Operating System Basics:

 The Operating System acts as a bridge between the user

applications/tasks and the underlying system resources
through a set of system functionalities and services

 OS manages the system resources and

makes them available to the user
applications/tasks on a need basis.

The primary functions of an Operating

system is

 Make the system convenient to use

 Organize and manage the system resources efficiently.

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Kernel Services

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Figure 1: The Architecture of Operating System

The Kernel:

 The kernel is the core of the operating system

 It is responsible for managing the system resources and the communication

among the hardware and other system services

 Kernel acts as the abstraction layer between system resources and user
applications

 Kernel contains a set of system libraries and services.

 For a general purpose OS, the kernel contains different services like

 Process Management

 Primary Memory Management

 File System management

 I/O System (Device) Management

 Secondary Storage Management

 Protection

 Time management

 Interrupt Handling

Kernel Space and User Space:

 The program code corresponding to the kernel applications/services are kept

in a contiguous area (OS dependent) of primary (working) memory and is
protected from the un-authorized access by user programs/applications

 The memory space at which the kernel code is located is known as ‘Kernel
Space’
  All user applications are loaded to a specific area of primary memory and
this memory area is referred as ‘User Space’

 The partitioning of memory into kernel and user space is purely Operating
System dependent

 An operating system with virtual memory support, loads the user

applications into its corresponding virtual memory space with demand
paging technique

 Most of the operating systems keep the kernel application code in main
memory and it is not swapped out into the secondary memory

Monolithic Kernel:

 All kernel services run in the kernel space

 All kernel modules run within the same memory space under a single kernel
thread
 The tight internal integration of kernel modules in monolithic kernel
architecture allows the effective
utilization of the low-level features of
the underlying system Applications
 The major drawback of monolithic
kernel is that any error or failure in
any one of the kernel modules leads to
the crashing of the entire kernel
Monolithic kernel with all
application operating system services
running in kernel space
 LINUX, SOLARIS, MS-DOS kernels
are examples of monolithic kernel
Figure 2: The Monolithic Kernel Model
Microkernel

 The microkernel design incorporates only the essential set of Operating

System services into the kernel

 Rest of the Operating System services are implemented in programs known

as ‘Servers’ which runs in user space

 The kernel design is highly

Servers (kernel
services running Applications
modular provides OS-neutral in user space)

abstraction.

 Memory management, process

management, timer systems and Microkernel with essential
services like memory
interrupt handlers are examples of management, process
management, timer systemetc...
essential services, which forms the part
of the microkernel

Figure 3: The Microkernel Model

 QNX, Minix 3 kernels are examples for microkernel.

Benefits of Microkernel:
1. Robustness: If a problem is encountered in any services in server can
reconfigured and re-started without the need for re-starting the entire OS.
2. Configurability: Any services , which run as ‘server’ application can be
changed without need to restart the whole system.
Types of Operating Systems:
Depending on the type of kernel and kernel services, purpose and type of
computing systems where the OS is deployed and the responsiveness to
applications, Operating Systems are classified into

1. General Purpose Operating System (GPOS):

2. Real Time Purpose Operating System (RTOS):

1. General Purpose Operating System (GPOS):

 Operating Systems, which are deployed in general computing systems

 The kernel is more generalized and contains all the required services to
execute generic applications

 Need not be deterministic in execution behavior

 May inject random delays into application software and thus cause slow
responsiveness of an application at unexpected times

 Usually deployed in computing systems where deterministic behavior is not

an important criterion

 Personal Computer/Desktop system is a typical example for a system where

GPOSs are deployed.

 Windows XP/MS-DOS etc are examples of General Purpose Operating

System

2. Real Time Purpose Operating System (RTOS):

 Operating Systems, which are deployed in embedded systems demanding

real-time response

 Deterministic in execution behavior. Consumes only known amount of time

for kernel applications

 Implements scheduling policies for executing the highest priority

task/application always

 Implements policies and rules concerning time-critical allocation of a

system’s resources

 Windows CE, QNX, VxWorks , MicroC/OS-II etc are examples of Real

Time Operating Systems (RTOS)
The Real Time Kernel: The kernel of a Real Time Operating System is referred
as Real Time kernel. In complement to the conventional OS kernel, the Real Time
kernel is highly specialized and it contains only the minimal set of services
required for running the user applications/tasks. The basic functions of a Real Time
kernel are
a) Task/Process management

b) Task/Process scheduling

c) Task/Process synchronization

d) Error/Exception handling

e) Memory Management

f) Interrupt handling

g) Time management

 Real Time Kernel Task/Process Management: Deals with setting up the

memory space for the tasks, loading the task’s code into the memory space,
allocating system resources, setting up a Task Control Block (TCB) for the task
and task/process termination/deletion. A Task Control Block (TCB) is used for
holding the information corresponding to a task. TCB usually contains the
following set of information

 Task ID: Task Identification Number

 Task State: The current state of the task. (E.g. State= ‘Ready’ for a task
which is ready to execute)

 Task Type: Task type. Indicates what is the type for this task. The task can
be a hard real time or soft real time or background task.

 Task Priority: Task priority (E.g. Task priority =1 for task with priority = 1)

 Task Context Pointer: Context pointer. Pointer for context saving

  Task Memory Pointers: Pointers to the code memory, data memory and
stack memory for the task

 Task System Resource Pointers: Pointers to system resources (semaphores,

mutex etc) used by the task

 Task Pointers: Pointers to other TCBs (TCBs for preceding, next and
waiting tasks)

 Other Parameters Other relevant task parameters

The parameters and implementation of the TCB is kernel dependent. The TCB
parameters vary across different kernels, based on the task management
implementation

 Task/Process Scheduling: Deals with sharing the CPU among various

tasks/processes. A kernel application called ‘Scheduler’ handles the task
scheduling. Scheduler is nothing but an algorithm implementation, which
performs the efficient and optimal scheduling of tasks to provide a deterministic
behavior.
Task/Process Synchronization: Deals with synchronizing the concurrent
access of a resource, which is shared across multiple tasks and the
communication between various tasks.

Error/Exception handling: Deals with registering and handling the errors

occurred/exceptions raised during the execution of tasks. Insufficient memory,
timeouts, deadlocks, deadline missing, bus error, divide by zero, unknown
instruction execution etc, are examples of errors/exceptions. Errors/Exceptions
can happen at the kernel level services or at task level. Deadlock is an example
for kernel level exception, whereas timeout is an example for a task level
exception. The OS kernel gives the information about the error in the form of a
system call (API).
Memory Management:

 The memory management function of an RTOS kernel is slightly

different compared to the General Purpose Operating Systems

 The memory allocation time increases depending on the size of the block
of memory needs to be allocated and the state of the allocated memory
block (initialized memory block consumes more allocation time than un-
initialized memory block)

 Since predictable timing and deterministic behavior are the primary focus
for an RTOS, RTOS achieves this by compromising the effectiveness of
memory allocation

 RTOS generally uses ‘block’ based memory allocation technique, instead

of the usual dynamic memory allocation techniques used by the GPOS.

 RTOS kernel uses blocks of fixed size of dynamic memory and the block
is allocated for a task on a need basis. The blocks are stored in a ‘Free
buffer Queue’.

 Most of the RTOS kernels allow tasks to access any of the memory
blocks without any memory protection to achieve predictable timing and
avoid the timing overheads

 RTOS kernels assume that the whole design is proven correct and
protection is unnecessary. Some commercial RTOS kernels allow
memory protection as optional and the kernel enters a fail-safe mode
when an illegal memory access occurs

 The memory management function of an RTOS kernel is slightly

different compared to the General Purpose Operating Systems

 A few RTOS kernels implement Virtual Memory concept for memory

allocation if the system supports secondary memory storage (like HDD
and FLASH memory).
  In the ‘block’ based memory allocation, a block of fixed memory is
always allocated for tasks on need basis and it is taken as a unit. Hence,
there will not be any memory fragmentation issues.

 The memory allocation can be implemented as constant functions and

thereby it consumes fixed amount of time for memory allocation. This
leaves the deterministic behavior of the RTOS kernel untouched.

Interrupt Handling:

 Interrupts inform the processor that an external device or an associated

task requires immediate attention of the CPU.

 Interrupts can be either Synchronous or Asynchronous.

 Interrupts which occurs in sync with the currently executing task is known
as Synchronous interrupts. Usually the software interrupts fall under the
Synchronous Interrupt category. Divide by zero, memory segmentation
error etc are examples of Synchronous interrupts.

 For synchronous interrupts, the interrupt handler runs in the same context
of the interrupting task.

 Asynchronous interrupts are interrupts, which occurs at any point of

execution of any task, and are not in sync with the currently executing
task.

 The interrupts generated by external devices (by asserting the Interrupt

line of the processor/controller to which the interrupt line of the device is
connected) connected to the processor/controller, timer overflow
interrupts, serial data reception/ transmission interrupts etc are examples
for asynchronous interrupts.

 For asynchronous interrupts, the interrupt handler is usually written as

separate task (Depends on OS Kernel implementation) and it runs in a
 different context. Hence, a context switch happens while handling the
asynchronous interrupts.

 Priority levels can be assigned to the interrupts and each interrupts can be
enabled or disabled individually.

 Most of the RTOS kernel implements ‘Nested Interrupts’ architecture.

Interrupt nesting allows the pre-emption (interruption) of an Interrupt
Service Routine (ISR), servicing an interrupt, by a higher priority
interrupt.

Time Management:

 Interrupts inform the processor that an external device or an associated

task requires immediate attention of the CPU.

 Accurate time management is essential for providing precise time

reference for all applications

 The time reference to kernel is provided by a high-resolution Real Time

Clock (RTC) hardware chip (hardware timer)

 The hardware timer is programmed to interrupt the processor/controller

at a fixed rate. This timer interrupt is referred as ‘Timer tick’

 The ‘Timer tick’ is taken as the timing reference by the kernel. The
‘Timer tick’ interval may vary depending on the hardware timer. Usually
the ‘Timer tick’ varies in the microseconds range

 The time parameters for tasks are expressed as the multiples of the
‘Timer tick’

 The System time is updated based on the ‘Timer tick’

 If the System time register is 32 bits wide and the ‘Timer tick’ interval is
1microsecond, the System time register will reset in

232 * 10-6/ (24 * 60 * 60) = 49700 Days =~ 0.0497 Days = 1.19 Hours
 If the ‘Timer tick’ interval is 1 millisecond, the System time register will
reset in

232 * 10-3 / (24 * 60 * 60) = 497 Days = 49.7 Days =~ 50 Days

The ‘Timer tick’ interrupt is handled by the ‘Timer Interrupt’ handler of kernel.
The ‘Timer tick’ interrupt can be utilized for implementing the following
actions.

 Save the current context (Context of the currently executing task)

 Increment the System time register by one. Generate timing error and reset
the System time register if the timer tick count is greater than the maximum
range available for System time register

 Update the timers implemented in kernel (Increment or decrement the timer

registers for each timer depending on the count direction setting for each
register. Increment registers with count direction setting = ‘count up’ and
decrement registers with count direction setting = ‘count down’)

 Activate the periodic tasks, which are in the idle state

 Invoke the scheduler and schedule the tasks again based on the scheduling
algorithm

 Delete all the terminated tasks and their associated data structures (TCBs)

 Load the context for the first task in the ready queue. Due to the re-
scheduling, the ready task might be changed to a new one from the task,
which was pre-empted by the ‘Timer Interrupt’ task
 Hard Real-time System:

 A Real Time Operating Systems which strictly adheres to the timing

constraints for a task

 A Hard Real Time system must meet the deadlines for a task without any
slippage

 Missing any deadline may produce catastrophic results for Hard Real
Time Systems, including permanent data lose and irrecoverable damages
to the system/users

 Emphasize on the principle ‘A late answer is a wrong answer’

 Air bag control systems and Anti-lock Brake Systems (ABS) of vehicles
are typical examples of Hard Real Time Systems

 As a rule of thumb, Hard Real Time Systems does not implement the
virtual memory model for handling the memory. This eliminates the
delay in swapping in and out the code corresponding to the task to and
from the primary memory

 The presence of Human in the loop (HITL) for tasks introduces un-
expected delays in the task execution. Most of the Hard Real Time
Systems are automatic and does not contain a ‘human in the loop’

 Soft Real-time System:

Real Time Operating Systems that does not guarantee meeting deadlines,
but, offer the best effort to meet the deadline

Missing deadlines for tasks are acceptable if the frequency of deadline

missing is within the compliance limit of the Quality of Service(QoS)

A Soft Real Time system emphasizes on the principle ‘A late answer is an

acceptable answer, but it could have done bit faster’

Soft Real Time systems most often have a ‘human in the loop (HITL)’
 Automatic Teller Machine (ATM) is a typical example of Soft Real Time
System. If the ATM takes a few seconds more than the ideal operation
time, nothing fatal happens.

An audio video play back system is another example of Soft Real Time
system. No potential damage arises if a sample comes late by fraction of a
second, for play back.

Tasks, Processes & Threads :

 In the Operating System context, a task is defined as the program in
execution and the related information maintained by the Operating
system for the program
 Task is also known as ‘Job’ in the operating systemcontext
 A program or part of it in execution is also called a ‘Process’
 The terms ‘Task’, ‘job’ and ‘Process’ refer to the same entity in the
Operating System context and most often they are usedinterchangeably
 A process requires various system resources like CPU for executing the
process, memory for storing the code corresponding to the process and
associated variables, I/O devices for information exchange etc
The structure of a Processes

 The concept of ‘Process’ leads to concurrent execution (pseudo parallelism)

of tasks and thereby the efficient utilization of the CPU and other system
resources

 Concurrent execution is achieved through the sharing of CPU among the

processes.

 A process mimics a processor in properties and holds a set of registers,

process status, a Program Counter (PC) to point to the next executable
instruction of the process, a stack for holding the local variables associated
with the process and the code corresponding to the process
 Process
 A process, which inherits all
Stack
the properties of the CPU, (Stack Pointer)

can be considered as a Working Registers

virtual processor, awaiting

Status Registers
its turn to have its properties
Program Counter (PC)
switched into the physical
processor
Code Mem ory
corresponding to the
Process
Figure: 4 Structure of a Process

 When the process gets its turn, its registers and Program counter register
becomes mapped to the physical registers of the CPU

Memory organization of Processes:

 The memory occupied by the process is
segregated into three regions namely; Stack Stack Memory
memory, Data memory and Code memory
Stack memory grows
 The ‘Stack’ memory holds all temporary downwards
data such as variables local to the process
Data memory grows
 Data memory holds all global data for the upwards
process

 The code memory contains the program

Data Memory
code (instructions) corresponding to the
process

Code Memory
Fig: 5 Memory organization of a Process
 On loading a process into the main memory, a specific area of memory is
allocated for the process

 The stack memory usually starts at the highest memory address from the
memory area allocated for the process (Depending on the OS kernel
implementation)

Process States & State Transition

 The creation of a process to its termination is not a single step operation

 The process traverses through a series of states during its transition from the
newly created state to the terminated state

 The cycle through which a process changes its state from ‘newly created’ to
‘execution completed’ is known as ‘Process Life Cycle’. The various states
through which a process traverses through during a Process Life Cycle
indicates the current status of the process with respect to time and also
provides information on what it is allowed to do next

Process States & State Transition:

 Created State: The state at which a process is being created is referred as

‘Created State’. The Operating System recognizes a process in the ‘Created
State’ but no resources are allocated to the process

 Ready State: The state, where a process is incepted into the memory and
awaiting the processor time for execution, is known as ‘Ready State’. At
this stage, the process is placed in the ‘Ready list’ queue maintained by the
OS

 Running State: The state where in the source code instructions

corresponding to the process is being executed is called ‘Running State’.
Running state is the state at which the process execution happens
 Created
 . Blocked State/Wait State: Refers
to a state where a running process is Incepted into memory

temporarily suspended from

execution and does not have Ready

immediate access to resources. The

Scheduled for
Interrupted or
blocked state might have invoked by

Preempted

Execution
Blocked
various conditions like- the process
enters a wait state for an event to
occur (E.g. Waiting for user inputs Running
such as keyboard input) or waiting
for getting access to a shared Execution Completion

resource like semaphore, mutex etc

Completed

Figure 6.Process states and State transition

 Completed State: A state where the process completes its execution

 The transition of a process from one state to another is

known as ‘Statetransition’

 When a process changes its state from Ready to running

or from running toblocked or terminated or from blocked to running, the
CPU allocation for the process may alsochange

Threads

 A thread is the primitive that can execute code

 A thread is a single sequential flow of control within a process

 ‘Thread’ is also known as lightweight process

 A process can have many threads of execution

 Different threads, which are part of a
process, share the same address space;
meaning they share the data memory,
code memory and heap memory area

 Threads maintain their own thread status

(CPU register values), Program Counter
(PC) and stack

Figure 7 Memory organization of process and its associated Threads

The Concept of multithreading

Use of multiple threads to execute a process brings the following advantage.

 Better memory utilization.

Multiple threads of the same Task/Process

process share the address space Code Memory

for data memory. This also Data Memory

reduces the complexity of inter Stack Stack Stack

Registers Registers Registers

thread communication since Thread 1 Thread 2 Thread 3

variables can be shared across the void main (void)

{
//Create child
int ChildThread1
(void)
{
int ChildThread2
(void)
{
//Do something
thread 1 //Do something
CreateThread(NULL,
threads. 1000,(LPTHREAD_STA
RT_ROUTINE)
ChildThread1,NULL,
} }

0, &dwThreadID);
//Create child
thread 2

 Since the process is split into

CreateThread(NULL,
1000,(LPTHREAD_STA
RT_ROUTINE)
ChildThread2,NULL,
0, &dwThreadID);

different threads, when one }

thread enters a wait state, the

CPU can be utilized by other

Figure 8 Process with multi-threads

 threads of the process that do not require the event, which the other thread is
waiting, for processing. This speeds up the execution of the process.

 Efficient CPU utilization. The CPU is engaged all time.

 Thread V/s Process

Thread Process
Thread is a single unit of execution and is part Process is a program in execution and contains
of process. one or more threads.

A thread does not have its own data memory Process has its own code memory, data memory
and heap memory. It shares the data memory and stack memory.
and heap memory with other threads of the
same process.

A thread cannot live independently; it lives A process contains at least one thread.
within the process.

There can be multiple threads in a process. Threads within a process share the code, data
The first thread (main thread) calls the main and heap memory. Each thread holds separate
function and occupies the start of the stack memory area for stack (shares the total stack
memory of the process. memory of the process).

Threads are very inexpensive to create Processes are very expensive to create. Involves
many OS overhead.

Context switching is inexpensive and fast Context switching is complex and involves lot of
OS overhead and is comparatively slower.

If a thread expires, its stack is reclaimed by the If a process dies, the resources allocated to it are
process. reclaimed by the OS and all the associated
threads of the process also dies.

Advantages of Threads:

1. Better memory utilization: Multiple threads of the same process share the
address space for data memory. This also reduces the complexity of inter
thread communication since variables can be shared across the threads.

2. Efficient CPU utilization: The CPU is engaged all time.

 3. Speeds up the execution of the process: The process is split into different
threads, when one thread enters a wait state, the CPU can be utilized by
other threads of the process that do not require the event, which the other
thread is waiting, for processing.

Multiprocessing & Multitasking

 The ability to execute multiple processes simultaneously is referred as
Multiprocessing
 Systems which are capable of performing multiprocessing are known as
Multiprocessor systems

 Multiprocessor systems possess multiple CPUs and can execute multiple

processes simultaneously

 The ability of the Operating System to have multiple programs in memory,

which are ready for execution, is referred as multiprogramming

 Multitasking refers to the ability of an operating system to hold multiple

processes in memory and switch the processor (CPU) from executing one
process to another process

 Multitasking involves ‘Context switching’, ‘Context saving’ and ‘Context

retrieval’

 Context switching refers to the switching of execution context from task to

other

 When a task/process switching happens, the current context of execution

should be saved to (Context saving) retrieve it at a later point of time when
the CPU executes the process, which is interrupted currently due to
execution switching

 During context switching, the context of the task to be executed is retrieved

from the saved context list. This is known as Context retrieval
 


Process 1
Process 2


Processes

Execution switches to Process 2

(Interrupt or System Call)

1. Save Current context into PCB0

2. Perform other OS operations related to

Types of Multitasking:
‘Context Switching’
3. Reload Context for Process 2 from PCB1

multitasking can is classified into

Multitasking – Context Switching:

Execution switches to Process 1

(Interrupt or System Call)

1. Save Current context into PCB1

2. Perform other OS operations related to
‘Context Switching’
3. Reload Context for Process 1 from PCB0

Depending on how the task/process execution switching act is implemented,

• Co-operative Multitasking: Co-operative multitasking is the most primitive
form of multitasking in which a task/process gets a chance to execute only
when the currently executing task/process voluntarily relinquishes the CPU.
In this method, any task/process can avail the CPU as much time as it wants.
Since this type of implementation involves the mercy of the tasks each other
for getting the CPU time for execution, it is known as co-operative
multitasking. If the currently executing task is non-cooperative, the other
tasks may have to wait for a long time to get the CPU

• Preemptive Multitasking: Preemptive multitasking ensures that every

task/process gets a chance to execute. When and how much time a process
gets is dependent on the implementation of the preemptive scheduling. As
the name indicates, in preemptive multitasking, the currently running
task/process is preempted to give a chance to other tasks/process to execute.
The preemption of task may be based on time slots or task/processpriority

• Non-preemptive Multitasking: The process/task, which is currently given the

CPU time, is allowed to execute until it terminates (enters the ‘Completed’
state) or enters the ‘Blocked/Wait’ state, waiting for an I/O. The co-
operative and non-preemptive multitasking differs in their behavior when
they are in the ‘Blocked/Wait’ state. In co-operative multitasking, the
currently executing process/task need not relinquish the CPU when it enters
the ‘Blocked/Wait’ sate, waiting for an I/O, or a shared resource access or an
event to occur whereas in non-preemptive multitasking the currently
executing task relinquishes the CPU when it waits for an I/O.

Task Scheduling:
 In a multitasking system, there should be some mechanism in place to share
the CPU among the different tasks and to decide which process/task is to be
executed at a given point of time

 Determining which task/process is to be executed at a given point of time is

known as task/process scheduling
  Task scheduling forms the basis of multitasking

 Scheduling policies forms the guidelines for determining which task is to be

executed when

 The scheduling policies are implemented in an algorithm and it is run by the

kernel as a service

 The kernel service/application, which implements the scheduling algorithm,

is known as ‘Scheduler’

 The task scheduling policy can be pre-emptive, non-preemptive or co-

operative

 Depending on the scheduling policy the process scheduling decision may

take place when a process switches its state to

 ‘Ready’ state from ‘Running’ state

 ‘Blocked/Wait’ state from ‘Running’ state
 ‘Ready’ state from ‘Blocked/Wait’ state
 ‘Completed’ state
Task Scheduling - Scheduler Selection:
The selection of a scheduling criteria/algorithm should consider
• CPU Utilization: The scheduling algorithm should always make the CPU
utilization high. CPU utilization is a direct measure of how much percentage
of the CPU is being utilized.
• Throughput: This gives an indication of the number of processes executed
per unit of time. The throughput for a good scheduler should always be
higher.
• Turnaround Time: It is the amount of time taken by a process for
completing its execution. It includes the time spent by the process for
waiting for the main memory, time spent in the ready queue, time spent on
completing the I/O operations, and the time spent in execution. The
turnaround time should be a minimum for a good schedulingalgorithm.
 • Waiting Time: It is the amount of time spent by a process in the ‘Ready’
queue waiting to get the CPU time for execution. The waiting time should be
minimal for a good scheduling algorithm.
• Response Time: It is the time elapsed between the submission of a process
and the first response. For a good scheduling algorithm, the response time
should be as least as possible.

To summarize, a good scheduling algorithm has high CPU utilization, minimum

Turn Around Time (TAT), maximum throughput and least response time.

Task Scheduling - Queues

The various queues maintained by OS in association with CPU scheduling are
• Job Queue: Job queue contains all the processes in the system
• Ready Queue: Contains all the processes, which are ready for execution and
waiting for CPU to get their turn for execution. The Ready queue is empty
when there is no process ready for running.
• Device Queue: Contains the set of processes, which are waiting for an I/O
device
Task Scheduling – Task transition through various Queues

Process 1

Scheduler

Job Queue

Admitted Process 1
Move Process to ‘Device Queue ’

Process
Run Process
to Completion

Process n
to ‘Ready’ queue
Ready Queue Process
Resource Request

Move preempted process CPU

By Process

Move I/O C ompleted

Process to ‘R eady’ queue

Device
Manager

Process
Process 1
Process 2

Figure 10. Process TranDesviicteiQouneuethrough various queues

Non-preemptive scheduling – First Come First Served (FCFS)/First In
First Out (FIFO) Scheduling:

 Allocates CPU time to the processes based on the order in which they enters
the ‘Ready’ queue
 The first entered process is serviced first
 It is same as any real world application where queue systems are used; E.g.
Ticketing
Drawbacks:

 Favors monopoly of process. A process, which does not contain any I/O
operation, continues its execution until it finishes its task
 In general, FCFS favors CPU bound processes and I/O bound processes may
have to wait until the completion of CPU bound process, if the currently
executing process is a CPU bound process. This leads to poor device
utilization.
 The average waiting time is not minimal for FCFS scheduling algorithm

EXAMPLE: Three processes with process IDs P1, P2, P3 with estimated
completion time 10, 5, 7 milliseconds respectively enters the ready queue together
in the order P1, P2, P3. Calculate the waiting time and Turn Around Time (TAT)
for each process and the Average waiting time and Turn Around Time (Assuming
there is no I/O waiting for the processes).

Solution: The sequence of execution of the processes by the CPU is represented as

P1 P2 P3

0 10 15 22
10 5 7
 Assuming the CPU is readily available at the time of arrival of P1, P1 starts
executing without any waiting in the ‘Ready’ queue. Hence the waiting time for P1
is zero.

Waiting Time for P1 = 0 ms (P1 starts executing first)

Waiting Time for P2 = 10 ms (P2 starts executing after completing P1)

Waiting Time for P3 = 15 ms (P3 starts executing after completing P1 and P2)

Average waiting time = (Waiting time for all processes) / No. of Processes

= (Waiting time for (P1+P2+P3)) / 3

= (0+10+15)/3 = 25/3 = 8.33 milliseconds

Turn Around Time (TAT) for P1 = 10 ms (Time spent in Ready Queue +

Execution Time)

Turn Around Time (TAT) for P2 = 15 ms (-Do-)

Turn Around Time (TAT) for P3 = 22 ms (-Do-)

Average Turn Around Time= (Turn Around Time for all processes) / No. of
Processes

= (Turn Around Time for (P1+P2+P3)) / 3

= (10+15+22)/3 = 47/3

= 15.66 milliseconds

Non-preemptive scheduling – Last Come First Served (LCFS)/Last In

First Out (LIFO) Scheduling:

 Allocates CPU time to the processes based on the order in which they are
entered in the ‘Ready’ queue

 The last entered process is serviced first

  LCFS scheduling is also known as Last In First Out (LIFO) where the
process, which is put last into the ‘Ready’ queue, is serviced first

Drawbacks:

 Favors monopoly of process. A process, which does not contain any I/O
operation, continues its execution until it finishes its task

 In general, LCFS favors CPU bound processes and I/O bound processes may
have to wait until the completion of CPU bound process, if the currently
executing process is a CPU bound process. This leads to poor device
utilization.

 The average waiting time is not minimal for LCFS scheduling algorithm

EXAMPLE: Three processes with process IDs P1, P2, P3 with estimated
completion time 10, 5, 7 milliseconds respectively enters the ready queue together
in the order P1, P2, P3 (Assume only P1 is present in the ‘Ready’ queue when the
scheduler picks up it and P2, P3 entered ‘Ready’ queue after that). Now a new
process P4 with estimated completion time 6ms enters the ‘Ready’ queue after 5ms
of scheduling P1. Calculate the waiting time and Turn Around Time (TAT) for
each process and the Average waiting time and Turn Around Time (Assuming
there is no I/O waiting for the processes).Assume all the processes contain only
CPU operation and no I/O operations are involved.

Solution: Initially there is only P1 available in the Ready queue and the scheduling
sequence will be P1, P3, P2. P4 enters the queue during the execution of P1 and
becomes the last process entered the ‘Ready’ queue. Now the order of execution
changes to P1, P4, P3, and P2 as given below.
 P1 P4 P3 P2

0 10 16 23 28

10 6 7 5

The waiting time for all the processes are given as

Waiting Time for P1 = 0 ms (P1 starts executing first)

Waiting Time for P4 = 5 ms (P4 starts executing after completing P1. But P4
arrived after 5ms of execution of P1. Hence its waiting time = Execution start time
– Arrival Time = 10-5 = 5)

Waiting Time for P3 = 16 ms (P3 starts executing after completing P1 and P4)

Waiting Time for P2 = 23 ms (P2 starts executing after completing P1, P4 and P3)

Average waiting time = (Waiting time for all processes) / No. of Processes
= (Waiting time for (P1+P4+P3+P2)) / 4

= (0 + 5 + 16 + 23)/4 = 44/4

= 11 milliseconds

Turn Around Time (TAT) for P1 = 10 ms (Time spent in Ready Queue + Execution Time)

Turn Around Time (TAT) for P4 = 11 ms (Time spent in Ready Queue +

Execution Time = (Execution Start Time – Arrival
Time) + Estimated Execution Time = (10-5) + 6 = 5 + 6)

Turn Around Time (TAT) for P3 = 23 ms (Time spent in Ready Queue + Execution Time)
Turn Around Time (TAT) for P2 = 28 ms (Time spent in Ready Queue + Execution Time)
Average Turn Around Time = (Turn Around Time for all processes) / No. of Processes
= (Turn Around Time for (P1+P4+P3+P2)) / 4

= (10+11+23+28)/4 = 72/4

= 18 milliseconds
Non-preemptive scheduling – Shortest Job First (SJF) Scheduling.
 Allocates CPU time to the processes based on the execution completion time
for tasks

 The average waiting time for a given set of processes is minimal in SJF
scheduling

 Optimal compared to other non-preemptive scheduling like FCFS

Drawbacks:

 A process whose estimated execution completion time is high may not get a
chance to execute if more and more processes with least estimated execution
time enters the ‘Ready’ queue before the process with longest estimated
execution time starts its execution

 May lead to the ‘Starvation’ of processes with high estimated completion

time

 Difficult to know in advance the next shortest process in the ‘Ready’ queue
for scheduling since new processes with different estimated execution time
keep entering the ‘Ready’ queue at any point of time.

Non-preemptive scheduling – Priority based Scheduling

 A priority, which is unique or same is associated with each task

 The priority of a task is expressed in different ways, like a priority number,

the time required to complete the execution etc.

 In number based priority assignment the priority is a number ranging from 0

to the maximum priority supported by the OS. The maximum level of
priority is OS dependent.

 Windows CE supports 256 levels of priority (0 to 255 priority numbers, with

0 being the highest priority)
  The priority is assigned to the task on creating it. It can also be changed
dynamically (If the Operating System supports this feature)

 The non-preemptive priority based scheduler sorts the ‘Ready’ queue based
on the priority and picks the process with the highest level of priority for
execution

EXAMPLE: Three processes with process IDs P1, P2, P3 with estimated
completion time 10, 5, 7 milliseconds and priorities 0, 3, 2 (0- highest priority, 3
lowest priority) respectively enters the ready queue together. Calculate the waiting
time and Turn Around Time (TAT) for each process and the Average waiting time
and Turn Around Time (Assuming there is no I/O waiting for the processes) in
priority based scheduling algorithm.

Solution: The scheduler sorts the ‘Ready’ queue based on the priority and
schedules the process with the highest priority (P1 with priority number 0) first and
the next high priority process (P3 with priority number 2) as second and so on. The
order in which the processes are scheduled for execution is represented as

P1 P3 P2

0 10 17 22
10 7 5

The waiting time for all the processes are given as

Waiting Time for P1 = 0 ms (P1 starts executing first)

Waiting Time for P3 = 10 ms (P3 starts executing after completing P1)

Waiting Time for P2 = 17 ms (P2 starts executing after completing P1 and P3)

Average waiting time = (Waiting time for all processes) / No. of Processes

= (Waiting time for (P1+P3+P2)) / 3

 = (0+10+17)/3 = 27/3

= 9 milliseconds

Turn Around Time (TAT) for P1 = 10 ms ( Time spent in Ready Queue + Execution Time)

Turn Around Time (TAT) for P3 = 17 ms (-Do-)

Turn Around Time (TAT) for P2 = 22 ms (-Do-)

Average Turn Around Time= (Turn Around Time for all processes) / No. of Processes

= (Turn Around Time for (P1+P3+P2)) / 3

= (10+17+22)/3 = 49/3

= 16.33 milliseconds

Drawbacks:

 Similar to SJF scheduling algorithm, non-preemptive priority based

algorithm also possess the drawback of ‘Starvation’ where a process whose
priority is low may not get a chance to execute if more and more processes
with higher priorities enter the ‘Ready’ queue before the process with lower
priority starts its execution.

 ‘Starvation’ can be effectively tackled in priority based non-preemptive

scheduling by dynamically raising the priority of the low priority
task/process which is under starvation (waiting in the ready queue for a
longer time for getting the CPU time)

 The technique of gradually raising the priority of processes which are

waiting in the ‘Ready’ queue as time progresses, for preventing ‘Starvation’,
is known as ‘Aging’.
Preemptive scheduling:
 Employed in systems, which implements preemptive multitasking model

 Every task in the ‘Ready’ queue gets a chance to execute. When and how
often each process gets a chance to execute (gets the CPU time) is dependent
on the type of preemptive scheduling algorithm used for scheduling the
processes

 The scheduler can preempt (stop temporarily) the currently executing

task/process and select another task from the ‘Ready’ queue for execution

 When to pre-empt a task and which task is to be picked up from the ‘Ready’
queue for execution after preempting the current task is purely dependent on
the scheduling algorithm

 A task which is preempted by the scheduler is moved to the ‘Ready’ queue.

The act of moving a ‘Running’ process/task into the ‘Ready’ queue by the
scheduler, without the processes requesting for it is known as‘Preemption’

 Time-based preemption and priority-based preemption are the two important

approaches adopted in preemptive scheduling

Preemptive scheduling – Preemptive SJF Scheduling/ Shortest Remaining

Time (SRT):

 The non preemptive SJF scheduling algorithm sorts the ‘Ready’ queue only
after the current process completes execution or enters wait state, whereas
the preemptive SJF scheduling algorithm sorts the ‘Ready’ queue when a
new process enters the ‘Ready’ queue and checks whether the execution
time of the new process is shorter than the remaining of the total estimated
execution time of the currently executing process

 If the execution time of the new process is less, the currently executing
process is preempted and the new process is scheduled for execution
  Always compares the execution completion time (ie the remaining execution
time for the new process) of a new process entered the ‘Ready’ queue with
the remaining time for completion of the currently executing process and
schedules the process with shortest remaining time for execution.

EXAMPLE: Three processes with process IDs P1, P2, P3 with estimated
completion time 10, 5, 7 milliseconds respectively enters the ready queue together.
A new process P4 with estimated completion time 2ms enters the ‘Ready’ queue
after 2ms. Assume all the processes contain only CPU operation and no I/O
operations are involved.

Solution: At the beginning, there are only three processes (P1, P2 and P3)
available in the ‘Ready’ queue and the SRT scheduler picks up the process with the
Shortest remaining time for execution completion (In this example P2 with
remaining time 5ms) for scheduling. Now process P4 with estimated execution
completion time 2ms enters the ‘Ready’ queue after 2ms of start of execution of
P2. The processes are re-scheduled for execution in the following order

P2 P4 P2 P3 P1

0 2 4 7 14 24
2 2 3 7 10

The waiting time for all the processes are given as

Waiting Time for P2 = 0 ms + (4 -2) ms = 2ms (P2 starts executing first and is
interrupted by P4 and has to wait till the completion of
P4 to get the next CPU slot)
Waiting Time for P4 = 0 ms (P4 starts executing by preempting P2 since the
execution time for completion of P4 (2ms) is less
than that of the Remaining time for execution
completion of P2 (Here it is 3ms))
Waiting Time for P3 = 7 ms (P3 starts executing after completing P4 and P2)
Waiting Time for P1 = 14 ms (P1 starts executing after completing P4, P2 and P3)
Average waiting time = (Waiting time for all the processes) / No. of Processes
= (Waiting time for (P4+P2+P3+P1)) / 4
= (0 + 2 + 7 + 14)/4 = 23/4
= 5.75 milliseconds
Turn Around Time (TAT) for P2 = 7 ms (Time spent in Ready Queue + Execution Time)
Turn Around Time (TAT) for P4 = 2 ms
(Time spent in Ready Queue + Execution Time = (Execution Start Time – Arrival
Time) + Estimated Execution Time = (2-2) + 2)

Turn Around Time (TAT) for P3 = 14 ms (Time spent in Ready Queue +

Execution Time)
Turn Around Time (TAT) for P1 = 24 ms (Time spent in Ready Queue +
Execution Time)
Average Turn Around Time = (Turn Around Time for all the processes) / No. of Processes
= (Turn Around Time for (P2+P4+P3+P1)) / 4
= (7+2+14+24)/4 = 47/4
= 11.75 milliseconds Process 1

Preemptive scheduling – Round Robin (RR) Execution Switch

Execution Switch

Scheduling:

 Each process in the ‘Ready’ queue is Process 4 Process 2

executed for a pre-defined time slot.

 The execution starts with picking up the first Execution Switch

Execution Switch

process in the ‘Ready’ queue. It is executed for a

Process 3
pre-defined time

Figure 11 Round Robin Scheduling

  When the pre-defined time elapses or the process completes (before the pre-
defined time slice), the next process in the ‘Ready’ queue is selected for
execution.

 This is repeated for all the processes in the ‘Ready’ queue

 Once each process in the ‘Ready’ queue is executed for the pre-defined time
period, the scheduler comes back and picks the first process in the ‘Ready’
queue again for execution.

 Round Robin scheduling is similar to the FCFS scheduling and the only
difference is that a time slice based preemption is added to switch the
execution between the processes in the ‘Ready’ queue

EXAMPLE: Three processes with process IDs P1, P2, P3 with estimated
completion time 6, 4, 2 milliseconds respectively, enters the ready queue together
in the order P1, P2, P3. Calculate the waiting time and Turn Around Time (TAT)
for each process and the Average waiting time and Turn Around Time (Assuming
there is no I/O waiting for the processes) in RR algorithm with Time slice= 2ms.

Solution: The scheduler sorts the ‘Ready’ queue based on the FCFS policy and
picks up the first process P1 from the ‘Ready’ queue and executes it for the time
slice 2ms. When the time slice is expired, P1 is preempted and P2 is scheduled for
execution. The Time slice expires after 2ms of execution of P2. Now P2 is
preempted and P3 is picked up for execution. P3 completes its execution within the
time slice and the scheduler picks P1 again for execution for the next time slice.
This procedure is repeated till all the processes are serviced. The order in which the
processes are scheduled for execution is represented as

P1 P2 P3 P1 P2 P1

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
2 2 2 2 2 2
The waiting time for all the processes are given as

Waiting Time for P1 = 0 + (6-2) + (10-8) = 0+4+2= 6ms (P1 starts executing first
and waits for two time slices to get execution back and
again 1 time slice for getting CPU time)
Waiting Time for P2 = (2-0) + (8-4) = 2+4 = 6ms (P2 starts executing after P1
executes for 1 time slice and waits for two time
slices to get the CPU time)

Waiting Time for P3 = (4 -0) = 4ms (P3 starts executing after completing the first
time slices for P1 and P2 and completes its execution in a single time slice.)

Average waiting time = (Waiting time for all the processes) / No. of Processes

= (Waiting time for (P1+P2+P3)) / 3

= (6+6+4)/3 = 16/3

= 5.33 milliseconds

Turn Around Time (TAT) for P1 = 12 ms (Time spent in Ready Queue + Execution Time)

Turn Around Time (TAT) for P2 = 10 ms (-Do-)

Turn Around Time (TAT) for P3 = 6 ms (-Do-)

Average Turn Around Time = (Turn Around Time for all the processes) / No. of Processes

= (Turn Around Time for (P1+P2+P3)) / 3

= (12+10+6)/3 = 28/3

= 9.33 milliseconds.
Preemptive scheduling – Priority based Scheduling
 Same as that of the non-preemptive priority based scheduling except for the
switching of execution between tasks

 In preemptive priority based scheduling, any high priority process entering

the ‘Ready’ queue is immediately scheduled for execution whereas in the
non-preemptive scheduling any high priority process entering the ‘Ready’
queue is scheduled only after the currently executing process completes its
execution or only when it voluntarily releases the CPU

 The priority of a task/process in preemptive priority based scheduling is

indicated in the same way as that of the mechanisms adopted for non-
preemptive multitasking.

EXAMPLE: Three processes with process IDs P1, P2, P3 with estimated
completion time 10, 5, 7 milliseconds and priorities 1, 3, 2 (0- highest priority, 3
lowest priority) respectively enters the ready queue together. A new process P4
with estimated completion time 6ms and priority 0 enters the ‘Ready’ queue after
5ms of start of execution of P1. Assume all the processes contain only CPU
operation and no I/O operations are involved.

Solution: At the beginning, there are only three processes (P1, P2 and P3)
available in the ‘Ready’ queue and the scheduler picks up the process with the
highest priority (In this example P1 with priority 1) for scheduling. Now process
P4 with estimated execution completion time 6ms and priority 0 enters the ‘Ready’
queue after 5ms of start of execution of P1. The processes are re-scheduled for
execution in the following order

P1 P4 P1 P3 P2

0 5 11 16 23 28
5 6 5 7 5
The waiting time for all the processes are given as

Waiting Time for P1 = 0 + (11-5) = 0+6 =6 ms (P1 starts executing first and gets
Preempted by P4 after 5ms and again gets the CPU time
after completion of P4)

Waiting Time for P4 = 0 ms (P4 starts executing immediately on entering the

‘Ready’ queue, by preempting P1)

Waiting Time for P3 = 16 ms (P3 starts executing after completing P1 and P4)

Waiting Time for P2 = 23 ms (P2 starts executing after completing P1, P4 and P3)

Average waiting time = (Waiting time for all the processes) / No. of Processes

= (Waiting time for (P1+P4+P3+P2)) / 4

= (6 + 0 + 16 + 23)/4 = 45/4

= 11.25 milliseconds

Turn Around Time (TAT) for P1 = 16 ms (Time spent in Ready Queue + Execution Time)

Turn Around Time (TAT) for P4 = 6ms (Time spent in Ready Queue + Execution Time
= (Execution Start Time – Arrival Time) + Estimated Execution Time = (5-5) + 6 = 0 + 6)

Turn Around Time (TAT) for P3 = 23 ms ( Time spent in Ready Queue + Execution Time)

Turn Around Time (TAT) for P2 = 28 ms ( Time spent in Ready Queue + Execution Time)

Average Turn Around Time= (Turn Around Time for all the processes) / No. of Processes

= (Turn Around Time for (P2+P4+P3+P1)) / 4

= (16+6+23+28)/4 = 73/4

= 18.25 milliseconds
EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN
UNIT-V

TASK COMMUNICATION
How to choose RTOS:
The decision of an RTOS for an embedded design is very critical.

A lot of factors need to be analyzed carefully before making a decision on

the selection of an RTOS.

These factors can be either

1. Functional

2. Non-functional requirements.

1. Functional Requirements:

1. Processor support:
It is not necessary that all RTOS’s support all kinds of processor
architectures.

It is essential to ensure the processor support by the RTOS

2. Memory Requirements:

• The RTOS requires ROM memory for holding the OS files and it is
normally stored in a non-volatile memory like FLASH.

OS also requires working memory RAM for loading the OS service.

Since embedded systems are memory constrained, it is essential to evaluate

the minimal RAM and ROM requirements for the OS under consideration.

3. Real-Time Capabilities:

It is not mandatory that the OS for all embedded systems need to be Real-
Time and all embedded OS’s are ‘Real-Time’ in behavior.

The Task/process scheduling policies plays an important role in the Real-

Time behavior of an OS.
 3. Kernel and Interrupt Latency:

The kernel of the OS may disable interrupts while executing certain services
and it may lead to interrupt latency.

For an embedded system whose response requirements are high, this latency
should be minimal.

5. Inter process Communication (IPC) and Task Synchronization: The

implementation of IPC and Synchronization is OS kernel dependent.

6. Modularization Support:

Most of the OS’s provide a bunch of features.

It is very useful if the OS supports modularization where in which the

developer can choose the essential modules and re-compile the OS image for
functioning.

7. Support for Networking and Communication:

The OS kernel may provide stack implementation and driver support for a
bunch of communication interfaces and networking.

Ensure that the OS under consideration provides support for all the
interfaces required by the embedded product.

8. Development Language Support:

Certain OS’s include the run time libraries required for running applications
written in languages like JAVA and C++.

The OS may include these components as built-in component, if not , check

the availability of the same from a third party.