roberts, Marx, & Musher-Eizenman, 2018). Per design, many
this can be especially problematic for immigrant Hispanic mothers who practical strategies were not discussed in the focus group such as eating
are particularly pressed for time due to increased financial constraints, in moderation and paying attention to proper portion sizes for children
longer work hours, and different schedules than what they had before and adults. Mothers expressed an interest in participating in educational
immigrating (Jarosz, 2017). However, this use of time (i.e., spent pre­ programming as an effective way to increase their knowledge and ability
paring various meals), though challenging, is potentially modifiable. to implement healthy eating changes within the home and to dispel
Intervention programs may focus on teaching parents how to disguise misconceptions they may have about nutrition. This interest echoes the
specific tastes while experimenting with recipes of tasty, healthy tradi­ findings of a recent focus group study, in which Hispanic adults dis­
tional meals that all family members may enjoy. Prevention and inter­ cussed how they felt that they lacked nutritional knowledge as well as
vention programs should focus on empowering mothers to make healthy the skills to prepare healthy meals (Garcia et al., 2019).
food changes within their families. This strategy may also include get­ There are several limitations to this study. While eligibility criteria
ting fathers directly involved in preparing meals to support these included mothers having a child between the ages of 6–18, child age was
healthy changes by both parents. In previous research, Hispanic mothers not specifically collected in this study, which is an important factor to
expressed an interest in their partners taking nutrition education classes consider when taking barriers and strategies for healthy eating into
to learn more about healthy eating (Garcia et al., 2019; Lora, Cheney, & account. Additionally, only mothers living in three states were sampled
Branscum, 2017), which could then result in healthier eating at home and therefore do not necessarily represent Mexican and Puerto Rican
with the whole family. Greater father involvement in healthy eating mothers across the nation. Fathers were not actively recruited to
could reduce the amount of time mothers spend in meal preparation and participate in the focus groups; thus, only the mothers’ perspectives
mealtime conflict with children. Additionally, creating a positive family were examined. Hearing from fathers would shed light on how they view
mealtime climate around food is associated with a reduced risk of their contributions to the family food environment. Nevertheless,
overweight (Berge, Arikian, Doherty, & Neumark-Sztainer, 2012). The mothers in this study reported regularly sharing meals with their chil­
present study reiterates the importance of including the whole family in dren, especially during the week when fathers were working, and
making healthy food changes within home. therefore have an opportunity to directly influence their child’s eating
Our findings also corroborate what other researchers have found habits.
about fathers shaping the food environment (Ayala, Ibarra, & Arre­
dondo, 2012; Lora et al., 2017; Rhoads-Baeza & Reis, 2010). Historically 5. Conclusions
there has been scant research examining Hispanic fathers’ role in the
family food environment. However, recent research shows that Hispanic The current study reiterates the facilitators and barriers other studies
fathers have a powerful influence on the food environment, sometimes have found that influence healthy eating (e.g., Nepper & Weiwen, 2016;
working in opposition to mothers. Hispanic mothers report that their Torres-Aguilar, Teran-Garcia, Wiley, Raffaelli, & Morales, 2016). The
partners’ food preferences often conflict with their meal preparations present study adds to the literature because the focus is on Mexican and
and that fathers are more likely to give their children energy-dense Puerto Rican families, and culturally tailored programs to Hispanic
meals, snacks, and beverages (Lora et al., 2017). In this study, families may benefit from this report. Findings that extend the current
mothers also reported that sometimes they felt pressured to eat with literature include the resistance mothers anticipate encountering within
their husbands because their partners do not want to eat alone. Mothers their families when trying to implement healthy changes, the impor­
talked about how fathers often wanted to eat high-calorie traditional tance of taking fathers into account in programming so that the whole
food and that they would occasionally eat with them because they family is involved (Brown, 1999), and the added time burden for
wanted them to, or because the temptation to resist was too great. Mexican and Puerto Rican mothers as they prepare additional meals for
Sometimes partners also bring unhealthy food home specifically for multiple family members. Involving fathers could help increase the
mothers to enjoy, making it harder for mothers to stick with their sustainability of changes as fathers engage in practices that may make
healthy eating goals (Thornton et al., 2006). Other mothers in the cur­ changes challenging for mothers to implement on their own. Parent
rent study talked about how their partner would be a problem when it alignment may also help get children on board and further reinforce the
comes to making healthy eating changes because he would resist or even changes across parents and settings (Lloyd, Lubans, Plotnikoff, Collins,
refuse to change. Getting fathers involved in nutrition programs, & Morgan, 2014). Family interventions targeting Hispanic families
whether as part of a couple or as a single parent, can have a meaningful should include an emphasis on empowering parents and providing
impact on the food environment of Hispanic children and their mothers. strategies to increase the likelihood of all family members eating the
One study found that Hispanic mothers’ healthy changes were depen­ same meal (e.g., providing tasty, healthy recipes). Though simplistic,
dent on their husbands’ support (Thornton et al., 2006). providing healthy recipes may result in a meaningful time and energy
Many of the strategies that mothers said they would use to imple­ savings for mothers, and it is a practical strategy mothers themselves
ment healthy changes are recommended in the literature and have been believe will help them build healthier family eating habits.
found to be effective with Hispanic children (Arredondo et al., 2006;
Tschann et al., 2013). Role modeling was discussed as something they 6. Ethics and consent
currently do or would do as a way to increase the effectiveness of their
healthy food changes (Petty et al., 2013), which has been shown to be This study was approved by the Institutional Review Boards at Cal­
related to the availability and accessibility of fruits and vegetables in the ifornia State University, Fresno, University of Houston, and the Uni­
home (Dave et al., 2010). The presence of sugar-sweetened beverages versity of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. Written informed consent was
and energy-dense snacks in the home is associated with poor diet quality secured from all participants prior to conducting the interviews.
in Hispanic children, even when healthier foods such as fruits and

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Acknowledgments Hendy, H. M., Williams, K. E., Riegel, K., & Paul, C. (2010). Parent mealtime actions that
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This research project is supported by the Agriculture and Food Horowitz, C. R., Tuzzio, L., Rojas, M., Monteith, S. A., & Sisk, J. E. (2004). How do urban
Initiative Competitive grant (No. 2015-68001-23248) from the U.S. African Americans and latinos view the influence of diet on hypertension? Journal of
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under the Childhood Obesity Prevention Challenge Area to Cooperative https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2017.05.047
Extension and the Department of Human Development and Family Lloyd, A. B., Lubans, D. R., Plotnikoff, R. C., Collins, C. E., & Morgan, P. J. (2014).
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findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication org/10.1016/j.appet.2014.04.010
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S. Department of Agriculture. The authors acknowledge the under­ role in promoting healthy behaviors at home: Focus group findings. Journal of the
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