Day 1

MATH
By: Princess Pevie Gail Navida, Kian Gabriel Arambulo

Operations on Rational Algebraic Expressions

Rational expressions - ratio of two polynomials

Examples:

𝑥+1 𝑥+2 𝑥+1(3) 𝑥+2(2) 3𝑥+3 2𝑥+4 3𝑥+3−2𝑥+4 𝑥−1

1.
2𝑥
− 3𝑥
= 2𝑥(3)
− 3𝑥(2)
= 6𝑥
− 6𝑥
= 6𝑥
= 6𝑥

𝑥−5 𝑥+1 𝑥−5(𝑥−2) 𝑥+1(2𝑥) 𝑥²−7𝑥+10 2𝑥²+2𝑥

2.
2𝑥
+ 𝑥−2 = 2𝑥(𝑥−2)
+ 𝑥−2(2𝑥) = 2𝑥²−4𝑥
+ 2𝑥²−4𝑥
=
𝑥²−7𝑥+10+2𝑥²+2𝑥 3𝑥²−5𝑥+10
2𝑥²−4𝑥
= 2𝑥²−4𝑥

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

★ Quadratic equation - an equation with a degree of 2 (that is, the maximum exponent of any
term in the equation must be 2)
2
- follows the standard form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, where 𝑎, 𝑏, and are
constant
2
○ Quadratic term - 𝑎𝑥

○ Linear term - 𝑏𝑥

○ Constant - 𝑐

★ x is the variable

★ a, b, and c are real numbers

★ a≠0

SOLVING QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES

★ Quadratic inequality - a mathematical statement that relates a quadratic expression as

either less than or greater than another

★ We use test points to determine if the statement is true or not

 Steps:

1. Transform the quadratic inequality into a quadratic equation

2. Factor

3. Determine the solutions in a number line

4. Check the test points per region by picking a number within the point

Example:
2
𝑥 − 10𝑥 + 16 < 0

2
𝑥 − 10𝑥 + 16 = 0

(𝑥 − 8)(𝑥 − 2) = 0

𝑥= − 7, 𝑥 = − 2

Region Test Point 2

𝑥 − 10𝑥 + 16 < Result

A 𝑥=1 7<0 False

B 𝑥=3 −5<0 True

C 𝑥=9 7<0 False

Solving Quadratic Equations

Roots - solutions of the quadratic equation
- when you substitute either root into the original equation, the equation must hold
true

Methods of Solving Quadratic Equations

a. Extracting the Square Root
1. Transpose the constant to the right side of the equation
2. Divide all terms of the equation by 𝑎
3. Root both sides of the equation (do not forget the ± as part of the solution set)
 Example:

2
2𝑥 − 50 = 0
2
2𝑥 = 50
2
2𝑥 50
2
= 2

2
𝑥 = 25

2
𝑥 =± 25

𝑥 =± 5

b. Factoring
1. Make sure the right side is zero by transposition
2. Find the factors of the quadratic equation
3. Equate each factor to 0
4. Solve each resulting linear equation

Example:

2
2𝑥 − 14𝑥 + 22 = 2
2
2𝑥 − 14𝑥 + 22 − 2 = 2 − 2
2
2𝑥 − 14𝑥 + 20 = 0

(2𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 5) = 0

𝑥1:

2𝑥 − 4 = 0

2𝑥 = 4
2𝑥 4
2
= 2

𝑥1 = 2

𝑥2:

𝑥−5 =0
 𝑥2 = 5

c. Completing the Square

1. Divide all terms of the equations by 𝑎
𝑐 𝑏
2. Transpose 𝑐 to the right side of the equation (keep in mind that 𝑐 = 𝑎
and 𝑏 = 𝑎
due to
the first step)
2
𝑏 2 𝑏
3. Let 𝑝 = 2
and 𝑞 = 𝑝 = 4
4. Add 𝑞 to both sides of the equation
2
5. Factor the perfect square trinomial such that 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑞 = 𝑐 + 𝑞 is now
2
(𝑥 + 𝑝) = 𝑐 + 𝑞
6. Root both sides of the equation
7. Solve the resulting linear equations (if applicable)

Example:

2
2𝑥 + 8𝑥 − 24 = 0
2
2𝑥 +8𝑥−24
2
=0

2
𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 12 = 0
2
𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 12 + 12 = 0 + 12
2
𝑥 + 4𝑥 = 12

2 4 2 4 2
𝑥 + 4𝑥 + ( 2 ) = 12 + ( 2 )

2
𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 4 = 12 + 4
2
𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 4 = 16

4 2
(𝑥 + 2
) = 16

2
(𝑥 + 2) = 16

2
(𝑥 + 2) =± 16
 𝑥 + 2 =± 4

𝑥 + 2 = 4:

𝑥+2 =4

𝑥+2 −2 = 4 −2

𝑥1 = 2

𝑥 + 2 =− 4:

𝑥 + 2 =− 4

𝑥 + 2 − 2 =− 4 − 2

𝑥2 =− 6

d. Quadratic Formula
2
−𝑏± 𝑏 −4𝑎𝑐
1. Substitute 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐 into the formula 𝑥 = 2𝑎
2. Solve the resulting equation

Example:

2
2𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 2 = 0
2
−(4)± (4) −4(2)(2)
𝑥= 2(2)

−4± 16−16
𝑥= 4

−4±0
𝑥= 4

𝑥 =− 1

AP (from SMAP)
Kahulugan ng Ekonomiks
Ekonomiks

➢ Sangay ng Agham Panlipunan na nag-aaral kung paano tutugunan ang walang katapusang
pangangailangan at kagustuhan ng tao gamit ang limitadong pinagkukunang-yaman.
Oikonomia - Household management

- Oikos = bahay

- Nomos = pamamahala

Mga Tanyag na Ekonomista

- Adam Smith

● - “Father of Economics” at “ Father of Capitalism”

● - Ang Wealth of Nations ay may ideya na ang ekonomiya ay maaaring gumana nang
walang kontrol o kaugnayan sa gobyerno (Free Market) gamit ang tinatawag na
Invisible Hand kung saan sinasabi na kapag ang tao ay nagkaroon ng interes ito ay
nakakapag benepisyo sa lahat

● - Kapitalismo

● - Division of Labor , Absolute advantage at Free trade

FILIPINO
PLEASE FILIPINO REVIEWER AKOY MAHIHIMATAY NA PLSPLSPLSPLS

Dpa po kompleto huhu

MGA BANSA SA TIMOG-SILANGANG ASYA

MYANMAR (Burma)

“Ang Lupain ng Ginintuang Pagoda” o “Ang Ginituang Lupa”

THAILAND (Siam)

“Ang Lupain ng Malaya”, “The land of smiles”

VIETNAM (Annam)
“Lupain ng Asul na Dragon”

LAOS (Muang lao/Pathet lao)

“Lan Xang o Lupain ng Milyong Elepante”

CAMBODIA(Kampuchea)

“Ang Lupain ng mga Khmer"

PILIPINAS (Ma-i, Las Islas Filipinas, Las Islas de San lazaro)

“Perlas ng Silanganan”

INDONESIA (Nusantara, Batavia, Dutch East Indies/ Netherlands East Indies)

“Ang Lupain ng isang Libo-libong Templo” o “Ang Huling Paraiso sa lupa”

MALAYSIA (Malaya, Langkasuka)

“Lupain ng mga Lumad”

BRUNEI DARUSSALAM (“Barunah” (Excellent, Great) Barunai)

“Tahanan ng Kapayapaan”

SINGAPORE (Temasek/Singa Pura)

“Lungsod ng Leon”

EAST TIMOR/TIMOR LESTE (Portuguese Timor)

“Pinakabatang bansa sa Timog Silangang Asya”

MGA KWENTONG TINALAKAY
“Ang Ama” isinalin ni Maura R. Avena

- Singapore

- 6 na magkakapatid (12yo, 11yo, kambal 9yo, 8yo, 2yo)

Characters: Ama, Nanay, Mui mui, magkakapatid

Setting: Squatter area

“Nang minsang maligaw si Adrian” Dr. Romulo N. Peralta

- Pilipinas

Characters: Adrian, Ama

Setting: Bahay, hospital, gubat

“Anim na sabado ng Beyblade” ni Ferdinand Pisigan Jarin

Characters: Rebo, tatay

“Ang alamat ni Prinsesa Manorah” isinalin ni Dr. Romulo N. Peralta

- Thailand

“Ang buwang hugis suklay” isinalin ni Dr. Romulo N. Peralta

- Laos

“Takipsilim sa Jakarta” ni Mochtar Lubis (isinalin ni Aurora E. Batnag)

- Indonesia

Characters:

Raden Kaslan, Fatma (asawa), Suryono (anak)

Pak Idjo (kutsero), Ibu Idjo (asawa)

Husin Linbara

Sugeng, Nasnah

“Sitti Nurhaliza”

- Malaysia

MGA ARALIN
PANGATNIG

- Nag-uugnay ng dalawang salita, parirala, pangungusap o sugnay

URI

1. PANIMBANG - karagdagang impormasyon

Hal. Pati, at saka, anupa’t, at

2. PAMUKOD - pagbukod/pagtangi

Hal. o, kung si, maging si, ni

3. PANINSAY - sinasalungat ng unang parte ang ikalawang bahagi

Hal. bagaman, datapwat, ngunit

4. PANUBALI - pag-aalinlangan

Hal. kapag, kung, pag, sakaling

5. PANANHI - nagbibigay dahilan/sanhi

Hal. dahil sa, sanhi, sapagkat, mangyari

6. PANLINAW - pinapaliwanag ang bahagi/kabuuan ng nabanggit

 Hal. kung gayon, kaya

7. PANAPOS - malapit na matapos ang pangungusap

Hal. sa wakas, sa lahat ng ito

8. PANTULONG - nag-uugnay sa nakapag-iisa sa hindi nakapag-iisa

Hal. para, sapagkat, upang

9. PAMANGGIT - gumagaya/nagsasabi lamang ng sa iba

Hal. daw, sa ganang akin, di umano

10. PANULAD - gumagaya ng mga pangyayari, kilos/gawa

Hal. kung sino-siyang, kung gaano-siya ring

TRANSITIONAL DEVICES

- Nag-uugnay sa pagsusunod-sunod ng mga pangyayari

ELEMENTO NG MAIKLING KWENTO

1. TAUHAN - uri: bilugan, lapadan

2. TAGPUAN - panahon, kapaligiran, lugar, oras, atmosphere

3. TUNGGALIAN (conflict) - sentral na problema

4. PLOT/BANGHAY - pagkakasunod-sunod ng kwento

5. RESOLUSYON - pagwakas ng kwento

KILOS - paggawa

GAWI - araw-araw na nakasanayan, kultura/tradisyon, matagal na ginagawa

KARAKTER - pag-uugali, paano ito nag-iisip at kumikilos

PANLAPI

- Mga letra/salita na dinurugtong sa salitang ugat+

-

Unlapi

Gitlapi

Hulapi

Kabilaan

Laguhan

PANG-ABAY

- Nagbibigay turing sa pandiwa, pang-uri, o kapwa pang-abay

★ Pamanahon - kailan naganap/magaganap ang kilos

> May pananda - may nang, ng

> Walang pananda - walang may nang, ng

> Dalas ng pagganap - araw-araw, oras-oras

★ Panlunan - saang lugar

> sa, kina, kay

★ Pamaraan - paano naganap

> nang, na, at, -ng

MGA TEORYANG PAMPANITIKAN

- Sistemang pag-aaral

1. ARKITAYPAL - simbolismo

2. BIYOGRAPKIAL - personal na naranasan ng may-akda

3. EKSISTENSYALISMO - kalayaan na pumili ng desisyon

4. HUMANISMO - kalakasan at kabutihan ng tao

5. MARXISMO - pera

6. MORALISMO - may aral, literal na katotohanan

7. MODERNISMO - bago, modernong pagsusulat/interpretasyon

8. NATURALISMO - kapangitan, kahirapan

9. PISIKAL - nag-iiwan ng malinaw at tiyak na larawan

10. ROMANTISISMO - pagtakas sa katotohanan

11. SIKOLOHIKAL - takbo/galaw ng isipan

12. SOSYOLOHIKAL - produkto ng panahon, kultura

13. FEMINISMO - kababaihan

KAGANDAHAN - nakakasiya sa isipan

KABUTIHAN - pasok sa norms

KATOTOHANAN - hindi tanggap ng lipunan

NOBELA

- Mahabang kwentong piksyon na binubuo sa kabanata

- Gresya at romana

- May aral, prosa, tema, kasukdulan

DENOTASYON AT KONOTASYON

- Paraan ng pagkakahulugan

★ DENOTASYON - himatong/kahulugang literal

★ KONOTASYON - pahiwatig na kahulugan

ELEHIYA (elegy)

- tula/awit para sa patay

- Nagsasaad ng matinding damdamin, kalungkutan, kasawian, at pagpapasalamat sa yumao

LAYUNIN
- Mabawasan ang paghihinagpis

- Mahilom ang sugat bunga sa pagkamatay

- Paggunita sa alaala

KARANIWANG PADRON SA PAGSULAT

- Paglahad ng damdaming paghihinagpis

- Papuri sa nagawa + mga alaala

- Pagtatangkang matamo ng katiwasayan sa pagpanaw

ELEMENTO

1. TEMA - kabuuang kaisipan

2. TAUHAN - taong pinag-aalayan

3. TAGPUAN - lugar/panahon ng mga alaala

4. KAUGALIAN/TRADISYON - paniniwala, kasanayan, batas mula sa isang henerasyon

5. WIKA - pormal/impormal

6. PAHIWATIG/SIMBOLO - bagay/pangyayari na nagpapahiwatig na ideya na kaugnay sa

pagpanaw

7. DAMDAMIN - pagdadalimhati at puno ng kalungkutan

TULA

- Anyo ng panitikan na naglalayong maipahayag ang damdamin sa malayang pagsusulat

- Batay sa karanasan, pambansang isyu, pangyayari

- Kagandahan, karikitan, kadakilaan, karapatan, diin sa ritmo

PAKSA

Tulang - makabayan, pag-ibig, pangkalikasan, pastoral

ELEMENTO

1. SUKAT - bilang ng pantig (syllables) sa bawat taludtod

 > wawaluhin, lalabindalawahin, lalabing-animin, lalabingwaluhin

2. SAKNONG - grupo ng mga taludtod

3. TUGMA - pagkasintunog sa mga huling pantig ng bawat linya

> Ganap - same letters

> Di Ganap - diff letters

4. KARIKTAN

5. TALINGHAGA

KAYARIAN

1. Makalumang tula/Tradisyunal - may sukat, may tugma

2. Malayang taludturan/Free verse - walang sukat & tugma

MGA URI

★ AYON SA LAYON - mapaglarawan, mapagpanuto, mapang-aliw, mapang-uroy

★ AYON SA PAMAMARAAN - masagisag, imahistiko, makatotohanan,

makabaghan/surrealistiko

★ AYON SA BISA - madamdamin, mabulaybulay

MGA ANYO (no. of lines)

- Kopla 2

- Tercet 3

- Quatrain 4

- Quintet 5

- Sistet 6

- Septet 7

- Octave 8
ESP

Institusyon ng Lipunan

● Pamilya/Tahanan

● Paaralan

● Simbahan

● Mga Negosyo (pribado/pampubliko)

● Pamahalaan

● Lipunan

○ Nagmula sa lipon - pangkat

● Komunidad

○ Salitang Latin - communis - common/nagkakapareho

○ Binubuo ng mga indibidwal na nagkakapareho ng mga interes, ugali, o

pagpapahalagang bahagi ng isang partikular na lugar

Kabutihang Panlahat

● Kabutihang naaayon sa moralidad ng tao at Likas na Batas Moral

● Kabutihan para sa bawat isang indibidwal na nasa lipunan

● Pagpapahalagang naiiba sa pansariling kapakanan

● Mga Elemento ng Kabutihang Panlahat

○ Paggalang sa indibidwal na tao

○ Tawag ng katarungan/kapakanang panlipunan

○ Kapayapaan

● Mga Hadlang sa Pagkamit ng Kabutihang Panlahat

 ○ Nakikinabang lamang sa benepisyong hatid ng kabutihang panlahat, subalit
tinatanggihan ang bahaging dapat gampanan upang mag-ambag sa pagkamit nito.

○ Indibidwalismo (paggawa ng tao ng kanyang personal na naisin)

○ Pakiramadam na siya ay nalalamangan o mas mlalaki ang naiiaambag niya kaysa sa

nagagawa ng iba.

Lipunang Pampulitikal

● Nagsasalarawan sa sistemang bumibigay pansin sa mga organisasyon, kaayusan, at

pamahalaan

● Binubuo ng mga pinuno at lider ng gobyerno

○ Nagbubuo ng mga panukalang batas, nagmumungkahi ng mga patakaran at

nagtataguyod ng kanilang mga pananaw

● Prinsipyong Subsidiarity

○ Secondary importance

○ Likas sa mga tao na pangunahing tuonan ng pansin ang kanilang mga sarili at
pamilya

● Prinsipyong Solidarity

○ Tungkulin naman ng mga mamamayan na magtulungan at ng pamahalaan.

○ Ito ay nagbibigay diin sa kabutihang panlahat, tungkulin, kooperasyon at

pagkakapantay pantay.

● Mga Pananagutan

○ Makisali sa pag-iisip at pagpapasiya

○ Makilahok sa mga pamayanang gawain

○ Maghanap-buhay ng maayos

○ Maging produktibong mamamayan

Importanteng Tao at Quotations

● Dr. Manuel Dy Jr.

○ Ang pagiging tao ang pagkakaroon ng magkakaibang lakas at kahinaan.

○ …kailangang sikapin ang pagkakapantay-pantay

● Max Scheler

○ Ang pagiging tao ang pagkakaroon ng magkakaibang lakas at kahinaan.

○ …kailangang sikapin ang pagkakapantay-pantay

● Sto. Tomas de Aquino

○ Prinsipyo ng proportio ay ang angkop na pagkakaloob ng naaayon pangangailangan

ng tao.

RESEARCH
Characteristics of Research (Recap)
- Original, Practical, Significant, Ethical

Common Terms in Research (Recap)

1. Independent Variable - manipulated variable

2. Dependent Variable - responding variable

3. Control Variable - constant variable

4. Extraneous Variables - variables that cannot be controlled / other factors that could have
affected the research

5. Experimental Group - group that receives treatment

6. Control Group - no treatment

Types of Research Design
1. Single Group Design

- Single treatment w/ 2 or more levels

- Only one group

- No point of comparison

2. Two-group design

- One control, one experimental or both groups are experimental

3. Two pair-group design

- Two control, two experimental

- 4 groups

4. Parallel Group Design

- Two or more experimental groups, 1 control only

- Parallel Group - Serves as control for comparative purposes.

5. Pre-test - Post-test Design

- Test before and after

6. Three Group Design

- Exactly 3 groups to be compared

7. Counter-Balanced or Latin square design

- 2 independent variables

- No repetition in rows or columns

- “rotation design”

8. Complete Randomized Design (CRD)

- Random assignments

- a group of test plants or animals is studied only once but subsequent (kasunod) or
successive (sunod-sunod) treatment is applied to determine the cause of change

- Ex: 5 different groups with randomized samples

9. Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD)

- Determine the relationship of the two dependent variables on how they are
manipulated by the independent variable.

- Numbers can repeat in rows/columns unlike in Latin Square.

- Standard design in agricultural experiments

- replicated to determine the cause of change.

10. Correlational Design

- Determines the relationship (correlation) of the 2 DV and how they are

manipulated by the IV.

*Study the examples of charts on the ppt, may chance na lumabas sila sa exam

Sampling Techniques
- the act, process, or technique of selecting an appropriate sample or representative part of
a population.

Causes for Sampling Error

1. Chance - error that occurs just because of bad luck

2. Sampling Bias - tendency to favor the selection of units that have a particular
characteristic.

Probability Sampling

- Each member of the population has an equal chance to be chosen

1. Simple Random Sampling

- every element of the population has the same probability of being selected

- Ex: draw lots

2. Systematic Random Sampling

 - Samples are organized and picked according to a system

- Specific intervals

3. Stratified Random Sampling

- the population is first divided into strata (subgroups)

- Representatives (samples) are picked from each strata

4. Cluster Sampling

- Divide population into groups and pick entire groups

5. Multistage Sampling

- Combination of sampling techniques

- Usually happens when cluster sampling is used

Non-Probability Sampling

- Non-equal chances

- Controlled

1. Convenience Sampling

- Sampling according to proximity/availability

- Whatever is most convenient

2. Purposive Sampling
 - Choosing respondents based on a specific criteria

3. Quota Sampling

- Choosing respondents to fulfill a quota (target number) but the respondents must
still pass a specific criteria.

4. Snowball Sampling

- Participants recruit other participants

- Networking, use of connections

*Multistage sampling is still possible in non-probability sampling

Chapter One: The Problem and Its Background

General Guidelines

- Always in 3rd person, no first person allowed

- Present tense is allowed for general facts, but some parts of Chapter 1 will need to be in
future tense

Introduction

- Problem & solution

- Be discrete, discuss the variables involved

- Third person, expository, factual

- APA 7th edition citation format, at least 2 citations per para.

- 3-7 paragraphs, not too lengthy

- Sequential w/ 1 main topic per paragraph

Parts:

1. Main Problem

- Properties and characteristics

- Why is it a problem? (provide LOCAL STATISTICS)

2. Dependent Variable

- Solution

- Properties and problems w/ the DV

- More statistics

3. Independent Variable

- Composition, properties

- waste/ problem brought by this variable

- Add statistics

4. Relate IV and DV

- x contains _________ so it can be used as __________

5. Aim/Goal

Background of The Study

- Deeper discussion

- history/origin of the problem in the study

- State the issues and gaps

- Max 3 pages, Min 2 pages

Conceptual Framework

- Paradigm

- detailed presentation of the variables

- Contains the process, output, variables and methods

- discussion/description of the paradigm before the paradigm itself

Statement of The Problem

- Calls for an organized response in the form of a scientific query

- Should express relationship between two or more variables

- General

- provides the focus of the research, expressed in declarative form

● Purpose (always present)

● Respondents

● Environment (general address)

● Timeframe

● Output (highly recommended :))

- Specific

- interrogative

● Respondent’s profile

● Assessment of IV

● Assessment of DV

● Hypothesis Testing (inferential question, the answer to this question should be

your hypothesis)

● Output (highly recommended :), what is the next plan of action?)

Hypothesis

- Null (there is no)

- Alternative (there is a significant)

Scope and Delimitation

- 2 paragraphs (usually), para. 1 - scope, para. 2 delimitations

- usually includes timeframe, variables, and the laboratory to be used

Scope - Coverage of the study & Focus of the Study

Delimitation

- Witnesses of the Study

- What’s outside the study(Opposite of Scope)

- What the study will NOT focus on/cover

Significance of the Study

>Importance & Impacts of the study to People

>The last one will always be future researchers

>usually deductive

-Will show

- Rationale

-Solutions

-Who will benefit

-What to do:
1) Identify who will benefit from the study

2) How they benefit

3) How will future researchers benefit from the study

Definition of Terms

- Used to avoid ambiguous meaning

1.) Operational definition - meaning as used in a particular field of study

2.) Conceptual definition - universal meaning from dictionary

- Alphabetically arranged

- Words to be defined should be in bold

 Congratulations! Tapos ka na sa Chpt 1

Day 2
Science
(Kenny UwU), (Gabby), (Marky)

Chapter 1 Sir…..i dont know

The Human Respiratory System

● Nose - A cartilage tissue that is the entry point in inhalation and exhalation
● Nasal Passages - A moist and warm environment where air is moisten up and filtered by
cilia hairs.
- Pharynx- A muscular tube leading to both passageway of food and air separated by
epiglottis.

- Epiglottis - facilitates entrance of food and air, prevents food from getting into the
windpipes.

- Larynx - a tube next to the pharynx that contains the voicebox.

● Lungs - Main organ of the respiratory system removes waste (CO²) and takes in (O²)
1. Trachea - Also known as the Windpipe is tube lined with mucus to filter out the
smaller particles that pass through the cilia hairs.

2. Bronchi - Two branching tubes connecting bronchioles and trachea

3. Bronchioles - Branching intersections each end housing an alveoli

4. Alveoli - Where actual exchange of gas takes place

- diffuses oxygen into the blood

- 1 cell thick

- has a wall that is surrounded by capillaries.

- Diaphragm - contracts (down) during inhalation and flattened downward during exhalation
Diffusion

- Movement of particles from a more concentrated area to a less concentrated area.

- Job of capillaries

Types of Respiration
External

- Air to the Lungs

Internal

- Blood vessels to Cells

Cellular

- Cells to the Organelles

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
- The circulatory system helps circulate blood throughout the body.

Functions of Circulatory System

- To transport oxygen and nutrients to the body cells

- To carry deoxygenated blood and carbon dioxide back to the heart and lungs

Major Parts of the Circulatory System

HEART

- main organ of the circulatory system

- pumps blood throughout the body

Heart Structures
Heart Parts

- 4 chambers

- Lower and upper chambers

- Ventric
Pericardium

- protective sac of connective tissue

- surrounds the heart & protects from friction

- filled with fluid

Heart Walls
EPICARDIUM

- outermost layer

- fat to cushion heart

- thick layer

Myocardium

- middle layer

- primarily cardiac muscle

- strong and thick

Endocardium

- innermost layer

- thin and smooth muscle

- stretches as the heart pumps

SEPTUM - separates right and left side of the heart

- Prevents mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.

Upper Chamber - Atrium receives blood

Lower Chamber - Ventricle pumps blood out of heart

BLOOD
- A tissue made of 55% Plasma, 44% Erythrocytes, and 1% Leukocytes and Thrombocytes.

WHITE BLOOD CELLS

 - Also known as Leukocytes they patrol the blood vessels and roam the lymphatic system and
protect the human body from harmful microorganisms and unwanted materials.

RED BLOOD CELLS

- Also known as Erythrocytes they roam the blood vessels and carry oxygen and carbon
dioxide using hemoglobin to bind with oxygen molecules it is also covered or made up of
polysaccharides.

PLATELETS

- Also known as Thrombocytes

- Aid the body in clotting,

PLASMA

- A straw-colored fluid (plasma) and makes up about 55% of the total volume of blood

BLOOD VESSELS

- tubular structures that transport blood throughout the body

3 types of Blood Vessels

Arteries

- Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart towards the cells, tissues, and organs of the
body

Veins

- Carry deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body back to the heart

Capillaries

- the smallest blood vessels in the body, connecting the smallest arteries to the smallest
veins.

- The actual site where gasses and nutrients are exchanged

Types of Circulation
Pulmonary - circulation b/w heart and lungs

Coronary - heart

Systemic - heart and body

Flow of Circulation
Right Side: Superior/Inferior Vena Cava -> Right atrium -> Tricuspid Valve -> Right Ventricle
-> Pulmonary Artery

Left Side: Pulmonary Vein -> Left atrium -> Bicuspid Valve -> Left Ventricle -> Aortic Valve

Non Mendelian Genetics

Terms:
Genetics - Study of genes, genetic variation & heredity.
Gene - Unit of heredity; section of DNA that codes for a specific trait
Inheritance - Genetic Information is passed on from parents to child
Variation - Difference between cells and individual/groups organisms of any species
Genotype - Genetic makeup of organisms (BB. Bb, bb)
Phenotype - Physical feature or trait of an organism (Red;White)
Homozygous - 2 identical alleles of a particular gene
Heterozygous - 2 different alleles of a particular gene

Genotype: 4RW:0
Phenotype: 4 PINK Flowers: 0

1. Incomplete Dominance - Does NOT completely dominates another allele, resulting in a

new phenotype

RED Flower X WHITE Flower (RR x WW)

R R

W RW RW

W RW RW

Genotype: 4RW:0
Phenotype: 4 PINK Flowers: 0

R W
 2. Codominance - Both alleles are expressed
R RR RW
EQUALLY.
ROAN Cow X ROAN Cow (RW x RW)
W RW WW

Genotype: 1RR:2RW:1WW
Phenotype: 1 RED:2 ROAN:1 WHITE

3. Multiple Alleles - A gene that is controlled by more than 2 alleles

Remember: Type A - IAIA or IAi
Type B - IBIB or IBi
Type AB - IAIB
Type O - ii

HOMO Type A X Type AB (IAIA x IAIB)

IA IA

IA IAIA IAIA

IB IAIB IAIB

Genotype: 2 I^A I^A: 2 I^A I^B

Phenotype: 2 Type A: 2 Type AB

● Polygenic Traits - require more than one gene to determine a single trait.
● Pleiotropy - alleles at a single locus may have effects on 2 or more traits
- 1 gene = more than 1 trait

4. Sex Linked Trait - located only on the X-chromosomes

- X linked alleles always show up in males whether dominant or recessive because
males only have one X-chromosome.
 𝐻 𝐻
Unaffected Female: 𝑋 𝑋

𝐻 ℎ
Carrier Female: 𝑋 𝑋

ℎ ℎ
Affected Female: 𝑋 𝑋

𝐻
Unaffected Male: 𝑋 𝑌

ℎ
Affected Male: 𝑋 𝑌

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

- The Blueprint of Life
- Storage of characteristics
-

TLE (Electronics)
By Kian Arambulo (Mendeleev) & Daniel Opeña (Chadwick)

Basic terminology
Atom - the smallest unit of matter

Subatomic particles - particles that comprise the atom

a. Protons - positively-charged particles inside the nucleus

b. Neutrons - particles that have no charge; also inside the nucleus

c. Electrons - negatively-charged particles that orbit the nucleus; the smallest

subatomic particle

- what electricity is made of

Electricity - flow of electrical charge generated when electrons move from one point to another
Types of materials and their properties in relation to electricity
a. Insulators - allow little to no electrons to flow through them
- usually consist of 5–8 electrons in their valence shell

b. Conductors - allow electrons to pass freely

- usually consist of 1–3 electrons in their valence shell

c. Semiconductors - a cross between insulators and conductors; allow some electrons

to pass through but not much
- important in electronic devices to prevent overheating
- usually consist of 4 electrons in their valence shell

Types of electricity
a. Static electricity - electricity that does not move (hence “static”); caused by an imbalance
of positive and negative charges in any two objects

b. Dynamic electricity - electricity that flows from one terminal to another

Types of electrical current

a. Direct current - electrons flow in one direction only
- used predominantly in electronics (such as batteries)

b. Alternating current - electrons switch polarities every so often

- used in motors
* the rate at which the electrons switch polarities in one second is
measured in hertz (Hz)
* usual Hz values in the Philippines range from 50–60 Hz

Types of electrical flow

a. Electron/electrical flow - electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive
terminal

b. Conventional flow - electrons flow from the positive to the negative terminal
- used commonly in schematics as it is easier to understand for
novices
 Methods of generating electricity
a. Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction/magnetism - proposed by Michael
Faraday
- states that electricity can be
produced by running a conductor (a strong electron donor) inside a magnetic field; and
vice-versa (a magnetic field can be created by running electricity through a coil of
conductor)

b. Oxidation - the chemical process of converting chemical energy into electricity

- usually outputs direct current

c. Triboelectricity - Greek “tribo” meaning “rub”

- static electricity is produced when two objects rub against each
other, creating a charge imbalance
- the static electricity is then converted to dynamic electricity

d. Piezoelectricity - Greek “piezo” meaning “pressure”

- the natural property of certain crystals to allow electrons to pass
through when pressure is applied to them
- the crystal lattice changes structure when pressure is applied,
causing electrons to jump from one point to another
- an example of a crystal that is piezoelectric is quartz, which
oscillates at a frequency of 32,768 Hz

e. Thermoelectricity - generation of heat using thermoelectric material

Seebeck effect - the temperature difference between two semiconductors causes heated
electrons to move to the colder material (heat to electricity)
Peltier effect - application of electricity to two semiconductors creates a temperature
difference between them (electricity to heat)

f. Solar electricity - electricity produced when photons activate photovoltaic or

photoelectric materials
- solar panels are a great example

Sources of electricity

Renewable energy

Energy that can be renewed within the lifespan of a human.

1. Wind energy - energy gathered from the wind

a. Onshore wind energy - turbines built on land, on the shore

- cheaper but less efficient
 b. Offshore wind energy - turbines built on bodies of water
- more expensive but more efficient

2. Hydropower - energy gathered from moving currents of water

a. Dam - a reservoir built on a body of water that allows controlled release of water

b. Run-of-river - relies on natural river current to drive the turbine

3. Solar energy - energy gathered from the energy of the Sun

4. Geothermal energy - energy gathered from the heat of the Earth

Non-renewable energy

Energy that takes more than a human lifespan to regenerate but is consumed rapidly.

1. Fossil fuels - energy gathered from the combustion of compressed plant or animal masses
that were formed a very long time ago.

a. Coal - pressure + heat + time + plant material

b. Oil - pressure + heat + time + animal material

c. Natural gas - extreme pressure + extreme heat + time + animal material

2. Nuclear energy * - energy gathered from the splitting or joining of atoms of radioactive
material

a. Fission - uses energy produced from splitting atoms

- commonly uses uranium, plutonium, and thorium

b. Fusion - uses energy produced from combining atoms

* the process of splitting/joining atoms is renewable, but the materials used in achieving this are
non-renewable.

Common denominator in all sources of energy

These components are common in almost all sources of energy (except solar energy).

1. Turbine - converts the energy from the steam or water into mechanical/kinetic energy.

2. Generator - converts mechanical energy into alternating current (AC) electricity.

Ohm’s law
Ohm’s law expresses the relationship of voltage (𝑉), current (𝐼), and resistance (𝑅) to each other.

It states that current is directly proportional to voltage, and is indirectly proportional to

resistance.

In other words:
𝑉
𝐼= 𝑅

As we rearrange the formula, we discover two new relationships:

𝑉
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 and 𝑅 = 𝐼
.

Voltage varies jointly as current and resistance, while resistance varies directly with voltage and
inversely with current.

Types of circuits
a. Series - a circuit in which the current has one and only one path.
- its current is constant, while its total voltage is the sum of the voltages in each
load.
- when one of its loads is disconnected, the circuit will not work.

b. Parallel - a circuit containing two or more paths for the current to flow through.
Realistically, the current will use the path with the least resistance.
- its voltage is constant, while its total current is the sum of the currents in each
load.
- when any load is disconnected, the circuit will continue working.

c. Series-parallel - combination of series and parallel connection.

Conditions of circuits
a. Open circuit - a circuit in which current cannot pass through; theoretically, it has infinite
resistance.

b. Closed circuit - a circuit in which current can pass through freely; in the best-case scenario,
it has zero resistance. Realistically, its resistance ∈ (0, ∞) ohms.

c. Grounded circuit - a circuit that is not connected to earth/ground; when excess electricity
flows through the circuit, walking through the ground barefooted has the possibility to
electrically shock the person
 d. Short-circuit - a circuit that has an unintended path (with less resistance) for electricity
to flow through. This usually happens when the insulation melts.
- when this happens, it is a fire hazard as the wires may become very hot
and cause a fire.

e. Overloaded circuit - a circuit that delivers more amperage than its rating. This usually
happens in so-called “octopus connections”, where all sockets of an extension cord are
used. Can be a fire hazard.

Protective electrical devices

a. Circuit breakers - automatically turn off when it detects too much amperage in the circuit
using electromagnetism.

b. Fuse - melts when too much current flows in the circuit, thus opening the circuit.

Types of circuit diagrams

Circuit diagram - the graphical representation of an electrical circuit.

a. Pictorial diagram - uses pictures to represent components.

- does not care about the physical locations of components.

b. Schematic diagram - uses standardized symbols to represent components and the

circuit itself.
- designed for easy comprehension.
- inherently abstract; omits irrelevant details.

c. Block diagram - to avoid repetition of certain circuits, repetitive “blocks” are labeled and
those labels are used instead.

Common parts of an electrical circuit

1. Source - indicates the source of electricity.

2. Load - components that consume electricity.

3. Path - allows current to flow through.

4. Control (switch) - changes the path of electricity, or opens or closes the circuit.

5. Protective device - protects the circuit

 a. Cell - supplies direct current to the circuit.
- longer leg is positive, shorter is negative

b. Ground electrode - redirects excess electricity to earth.

c. Antenna - allows transmission and reception of signals.

d. Capacitor - stores electric charge temporarily

e. Resistor - impedes or resists flow of electrical current

f. (Mechanical) switch - opens, closes, or redirects the circuit.

Pole - the component connected to the source (usually the bridge between the cell and the
throw).
Throw - the path of the electrical current.

i. SPST (single-pole, single-throw) - opens or closes the circuit.

ii. SPDT (single-pole, double-throw) - allows two paths for electricity, one or the
other at a time.

iii. DPST (double-pole, single-throw) - opens or closes two circuits simultaneously.

iv. DPDT (double-pole, double-throw) - allows the switching of polarities in a

motor-controlled circuit.

g. Transistor - acts as electrical switch

- can also amplify electrical signals
NPN - arrow points from base to emitter; uses HI signal to activate
PNP - arrow points from emitter to base; uses LO signal to activate

Reading resistor color codes

Mnemonic for easy memorization - Better Be Ready Or Your Great Big Venture Goes West

Values of 𝑛 for every color

Black - 0
Brown - 1
Red - 2
Orange - 3
Yellow - 4
Green - 5
Blue - 6
Violet - 7
Gray - 8
White - 9
Gold - -1 (5% for tolerance)

Silver - -2 (10% for tolerance)

No color - 20% for tolerance

4-band resistor
1st band indicates first digit of resistance
2nd band indicates second digit of resistance
3rd band indicates multiplier
4th band indicates tolerance

Formula for computing resistance value of 4–band resistor:

𝑛
𝑅 = 𝑛1𝑛2 · 10 3 ± 𝑛4

Where:

𝑛1𝑛2 represents the first and second digit

𝑛3 is the multiplier
𝑛4 is the tolerance (percentage)

Example:

Red Red Orange Gold

3
𝑅 = 22 · 10 Ω ± 5%
𝑅 = 22000Ω ± 5%

5-band resistor
1st band indicates first digit of resistance
2nd band indicates second digit of resistance
3rd band indicates third digit of resistance
4th band indicates multiplier
5th band indicates tolerance

Formula for computing resistance value of 4–band resistor:

𝑛
𝑅 = 𝑛1𝑛2𝑛3 · 10 4 ± 𝑛5

Where:
𝑛1𝑛2𝑛3 represents the first, second, and third digit
𝑛4 is the multiplier
𝑛5 is the tolerance (percentage)

Example:

Brown Red Red Red Silver

2
𝑅 = 122 · 10 Ω ± 10%
𝑅 = 12200Ω ± 10%

Analog multimeter