CHAPTER 8

HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

Arduino Microcontroller
Arduino is an open source physical processing hardware, which is
based on a microcontroller board and an incorporated development
environment for the board to be programmed.

The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the

ATmega328 (datasheet). It has 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6
can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz crystal
oscillator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset
button. It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller;
simply connect it to a computer with a USB cable or power it with a
AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started. It is an 8-bit microcontroller
based on RISC architecture.

The Uno differs from all preceding boards in that it does not use
the FTDI USB-to-serial driver chip. Instead, it features the Atmega8U2
programmed as a USB-to-serial converter.

The Arduino Uno has a resettable polyfuse that protects your

computer's USB ports from shorts and overcurrent. Although most
computers provide their own internal protection, the fuse provides an
extra layer of protection. If more than 500 mA is applied to the USB
port, the fuse will automatically break the connection until the short or
overload is removed.
 Figure 8.1.1 :Pin Mapping

Reasons For Choosing Arduino Uno

The reasons for choosing Arduino are listed as follows.

• Less expensive
• Compatible
• Expandable programming and open source
• Allows easy and fast prototyping
• Easy to program
Summary:

Microcontroller ATmega328
Operating Voltage 5V
Input Voltage (recommended) 7-9V

Input Voltage (limits) 6-20V

Digital I/O Pins 14 (of which 6 provide PWM

output)
Analog Input Pins 6
DC Current per I/O Pin 40 mA

sDC Current for 3.3V Pin 50 mA

Flash Memory 32 KB (ATmega328) (0.5 KB

used by bootloader)
SRAM 2 KB (ATmega328)
EEPROM 1 KB (ATmega328)
Clock Speed 16 MHz

Table 8.1.1

Power

The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or

with an external power supply. The power source is selected
automatically.

External (non-USB) power can come either from an AC-to-DC

adapter (wall-wart) or battery. The adapter can be connected by
plugging a 2.1mm centre-positive plug into the board's power jack.
Leads from a battery can be inserted in the Ground and Voltage in pin
headers of the POWER connector.

The board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If

supplied with less than 7V, however, the 5V pin may supply less than
five volts and the board may be unstable. If using more than 12V, the
voltage regulator may overheat and damage the board. The
recommended range is 7 to 12 volts.

Figure 8.1.2 : Arduino Micro Controller

The power pins are as follows:

• VIN. The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an
external power source (as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection
or other regulated power source). You can supply voltage through this pin, or,
if supplying voltage via the power jack, access it through this pin.
• 5V. The regulated power supply used to power the microcontroller
and other components on the board. This can come either from VIN via
an on-board regulator, or be supplied by USB or another regulated 5V
supply.
• 3V3. A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator.
Maximum current draw is 50 mA.
• GND. Ground pins.

Memory
The ATmega328 has 32 KB (with 0.5 KB used for the
bootloader). It also has 2 KB of SRAM and 1 KB of
EEPROM (which can be read and written with the EEPROM
library).

Input and Output

Each of the 14 digital pins on the Uno can be used as an input or
output, using pinMode(), digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions.
They operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide or receive a maximum of
40 mA and has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected by default) of
20-50 kOhms.

In addition, some pins have specialized functions:

• Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit
(TX) TTL serial data. These pins are connected to the
corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL Serial chip.
 • External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to
trigger an interrupt on a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a
change in value. See the attachInterrupt() function for details.
• PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the
analogWrite() function.

• SP.I: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These

pins support SPI communication using the SPI library.

• LED: 13. There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13.

When the pin is HIGH value, the LED is on, when the pin is LOW,
it's off.

Communication
The Arduino Uno has a number of facilities for communicating
with a computer, another Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The
ATmega328 provides UART TTL (5V) serial communication, which is
available on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). An ATmega8U2 on the
board channels this serial communication over USB and appears as a
virtual com port to software on the computer. The '8U2 firmware uses
the standard USB COM drivers, and no external driver is needed.
However, on Windows, a .inf file is required. The Arduino software
includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual data to be sent to
and from the Arduino board. The RX and TX LEDs on the board will
 flash when data is being transmitted via the USB-to-serial chip and USB
connection to the computer (but not for serial communication on pins 0
and 1).

A Software Serial library allows for serial communication on any

of the Uno's digital pins.The ATmega328 also supports I2C (TWI) and
SPI communication. The Arduino software includes a Wire library to
simplify use of the I2C bus; see the documentation for details. For SPI
communication, use the
SPI library.

Power Supply
The ac voltage, typically 220V rms, is connected to a transformer,
which steps that ac voltage down to the level of the desired dc output. A
diode rectifier then provides a full-wave rectified voltage that is initially
filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce a dc voltage. This
resulting dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage variation.
A regulator circuit removes the ripples and also remains the same
dc value even if the input dc voltage varies, or the load connected to the
output dc voltage changes. This voltage regulation is usually obtained
using one of the popular voltage regulator IC units.

IC
TRANSFORMER RECTIFIER FILTER LOAD
REGULATOR

Figure 8.2.1: Block diagram (Power supply)

 The potential transformer will step down the power supply
voltage (0-230V) to (0-6V) level. Then the secondary of the potential
transformer will be connected to the precision rectifier, which is
constructed with the help of op–amp. The advantages of using precision
rectifier are it will give peak voltage output as DC, rest of the circuits
will give only RMS output.

Bridge rectifier
When four diodes are connected as shown in figure, the circuit is
called as bridge rectifier. The input to the circuit is applied to the
diagonally opposite corners of the network, and the output is taken from
the remaining two corners.
Let us assume that the transformer is working properly and there
is a positive potential, at point A and a negative potential at point B. the
positive potential at point A will forward bias D3 and reverse bias D4.
The negative potential at point B will forward bias D1 and reverse
D2. At this time D3 and D1 are forward biased and will allow current
flow to pass through them; D4 and D2 are reverse biased and will block
current flow.
The path for current flow is from point B through D1, up through
RL, through D3, through the secondary of the transformer back to point
B. this path is indicated by the solid arrows. Waveforms (1) and (2) can
be observed across D1 and D3.
One-half cycle later the polarity across the secondary of the
transformer reverse, forward biasing D2 and D4 and reverse biasing D1
and D3. Current flow will now be from point A through D4, up through
RL, through D2, through the secondary of T1, and back to point A. This
path is indicated by the broken arrows. Waveforms (3) and (4) can be
observed across D2 and D4. The current flow through RL is always in
the same direction. In flowing through RL this current develops a
voltage corresponding to that shown waveform (5). Since current flows
through the load (RL) during both half cycles of the applied voltage,
this bridge rectifier is a full-wave rectifier.
One advantage of a bridge rectifier over a conventional full-wave
rectifier is that with a given transformer the bridge rectifier produces a
voltage output that is nearly twice that of the conventional full-wave
circuit.
This may be shown by assigning values to some of the
components shown in views A and B. assume that the same transformer
is used in both circuits. The peak voltage developed between points X
and y is 1000 volts in both circuits. In the conventional full-wave circuit
shown—in view A, the peak voltage from the center tap to either X or Y
is 500 volts. Since only one diode can conduct at any instant, the
maximum voltage that can be rectified at any instant is 500 volts.
The maximum voltage that appears across the load resistor is
nearly-but never exceeds-500 v0lts, as result of the small voltage drop
across the diode. In the bridge rectifier shown in view B, the maximum
voltage that can be rectified is the full secondary voltage, which is 1000
volts. Therefore, the peak output voltage across the load resistor is
nearly 1000 volts.
IC voltage regulators
Voltage regulators comprise a class of widely used ICs. Regulator
IC units contain the circuitry for reference source, comparator amplifier,
control device, and overload protection all in a single IC. IC units
provide regulation of either a fixed positive voltage, a fixed negative
voltage, or an adjustably set voltage. The regulators can be selected for
operation with load currents from hundreds of milli amperes to tens of
amperes, corresponding to power ratings from milli watts to tens of
watts.

IC
TRANSFORMER RECTIFIER FILTER LOAD
REGULATOR

Figure 8.2.2: Circuit diagram (Power supply)

A fixed three-terminal voltage regulator has an unregulated dc
input voltage, Vi, applied to one input terminal, a regulated dc output
voltage, Vo, from a second terminal, with the third terminal connected
to ground.
The series 78 regulators provide fixed positive regulated voltages
from 5 to 24 volts. Similarly, the series 79 regulators provide fixed
negative regulated voltages from 5 to 24 volts.
 The present chapter introduces the operation of power supply
circuits built using filters, rectifiers, and then voltage regulators.
Starting
 with an ac voltage, a steady dc voltage is obtained by rectifying the ac
voltage, then filtering to a dc level, and finally, regulating to obtain a
desired fixed dc voltage. The regulation is usually obtained from an IC
voltage regulator unit, which takes a dc voltage and provides a
somewhat lower dc voltage, which remains the same even if the input dc
voltage varies, or the output load connected to the dc voltage changes.

A block diagram containing the parts of a typical power supply

and the voltage at various points in the unit is shown in fig. The ac
voltage, typically 120 V rms, is connected to a transformer, which steps
that ac voltage down to the level for the desired dc output. A diode
rectifier then provides a full-wave rectified voltage that is initially
filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce a dc voltage. This
resulting dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage variation. A
regulator circuit can use this dc input to provide a dc voltage that not
only has much less ripple voltage but also remains the same dc value
even if the input dc voltage varies somewhat, or the load connected to
the output dc voltage changes. This voltage regulation is usually
obtained using one of a number of popular voltage regulator IC units.

THREE-TERMINAL VOLTAGE REGULATORS:

Fig shows the basic connection of a three-terminal voltage
regulator IC to a load. The fixed voltage regulator has an unregulated dc
input voltage, Vi, applied to one input terminal, a regulated output dc
voltage, Vo, from a second terminal, with the third terminal connected
to ground. For a selected regulator, IC device specifications list a
voltage range over which the input voltage can vary to maintain a
regulated output voltage over a range of load current. The specifications
 also list the amount of output voltage change resulting from a change in load
current (load regulation) or in input voltage (line regulation).

8-CHANNEL ANALOG MULTIPLEXERS/DEMULTIPLEXERS

DESCRIPTION SOP-16

Ordering Number
Normal Lead Free Package Packing
Plating
4051- 4051L-D16-T DIP-16 Tube
D16-T DIP-16
4051- 4051L-P16-R TSSOP- Tape
P16-R 16 Reel
4051-P16- 4051L-P16-T TSSOP- Tube
T 16
4051- 4051L-S16-R SOP-16 Tape
TSSOP-16 *Pb-free plating product number:
S16-R Reel 4051L
4051- 4051L-S16-T SOP-16 Tube
S16-T

UTC 4051 is single 8-channel analog

multiplexers/demultiplexers for application as
digitally–controlled analog switches.

The device has three binary control inputs and

an inhibit input. It feature low ON impedance and
very low OFF leakage current. Control of analog
signals up to the complete supply voltage range
can be achieved.
FEATURES
* Wide analog voltage range: VDD–
VEE = 3V~18V. (Note: VEE must
be≦VSS)
* Break-Before-Make switching eliminates
channel overlap.
* Linearized transfer characteristics
* Implement an SP8T solid state switch
effectively.
* Pin–to–Pin Replacement for CD4051

ORDERING INFORMATION
 4051L-D16-T
(1) Packing Free Plating, Blank: Pb/Sn
Type
(2) Package

PIN CONFIGURATION

PIN DESCRIPTION

PIN SYMB I/ FUNCTIO

No. AL O NS
3 X I/ Common input/output
O
6 INH I Inhibit inputs
7 VEE Supply voltage
8 VSS Ground
11,10,9 A,B, I Binary control inputs
C
13,14,15,12,1,5, X0~ I/ Independent inputs/outputs
2,4 X7 O
16 VDD Positive supply voltage
 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS

PARAMETER SYMB TEST CONDITIONS MI TYP MA UNI

OL N X T
SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS (Voltages Referenced to VEE)
Power Supply Voltage Range VDD VDD – 3.0≧VSS≧VEE 3 18 V
VDD=5 Control Inputs: VIN = VSS 0.00 5
Quiescent Current V 5
V =10 I Q or V DD Switch I/O: VEE 0.01 10 µA
Per Package V
DD
≦VI/O ≦VDD, 0
VDD=15 and ∆Vsw≦500mV(Note 0.01 20
V 2) 5
Total Supply Current VDD=5 Ta=25℃ only (The (0.07 µA/kHz) f + IQ
V channel
(Dynamic Plus VDD=10 ID(A component, (VIN- (0.20 µA/kHz) f + IQ µA
Quiescent, Per V V)
VDD=15 VOUT)/RON, is not (0.36 µA/kHz) f + IQ
Package) included.)
V
SWITCHES IN/OUT AND COMMONS OUT/IN -- X, Y, Z (Voltages Referenced to VEE)
Recommended Peak–to–
Peak Voltage Into or Out VI/O Channel On or Off 0 VD VPP
of the Switch D
Recommended Static or ∆Vsw Channel On 0 600 mV
Dynamic
Voltage Across the Switch
Output Offset Voltage VO(OF VIN = 0V, No Load 10 µV
F)
VDD=5 ∆Vsw≦500mV 250 1050
V
ON Resistance VDD=10 RON VIN = VIL or VIH 120 500 Ω
V (Control), and V IN = 0
VDD=15 to VDD (Switch) 80 280
V
ΔON Resistance VDD=5 25 70
V
Between VDD=10 ∆RON 10 50 Ω
Any Two Channels V
in the Same Package VDD=15 10 45
V
VIN = VIL or VIH
Off-Channel Leakage Current IO (Control) Channel to ±0.0 ±100 n
Channel or Any One 5 A
FF Channel, V =15V
DD
Capacitance, Switch I/O CI/ Inhibit = VDD 10 pF
O
Capacitance, Common O/I CO Inhibit = VDD 17 pF
/I
Capacitance, Pins Not 0.15
Feedthrough CI/ Adjacent Pins 0.47 pF
(Channel Off) O Adjacent
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS(Cont.)
PARAMETER SYMB TEST CONDITIONS MI TYP MA UNI
OL N X T
CONTROL INPUTS – INHIBIT A, B, C (Voltages Referenced to VSS)
VDD=5 2.25 1.5
V
Low Level Input VDD=10 VIL RON= per spec, IOFF = per 4.50 3.0 V
Voltage V spec
VDD=15 6.75 4.0
V
VDD=5 3.5 2.75
V
High Level Input VDD=10 VIH RON= per spec, IOFF = per 7 5.5 V
Voltage V spec
VDD=15 11 8.25
V
Input Leakage Current ILEAK VIN= 0 or VDD, VDD=15V ±0.000 ±0.1 µA
01
Input Capacitance CIN 5.0 7.5 pF

DYNAMIC ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS

PARAMETER SYMB VDD– TEST CONDITIONS MI TYP MA UNI

OL VEE N X T
Vdc
Propagation Delay 5 tPLH, tPHL =(0.17 ns/pF)CL + 35 90
Times Switch Input tPLH, 26.5ns tPLH, tPHL =(0.08 ns
to Switch Output (RL 10 ns/pF)CL + 11ns tPLH, tPHL 15 40
= 10 kΩ) tPHL 15 =(0.06 ns/pF)CL + 9ns 12 30
5 (RL=10kΩ, VEE=VSS) 350 700
tPHZ,
Inhibit to Output 10 Output “1” or “0” to High 170 340 ns
tPLZ 15 Impedance, or High 140 280
tPZH, Impedance to “1” or “0” Level
tPZL
5 360 720
Control Input to tPLH, 10 RL = 10 kΩ, VEE = VSS 160 320 ns
Output tPHL 15 120 240
Total Harmonic THD 10 RL = 10KΩ, f = 1 kHz, Vin = 0.07 %
Distortion 5 VPP
RL = 1kΩ, VIN = 1/2 (VDD–
Bandwidth BW 10 VEE) p–p, CL = 50pF, 20 Log 17 MH
(VOUT/VIN) = -3dB) z
Off Channel RL=1KΩ, VIN = 1/2 (VDD–
Feedthrough 10 VEE) p–p fIN = 4.5 MHz -50 dB
Attenuation
RL = 1kΩ, VIN = 1/2 (VDD–
Channel Separation 10 VEE) p–p fIN = 3MHz -50 dB
Crosstalk, Control R1 = 1kΩ, RL = 10kΩ
Input to Common O/I 10 Control tTLH = tTHL = 75 mV
20ns, Inhibit = VSS
SWITCH CIRCUIT SCHEMATIC

VDD VDD VDD

IN/OUT OUT/IN

VEE

VDD

LEVEL
CONVERTED
CONTROL IN/OUT
OUT/IN

CONTROL
VEE

TRUTH TABLE FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM

16 VDD

Control Inputs INH 6

ON Switches LEVEL BINARY TO 1 - OF - 8 DECODER WITH
INHIBIT C B A CONVERTER INHIBIT
A 11
0 0 0 0 X0
0 0 0 1 X1 B 10
8 VSSVEE 7
0 0 1 0 X2
C 9
0 0 1 1 X3

0 1 0 0 X4
0 1 0 1 X5
0 1 1 0 X6
0 1 1 1 X7
1 x x x None