CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND THEORY - Portales - The more similar the groups are at the start of the study,

are at the start of the study, the less bias

- defined as a visual representation in research that helps to there will be
illustrate the expected in the results.
relationship between cause and effect. It is also called a conceptual - findings are likely to be reliable, even though the study was not a
model or randomized
research model. controlled
PURPOSE OF CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK CASE STUDY – Delos Santos
- to improve the quality of a research study. - method of intensively studying a phenomenon over time within
IMPORTANCE OF A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK its natural setting
- clarifies the context of the study in one or a few sites.
- justifies the study to the reader. - focus on an "individual unit," what Robert Stake (2008, pp. 119-
- helps you check your own understanding of the problem and the 120) calls a
need for the "functioning specific" or "bounded system."
study. - difficult research method that requires advanced research skills
- illustrates the expected relationship between the variables and on the part of the
defines the researcher, and is therefore, often prone to error. Benbasat et al.
objectives for the research. (1987)
- refine the study objectives and choose the methods appropriate to TYPES OF CASE STUDY
meet them 1. Descriptive - or illustrative case study, presents a complete
THEORY - “a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, description of an event
propositions, that within its context" (Wholey et al 1994, 164).
presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations 2. Instrumental - occur when the individual or group allows
among the variables, researchers to understand
with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena.” – more than what is initially obvious to observers.
Kerlinger (1973) 3. Intrinsic case study - Should Use This Approach When The Intent
FUNCTIONS OF THEORY Is To Better
- identifies the start for the research problem by presenting the Understand The Case.
gaps, weak points, 4. Multi-case study - involves selecting and analyzing two or more
and inconsistencies in previous researchers. cases that share
- puts together all the constructs or concepts related with the some common characteristics or features, but also differ in some
researcher’s topic. aspects.
- presents the relationships among variables that have been NOTE: case study is in-depth and detailed examination of a specific
investigated . individual, group,
EXAMPLE: event, or phenomenon within its real-life context. to gain a
- SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY comprehensive
- Albert Bandura understanding of the subject under investigation by collecting and
- People learn by observing others and that self-efficacy plays a analyzing various
crucial role in types of data, such as interviews, observations, documents, and
learning and behavior archival records.
NOTE: Both conceptual framework and theory specify or explain the CITING SOURCES – Partido
relations among - means that you show, within the body of your text, that you took
variables, and they serve as a guide for research. they provide the words, ideas,
essential structure and figures, images, etc. from another place.
design for a study, which is why they are so important in research. - short way to uniquely identify a published work (e.g. book,
Without them, research article, chapter, web
becomes purposeless. site). found in bibliographies and reference lists and are also collected
QUASI EXPERIMENTAL – Arzadon in article
- quasi means “resembling.” designed a lot like a true experiment and book databases.
except that in a IMPORTANCE OF CITING SOURCES
quasi - experimental design participants are not randomly assigned - To show your reader you've done proper research by listing
to sources you used to
experimental groups. get your information
- are studies that try to figure out if something causes something - To be a responsible scholar by giving credit to other researchers
else, and
- aims to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between an acknowledging their ideas
independent and - To avoid plagiarism by quoting words and ideas used by other
dependent variable. groups may not be equivalent at the start of the authors
study, which - To allow your reader to track down the sources you used by
can introduce bias into the results. citing them accurately
- most likely to be conducted in field settings in which random in your paper by way of footnotes, a bibliography or reference list
assignment is difficult DIFFERENT CITATION STYLES
or impossible. conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of a 1. APA citation style is the official style of the American
treatment—perhaps Psychological Association.
a type of psychotherapy or an educational intervention used to cite sources in psychology, education and social science.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF QUASI – EXPERIMENTAL originated in
1. nonequivalent groups design – the researcher chooses existing 1929 article published in psychological bulletin that framed the basic
groups that guidelines.
appear similar, but where only one of the groups experiences the Example:
treatment - Sapolsky, R.M. (2017). Behave: The biology of humans at our best
2. Regression discontinuity – people above the standard receives the and worst.
treatment Penguin Books.
and those below the standard does not receive the treatment 2. MLA (Modern Language Association) style for documentation is
3. Natural experiments – researchers control which group the widely used in the
subjects are humanities, especially in writing on language and literature. brief
assigned to. An external event or situation (nature) result in a random parenthetical
assignment of subjects to the treatment group. Observational in citations in the text keyed to an alphabetical list of works cited that
nature. appears at the
THE TWO GROUPS OF QUASI UNDERGOES: end of the work
1. Experiment class – pretest – treatment – post test Example:
2. Control class – pretest – post test - United States, Federal Maritime Commission. Hawaiian Trade
NOTE: Study: An Economic
- Quasi-experimental research involves manipulation of an Analysis. Government Printing Office, 1978.
independent variable 3. Chicago is a documentation style that has been published by
without the random assignment of participants to conditions or orders the Chicago University
of Press since 1906. incorporates rules of grammar and punctuation
conditions. common in
American English. Typically, Chicago style presents two basic record. It gives an in-depth analysis of their culture and activities that
documentation are traditional to
systems: (1) notes and bibliography and (2) author-date. them, or to behavior as a result of a phenomenon or issue.
Example: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY – Oliveros
- Michael Pollan, The Omnivore’s Dilemma: A Natural History of - an overview or a brief account of the available research on a
Four Meals (New given topic.
York: Penguin, 2006), 99 – 100. - -a short paragraph summarizing and evaluating the source.
4. IEEE citation style includes in-text citations, numbered in square - a reference list that includes a brief summary and evaluation of
brackets, which each source.
refer to the full citation listed in the reference list at the end of the - summary and evaluation of a source
paper. The ANNOTATED - to annotate is when critical or explanatory notes are
reference list is organized numerically, not alphabetically. provided.
Example: BIBLIOGRAPHY - A bibliography is a list of sources
D. Sarunyagate, Ed., Lasers New York: McGrawHill, 1996. TYPES OF ANNOTATION
CONSEQUENCES OF NOT CITING SOURCES 1. Descriptive annotation - summarizes the approach and arguments
- Destroyed Student Reputation of a source in
- Destroyed Academic Reputation an objective way, without attempting to assess their validity.
- Legal Repercussions 2. Evaluative annotation - describes the content of a source, but it
- Monetary Repercussions goes on to
- Plagiarized Research evaluate elements like the validity of the source’s arguments and the
NOTE: citing sources is a crucial aspect of academic and appropriateness of its methods.
professional writing. It is a way 3. Reflective annotation - similar to an evaluative one, but it focuses
to give credit to the original authors and provide readers with the on the source’s
means to verify and usefulness or relevance to your own research.
explore the information further. By mastering the art of citation, you Types of annotated bibliographies
demonstrate integrity, 1. DESCRIPTIVE OR INFORMATIVE - summarizes a source as
strengthen your arguments, and contribute to the overall body of does an abstract; it
knowledge. describes why the source is useful for researching a particular topic or
ETHNOGRAPHY – Buendia question
- ETHNOS = people or tribe and GRAPHIA = writing and its distinctive features.
- anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski. 2. ANALYTICAL OR CRITICAL - analyzes what is being said. It
- descriptive study of a particular human society or the process of examines the strengths
making such a and weaknesses of what is presented as well as describing the
study. requires the complete immersion of the anthropologist in applicability of the
the culture and author's conclusions
everyday life of the people who are the subject of his study. Elements of Annotated Bibliography
(Britannica) 1. APA Title Page
- the art and science of describing a group or culture. (David 2. Numbered pages (begin numbering with the title page)
Fetterman) 3. APA formatted reference list (begin on new page)
- emphasizes studying a phenomenon within the context of its 4. Annotation(s) of source(s) included in the reference list
culture. Components of an Annotation
CHARACTERISTICS - provide a critical summary of the source listed in the reference
1. CONTEXTUAL - the subjects normally live and work entry.
2. UNOBSTRUSIVE - the research avoids manipulating the - Length is generally five to seven sentences.
phenomena under - Consider SEAR (Summarize, Evaluate, Assess, and Reflect)
investigation when writing your
3. LONGITUDINAL - relatively long process annotation.
4. INTERPRETATIVE - carries out interpretative analysis of data - Summarize the main idea of the source (two to four sentences).
5. ORGANIC - there is interaction between questions/ hypothesis - Evaluate and Assess the source for its credibility, objectivity,
and data reliability, and
collection/ interpretation currency. Compare it to the other sources used in your bibliography
Ethnography as a method (one to two
1. People’s behavior is studied in everyday on texts, rather than sentences).
experimental - Reflect on the usefulness and relevancy of this source to your
conditions created by the researchers. topic (one to two
2. Data are gathered from a range or resources, but observation sentences).
and/or relatively PURPOSE OF AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
conversations are usually the main ones. - review the literature of a particular subject;
3. The approach to data collection is unstructured. - demonstrate the quality and depth of reading that you have done;
4. based on mainly three types: Interviews, Observations, - exemplify the scope of sources available
Documents - highlight sources that may be of interest to other readers and
5. We can get data through: Watching what happened, Listening to researchers;
what is said, - explore and organize sources for further research.
Asking questions in formal and informal ways NOTE: mastering the art of creating annotated bibliographies is a
Methodological principles of ethnographic research crucial tool for any
1. NATURALISM - To capture the character of naturally occurring student or researcher. It enables us to identify, summarize, and
human behavior critically assess sources,
2. UNDERSTANDING - We can understand the situation of the base which is essential for producing high-quality academic work. I've
human come to appreciate
background and anything to happen in the research. the significance of properly citing sources and understanding their
3. DISCOVERY - Research is based on inductive or discovery-based relevance.
research. CHOOSING A TITLE/TOPIC – Ragma
Advantages - a specific subject or area of interest that a researcher wants to
1. One of the most valuable aspect is the depth of understanding. investigate or
2. Can challenge “taken for granted” assumptions explore in-depth through research.
Disadvantages - it predicts content.
1. Takes a long time. - it catches the reader's interest.
2. Does not have much breadth - it reveals the nature or genre of the manuscript.
3. Ethical concerns about consent, privacy, harm, and exploitation. - it contains keywords that will make it easy to access by a computer
NOTE: Ethnography is research that focuses on the lives, culture, search
traditions, and daily PURPOSE - to identify a specific area of inquiry that the researcher
activities of the people within its scope. It collects natural, no wants to explore and
interference, and non investigate.
experimental raw data, giving a first-hand view for the researchers to
observe and
HOW TO CHOOSE RESEARCH TOPIC
1. Identify your Interests people’s social actions, interactions and experiences (Harappa, 2021)
2. Review the Literature - ‘grounded’ because they are grounded in the participants’ own
3. Consult with your Advisor/Instructor explanations or
4. Consider the Scope and Feasibility interpretations
5. Brainstorm with Peers grounded theory is not:
6. Consider the Relevance - Hypothesis collect & analyze data prove or disprove hypothesis
CHARACTERISTICS - data collection data analysis derive theory
1. Relevance grounded theory is:
2. Specificity - collect & analyze data derive theory
3. Feasibility - data collection data analysis derive theory
4. Novelty WHEN SHOULD YOU USE GROUNDED THEORY?
5. Clarity - when little is known about a phenomenon
6. Importance - if there is an existing theory, but it is potentially incomplete as the
7. Significance data used to
NOTE: a research topic serves as the compass guiding a researcher's derive that theory wasn’t collected from the group of participants that
journey, providing you plan
direction and purpose to their study. It is the initial step that identifies on researching (Delve, 2021)
a broad area of 2 fundamental concepts
interest, which is then refined and explored further through the 1) data collection and analysis are cyclical (data collection data
research process. The title, analysis)
on the other hand, encapsulates the essence of the research, acting as 2) start with raw data such as transcripts... ...and turn them into a
the first point of theory grounded
contact for readers. This label is important, as it is the most widely in the data
read part of a research BENEFITS
paper and conveys the paper's contents and objectives. - Findings accurately represent real world settings
HISTORICAL RESEARCH – Castro - Great for new discoveries
- investigating and studying past events, people, and societies using a - Data collection and analysis are streamlined
variety of LIMITATIONS
sources and methods. aims to reconstruct and interpret the past based - Difficulty recruiting
on the - Time consuming to collect data
available evidence. (Hassan, 2023) - Challenges in analysis
- Describing and examining past events to better understand the NOTE: Grounded theory is the best research method to use when
present and to your focus of study
anticipate potential effects on the future. requires real time data. It is tedious because it requires iterative
Methods process of data collection
1. Archival research: analyzing documents and records that have and analysis.
been
preserved over time ACTION RESEARCH – Feliciano, Del Rosario, Estilong
2. Oral history: conducting interviews with individuals who have - has two constructs, the first is ‘action’ and the second is ‘research’
lived through a which exhibits
particular historical period or event. the links between them (Hall & Keynes, 2005).
3. Artifact analysis: examining physical objects from the past to gain - form of investigation designed for use by teachers to attempt to
insights into solve problems
past cultures and practices. and improve professional practices in their own classrooms. It
4. Secondary sources: analyzing published works, such as books, involves systematic
articles, and observations and data collection
academic papers, that discuss past events and cultures. - allows teachers to study their own classroom... in order to better
5. Fieldwork: conducting on-site research in a particular location, understand them
such as visiting to be able to improve their quality or effectiveness’ (Mertler, 2012b,
a historical site or conducting ethnographic research in a particular p. 4).
community. - aims to contribute both to the practice concerns of people in an
Strengths immediate
- Identifying key elements of past negative events can play a problematic situation and to the goals of social science by joint
significant role in collaboration
preventing certain similar circumstances. within a mutually acceptable ethical framework’.
- Helps identify root causes of social problems - Classroom-based action research (CBAR) typically involves
- A researcher is not involved with the event teachers conducting
Limitations collaborative, evidence-based investigations into their own classroom
- Reliance on incomplete or bias data routines
- Difficulty in generalizing findings and relationships
- Lack of control over variables PURPOSE
- Limited ability to test hypotheses - to improve teaching and learning by taking a collaborative,
NOTE: historical research aims to study past events, society and reflective, problem
people. Historical solving approach to investigating classroom practice. involves cycles
research is a dynamic and indispensable discipline that enriches our of planning,
understanding of implementing, observing, and reflecting on changes made to improve
the past and informs our present and future. It fosters critical thinking, practice.
cultural BENEFITS
preservation, and a deeper appreciation for the complexities of human - It helps teachers to become more reflective practitioners.
history. - It helps teachers to develop a shared understanding of teaching and
GROUNDED THEORY – Basteng learning.
- a qualitative method that enables you to study a particular - It is a collaborative process that encourages teamwork and builds
phenomenon or relationships
process and discover new theories that are based on the collection and among educators.
analysis - It allows teachers to try new ideas and see how they work in
of real - world data (Delve, 2021) practice.
- a research method concerned with the generation of theory - it encourages teacher-student dialogue about learning and helps
- used to uncover such things as social relationships and behaviors of students
groups become more engaged in their education.
- a set of systematic inductive methods for conducting qualitative - It promotes professional development among educators.
research aimed - It is a cyclical process, so researchers can continue to refine their
toward theory development (Charmaz. K., 2009) practices based
- aiming to construct new theory from collected data that accounts for on the feedback they receive.
those data - It can lead to positive changes in the classroom and the school.
- a qualitative research approach that attempts to uncover the PRINCIPLES OF ACTION RESEARCH
meanings of
- systematic investigation on the self-practice for the teachers’ lending itself to an ongoing process of reflection and revision.
professional - findings emerge as action develops and takes place; however, they
development. Its uniqueness emanates from the set of principles that are not
guide it. conclusive or absolute, but ongoing (Koshy, 20, pgs. 1-2)
REFLEXIVE CRITIQUE - Evidence based inquiry is conducted to NOTE: Action research is a dynamic and flexible approach that
form judgements. has its empowers practitioners
roots from self-awareness and situational understanding with personal to tackle real-world challenges, improve their practices, and
filters in a social contribute to the
location.
HOW REFLEXIVE CRITIQUE WORKS IN THE CONTEXT advancement of knowledge and justice in their respective fields. It
OF ACTION RESEARCH? combines practical
- SELF-AWARENESS problem-solving with reflection, collaboration, and ethical
- CRITICAL EXAMINATION considerations to create
- ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS positive, lasting change in various contexts.
- ADAPTATIONS AND IMPROVEMENT PARTS OF BASIC RESEARCH – Guiquing, Lariosa
- DIALOGUE AND COLLABORATION - known as Fundamental or Pure Research, aims to increase
DIALECTIC CRITIQUE - Truth is brought to light through the knowledge and
process of discussion and understanding about the natural world without necessarily having any
scrutinizing. the dialogue between the practitioners (teacher) and the practical
participants or immediate applications. driven by curiosity and the desire to
(students). reality is understood on the basis of the relationship explore new
between the frontiers of knowledge. (Hassan, 2021)
phenomenon and its context, and between the elements constituting - to collect information about how nature and people are put together.
the phenomenon. - a systematic study directed toward greater knowledge or
HOW DIALECTIC CRITIQUE WORKS IN THE CONTEXT understanding of the
OF ACTION RESEARCH? fundamental aspects of phenomena and of observable facts without
- EXPLORING OPPOSING VIEWS specific
- ANALYZING TENSIONS applications towards processes or products in mind.
- SYNTHESIZING INSIGHTS Completed parts of basic research
- ITERATIVE PROCESS I. Title Page
COLLABORATIVE RESOURCE - The action plan itself calls for II. Abstract
the collaboration with III. Acknowledgment
colleagues, administrators and students in particular. IV. Introduction of the Research
COLLABORATIVE PROCESS PLAYS A CRUCIAL ROLE IN V. Literature Review
ACTION RESEARCH SINCE: VI. Research Questions
- DIVERSE PERSPECTIVES VII. Scope and Limitation
- SHARED RESPONSIBILITY NOTE: basic research plays a crucial role in expanding our
- INCREASED EXPERTISE fundamental understanding
- SUSTAINABLE CHANGE of the world around us. It is driven by curiosity and the pursuit of
RISK - Testing the workability of the new plan by practitioners knowledge for its own
involves risk, but without sake, rather than immediate practical applications. While it may not
taking challenges in hand, no development or progress is possible. yield immediate
POSSIBLE RISKS IN CONDUCTING ACTION RESEARCH: tangible benefits, it often forms the foundation for future innovations
- ETHICAL RISKS and applied
- FINANCIAL RISKS research. Basic research contributes to the advancement of science
- PERSONAL RISKS and technology,
PLURAL STRUCTURE - its collaborative quality embodies for a fostering innovation and solving complex problems in the long term.
multiplicity of views, RESEARCH INSTRUMENT AND DATA COLLECTION –
commentaries and critiques, leads to changes in action plans and Sibayan
interpretations. - is a tool used to collect, measure, and analyze data from subjects
accounts for many explicit commentaries and their contradicting around the
views with a range of research topic.
options for the action to be executed. - is the process of developing, testing, and using the instrument
THIS PLURAL STRUCTURE TYPICALLY INCLUDES: Guidelines in Developing Research Instrument
- RESEARCHERS 1. Background
- PARTICIPANTS 2. Questionnaire Conceptualization
- STAKEHOLDERS 3. Establishing the Validity of the Questionnaire
THEORY, PRACTICE, TRANSFORMATION - Continuous 4. Establishing the Reliability of the Questionnaire
transformation. theory informs a new 5. Pilot testing of the questionnaire
practice and it refines and contributes for the development of a new 6. Revise the questionnaire
theory. Any action Data Collection - the process of gathering and measuring information
is planned based on idea with implicitly held assumptions, theories on variables of
and hypotheses and interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to
the theoretical knowledge being enhanced by the findings of research. answer stated research
THE FOLLOWING ARE THE KEY COMPONENTS THAT questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. (Most, 2003)
GUIDE THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Factors to consider in Data Collection
- THEORY - The aim of the research
- PRACTICE - The type of data that you will collect
- TRANSFORMATION - The methods and procedures you will use to collect, store, and
ASPECTS TO CONSIDER IN CBAR process the data
- a process for improving educational practice. Its method involves Data Collection Methods
action, Experiment – to test a causal relationship
evaluation, and reflection. It is a process to gather evidence to Observation – to understand something in its natural setting
implement Survey – to understand the general characteristics or opinions of a
change in practices. group of
- participative and collaborative. undertaken by individuals with a people
common Ethnography – to study the culture of a community or organization
purpose. first hand
- develops reflection practices based on the interpretations made by Archival – to understand current or historical events, conditions or
participants. practices
- Knowledge is created through action and application. Secondary data collection – to analyze data from the populations
- base in problem-solving, if the solution to the problem results in the that you can’t
improvement access first – hand
of practice. NOTE: Defending a thesis is a pivotal. During a thesis defense, the
- iterative; plans are created, then implemented, revised, then student presents their
implemented,
original research findings and arguments to a panel of experts in the - also called narrative research is the study of people's experiences.
field. This panel, Narratives or
comprised of professors and scholars, rigorously examines the thesis, stories are the object of analysis (Caine metal., 2013).
probing the - can be studied by "listening, observing, living alongside another,
methodology, theoretical framework, and conclusions. The defense is writing, and
not just an interpreting texts" (Clandinin, 2006,p.46)
assessment of the research but also a demonstration of the student's METHODS
ability to think Interview - used method for collecting data, especially when
critically, respond to questions, and defend their ideas. It is a crucible researchers seek to
of knowledge and understand and explore personal experiences, stories, and narratives.
intellect, where the candidate must navigate the delicate balance Qualitative Survey - open-ended questions should be used to enable
between participants
confidence and humility. Successfully defending a thesis is a to offer thorough and in-depth responses. Use words like “how,”
testament to one's “what,” “why,” or
dedication, expertise, and capacity to contribute meaningfully to the “describe”
academic Recording oral History - preserving and documenting personal
community. It is a rite of passage that symbolizes the transition from narratives,
a student to a scholar. memories, and historical experiences
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH – Ancheta LIMITATIONS
- Correlational research involves collecting data to determine whether - time-consuming method beyond even the interview process itself.
and what - Subject’s will focus on their lived experience and not comment on
degree, a relationship exist between two or more quantifiable the greater
variables. social movements at work at the time.
TYPES OF CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH NOTE: From those readings or different sources, my reflection is that
1. Positive Correlation - examines how two variables are related in a Narrative Inquiry
linear approach is best used when the researcher wants to explore the life
fashion. A positive correlation indicates that the two variables have a experiences of a
favorable association. person or persons. It is achieved through the participant telling stories
2. Negative Correlation - looks at the relationship between two about some aspect
variables in an of their life.
inverse fashion. A negative correlation indicates that the two PARTS OF A CLASSROOM-BASED ACTION RESEARCH –
variables do not Lauayan, Llamelo
correlate well. - involves teachers conducting collaborative, evidence-based
3. Zero correlation - complete absence of any relationship between investigations into
two their own classroom routines and relationships with a view to
variables. In statistics, this is represented by a correlation coefficient understanding and
of zero. improving the quality and justice of their practices in the classroom
CHARACTERISTIC OF CORRELATIONAL (Coghlan &
1. DYNAMIC - relationships between two variables are never static Brydon-Miller, 2012)
and are I.
constantly shifting. TITLE PAGE - The title page is the first page of your article, it is
2. NON-EXPERIMENTAL - Correlational research is a non- important to have
experimental method. in a well-formatted title page that clearly represents your paper. This
order to support or refute a theory, researchers do not necessarily page should
need to include all the information necessary for a reader to identify the
modify variables using a scientific technique. variables are not contents of
changed or the article
subjected to external conditioning II.
3. BACKWARD LOOKING - solely considers historical ABSTRACT - One-paragraph summary of the entire study –
information and keeps track typically no more
of past events. measured and used by researchers to identify historical than 250 words in length or shorter. an overview of the study.
patterns III.
between two variables. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT - where you show your appreciation for
METHOD OF CORRELATIONAL the people who
1. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION - method of data collection contributed to your project.
that involves IV.
observing people’s behavior where it naturally occurs, which is where CONTEXT AND RATIONALE - includes the description and
they are context of the study,
most often found. researcher is studying individuals in public spaces reason for conducting it, and results could be used in action planning.
like a V.
playground, movie theatre, or grocery store. INNOVATION, INTERVENTION, AND STRATEGIES -
2. SURVEYS - measure your key variables in survey research using describes the title and strategy
questionnaires. of your action research.
You can conduct surveys in-person, over the phone, through the mail, VI.
or ACTION RESEARCH QUESTIONS - designed to guide the study
online. and provide a
3. ARCHIVAL DATA - method for handling correlational data. The focus for investigation.
data that has VII.
previously been gathered through conducting similar types of study is ACTION RESEARCH METHODS - outlines the specific methods
known employed during
as archival information. the action research.
4. SECONDARY DATA - data that has already been obtained for a VIII.
different DISCUSSION OF RESULTS AND REFLECTION - analyze and
purpose, such as official records, polls, or prior research, in place of interpret the data they
collecting have collected during their research process. a space for reflection on
original data. the
NOTE: In summary, it is possible to do correlational research in cases findings of the study and understanding their implications.
where experimental IX.
research is not feasible. It investigates the connection between two ACTION PLAN - outlines the specific strategies and actions to be
variables. Since it is taken based
dynamic, changes may occur at any time. You can quickly obtain data on the findings of the research in order to achieve a particular goal or
via correlational objective.
research. To ensure that your findings are legitimate and trustworthy, X.
you can gather REFERENCES - This section includes a list of all the cited sources
data using a variety of techniques. and references
NARRATIVE INQUIRY – Chiong used throughout the action research study.
XI. - Describe the area in terms of its geographic location
FINANCIAL REPORT - A financial report is a section that includes - Discuss details about the locale that relates it to the study’s focus. If
a detailed needed, you
account of the expenses incurred during the research process. may also discuss the social and historical context of the place.
NOTE: It is important to know the parts of an action research because - Justify why this location is the best place for you to access samples
it provides a and collect
systematic framework for conducting research and making informed data.
decisions based on - You may use maps when: (1) the area is not frequently heard of;
that research. Having a firm grasp of the parts of action research (2) you have
enables researchers to multiple sites of whose locations you have to indicate.
conduct high-quality research, make evidence-based decisions, and RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS/SAMPLE
achieve - refer to individuals or groups of people that serve as the source
meaningful outcomes in their respective fields. of information
IDENTIFYING A RESEARCH TOPIC – Fronda during our data collection.
- a particular topic or area of interest that a researcher desires to delve Sampling - is the statistical process of selecting a subset (called a
deeper into “sample”) of a
through their study. The overall subject or question directs a research population of interest for purposes of making observations and
endeavor statistical inferences
and aids in directing the research efforts towards a certain goal. about that population (Batacherjee, 2012)
(Creswell, 2009; The Sampling Process:
Hassan, 2023) POPULATION - the group you want to generalize to
Main sources of topics SAMPLE FRAME - a list where you can draw your sample
- Theory SAMPLE - the actual units for observation
- Personal Experience - Sampling techniques can be grouped into two broad categories:
- Replication probability
- Library immersion (random) sampling and non-probability sampling.
A process to develop a topic - Probability sampling is a technique in which every unit in the
- Find a topic population has a
- Narrow Your Topic chance (non-zero probability) of being selected in the sample, and this
- Make it a Question chance
- List Main Concepts can be accurately determined.
- Analyze Your Topic The different types of probability sampling techniques include:
- Select Appropriate Tools - 1. Simple random Sampling; Lottery Method, Number Method
- Initial Results - 2. Systematic Sampling (file method) - assign numbers to the
- Revise sampling frame (e.g.
NOTE: A research topic is a particular topic or area of interest every 5th name in the list)
that a researcher desires to - 3. Stratified Random Sampling - the population is divided into
delve deeper into through their study. The topic becomes the strata (e.g.
central idea to learn about gender,economic status, age or location)
or explore. In developing a topic, we first find a topic that catches - 4. Cluster Sampling - population is clustered in groups. The
your interest, then clusters are selected
narrow your topic to be specific, next make your topic a question, list randomly
the main concepts, Nonprobability sampling - is a sampling technique in which some
units of the population
analyze your topic, and then select appropriate tools, get the initial have zero chance of selection or where the probability of selection
result, and finally cannot be
revise your topic. accurately determined.
RESEARCH DESIGN, LOCALE, PARTICIPANTS/SAMPLE – Types of nonprobability sampling techniques include:
Salvador - Convenience Sampling- also called accidental, chunk, and grab
- Research design is a comprehensive plan for data collection in sampling
an empirical - Purposive Sampling- also referred to as judgemental sampling
research project. It is a “blueprint” for empirical research aimed - Snowball Sampling- also known as referral sampling
at answering - Expert Sampling- involves only the people who the researcher
specific research questions or testing specific hypotheses identifies as experts.
(Batacherjee, 2012). - Quota sampling- The researcher calculates a set number of
- “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for participants for
collection and analysis of inclusion based on some predetermined variables (gender, age and
data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research etc.)
purpose with NOTE: Research design is the systematic and strategic framework
economy in procedure.” (Kothari, 2004) that guides the entire
Step-by-step guide on how to write a research design: research process. It involves making critical decisions about how a
- 1. Clearly Define Your Research Questions/Objectives research study will be
- 2. Select a Research Methodology conducted, from defining research questions and selecting appropriate
- 3. Outline the Research Approach methodologies
- 4.Choose Data Collection Methods to outlining data collection and analysis procedures. research locale is
- 5. Define the Sampling Strategy where you
- 6.Describe Data Analysis Procedures choose to conduct the study or collect the data that is appropriate in
- 7. Develop Data Collection Instruments the focus of your
- 8. Discuss Ethical Considerations study. While, in research participants/sample are those who are
- 9. Create a Research Timeline chosen or pick randomly
- 10. Consider Resources by the researcher as part of the study.
- 11. Address Limitations and Potential Challenges: FIELD RESEARCH – Dumayahon
- 12.Ensure Alignment with Research Objectives - study of ongoing organizational life in it’s naturally occurring
- 13. Write Clearly and Concisely settings with first
- 14.Review and Seek Feedback hands observations from a particular subjects frame of reference.
- 15.Finalize and Document (Van Maanen
RESEARCH LOCALE 1988)
- is a specific geographical area or location that is chosen as the THREE PRINCIPLES EMERGED:
field site for a - Study people in their natural setting
research project. It is the physical place where the data is collected - Study people by interacting with them
and the - Gain an understanding of the social world and make theoretical
research is conducted (Benjamin White, 2023). statements
GUIDELINES IN WRITING RESEARCH LOCALE about the member’s perspective
- Only identify the locale by its name only if you have sought FIELD SURVEY & FIELD INTERVIEW RESEARCH
permission. If the - Field survey is basically conducted to collect information about the
permission was not granted, refer to the locale to its characteristics chosen
problem for which varied types of tools are required. I.
- Field interview is a joint production of a researcher and a member. IMPORTANCE OF A GOOD INTRODUCTION - well-written
Members are introduction is
active participants whose insights, feelings, and cooperation are important because, quite simply, you never get a second chance to
essential parts of make a
a discussion process that reveals subjective meanings. good first impression.
SURVEY INTERVIEWS VERSUS FIELD RESEARCH what to include in writing an introduction
INTERVIEWS - Start with announcing your topic
- clear and beginning and end - Review the literature
- same standard questions are asked of all respondents in the same - Start with announcing your topic
sequence - State your thesis
- interviewer asks questions, and the respondent answers - Conclude with outline
- interviewer alone controls the pace and direction of interview II.
- beginning and the end are not clear. STRUCTURE AND APPROACH - * Think of the structure of the
- questions and order in which they are asked are tailored to specific introduction as an
people and inverted triangle of information.
situations III.
- a friendly conversational exchange, but with more interviewer HOW TO WRITE AN INTRO FOR A RESEARCH PAPER?
questions. - Define and Explain Concepts
- interviewer and member jointly control the pace and direction of the - Start with a Quotation
interview. - Communicate your Structure
METHODS OF FIELD RESEARCH - Be concise
- Direct Observations; data is collected via an observational method - When Do I Begin?
or subjects in - Always End with a Roadmap
a natural environment. IV.
- Participants Observations; the researcher is deeply involved in the NARRATIVE FLOW
research - Your introduction should clearly identify the subject area of interest.
process, not just purely as an observer, but also as a participant. - Establish context by providing a brief and balanced review of the
(Whyte 1984) pertinent
- Ethnography; to fieldwork conducted by a single investigator who published literature that is available on the subject.
“lives with and - Clearly state the hypothesis that you investigated.
lives like” those who studied for a lengthy period of time to describe - Why did you choose this kind of research study or design?
their culture V.
(Van Maanen 1955) TIPS & MISTAKES
- Qualitative Interview; Are close-ended questions that are asked - Keep in mind the aim of your research and make sure your
directly to the introduction supports
research subjects. it.
LIMITATIONS - Use an appealing and relevant hook that catches the reader’s
- The studies are expensive and time-consuming and can take years to attention right
complete. away.
- It is very difficult for the researcher to distance themselves from a - Make it obvious to your readers what your stance is.
bias in the - Demonstrate your knowledge of your subject.
research study. NOTE: Your introduction is an important road map for the rest of
NOTE: Field researchers begin data analysis and theoring during your paper. Your
the data collection introduction conveys a lot of information to your readers. You can let
phase. We can now appreciate implications of saying that in field them know what
research, the your topic is, why it is important, and how you plan to proceed with
researcher is directly involved with those being studied and is your discussion.
immersed in a natural DATA ANALYSIS AND DATA INTERPRETATION – Tamani
setting. Field research is difficult to conduct, but it is a way to - According to LeCompte and Schensul, is a process used by
study parts of the social researchers to reduce
world that otherwise could not be studied. data to a story and interpret it to derive insights.
COMPARATIVE RESEARCH – Arcalaz - most crucial part of any research. method or process in which one
- systematic approach to studying and analyzing two or more systematically
elements, cases, applies techniques to describe, draw conclusions from, or evaluate
variables, or entities to understand their similarities, differences, data. 1. Data
patterns, analysis provides a reliable source of evidence
relationships, and often to draw meaningful conclusions or make 1. Data analysis helps make informed decisions
comparisons. 2. Data analysis improves accuracy
RESEARCH METHOD 3. Data analysis saves time and money
Case Studies - to gain a comprehensive understanding of each case. 4. Data analysis provides insights into new research areas
Researchers - Data Quality
may examine historical, political, economic, social, or cultural aspects - Data Complexity
of individual - Data Analysis Methods
cases. - Data Ethics
Content Analysis - to understand trends or differences in - Data Skills
communication and - Be clear and concise in your writing
discourse. - Include all relevant information, including methods and statistics
Qualitative Analysis - to identify themes, patterns, or differences in - Discuss any limitations of your data
narratives or - Summarize your findings and discuss their implications
perspectives. DATA INTERPRETATION
NOTE: Comparative research presents the most important insights, - the process of using diverse analytical methods to review data and
and implications arrive at
derived from the analysis of different elements, cases, or variables. It relevant conclusions.
serves as a critical - the process of making sense of data by analyzing and drawing
conclusions from
component of the research process, allowing researchers to draw it.
meaningful MISTAKES
conclusions based on their investigations. - Mistake 1: Confusing correlation with causation
UNIT II: ORGANIZING THE INTRODUCTION – Malazzab - Mistake 2: Using biased or unreliable sources
- establishes your writing style and the quality of your research. - Mistake 3: Overlooking context and assumptions
- where you set up your topic and approach for the reader. - Mistake 4: Misusing statistics and graphs
- Serves the purpose of leading the reader from a general subject area - Mistake 5: Jumping to conclusions and ignoring alternatives
to a - Mistake 6: Failing to communicate and apply data
particular field of research. STEPS
- being conducted by scope, context, and importance. - Step 1: Assemble the Information You'll Need
- Step 2: Develop Findings Historical literature review - to place research in a historical context
- Step 3: Develop Conclusions to reveal familiarity
- Step 4: Develop Recommendations with the developments of relevant issue, concept, theory, and
NOTE: Data analysis and Data Interpretation is such an important phenomena concerning
tool when it comes to the research problem and to identify the likely directions for future
research and how it saves a huge lot of time for researchers, making research (University of
them not only Southern California, 2018).
efficient but more productive as well. It provides reliable evidence, Integrative literature review - to summarize and synthesize past
helps make informed empirical or theoretical
decisions, increases accuracy, saves time and money, and provides literature to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a
insights into new specific phenomenon or
research areas. By understanding the importance and capabilities of problem. (University of Southern California, 2018).
data analysis and Argumentative literature review - Examines literature selectively in
data interpretation, researchers can leverage its power to improve order to support or
their studies and refute an argument, deeply imbedded assumption, or philosophical
better understand the phenomena they are studying. problem already
Organizing Literature Review – Pancho established in the literature (University of Southern California, 2018).
• a piece of academic writing demonstrating knowledge and Methodological literature review - It focuses on examining methods
understanding of the of analysis in present
academic literature on a specific topic placed in context related research articles. Thus, it concerns with “how” research
• includes a critical evaluation of the material findings came about, not
• a synthesis of your sources. on “what” (or the findings) the researchers discovered.
•written in a logical, structured way and maintain an objective Systematic literature review - to systematically draw together all
perspective and use a known knowledge on a
formal voice. topic area. it requires more demanding and well-defined approach
- content covering existing research, theories and evidence compared to most
- own critical evaluation and discussion of this content other types of literature review.
Writing Literature Review Elements Meta-analysis - detect patterns and relationships and draw
1. Introduction conclusions based on them.
- Define the topic of the literature review Meta-analysis concerns with deductive research approach.
- Introduce the central theme and organization of the literature review Meta-synthesis - Integrates, evaluates and interprets findings of
- Summarize the state of research on the topic multiple qualitative
- Frame the literature review with your research question research studies.
2. Body PURPOSE OF LITERATURE REVIEW
- Chronological, Thematic, Methodological - It shares with the reader the results of other studies that arc closely
3. Conclusion/Recommendation related to the
- Current Situation one being undertaken. It relates a study to the larger, ongoing
History - chronological progression of the field, the literature, or an dialogue in the
idea that is necessary literature, filling in gaps and extending prior studies. (Cooper, 1984:
to understand the literature review Marshall &
Methods/Standards - criteria you used to select the sources in your Rossman, 200)
literature review or the - It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study
way in which you present your information as well as a
Questions for Further Research - What questions about the field benchmark for comparing the results with other findings. All
has the review sparked? The purpose of a literature review is three-fold:
How will you further your research as a result of the review? 1. to survey the current state of knowledge in the area of inquiry,
Thematic - development of the harpoon for whale hunting; harpoon 2. to identify key authors, articles, theories, and findings in that area,
technology and
- how they are portrayed as "evil" in cultural documents 3. to identify gaps in knowledge in that research area. (Anol
- how they are personified Bhattacherjee, 2012)
- how their proportions are exaggerated NOTE: Literature reviews provide a systematic and rigorous
- their behaviors misunderstood examination of the existing
- time periods within each section according to the point made literature, enabling researchers to assess the strengths and
Methodological weaknesses of previous
- cultural differences between the portrayal of whales in American, studies, identify research gaps, and propose novel research
British, and directions. They also
French art work contribute to the development of knowledge in a particular field by
- economic impact of whaling on a community. summarizing and
- A methodological scope will influence either the types of documents evaluating the current state of research. The purpose of a literature
in the review review is to collect
or the way in which these documents are discussed. relevant, timely research on chosen topic, and synthesize it into a
NOTE: Summarize the review of the literature. Identify areas of cohesive summary of
further research on the existing knowledge in the field.
topic. Connect the review with your research. You cannot cram the CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK – Portillo
RRL. How to make a Conceptual Framework
PURPOSE OF A LITERATURE REVIEW – Pablis - Choose appropriate research questions.
- section of a document that collects key sources on a topic and - Define the different types of variables involved.
discusses those - Determine the cause-and-effect relationships.
sources in conversation with each other (also called synthesis). Independent Variable & Dependent Variable
(Anonymous, n.d.) - The dependent variable is the main outcome you want to
- Their form, function, and outcomes vary, due to how they depend on measure, explain, or
the research predict in your study. It should be a variable that can be observed,
question, the standards and criteria of the academic discipline, and the measured, or
orthodoxies of the research community charged with the research. assessed quantitatively or qualitatively. Independent variables are
- a search, summary and evaluation of the available past and current the factors or
literature variables that may influence, explain, or predict changes in the
related to the research problem. The literature can include articles, dependent
abstracts, variable.
reviews, monographs, dissertations, other research reports, textbooks COMMON VARIABLES
and Mediator Variables - Independent Variables, Dependent Variables
electronic media, Moderator Variables - Alters the effect that an Independent Variable
TYPES OF LITERATURE REVIEW has on a
Narrative literature review - traditional literature review. It Dependent Variable
summarizes, criticizes and draws Control Variables - Make sure they don’t interfere with results
conclusions about a topic to identify gaps or inconsistencies in a body A moderator is not affected by the IV. A mediator is affected by
of knowledge. the IV
NOTE: Developing a conceptual framework is a dynamic process - Intro
that empowers - Body – area of study, concentration guidelines, general learning
individuals to make meaningful connections, analyze complex - Conclusion
phenomena, and set a 5 Key Elements of a Research Rationale
solid foundation for successful research endeavors. - Knowledge gap
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH – Baluto - Research problem or question
- determine if a specific treatment influences an outcome. This impact - Research objectives
is assessed - Relevance
by providing a specific treatment to one group and withholding it - Methodological justification
from another 7 steps of writing research rationale
and then determining how groups scored on an outcome.Experiments 1. Identify and define the research problem
includes 2. Review the lit
true experiments with random assignment of subjects to treatment 3. State the significance
conditions,and quasi-experiments that used nonrandomized 4. Justify the need for the study
designs.(Keppel,1991)Included within quasi-experiments are single - 5. Highlight the expected result or outcome
subject 6. Discuss the methodology
design 7. Connect to broader goals and explain accomplishments
Pre-experimental design NOTE: research rationale serves as the cornerstone of a well-
- independent variable that does not vary or a control group that is not designed and successful
randomly research project. It ensures that research efforts are focused,
selected. meaningful, and ethically
True Experimental Design sound. Additionally, it provides a comprehensive and logical
- It results in a systemic approach to quantitative data collection justification for embarking
involving on a specific investigation. And it is important to describe the
mathematical models in the analyses. rationale of your research
Quasi-experimental design in order to put the significance and novelty of your specific research
- involves nonrandom selection of study participants. project into
IMPORTANCE OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH perspective. Once you have successfully articulated the reason(s) for
1. Experimental research allows researchers to establish cause and your research, you
effect will have convinced readers of the importance of your work!
relationships. WRITING METHODOLOGY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD
2. It provides a systematic approach to testing hypothesis and EDUCATION RESEARCH
collecting empirical CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
evidence. ETHICS IN RESEARCH – Villanueva
3. Experimental research helps in discovering new knowledge and - The part of the research paper that brings everything together
advancing in a logical manner.
scientific fields. As the last part of a research paper, a conclusion provides a clear
NOTE: In summary, according to Creswell and Keppel, experimental interpretation
research aims to of the results of your research in a way that stresses the significance
assess the influence of a specific treatment on an outcome. This is of your study.
done by providing the - The conclusion is intended to help the reader understand why
treatment to one group and not to another, and then comparing their your research
outcomes. should matter to them after they have finished reading the paper.
Experimental research includes true experiments with random subject A conclusion is
assignment and not merely a summary of your points or a re-statement of your
quasi-experiments with nonrandomized designs, including single- research problem
subject designs. but a synthesis of key points.
ORGANIZING THE RATIONALE – Manalansan - Conclusions are often the last section your audience reads, so
- The rationale of your research is the objective of the study. The they are just as
reason should important as introductions in research papers. They are your final
explain why the research was started in the first place. It’s an essential opportunity to
part of your leave a good impression on
work since it demonstrates the significance and uniqueness of your the reader.
research. IMPORTANCE
- The justification for the study is another term for the rationale for - 1. Presenting the last word on the issues you raised in your paper.
the research. - 2. Summarizing your thoughts and conveying the larger implications
What Is Research Rationale and When Is It Written? of your study.
- Research rationale is the “why” behind every academic - 3. Demonstrating the importance of your ideas.
research. It not only - 4. Introducing possible new or expanded ways of thinking about the
frames the study but also outlines its objectives, questions, and research
expected problem
outcomes. it helps to identify the potential limitations of the study. PROBLEMS TO AVOID
It serves as a - 1. Generic and obvious opening phrases
lighthouse for researchers that guides through data collection and - 2. Long and elaborate discussion
analysis, - 3.Appealing to your readers’ emotions
ensuring their efforts remain focused and purposeful. - 4.Failure to reveal problems and negative results
- Typically, a rationale is written at the beginning of the research - 5.Apologizes instead of addressing the weaknesses of the research
proposal or Writing a Research Paper Conclusion
research paper. It is an essential component of the introduction - Step 1: Restate the problem
section and - Step 2: Sum up the paper
provides the foundation for the entire study. - Step 3: Discuss the implications
How to write Research Rationale What is recommendation?
- It is the last paragraph of the background of the study. - given to someone who is looking to conduct research on a
- It represents the argument and evidence that there is an urgent and specific topic or area.
pressing include suggestions for research methods, data collection techniques,
need to conduct the study. sources of
- Evidences supporting the argument should be presented and information, and other factors that can help to ensure the research
discussed - to call for action or solutions to the problems you have
comprehensively in the preceeding part, which is the background of investigated in your
the study. research paper. Your recommendations highlight specific solutions
- Specific and discrete sources should be cited like school meetings, and measures
minutes of the to be implemented based on the findings of your research.
meeting, evaluation and assessment results supporting the claim that PURPOSE
there is an - to provide guidance on how to improve or solve a problem based
issue or problem that merits the conduction of the study. on the findings
How to organize your Research Rationale
of research. Research recommendations are typically made at the end - Human Subjects protection
of a
research study and are based on the conclusions drawn from the constraints in the data or analysis that may affect the validity of the
research data. conclusions. Overall,
- Provide actionable advice to individuals or organizations that clear and well-supported conclusions, along with practical and
can help them relevant
make informed decisions, develop effective strategies, or implement recommendations, are essential components of effective
changes communication in many fields,
that address the issues identified in the research. including science, business, and policy-making.
- to facilitate the transfer of knowledge from researchers to DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH – Adsuara
practitioners, - a method of research design that focuses on observing and
policymakers, or other stakeholders who can benefit from the documenting
research findings. phenomena as they naturally occur. It involves gathering data to
What to avoid provide a
1. Undermining your own work, but rather offer suggestions on how detailed and accurate description of a particular subject or topic,
future studies CHARACTERISTICS
can build upon it - Observation and Description: all about observing and describing a
2. Suggesting recommendations actually needed to complete your subject or
argument, phenomenon. focused on documenting the facts.
but rather ensure that your research stands alone on its own merits - No Manipulation: does not involve manipulating variables. it
3. Using recommendations as a place for self-criticism, but rather as a observes and records
natural existing conditions or behaviors as they naturally occur.
extension point for your work - Objective: It's important to let the data speak for itself, just like a
How to Write Research Recommendations reporter delivering
- Be concise in your statements. the news.
- Organize your ideas logically and coherently. - Uncontrolled variables: In it, none of the variables are influenced
- Provide specific and concrete suggestions in any way. This
- Match recommendations to your conclusion. uses observational methods to conduct the research.
- Ensure your solutions are achievable DESCRIPTIVE RESEACH METHODS
- Use a comprehensive approach. The observational method - is the most effective method to conduct
- Create content tailored to your readers. this research,
SOME TIPS IN WRITING RESEARCH RECOMMENDATION researchers directly observe and record behaviors, events, or
- should be the objective of the research situations without
- should come from your review and analysis intervening.
- should be written in the order of priority. Case studies - involve in-depth research and study of individuals or
- if associated with different categories then you should categorize groups. Case
them. studies lead to a hypothesis and widen a further scope of studying a
Ethics - are the moral principles that govern a person's behavior. phenomenon.
referred to as doing In survey research - respondents answer through surveys or
what is morally and legally right questionnaires or polls.
Research ethics - is concerned with the responsibility of the They are a popular market research tool to collect feedback from
researchers to be honest and respondents.
respectful to all individuals who are involved in research study and LIMITATION
research should not - Potential biases in data collection
inflict harm on researcher as well as research subjects. - Inability to draw casual conclusion
Need Of Ethical Research - Respondents may not be truthful when answering
- Research ethics provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of - Incomplete Information
biomedical NOTE: The purpose of descriptive research is to systematically
research. gather, document, and
- Research ethics also educates and monitors scientists analyze information about a particular phenomenon or topic, often
- researchers conducting research to ensure a high ethical standard. without
- Research ethics involves the application of fundamental ethical manipulating variables or attempting to establish causal relationships.
principles to a This type of
variety of topics involving scientific research. research aims to provide a comprehensive and detailed snapshot of
Objectives of the research ethics the subject under
1. The first and broadest objective is to protect human participants. investigation.
2. The second objective is to ensure that research is conducted in a Synthesizing the Review of Related Literature – Parangan
way that - is an in-depth critical analysis of published scholarly research
serves interests of individuals, groups and/or society as a whole. related to a specific
3. Finally, the third objective is to examine specific research activities topic. Published scholarly research (aka, "the literature") may include
and projects journal
for their ethical soundness, looking at issues such as the management articles, books, book chapters, dissertations and thesis, or conference
of risk, proceedings.
protection of confidentiality and the process of informed consent. A solid literature review must:
Ethical principles in scientific research - be organized around and related directly to the thesis or research
- Honesty question you're
- Objectivity developing
- Carefulness - synthesize results into a summary of what is and is not known
- Accountability - identify areas of controversy in the literature
- formulate questions that need further research
- Intellectual Property Related Literature
- Responsible Publication - Synthesizing the review of related literature is a critical step in the
- Human Subjects protection research process,
as it involves bringing together and analyzing existing studies,
NOTE: Conclusions should be logical and clearly explained, and articles, and sources
should take into account to develop a coherent and comprehensive understanding of the topic.
any limitations of the data or analysis. Recommendations are specific KEY STEPS IN SYNTHESIS
actions that can - Identify Key Themes and Concepts.
be taken based on the findings and conclusions emphasizes the - Organize the Literature.
importance of - Compare and Contrast.
presenting clear and concise conclusions that are supported by logical - Highlight Gaps and Trends.
reasoning and - Develop a Conceptual Framework.
evidence. It also highlights the significance of acknowledging any - Provide a Critical Evaluation.
limitations or - Integration.
- Intellectual Property - Identify Research Questions.
- Responsible Publication - Cite and Attribute.
- Maintain Clarity and Flow. Overall,
NOTE: In conclusion, synthesizing the review of related literature is phenomenological research gives powerful insights into human
a scholarly art that experiences and adds
bridges the past with the present, the known with the unknown. It's a to our knowledge and theories.
process that not Writing Good Research Question – Rivera
only informs your research but elevates it. By weaving together the - not a skill that anyone is born with. However, researchers can learn
threads of existing how to develop
knowledge, you create a tapestry of understanding that guides your research questions whether through primary research and secondary
research, enriches research methods.
your theories, and contributes to the academic discourse. In the grand - a study or research project aims to answer. This question often
mosaic of addresses an issue
research, synthesis is the brushstroke that adds depth and brilliance to or a problem, which through analysis and interpretation of data, is
the canvas of answered in
human knowledge. the study’s conclusion.
Phenomenology – Barbosa - one of the most important parts of your research paper, thesis or
- known as an educational qualitative research design (Ponce, dissertation. It’s
2014; Creswell, 2013, important to spend some time assessing and refining your question
Marshall & Rossman, 2010). before you get
- the study of human experience and of the ways things present started.
themselves to us in IMPORTANCE
and through such experience (Sokolowski 2000) - that it narrows down a broad topic of interest into a specific area
- the study of structures of consciousness as experienced from the of study
first-person point (Creswell, 2014). Research questions, along with hypotheses, also
of view. (Smith 2008) serve as a
- q method in which researchers focus on studying human guiding framework for research. These questions also specifically
experiences, including reveal the
the way people conceptualize their lived, shared experiences boundaries of the study, setting its limits, and ensuring cohesion.
(Braun and Clarke, - has a domino effect on the rest of the study. These questions
2013; Sokolowski, 2000). Phenomenology concentrates on the influence factors, such
perceptions and as the research methodology, sample size, data collection, and data
communications of people regarding certain events or objects. analysis
This approach (Lipowski, 2008).
can be used to analyze individual cases or to develop cases from a Types of Research Questions
small group 1. Quantitative research questions - prove or disprove a
of research participants (Braun and Clarke, 2013). researcher’s hypothesis
Data Collection Method & Sample Size through descriptions, comparisons, and relationships.
- Interview is the common instrument used for data collection Descriptive Questions - seeks to explain when, where, why, or how
with the suggested something
sample size ranging from 5 to 25. occurred.
- Goal is to gather descriptions of their lived experience which are Comparative Questions - to compare one occurrence with another.
rich in detail and Relationship-Based Questions - answers influence of one variable
imagery, as well as reflection on its theoretical or psychological on another.
meaning. 2. Qualitative Research Question - concern broad areas or more
Other methods can be used: specific areas of
- Conversations research. However, unlike quantitative questions, qualitative research
- Participant observation questions
- Focus meetings are adaptable, non-directional and more flexible. Qualitative research
- Analysis of personal texts question
- Questionnaires focuses on discovering, explaining, elucidating, and exploring.
- Recordings Exploratory Questions - to understand something without
Procedures involved in Phenomenological Research influencing the results.
- Identification of the phenomenon Predictive Questions - defined as survey questions that automatically
- Development of a detailed description of the phenomenon predict the
- Bracketing personal prejudices and a priori assumptions best possible response options based on text of the question
- Collection of data from the participants Interpretive Questions - the study of people in the natural setting.
- Data analysis 3. Mixed-methods studies - require a set of both quantitative and
- Development of a composite description of the phenomenon qualitative
- Presentation of the description research questions. Separate questions are appropriate when the
Uses of Phenomenological Research mixed-methods
- Research lived experiences of human beings and gain insights into study focuses on the significance and differences in quantitative and
their actions qualitative
and motivations. methods
- Create awareness about the phenomenon. How to Write a Good Research Question?
- Clarifying the relationships between lived experiences and the - Select a Topic
theories used to - Conduct Preliminary Research
explain those experiences. - Consider Your Audience
- Contribute to the development of new theories. - Generate Potential Questions
Limitations - Review Your Questions
- Researcher-induced bias can affect the outcome of the study. - Construct Your Research Question
- It could be difficult to establish validity and reliability when using KEEP IN MIND
this research - Focused on a single problem or issue
approach. - Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
- Participants of the research may not be able to express their views - Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
articulately due - Specific enough to answer thoroughly
to factors like language barrier, age, or cognition. - Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or
NOTE: Phenomenological research is a way of understanding thesis
human experiences by - Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly
digging into what people say. Researchers purposely keep their own NOTE: A good research question is the cornerstone of any well-
experiences written essay. It should be
separate to connect better with the subjects. They often use specific, open-ended, and relevant to your chosen topic. It could be
interviews to collect detailed qualitative,
descriptions for a deep exploration of meanings. quantitative, and mixed research question. You can craft a research
Phenomenological inquiry is flexible, question that forms
allowing different methods like conversations and observations. The the basis for your essay and ensures a clear and structured approach to
process goes from your research
identifying the phenomenon to describing it comprehensively. and writing.