What Is Research?
What Is Research?
What Is Research?
What is Research?
Definition: Research is defined as careful consideration of study regarding a
particular concern or problem using scientific methods. According to the American
sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “research is a systematic inquiry to describe,
explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon. It involves inductive and
deductive methods.”
Types of Research
1. Quantitative Research
As the name suggests, quantitative refers to the numbers where data is collected
based on numbers, and a summary is taken from these numbers. Graphs help to
quantify the results in quantitative research.
2. Qualitative Research
Qualitative refers to the non- numerical elements in the research. When the
information or data cannot be grasped in terms of numbers, qualitative research
comes for the rescue. Though not reliable as much as quantitative, qualitative
research helps to form a better summary in terms of theories in the data.
3. Descriptive Research
Facts are considered in descriptive methods and surveys and case studies are done
to clarify the facts. These help to determine and explain with examples, the facts,
and they are not rejected. Many variables can be used in descriptive research to
explain the facts.
4. Analytical Research
Analytical research uses the facts that have been confirmed already to form the
basis for the research and critical evaluation of the material is carried out in this
method. Analytical methods make use of quantitative methods as well.
5. Applied Research
Applied research is action research where only one domain is considered and
mostly the facts are generalized. Variables are considered constant and forecasting
is done so that the methods can be found out easily in applied research. The
technical language is used in the research and the summary is based on technical
facts.
6. Fundamental Research
Fundamental research is the basic or pure research done to find out an element or a
theory that has never been in the world yet. Several domains are connected and the
aim is to find out how traditional things can be changed or something new can be
developed. The summary is purely in common language and logical findings are
applied in the research.
Based on research design,
7. Exploratory Research
Exploratory studies are based on the theories and their explanation and it does not
provide any conclusion for the research topic. The structure is not proper and the
methods offer a flexible and investigative approach for the study. The hypothesis is
not tested and the result will not be of much help to the outside world. The findings
will be topic related that helps in improving the research more.
8. Conclusive Research
Conclusive Research aims at providing an answer to the research topic and has a
proper design in the methodology. A well-designed structure helps in formulating
and solving the hypotheses and give the results. The results will be generic and
help the outside world. Researchers will have an inner pleasure to solve the
problems and to help society in general.
9. Surveys
Not least considered, but Surveys play a main role in the research methodology. It
helps to collect a vast amount of real-time data and helps in the research process. It
is done at a low cost and can be done faster than any other method. Surveys can be
done in both quantitative and qualitative methods. Always, quantitative surveys
must be considered above qualitative surveys as they provide numerical outputs
and the data is real. Surveys are mainly used in the business to know the demand
for a product in the market and to forecast the production based on the results from
the survey.
5. Collecting the primary data. You will have to start primary data
collection only after detailed preparation. Sampling is an important
element of this stage. You may have to conduct pilot data collection
if you chose questionnaire primary data collection method. Primary
data collection is not a compulsory stage for all dissertations and
you will skip this stage if you are conducting a desk-based research.
Survey Method
The essence of survey method can be explained as “questioning individuals
on a topic or topics and then describing their responses”[1]. In business
studies survey method of primary data collection is used in order to test
concepts, reflect attitude of people, establish the level of customer
satisfaction, conduct segmentation research and a set of other purposes.
Survey method can be used in both, quantitative, as well
as, qualitative studies.
Survey method can be broadly divided into three categories: mail survey,
telephone survey and personal interview. The descriptions of each of these
methods are briefly explained on the following table [2]:
Survey method
Mathematical tools
Reading materials
UNIT 2
Statistics is a branch of Mathematics, that deals with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and the
presentation of the numerical data. In other words, it is defined as the collection of quantitative data. The
main purpose of Statistics is to make an accurate conclusion using a limited sample about a greater
population.
There are three main types of statistical models: parametric, nonparametric, and
semiparametric:
"Statistical analysis examines every single data sample in a population (the set of
items from which samples can be drawn), rather than a cross sectional
representation of samples as less sophisticated methods do,"
"Descriptive statistics therefore enables us to present the data in a more meaningful way,
which allows simpler interpretation of the data," Laerd writes on its website.
Statistical interference
The second type of statistical analysis is inference. Inferential statistics are a way to
study the data even further.
To be more specific, statistical analysis has proven itself in many cases. Twiddy &
Company Realtors is a firm that used statistics to cut their operating costs by 15%.
The analysis found wasteful spending and helped to eliminate it.
Similar stories show data helping with market analysis. The statistics show where the
most sales happen, where the sales have the most value and what marketing is
attached to those sales. It allows for improved efficiency in every aspect of sales and
marketing.
Likewise, statistical analysis can help with work efficiency. In many cases, providing
the right tools will get the best work out of employees. Statistical analysis will allow
employers to carefully scrutinize the effectiveness of each tool and focus on those
with the best performance.
What sets time series data apart from other data is that the analysis can show how variables
change over time. In other words, time is a crucial variable because it shows how the data
adjusts over the course of the data points as well as the final results. It provides an additional
source of information and a set order of dependencies between the data.
Time series analysis typically requires a large number of data points to ensure consistency
and reliability. An extensive data set ensures you have a representative sample size and that
analysis can cut through noisy data. It also ensures that any trends or patterns discovered are
not outliers and can account for seasonal variance. Additionally, time series data can be used
for forecasting—predicting future data based on historical data.
When organizations analyze data over consistent intervals, they can also use time series
forecasting to predict the likelihood of future events. Time series forecasting is part
of predictive analytics. It can show likely changes in the data, like seasonality or cyclic
behavior, which provides a better understanding of data variables and helps forecast better.
For example, Des Moines Public Schools analyzed five years of student achievement data to
identify at-risk students and track progress over time. Today’s technology allows us to collect
massive amounts of data every day and it’s easier than ever to gather enough consistent data
for comprehensive analysis.
Data classification
Further, time series data can be classified into two main categories:
Stock time series data means measuring attributes at a certain point in time, like a static
snapshot of the information as it was.
Flow time series data means measuring the activity of the attributes over a certain period,
which is generally part of the total whole and makes up a portion of the results.
Data variations
In time series data, variations can occur sporadically throughout the data:
Functional analysis can pick out the patterns and relationships within the data to identify
notable events.
Trend analysis means determining consistent movement in a certain direction. There are two
types of trends: deterministic, where we can find the underlying cause, and stochastic, which
is random and unexplainable.
Seasonal variation describes events that occur at specific and regular intervals during the
course of a year. Serial dependence occurs when data points close together in time tend to be
related.
Sample Size
Variability in the sample
Size of the observed differences
1. Diamond cards
2. Black cards
3. Except for spade
Solution:
By statistical inference solution,
Total number of events = 400
i.e.,90+100+120+90=400
(1) The probability of getting diamond cards:
Number of trials in which diamond card is drawn = 90
Therefore, P(diamond card) = 90/400 = 0.225
(2) The probability of getting black cards:
Number of trials in which black card showed up = 90+100 =190
Therefore, P(black card) = 190/400 = 0.475
(3) Except for spade
Number of trials other than spade showed up = 90+100+120 =310
Therefore, P(except spade) = 310/400 = 0.775
It is a common way to assume that the observed sample is of independent observations from a
population type like Poisson or normal
Statistical inference solution is used to evaluate the parameter(s) of the expected model like
normal mean or binomial proportion
Regression Analysis: Investigates the influence of two types of variables on each other.
Dependent and nondependent variables are spoken of. The former are so-called explanatory
variables, while the latter are explanatory variables. The first describes the actual state on the
basis of data, the second explains this data by means of dependency relationships between the
two variables. In practice, several changes of web page elements correspond to independent
variables, while the effects on the conversion rate would be the dependent variable.
Variance analysis: Determines the influence of several or individual variables on groups by
calculating statistical averages. Here you can compare variables within a group as well as
different groups, depending on where deviations are to be assumed. For example: Which
groups most often click on the' Buy Now' button in your shopping cart?
Discriminant analysis: Used in the context of variance analysis to differentiate between
groups that can be described by similar or identical characteristics. For example, by which
variables do different groups of buyers differ?
Examples
A multivariate test of a web page can be presented in the following simplified way. Elements
such as headlines, teasers, images, but also buttons, icons or background colors have different
effects on user behavior. Different variants of elements are tested. The test would initially
identify these elements and show different users differently designed elements. The aim
would be to obtain data on the effects of the changes in terms of conversion rate or other
factors such as retention time, bounce rate or scrolling behavior compared to other sets of
elements.
Even four different versions of an article's headline can result in completely different click
rates. The same applies to the design of buttons or the background color of the order form. In
individual cases, it is therefore worth considering from a multivariate perspective also
financially, especially for commercially oriented websites, such as online shops or websites,
which are to be amortized through advertising.
Definition of Regression-
A statistical technique based on the average mathematical relationship
between two or more variables is known as regression, to estimate the
change in the metric dependent variable due to the change in one or
more independent variables. It plays an important role in many human
activities since it is a powerful and flexible tool that is used to forecast
past, present, or future events based on past or present events. For
example, The future profit of a business can be estimated on the basis of
past records.
There are two variables x and y in a simple linear regression, wherein y
depends on x or say that is influenced by x. Here y is called as a variable
dependent, or criterion, and x is a variable independent or predictor. The
line of regression y on x is expressed as below:
Y = a + bx
where, a = constant,
b = regression coefficient,
The a and b are the two regression parameters in this equation.
Difference between Correlation and Regression
BASIS FOR CORRELATION REGRESSION
COMPARISON
Correlation and Regression Difference - They are not the Same Thing
Here’s the difference between correlation and regression analysis. To sum
up, there are four key aspects that differ from those terms.
There is a relationship between the variables when it comes to correlation.
In contrast, regression places emphasis on how one variable affects the
other.
Correlation does not capture causality whilst it is based on regression.
The correlation between x and y is identical to that between y and x.
Contrary to this, a regression of x and y, and y and x, results completely
differently.
Finally, one single point is a graphical representation of a correlation.
Whereas one line visualizes a linear regression.
Spectral analysis also offers a rapid, accurate, versatile, and reliable method of
measuring the quality of both fresh and frozen fish by identifying and quantifying
specific contaminants and determining physical/chemical processes that indicate
spoilage. Spectrophotometric instrumentation has been recently used to monitor a
number of key parameters for quality checks, such as oxidative rancidity,
dimethylamine, ammonia, hypoxanthine, thiobarbituric acid, and formaldehyde
levels.
Learner: …*our school force us to learn English because um it’s, it’s a trend.
The way you reconstruct a learner error depends on what you think the intended message is. An added
complication is that any given learner utterance may contain errors at many levels at once: phonological,
morphological, syntactic, lexical.
Finally, determine how systematic the error is. Does it occur several times, or is it just a performance slip
(a mistake)? Even native speakers of a language make one-off mistakes when they're tired or distracted.
Statistical software, or statistical analysis software, refers to tools that assist in the
statistics-based collection and analysis of data to provide science-based insights into
patterns and trends. They often use statistical analysis theorems and methodologies,
such as regression analysis and time series analysis, to perform data science.
Business intelligence is the practice of gathering and analysing data and then
transforming it into actionable insights. Statistical software help business intelligence in
many different ways. It adds more value to your business’ proprietary data. Statistics can
be challenging, but with the right BI tools, they can be easy. Hence it is always
necessary to select an appropriate tool for analysis. If you find difficulty with statistical
analysis, you can get help from Online data collection statistics tutoring services.
SPSS means “Statistical Package for the Social Sciences” and was first launched in
1968. Since SPSS was acquired by IBM in 2009, it’s officially known as IBM SPSS
Statistics but most users still just refer to it as “SPSS”.
SPSS is application software that is used as a statistical analytic tool in the area of social
science like competitor analysis, market research, surveys, and much more. SPSS is a
flexible and comprehensive statistical data management tool, and it is the most
renowned statistics package that can easily perform complex data analyzes and data
manipulation with ease. This designed for both non-interactive and interactive users.
Before proceeding to the details of the uses of SPSS, let’s check the features,
functionalities, and benefits of SPSS.
Functionalities of SPSS
• Data Examination.
• Correlation.
• ANOVA.
• Regressions.
• Cluster analysis.
• Time series.
• Data Transformations.
• Descriptive statistics.
• Reliability tests.
• T-tests.
• Factor analysis.
• Probit analysis.
• Survival analysis.
Benefits of SPSS
• Effective data management: It makes the analysis of data quicker and easy as the
program of this tool knows the exact locations of the variables and cases. This also
reduces the manual workload of the programmers and users up to an extent.
• Wide range of options: It provides a wide range of charts, graphs, and methods to you.
SPSS also has better cleaning and screening options for the data that is used for further
analysis.
• Wide range of storage: The output of the SPSS tool remains separate from the other
data. Or we can say that it keeps the data output in separate folders and files.
Uses of SPSS
Most of the researchers use SPSS as a data collection tool. In SPSS, the data entry
screen seems similar to other spreadsheet software. One can enter data and variables
quantitatively further; you can save the files as the data files. Besides this, one can
manage their data in SPSS with the help of assigned properties of several variables.
Let’s take an example of it, one can easily characterize a single variable as a nominal
variable, and that particular information can be stored in SPSS. Now, when you access
the specific data file in the future that could be in weeks, months, or even in years, then
you will able to find that the data will be in the same manner as you have managed it
earlier.
Data output
In SPSS, when you collect and enter the data into the datasheet, one can easily
generate the output files from the data. Because of this function, data output can be
considered to be one of the best uses of SPSS. Let’s take an example of it, and one can
generate frequency distributions of the large data to know whether the data set is
distributed normally, or not.
The supplied frequency data distribution can be displayed as an output file. In SPSS,
you can easily transfer the data from the output files to the research articles that you are
writing. Therefore, there is no need to recreate a graph or tables, and you can directly
use them from the SPSS’s output data files.
SPSS is revolutionary software mainly used by research scientists which help them
process critical data in simple steps. Working on data is a complex and time consuming
process, but this software can easily handle and operate information with the help of
some techniques. These techniques are used to analyze, transform, and produce a
characteristic pattern between different data variables. In addition to it, the output can be
obtained through graphical representation so that a user can easily understand the
result.
Read below to understand the factors that are responsible in the process of data
handling and its execution.
1. Data Transformation: This technique is used to convert the format of the data. After
changing the data type, it integrates same type of data in one place and it becomes easy
to manage it. You can insert the different kind of data into SPSS and it will change its
structure as per the system specification and requirement. It means that even if you
change the operating system, SPSS can still work on old data.
5. T-tests: It is used to understand the difference between two sample types, and
researchers apply this method to find out the difference in the interest of two kinds of
groups. This test can also understand if the produced output is meaningless or useful.
Over the past few years, STATA programs of scholarly articles indexed in Google
Scholar have raised over 55 per cent. Regardless of industry and field, this software
tool’s value increased, it becomes one of the most important future employment assets.
It becomes one of the necessary qualifications which employers look, among their
candidates. Our Statistics Tutoring Services help you with all aspect of understanding
and working in particular software.
Stata enables one to write their own code or use menus to achieve their analysis. It
supports importing data in various formats, including CSV and spreadsheet (including
Excel) formats. Its file formats are platform-independent, allowing users of various
operating systems to share their datasets and programs easily. Four different versions of
Stata in the market. They are
Applications of Stata
Stata has a user-friendly graphical user interface. The best feature of its user
interface is, it can be easily adapt among various users regardless of their
experiences.
It also has data management features. With the help of Stata, you can easily
connect the data sets and reshape them.
Stat’s graphical user interface (GUI) includes menus and dialogue boxes.
Through these dialogue boxes, users can access various useful features,
such as data management, data analysis, and statistical analysis. The details,
graphics, and statistical menus are all easily accessible.
GRETL
gretl is an acronym for Gnu Regression Econometrics and Time-series Library
it is free econometrics software
it has an easy Graphical User Interface (GUI)
it runs least-squares, maximum-likelihood, systems estimators...
it outputs results to several formats very important for us in this course: it admits scripts
(sequence of commands saved in a le)
How do I get gretl?
can be downloaded from http://gretl.sourceforge.net and installed on your personal
computer it runs on Windows, Mac, Linux
gretl is an open-source statistical package, mainly for econometrics. The name is an acronym
for Gnu Regression, Econometrics and Time-series Library.
It has both a graphical user interface (GUI) and a command-line interface. It is written in C,
uses GTK+ as widget toolkit for creating its GUI, and calls gnuplot for generating graphs. The
native scripting language of gretl is known as hansl (see below); it can also be used together
with TRAMO/SEATS, R, Stata, Python, Octave, Ox and Julia.
It includes natively all the basic statistical techniques employed in contemporary Econometrics
and Time-Series Analysis. Additional estimators and tests are available via user-
contributed function packages, which are written in hansl.[2] gretl can output models
as LaTeX files.
Besides English, gretl is also available
in Albanian, Basque, Bulgarian, Catalan, Chinese, Czech, French, Galician, German, Greek, Itali
an, Polish, Portuguese (both varieties), Romanian, Russian, Spanish, Turkish and Ukrainian.
Gretl has been reviewed several times in the Journal of Applied Econometrics[3][4][5] and, more
recently, in the Australian Economic Review.[6]
A review also appeared in the Journal of Statistical Software[7] in 2008. Since then, the journal
has featured several articles in which gretl is used to implement various statistical techniques.
Genetic Algorithms
Genetic Algorithm (GA) is a search-based optimization technique based on the principles
of Genetics and Natural Selection. It is frequently used to find optimal or near-optimal
solutions to difficult problems which otherwise would take a lifetime to solve. It is frequently
used to solve optimization problems, in research, and in machine learning.
Basic Terminology
Before beginning a discussion on Genetic Algorithms, it is essential to be familiar
with some basic terminology which will be used throughout this tutorial.
Population − It is a subset of all the possible (encoded) solutions to the given
problem. The population for a GA is analogous to the population for human
beings except that instead of human beings, we have Candidate Solutions
representing human beings.
Chromosomes − A chromosome is one such solution to the given problem.
Gene − A gene is one element position of a chromosome.
Allele − It is the value a gene takes for a particular chromosome.
Basic Structure
The basic structure of a GA is as follows −
We start with an initial population (which may be generated at random or
seeded by other heuristics), select parents from this population for mating.
Apply crossover and mutation operators on the parents to generate new off-
springs. And finally these off-springs replace the existing individuals in the
population and the process repeats. In this way genetic algorithms actually try
to mimic the human evolution to some extent.
Each of the following steps are covered as a separate chapter later in this
tutorial.
Fuzzy Logic Systems
Fuzzy Logic Systems (FLS) produce acceptable but definite output in response to
incomplete, ambiguous, distorted, or inaccurate (fuzzy) input.
POSSIBLY YES
CANNOT SAY
POSSIBLY NO
CERTAINLY NO
The fuzzy logic works on the levels of possibilities of input to achieve the definite
output.
Implementation
It can be implemented in systems with various sizes and capabilities ranging
from small micro-controllers to large, networked, workstation-based control
systems.
It can be implemented in hardware, software, or a combination of both.
LP x is Large Positive
MP x is Medium Positive
S x is Small
MN x is Medium Negative
LN x is Large Negative
Knowledge Base − It stores IF-THEN rules provided by experts.
Inference Engine − It simulates the human reasoning process by making
fuzzy inference on the inputs and IF-THEN rules.
Defuzzification Module − It transforms the fuzzy set obtained by the
inference engine into a crisp value.
Algorithm
Define linguistic Variables and terms (start)
Construct membership functions for them. (start)
Construct knowledge base of rules (start)
Convert crisp data into fuzzy data sets using membership functions. (fuzzification)
Evaluate rules in the rule base. (Inference Engine)
Combine results from each rule. (Inference Engine)
Convert output data into non-fuzzy values. (defuzzification)
Development
Step 1 − Define linguistic variables and terms
Linguistic variables are input and output variables in the form of simple words or
sentences. For room temperature, cold, warm, hot, etc., are linguistic terms.
Temperature (t) = {very-cold, cold, warm, very-warm, hot}
Every member of this set is a linguistic term and it can cover some portion of overall
temperature values.
Step 2 − Construct membership functions for them
The membership functions of temperature variable are as shown −
Step3 − Construct knowledge base rules
Create a matrix of room temperature values versus target temperature values that
an air conditioning system is expected to provide.
RoomTemp. /
Very_Cold Cold Warm Hot Very_Hot
Target
Build a set of rules into the knowledge base in the form of IF-THEN-ELSE
structures.
Automatic Gearboxes
Four-Wheel Steering
Vehicle environment control
Consumer Electronic Goods
Hi-Fi Systems
Photocopiers
Still and Video Cameras
Television
Domestic Goods
Microwave Ovens
Refrigerators
Toasters
Vacuum Cleaners
Washing Machines
Environment Control
Air Conditioners/Dryers/Heaters
Humidifiers
Advantages of FLSs
Mathematical concepts within fuzzy reasoning are very simple.
You can modify a FLS by just adding or deleting rules due to flexibility of
fuzzy logic.
Fuzzy logic Systems can take imprecise, distorted, noisy input information.
FLSs are easy to construct and understand.
Fuzzy logic is a solution to complex problems in all fields of life, including
medicine, as it resembles human reasoning and decision making.
Disadvantages of FLSs
There is no systematic approach to fuzzy system designing.
They are understandable only when simple.
They are suitable for the problems which do not need high accuracy.