Chapter

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS

OF CHEMISTRY
1.1 IMPORTANCE OF CHEMISTRY
Chemistry plays an important role in meeting human needs for food, health care products and other materials aimed at improving
the quality of life.
* In Food and Agriculture Industry : Large scale production of a variety of fertilizers,improved varieties of pesticides and
insecticides.
* In Health Industry : Life saving drugs such as cisplatin and taxol, are effective in cancer therapy and AZT (Azidothymidine)
used for helping AIDS victims, have been isolated from plant and animal sources or prepared by synthetic methods.
* In Electronics Industry : Due to better understanding of chemical principles it is possible to design and synthesize new
materials having specific magnetic, electric and optical properties. This has lead to the production of superconducting
ceramics, conducting polymers, optical fibres and large scale miniaturization of solid state devices.
* Saving the Environment : Safer alternatives to environmentally hazardous refrigerants like CFCs are synthesised.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

Heterogeneous Compounds
matter
Non-uniform composition Elements united in
fixed ratios
Matter Pure substance
Physically Chemically combine
(may be solid, liquid, or gas)
separable Fixed composition; separable chemically
Anything that occupies into ... cannot be further purified into ... to form ...
space and has mass
Homogenous
Physically Elements
matter
separable
Uniform composition into ... Cannot be subdivided by
throughout chemical or physical process
Solutions
Homogeneous mixtures;
uniform compositions that
may vary widely

Figure : Classifying matter

Pure substance
* Every substance has a set of unique properties by which it can be recognized. Pure water, for example, is colourless, is
odourless and certainly does not contain suspended solids.
* A pure substance is that it cannot be separated into two or more different species by any physical technique such as heating
in a Bunsen flame. If it could be separated, out sample would be classified as a mixture.

Mixture
* A mixture in which the uneven texture of the material can be detected is called a heterogeneous mixture. Heterogeneous
mixtures may appear completely uniform but on closer examination are not. Blood, for example, may not look heterogeneous
until you examine it under a microscope and red and white blood cells are revealed.
* Milk appears smooth in texture to the unaided eye, but magnification would reveal fat and protein globules within the liquid.
* In a heterogeneous mixture the properties in one region are different from those in another region.

STUDYMATERIAL: XI CHEMISTRY 1 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

 * A homogeneous mixture consists of two or more substances in the same phase. No amount of optical magnification will
reveal a homogeneous mixture to have different properties in different regions.
* Homogeneous mixtures are often called solutions. Common examples include air (mostly a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen
gases), gasoline (a mixture of carbon and hydrogen containing compounds called hydrocarbons), and an unopened soft
drink.
Atom :
* It is the smallest particle of an element that takes part in a chemical reaction and is not capable of independent existence.
Molecule :
* It is the smallest particle of matter which is capable of independent existence.
* A molecule is generally an assembly of two or more tightly bonded atoms.
* Molecules are of two type on the basis of elemental atoms.
(i) Homo atomic molecules : Molecules of an element containing one type of atoms only. Ex. : O2, H2, Cl2 etc.
(ii) Heteroatomic molecules : Molecules of compounds containing more than one type of atoms. Ex. : NH3, H2O, CH4 etc.

1.3 PROPERTIES OF MATTER AND THEIR MEASUREMENT

Every substance has unique or characteristic properties. These properties can be classified into two categories - physical
properties and chemical properties.
1.3.1 Physical properties
* Properties which can be observed and measured without changing the composition of a substance, are called physical
properties.
* Physical properties allow us to classify and identify substances.
Table : Some physical propeties
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Property Using the Property to Distinguish Substances
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Color Is the substance colored or colorless? What is the color and what is its intensity?
State of matter Is it a solid, liquid, or gas? If it is a solid, what is the shape of the particles?
Melting point At what temperature does a solid melt?
Boiling point At what temperature does a liquid boil?
Density What is the substance's density (mass per unit volume)?
Solubility What mass of substance can dissolve in a given volume of water or other solvent?
Electric conductivity Does the substance conduct electricity?
Malleability How easily can a solid be deformed?
Ductility How easily can a solid be drawn into a wire?
Viscosity How easily will a liquid flow?
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

1.3.2 Chemical properties :

* They are characteristic reactions of different substances; these include acidity or basicity, combustibility etc.

1.3.3 Intensive and Extensive properties :

* Extensive properties depend on the amount of a substance present. The mass and volume are extensive properties, for
example. In contrast, intensive properties do not depend on the amount of substance. A sample of ice will melt at 0°C, no
matter whether you have an ice cube or an iceberg. Density is also an intensive property.
1.3.4 The International System of Units (SI) :
* The International System of Units (in French Le Systeme International d'Unites- abbreviated as SI) was established by the
11th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM from ConferenceGenerale des Poids at Measures).
* The SI system has seven base units.
SI Base Units
No. Base quantity Name Symbol
1 length meter m
2 mass kilogram kg
3 time second s
4 electric current ampere A
5 thermodynamic temperature kelvin- K
6 amount of substance mole mol
7 luminous intensity candela cd
STUDYMATERIAL: XI CHEMISTRY 2 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY
 Prefixes for SI Units : To express large and small magnitudes simultaneously we use following prefixes :

Factor Prefix Symbol

1024 yotta Y
1021 zetta Z
1018 exa E
1015 peta P
1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
102 hecto h
10 deca da
10–1 deci d
10–2 centi c
10–3 milli m
10–6 micro 
10–9 nano n
10–12 pico p
10–15 femto f
10–18 atto a
10–21 zepto z
10–24 yocto y

1.3.5 Definitions of the SI Base Units :

* Meter : The meter is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second.
* Kilogram : The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram. The
International Prototype of the Kilogram is kept at the International Bureau for Weights and Measures (BIPM), at Severs, near
Paris, France, and is made of a platinum (90%) and iridium (10%) alloy. It has a density of approximately 21,500 kg/m3 and is
shaped as a cylinder, with height and diameter equal to 39 mm.
* Second : The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the
two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom.
It is also 1/86,400 of a mean solar day. (There are 60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an hour, and 24 hours in a day;
60 × 60 × 24 = 86,400.)
* Ampere : The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of
negligible circular cross section, and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal
to 2 × 10–27 newton per meter of length.
* Kelvin : The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the
triple point of water.
* Mole : (a) The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms
in 0.012 kilogram of carbon 12.
(b) When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other
particles, or specified groups of such particles.
In the definition of the mole, it is understood that unbound atoms of carbon 12, at rest and in their ground state, are referred
to. Note that this definition specifies at the same time the nature of the quantity whose unit is the mole.
* Candela : The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of
frequency 540 × 1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of ( 1/ 683) watt per steradian.

1.3.6 Mass and Weight :

* Mass of a substance is the amount of matter present in it while weight is the force exerted by gravity on an object.
* The mass of a substance is constant whereas its weight may vary from one place to another due to change in gravity.
* The mass of a substance can be determined very accurately by using an analytical balance.
* Volume : Chemists often use glassware such as beakers, flasks, pipets, graduated cylinders, and burets which are marked in
volume units. The SI unit of volume is the cubic meter (m3), which is too large for everyday laboratory use.
1 liter (L) = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3
1 cm3 = 0.001 L = 1 mL

STUDYMATERIAL: XI CHEMISTRY 3 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

 * Density : The ratio of the mass of an object to its volume, is a physical property useful for identifying substances.
Mass
Density 
Volume
* Temperature Scales : Three temperature scales are commonly used: the Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin scales. The Fahrenheit
scale is used in the United States to report everyday temperatures, but most other countries use the Celsius scale.
* The Celsius Temperature Scale : The size of the Celsius degree is defined by assigning zero as the freezing point of pure
water (0°C) and 100 as its boiling point (100°C). You can readily interconvert Fahrenheit and Celsius temperatures using the
5°C
equation T(°C)  [T (°F)  32]
9°F
* The Kelvin temperature scale : William Thomson, known as Lord Kelvin (1824-1907), first suggested the temperature scale
that now bears his name. The Kelvin scale uses the same size unit as the Celsius scale, but it assigns zero as the lowest
temperature that can be achieved, a point called absolute zero. Many experiments have found that his limiting temperature
is –273.15°C (–459.67°F). Kelvin units and Celsius degrees are the same size. Thus, the freezing point of water is reached at
273.15 K; that is 0°C = 273.15 K.
The boiling point of pure water is 373.15 K. Temperature in Celsius degrees are readily converted to kelvins, and vice versa,
1K
using the relation T (K)  [TC  273.15C]
1C

Example 1 :
Ethylene glycoL,C2H6O2, is widely used in automobile antifreeze. It has a density of 1.11 g/cm3 (or 1.11 g/ml). What volume of
ethylene glycol will have a mass of 1850 g?
Sol. You know the density and mass of the sample. Because density is the ratio of the mass of a sample to its volume,
Volume = (mass/density).
 1 cm3 
  1670 cm
3
Volume (cm3) = 1850g 
 1.11g 
Here we multiply the mass (in grams) by the conversion factor (1 cm3/1.11 g) so that units of g cancel to leave an answer in the
desired unit of cm3.

1.4 UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT

1.4.1 Scientific Notation :
* Scientific notation is way of presenting very large or very small numbers in a compact and consistent form that simplifies
calculations.
* In scientific notation the number is expressed as a product of two numbers: N × 10n. N is the digit term and is a number
between 1 and 9.9999.... The second number, 10n, the exponential term, is more integer power of 10.
For example, 1234 is written in scientific notation as 1.234 × 103 or 1.234 multiplied by 10 three times:
1.234 = 1.234 × 101 × 101 × 101 = 1.234 × 103
Conversely, a number less than 1, such as 0.01234, is written as 1.234 × 10–2.

* Adding and Subtracting Numbers Expressed in Scientific Notation

When adding or subtracting two numbers, first convert them to the same powers of 10. The digit terms are then added or
subtracted as appropriate: (1.234 × 10–3) + (5.623 × 10–2) = (0.1234 × 10–2) + (5.623 × 10–2) = 5.746 × 10–2

* Multiplication of Numbers Expressed in Scientific Notation

The digit terms are multiplied in the usual manner, and the exponents are added algebraically. The result is expressed with a
digit term with only one nonzero digit to the left of the decimal:
(6.0 × 1023) (2.0 × 10–2) = (6.0)(2.0) × 1023 – 2 = 12 × 1021 = 1.2 × 1022

* Division of Numbers Expressed in Scientific Notation

The digit terms are divided in the usual manner, and the exponents are subtracted algebraically. The quotient is written with
one nonzero digit to the left of the decimal in the digit term:

7.60  103 7.60

  103 2  6.18  101
1.23  10 2 1.23

STUDYMATERIAL: XI CHEMISTRY 4 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

1.4.2 Significant figure are the digits in a measured quantity that reflect the accuracy of the measurement.

Rule 1 : To determine the number of significant figures in a measurement, read the number from left to right and count all digits,
starting with the first digit that is not zero.

Example Number of Significant Figures

1.23 3; all nonzero digits are significant.
0.00123 g 3; the zeros to the left of the 1 (the first significant digit) simply locate the decimal point. To avoid
confusion, write numbers of this type in scientific notation; thus, 0.00123 = 1.23 × 10–3
2.040g 4; when a number is greater than 1, all zeros to the right of the decimal point are significant.
0.02040g 4; for a number less than 1, only zeros to the right of the first nonzero digit are significant.
100g 1; in numbers that do not contain a decimal point, "trailing" zeros mayor may not be significant. The
practice followed is to include a decimal point if the zeros are significant. Thus, 100 is used to represent
three significant digits, whereas 100 has only one significant digit. To avoid confusion, an alternative
method is to write numbers in scientific notation because all digits are significant when written in scientific
notation. Thus, 1.00 × 102 has three significant digits, whereas 1 × 101 has only one significant digit.
100cm/m Infinite number of significant digits. This is a defined quantity. Defined quantities do not limit the number
of significant figures in a calculated result.
 = 3.1415926 The value of certain constants such as  is known to a greater number of significant figures than you will
ever use in a calculation.

Rule 2 : When adding or subtracting numbers, the number of decimal places in the answer is equal to the number of decimal
places in the number with the fewest digits after the decimal.
0.12 2 decimal places 2 significant figures
+1.9 1 decimal place 2 significant figures
+10.925 3 decimal places 5 significant figures
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
12.945 3 decimal places
The sum should be reported as 12.9, a number with one decimal place, because l.9 has only one decimal place.

Rule 3 : In multiplication or division, the number of significant figures in the answer should be the same as that in the quantity
with the fewest significant figures.
0.01208
= 0.512 or, in scientific notation, 5.12 × 10–1
0.0236
Because 0.0236 has only three significant digits and 0.01208 has four, the answer should have three significant digits.

Rule 4 : When a number is rounded off, the last digit to be retained is increased by one only if the following digit is 5 or greater.
Full Number Number rounded to three significant digits
12.696 12.7
16.349 16.3
18.35 18.4
18.351 18.4
When working problems, you should do the calculation with all the digits allowed and round off only at the end of the
calculation. Rounding off in the middle can introduce errors.

Example 2:
(0.120) (0.08206) (273.15  23)
Volume of gas (L) =
(230/760.0)
Calculate the final answer to the correct number of significant figures.
Sol. Let us first decide on the number of significant figures represented by each number (Rule 1), and then apply Rules 2 and 3.

STUDYMATERIAL: XI CHEMISTRY 5 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

 Number Number of Significant Figures Comments
0.120 3 The trailing 0 is significant. See Rule 1.
0.08206 4 The first 0 to the immediate right of the decimal is not significant.
See Rule 1.
273.15 + 23 = 296 3 23 has no decimal places, so the sum can have none. See Rule 2.
230/760.0 = 0.30 2 230 has two significant figures because the last zero is not significant.
In contrast, there is a decimal point in 760.0, so there are four significant
digits. The quotient may have only two significant digits.
See Rules 1 and 3.
Analysis shows that one of the pieces of information is known to only two significant figures.
Therefore, the volume of gas is 9.6 L, a number with two significant figures.

Example 3 :
(a) How many significant figures are indicated by 2.33 × 107, by 50.5, and by 200?
(b) What are the sum and the product of 10.26 and 0.063?
(c) What is the result of the following calculation?
(110.7  64)
x
(0.056) (0.00216)
Sol. (a) 2.33 × 107 has three significant figures; 50.5 has three significant figures ; 200 has one significant figure.
(200. would express this number with three significant figures).
(b) The product of 10.26 and 0.063 is 0.65, a number with two significant figures. (10.26 has four significant figures , whereas
0.063 has two).
The sum of 10.26 and 0.063 is 10.32.
(c) x = 3.9 × 106. The difference between 110.7 and 64 is 47. Dividing 47 by 0.056 and 0.00216 gives an answer with two significant
figures.

1.4.3 Precision and Accuracy :

* The precision of a measurement indicates how well several determinations of the same quantity agree.
* Accuracy is the agreement of a measurement with the accepted value of the quantity.

* If you are measuring quanity in the laboratory, you may be required to report the error in the result, the difference between your
result and the accepted value, Error = experimentally determined value – accepted value
Error in measurement
or the Percent error =  100%
accepted value

Example 4 :
A coin has an “accepted” diameter of 28.054mm. In an experiment, two students measure this diameter. Student A makes four
measurements of the diameter of a coin using a precision tool called a micrometer. Student B measures the same coin using a
simple plastic ruler. The two students report the following results:
Student A 28.246mm 28.244 28.246 28.248
Student B 27.9 mm 28.0 27.8 28.1
What is the average diameter and percent error obtained in each case? Which student’s data are more accurte ? Which are more
precise?
Sol. For each set of values we calculate the average of the results and then compare this average with 28.054 mm.
The average for each set of data is obtained by summing the four values and dividing by 4.
Student A average = 28.246 ; Student B average = 28.0
Student A’s data all very close to the average value, so they quite precise.
Student B’s data, in contrast, have a wider range and are less precise. Student A’s result is less accurate that that of student B.
The average diameter for student A differs from the “accepted” value by 0.192 mm and has a percent error of 0.684%
28.246 mm  28.054 mm
Percent error =  100%  0.684%
28.054 mm
Student B’s measurement has an error of only about 0.2%.
Possible reasons for the error in student A’s result are incorrect use of micrometer or a flaw in the instrument.

STUDYMATERIAL: XI CHEMISTRY 6 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

Example 5 :
Two students measured the freezing point of an unknown liquid. Student A used an ordinary laboratory thermometer calibrated
in 0.1°C units. Student B used a thermometer certified by NIST and calibrated in 0.01°C units. Their results were as follows:
Student A : 0.3°C, 0.2°C, 0.0°C and –0.3°C
Student B : 273.13 K, 273.17 K, 273.15 K, 273.19 K
Calculate the average value and knowing that the liquid was water, calculate the percent error for each student. Which student
has the more precise values? Which has the smallest error ?
Sol. Student A : Average = –0.1°C, Average deviation = 0.2°C, error = –0.1°C
Student B : Average = 273.16 K, Average deviation = 0.02 K, error = + 0.01 K.
Student B’s values are more accurate and more precise.

1.4.4 Dimensional analysis (sometimes called the factor-label method) is a general problem-solving approach that uses the dimensions
or units of each value to guide you through calculations.
A conversion factor expresses the equivalence of a measurement in two different units (1 cm  10 mm; 1 g  1000 mg;
12 eggs  1 dozen; 12 inches  1 foot). Because the numerator and the denominator describe the same quantity, the conversion
factor is equivalent to the number 1. Therefore, multiplication by this factor does not change the measured quantity, only its
units. A conversion factor is always written so that it has the form “new units divided by units of original number.”

 new unit 
Number in original unit   = new number in new unit
 original unit 
Conversion
Quantity to express factor Quantity now expressed
in new units in new units

Example 6 :
Oceanographers often express the density of sea water in units of kilograms per cubic meter. If the density of sea water is
1.025 g/cm3 at 15°C, what is its density in kilograms per cubic meter?
Sol. To simplify this problem, break it into three steps. First, change grams to kilograms.
Next, convert cubic centimeters to cubic meters. Finally, calculate the density by dividing the mass in kilograms by the volume
in cubic meters.
First convert the mass in grams to kilograms.
1 kg
1.025 g × = 1.025 × 10–3 kg
1000 g
No conversion factor is available in one of our tables to directly change units of cubic centimeters to cubic meters. You can find
one, however, by cubing (raising to the third power) the relation between the meter and the centimeter:

 1m 
3
 1 m3 
 100 cm   1 cm  
3
1 cm3 ×  = 1 × 10–6 m3
 1  106 cm3 
Therefore, the density of sea water is,

1.025  103 kg
Density   1.025  103 kg / m3
1  106 m3

Example 7 :
A particular paint has a density of 0.914 g/cm3, You need to cover a wall that is 7.6m long and 2.74m high with a paint layer 0.13mm
thick. What volume of paint (in liters) is required? What is the mass (in grams) of the paint layer?
Sol. Change dimension to centimeters; 7.6m = 760cm; 2.74m = 274cm ; 0.13mm = 0.013cm.
Volume of paint = (760 cm) (274 cm) (0.013cm) = 2.7 × 103 cm3.
Volume (L) = (2.7 × 103 cm3) (1 L / 103 cm3) = 2.7 L
Mass = (2.7 × 103 cm3) (0.914 g/cm3) = 2.5 × 103 g

STUDYMATERIAL: XI CHEMISTRY 7 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

1.5 LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION
(i) The law of conservation of mass :
* This law was given by "Lavoiser" in 1744.
* This law states that "matter can neither be created nor destroyed, or in a chemical reaction, the mass of the reactants
is equal to the mass of the products".
* The exception of this law is nuclear reactions where Einstein Equation (E = mc2) is applicable.

(ii) The law of constant composition or definite proportion :

* This law was given by "Proust" in 1799.
* This law states that "All pure samples of the same chemical compound contain the same elements combined in the same
proportion by mass".

(iii) The law of multiple proportion :

* This law was given by John Dalton in 1804.
* This law states that "When two elements A and B combine together to form more than one compound, then several
masses of A which separately combine with a fixed mass of B, are in a simple ratio."

(iv) The law of Gaseous volume :

* This law was given by "Gaylussac" in 1808.
* This law states that "Whenever gases react together, the volumes of the reacting gases as well as the products if they
are gases, bear a simple whole number ratio, provided all the volumes are measured under similar conditions of Temperature
& Pressure.

1.6 DALTON'S ATOMIC THEORY

* All substances are made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.
* Atoms of the same element are identical in shape, size, mass and other properties.
* Atoms of different elements are different in all respects.
* Atom is the smallest unit that takes part in chemical combinations.
* Atoms combine with each other in simple whole number ratios to form compound atoms called molecules.
* Atoms cannot be created, divided or destroyed during any chemical or physical change.

1.7 AVOGADRO HYPOTHESIS

* Equal volumes of all gases under similar conditions of Temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules.
* This law helped to remove anomaly between Dalton's atomic theory and Gaylussac's law of volume by making a clear
distinction between atoms and molecules.
* It reveals that common elementary gases like Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen etc. are diatomic.
* It provides a method to determine the molecular weights of gaseous elements.

1.8 ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR MASSES

1.8.1 Atomic Mass :
* Carbon as standard : The modern reference standard for atomic weight is carbon isotope of mass number 12.
* It is the number of times an atom of an element is heavier than 1/12th of an atom of C–12.
Weight of 1 atom of element
* Atomic weight of an element =
1/12 × weight of 1 atom of C-12
* One atomic mass unit is defined as a mass exactly equal to one twelfth the mass of one carbon - 12 atom.
1 amu = 1.66056 × 10–24 g
Note :
* Atomic mass is not a weight but a unitless number.
* Atomic mass is not absolute but relative to the weight of the standard reference elements C–12.
* ‘amu’ has been replaced by ‘u’ which is known as unified mass.

STUDYMATERIAL: XI CHEMISTRY 8 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

1.8.2 Average Atomic Mass : Use for elements that exists as more than one isotope.
For example, carbon has the following three isotopes with relative abundances and masses as shown against each of them.

Relative Atomic
Isotope Abundance (%) Mass (amu)
12
C 98.892 12
13
C 1.108 13.00335
10
14
C 2  10 14.00317

From the above data, the average atomic mass of carbon will come out to be :
(0.98892) (12 u) + ( 0.01108) (13.00335 u) + (2 × 10–12) (14.00317 u) = 12.011 u

1.8.3 Molecular Mass : Molecular mass is the sum of atomic masses of the elements present in a molecule.
For example, Molecular mass of methane, (CH4) = (12.011 u) + 4 (1.008 u) = 16.043 u

1.8.4 Formula Mass : Sum of atomic masses of the elements present in one formula unit of a compound.
For example, Formula mass of sodium chloride = Atomic mass of sodium + Atomic mass of chlorine = 23.0 u + 35.5 u = 58.5 u

1.8.5 Chemical formula : It is of two types :

* Molecular formulae : Chemical formulae that indicate the actual number and type of atoms in a molecule called molecular
formulae. Example : Molecular formula of Benzene is C6H6
* Empirical formulae : Chemical formulae that indicate only the relative number of atoms of each type in a molecule are called
empirical formulae. Example : Empirical formulae of Benzene in "CH".

Determination of Chemical formulae :

(a) Determination of Empirical formulae :
Step (I) : Determination of percentage of each element
Step (II) : Determination of mole ratio
Step (III) : Making it whole number ratio
Step (IV) : Simplest whole ratio
(b) Determination of molecular formulae :–
Step (I) : First of all find Empirical formulae
Step (II) : Calculate the Empirical weight
Step (III) : Molecular formulae = (Empirical formulae)n
Molecular weight
n
Empirical weight
Example 8 :
5.325 g sample of methyl bexzoate, a compound used in the manufacture of perfumes is found to contain 3.758 g of carbon 0.316
g hydrogen and 1.251g of oxygen. What is empirical formulae, of compound. If molecular weight of methyl benzoate is 136.0,
calculate its molecular formula.
Sol. Element % Mole ratio Simplest whole ratio

3.758  100 70.57 5.88

C  70.57  5.88 4
5.325 12 147
0.316  100 5.93 5.93
H  5.93  5.93 4
5.325 1 147
1.251  100 23.50 1.47
O  23.50  1.47 1
5.325 16 1.47
Empirical formula = C4H4O
Mol. wt 136
n=  2  Molecular formula = C8H8O2
Empirical formula wt 68

STUDYMATERIAL: XI CHEMISTRY 9 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

1.9 MOLE CONCEPT
Mole : Mole is a unit which represent 6.023 × 1023 particles of same nature.

22.4 L at NTP/STP One gram mole of a compound

Volume (L) Weight of compound (gm)
Mole = 1 Mole Mole =
22.4 L GMM
23
NA = 6.023 × 10 Particle One gram atom of an element
No. of particle Weight of element
Mole = Mole =
NA GAM

1 Mole = 6.023 × 1023 Particles. 1 Mole atom = 6.023 × 1023 atoms.

1 Mole molecule = 6.023 × 1023 Molecules 1 Mole Electron = 6.023 × 1023 Electrons.
The number 6.023 × 1023 is called Avogadro number : (NA)

Relation of mole with mass :

Mass of one mole atoms of an element = (Atomic mass of element) gm = Gram Atomic Mass (GAM)
Example : Mass of 1 Mole atoms of carbon = GAM of C = 12 gm
Mass of 1 Mole atoms of oxygen = GAM of O = 16 gm
Mass of 1 mole molecules of substance= (Molecular weight of substance) gm = Gram molecular mass (GMM)
Ex. Mass of 1 Mole Molecules of O2 = GMM of O2 = 32 gm.
Mass of 1 Mole Molecules of CO2 = GMM of CO2 = 44gm

Relation of mole with gas volume :

Ideal gas equation : PV = nRT
Where P = Pressure of gas, V = Volume of gas, n = Number of moles of gas, T = Temperature(Kelvin),
R = Gas constant = 0.082 Atm Ltr K–1 mole–1
Volume of one mole of a gas at NTP = 22.4 Litre.
Since 1 mole gas contain 6.023 × 1023 molecules. So 6.023 × 1023 (NA) molecule have volume at NTP = 22.4 lit.
Volume (Litre)
Moles at NTP =
22.4

Example 9 :
Calculate the number of H atoms in 0.350 mol of C6H12O6.
Sol. We are given both the amount of the substance (0.350 mol) and its chemical formula (C6H12O6). The unknown is the number of
H atoms in this sample.
Avogadro’s number provides the conversion factor between the number of moles of C6H12O6 and the number of molecules of
C6H12O6. Once we know the number of molecules of C6H12O6, we can use the chemical formula, which tells us that each
molecule of C6H12O6 contains 12H atoms. Thus, we convert moles of C6H12O6 to molecules of C6H12O6 and then determine the
number of atoms of H from the number of molecules of C6H12O6 :
mol C6H12O6 molecules C6H12O6  atoms H
 6.02  1023 molecules   12 H atoms 
H atoms = (0.350 mol C6H12O6)  1mol C H O   = 2.53 × 1024 H atoms.
 6 12 6   1 molecule 
Example 10 :
How many moles of water could be produced by the reaction of 3.5 moles of methane with excess oxygen ?
Sol. The equation for the combustion of methane: CH 4  2O 2 
 CO 2  2H 2 O
1mol 2mol 1mol 2mol

Shows that one mole of methane reacts with two moles of oxygen to produce two moles of water.
1 mol CH 4 2 mol H 2 O
From this information we construct two unit factors : 2 mol H O and 1 mol CH
2 4

2 mol H 2 O
We use the second factor in this calculation ? mol H2O = 3.5 mol CH4 × 1 mol CH = 7.0 mol H2O
4

STUDYMATERIAL: XI CHEMISTRY 10 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

1.10 CHEMICAL STOICHIOMETRY
* The method described for determining atomic and molecular masses constitute the beginning of a general approach to
chemical calculations and quantitative methods called chemical stoichiometry. (Stoicheion = element and metron = measure).
* Stoichiometry is that area of chemical technology on which the determination of the quantities of reactants (i.e. substances
entering into chemical reaction), or products of a chemical reaction, is based.

Stoichiometry and Problem Solving

* Stoichiometry refers to the quantitative relationship between the reactants and the products. It is quite useful in calculating
the amount of the reactants required or those of the products formed for the chemical process. The calculations based on the
knowledge of chemical equations are also called Stoichiometry calculations.
* The following steps are generally followed for carrying out such calculations :
(i) Write the balanced chemical equation.
(ii) Write the molar relationship from the equation between the given and the required species.
(iii) Convert these moles into the desired parameters such as mass, volume, etc.
(iv) Apply unitary method to calculate the result.

Example 11 :
Calculate the volume of chlorine that can be obtained at STP, by reaction of 1.58 g of KMnO4 and excess of hydrochloric acid.
Sol. 2KMnO4 + 16 HCl 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
2 mol 5 mol
(316 g) (5 × 22.4 L at STP)
5  22.4  1.58
Thus, volume of Cl2 produced at STP = = 0.560 or 560 mL
316

Example 12 : (Mass relations in chemical reactions)

Glucose reacts with oxygen to give CO2 and H2O.
C6H12O6 (s) + 6 O2 (g) 6CO2 (g) + 6 H2O ()
What mass of oxygen (in grams) is required for complete reaction of 25.0 g of glucose? What masses of carbon dioxide and water
(in grams) are formed?
Sol. After referring to the balanced equation, you can perform the stoichiometric calculations.

Mass of glucose Mass O2 required

Molar mass Molar mass

of glucose of O2

Mass of glucose Mol O2 required

Stoichiometric
factor

First find the amount of glucose available, then relate it to the amount of O2 required using the stoichiometric factor based on the
coefficients in the balanced equation. Finally, find the mass of O2 required from the amount of O2. Follow the same procedure to
find the masses of carbon dioxide and water.
Step 1 : Write a balanced equation.
C6H12O6 (s) + 6 O2 (g) 6CO2 (g) + 6 H2O ()
Step 2 : Convert the mass of glucose to moles.
1 mol
25.0 g glucose × 180.2 g = 0.139 mol glucose

Step 3 : Use the stoichiometric factor. Here we calculate the amount of O2 required.
6 mol O 2
0.139 mol glucose × = 0.832 mol O2
1 mol glu cos e
Step 4 : Calculate mass from moles. Convert the required amount of O2 to a mass in grams.
32.00g
0.832 mol O2 × = 26.6 g O2
1 mol O 2
STUDYMATERIAL: XI CHEMISTRY 11 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY
 Repeat Steps 3 and 4 to find the mass of CO2 produced in the combustion. First, relate the amount (moles) of glucose available
to the amount of CO2 produced using a stoichiometric factor. Then convert the amount of CO2 to the mass in grams.
6 mol CO 2 44.01 g CO2
0.139 mol glucose ×  = 36.6 g CO2
1 mol glucose 1 mol CO 2
Now, how can you find the mass of H2O produced? You could go through Steps 3 and 4 again. However, recognize that the total
mass of reactants
25.0 g C6H12O6 + 26.6 g O2 = 51.6 g of reactants
must be the same as the total mass of products. The mass of water that can be produced is therefore
Total mass of products = 51.6 g = 36.6 g CO2 produced + ? g H2O
Mass of H2O produced = 15.0 g
The amounts table for this problem is
Equation C6H12O6 (s) + 6 O2 (g)  6CO2 (g) + 6 H2O()
Initial amount (mol) 0.139 mol 6 (0.139 mol) 0 0
= 0.832 mol
Change (mol) – 0.139 mol – 0.832 mol + 0.832 mol + 0.832 mol
Amount after reaction (mol) 0 0 0.832 mol 0.832 mol
When you know the mass of all but one of the chemicals in a reaction, you can find the unknown mass using the principle of mass
conservation (the total mass of reactants must equal the total mass of products).

Example 13 :
10 ml of liquid carbon disulphide (sp. gravity 2.63) is burnt in oxygen. Find the volume of the resulting gases measured at STP.
Sol. 1 ml of CS2 Weighs 2.63 g
10 ml of CS2 weighs 26.3 g
CS2 + 3O2  CO2 + 2SO2
12+(2×32) 22.4 L 44.8 L 76 gm 67.2 L

 76 g of CS2 will yield 67.2 L of a mixture of CO2 and SO2 at STP.

67.2
 26.3 g of CS2 would yield  26.3 = 23.26 lit.
76

1.10.1 Limiting Reagent : It may be defined as the reactant which is completely consumed during the reaction. A reactant that is not
completely consumed is often referred to as an excess reactants. Once one of the reactant is used up, the reaction stops.
The moles of product are always determined by the starting moles of limiting reactants.

Example 14 : (A reaction with a limiting reactant)

Methanol, CH3OH, which is used as a fuel, can be made by the reaction of carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
CO (g) + 2H2 (g) CH3OH (methanol)
Suppose 356 g of COand 65.0 g of H2 are mixed and allowed to react.
(a) Which is the limiting reactant?
(b) What mass of methanol can be produced?
(c) What mass of the excess reactant remains after the limiting reactant has been consumed?
Sol. There are usually two steps to a limiting reactant problem:
(a) After calculating the amount of each reactant, compare the ratio of reactant amounts to the required stoichiometric ratio,
2 mol H2/1 mol CO.
* If [mol H2 available/mol CO available] > 2/1, then CO is the limiting reactant.
* If [mol H2 available/mol CO available] < 2/1, then H2 is the limiting reactant.
The amount of each reactant is
1 mol CO
Amount of CO = 356 g CO × = 12.7 mol CO
28.01 g CO

1 mol H 2
Amount of H2 = 65.0 g H2 × = 32.2 mol H2
28.01 g H 2
Are these reactants present in a perfect stoichiometric ratio?

STUDYMATERIAL: XI CHEMISTRY 12 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

 Mol H 2 available 32.2 mol H 2 2.54 mol H 2
 
Mol CO available 12.7 mol CO 1.00 mol CO
The required mole ratio is 2 mol of H2 to 1 mol of CO. Here we see that more hydrogen is available than is required to consume
all the O2. It follows that not enough CO is present to use up all of the hydrogen. CO is the limiting reactant.
(b) Maximum mass of CH3OH that can be formed
1 mol CH3OH formed 32.04g CH3OH
12.7 mol CO   = 407g CH3OH
1 mol CO available 1 mol CH3OH
(c) What amount of H2 remains when all the CO has been converted to product? First, we must find the amount of H2 required
to react with all the CO.
2 mol H 2
12.7mol CO × 1 mol CO = 25.4 mol H2 required

Because 32.2 mol of H2 is available, but only 25.4 mol is required by the limiting reactant, 32.2 mol – 25.4 mol = 6.8 mol of H2
is in excess. This is equivalent to 14g of H2.
2.02 mol H 2
6.8 mol H 2 
1 mol H 2 = 14g H2 remaining
Note : The amounts table for this reaction is
Equation CO(g) + 2 H2(g)  CH3OH ()
Initial amount (mol) 12.7 32.2 0
Change (mol) –12.7 –2 (12.7) +12.7
After complete reaction (mol) 0 6.8 12.7
The mass of product formed plus the mass of H2 remaining after reaction (407g CH3OH produced + 14g H2 remaining = 421 g) is
equal to the mass of reactants present before reaction (356 g CO + 65.0 g H2 = 421 g).

1.10 EXPRESSION OF STRENGTH/CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION

“The amount of solute which dissolved in unit volume of solution is called concentration of solution”.
Amount of solute
Concentration =
Volume of solution

1.10.1 Weight-weight age percent (w/W) : Weight of solute present in 100 gm of the solution.
weight of solute (gm) w
Weight percent = weight of solution (gm)  100 ; % by weight =  100
W

1.10.2 Mole fraction :

* The mole fraction of a component in a solution is the ratio of the number of moles of that component to the total number of
moles present in the solution.
A  Solute 
Suppose :  Solution ; nA = No. of moles of solute, nB = No. of moles of solvent
B  Solvent 

nA nB
Then mole fraction of solute = XA = , Mole fraction of solvent = XB =
nA  nB nA  nB
XA + XB = 1
* For gaseous mixture : A binary system of two gases A & B
PA = Partial pressure of A, PB = Partial pressure of B
P = PA + PB = Total pressure of gaseous mixture
PA P
* Mole fraction of gas A : XA =  A
PA  PB P

PB P
Mole fraction of gas B : XB =  B
PA  PB P

STUDYMATERIAL: XI CHEMISTRY 13 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

1.10.3 Molarity :
* The number of gram moles of the solute dissolved per litre of the solution. It is denoted by 'M'.
Number of gram moles of solute weight of solute (gm)
Molarity = Gram moles =
volume of solution (lit.) Molecular weight of solute


weight of solute (gm) 1

 Molarity = ×
Molecular weight of solute volume of solution (lit.)

w 1 w 1000
* Formula : M= × . ......... (i) M= × V (ml.) ......... (ii)
M' V(lit.) M
1
M = nM × ......... (iii) nM = M × V(lit.) ......... (iv)
V(lit.)
Where, w = weight of solute,
M' = Molecular weight of solute, V = volume of solution, nM = number of gram moles.
Gram moles = Molarity of solution × volume of solution (litre)

1.10.4 Molality :
* The number of gram moles of solute dissolved in 1000 gm or 1 kg of the solvent. It is denoted by 'm'
Gram moles of solute weight of solute (gm)
molality =  Gram moles of solute =
weight of solvent (kg) Molecular weight of solute

weight of solute (gm) 1

Molality = 
Molecular weight of solute weight of solvent (kg)

w 1 w 1000 1
W  kg 

M  W  kg 

M ' W  gm 
* Formula : m = ............. (i) m = .............. (ii) m = nM × ........... (iii)

Where w = weight of solute, M = molecular weight of solute, W = weight of solvent, nM = no. of moles of solute

Example 15 :
Calculate the molarity of NaOH in the solution prepared by dissolving its 4g in enough water to form 250 mL of the solution.
No. of moles of solute
Sol. Since molarity (M) =
Volume of solution in litres
Mass of NaOH/Molar mass of NaOH
=
0.250 L
4g / 40g 0.1 mol
= 0.250L  0.250 L = 0.4 mol L–1 = 0.4 M

Note that molarity of a solution depends upon temperature because volume of a solution is temperature dependent.

Example 16 :
8 gm NaOH dissolved in 500 ml of its aqueous soln. If density of the solution is 1.2 gm/ml. then find the molality of the solution
Sol. Weight of solute= 8 gm, Volume of solution = 500 ml, Density of soln = 1.2 gm/ml
 Weight of solution = 500 × 1.2 = 600 gm.
 Weight of solvent = weight of solution – weight of solute = 600 – 8 = 592 gm
w 1000 8 1000
 m=  =  = 0.34
M W 40 592

STUDYMATERIAL: XI CHEMISTRY 14 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

 ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES
Example 1 :
Calculate the mass of oxygen required to burnt 14g C2H4 completely :
Sol. C2H4 + 3O2  2CO2 + 2H2O
Mole ratio 1 3 2 4
14 1
Moles of C2H4 to be burnt =  mole.
28 2
1 mole C2H4 requires 3 mole O2 for combustion
1 1 3
 mole C2H4 requires 3 × mole O2 = mol O2
2 2 2
3
Mass of Oxygen = × 32 = 48 gm.
2

Example 2 :
6 × 1020 molecules of CO2 are removed from 220 milligram of CO2. What are the remaining moles of CO2.
220  103
Sol. Mole of 220 mg. of CO2 = = 5 × 10–3 moles
44

6  1020
Moles of CO2 removed are = = 10–3 moles
6  1023
Remaining moles of CO2 = [5 × 10–3 – 10–3] = 4 × 10–3 moles

Example 3 :
12 L of H2 and 11.2 L of Cl2 are mixed and exploded. Find the composition by volume of mixture.
Sol. H2 + Cl2  2HCl
1L 1L 2L
11.2 L 11.2 L 22.4L
Volume of H2 = [12 – 11.2] = 0.8 L,
Volume of Cl2 = Zero, Volume of HCl = 22.4 L

Example 4 :
6.8 gm H2O2 present in 100 ml of its soln . What is the molarity of solution.
Sol.  Weight of H2O2 in 100 ml of H2O2 soln = 6.8 gm
 Weight of H2O2 in 1000 ml of its soln = 6.8 × 10 = 68 gm
Molecular weight of H2O2 = 34. Then, Molarity = 68/34 = 2M
17
Or % weight = Molarity × 2 ×
10
% weight  10 6.8  10
 Molarity = = = 2M
2  17 2  17

Example 5 :
50.0 kg of N2 (g) and 10.0 kg of H2 (g) are mixed to produce NH3 (g). Calculate the NH3 (g) formed. Identify the limiting reagent
in the production of NH3 in this situation.
Sol. A balanced equation for the above reaction is written as follows :
Calculation of moles : N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)
1000g N 2 1 mol N 2
Moles of N2 = 50.0 kg N2 ×  = 17.86 × 102 mol
1 kg N2 28.0g N 2

1000g H 2 1 mol H 2
Moles of H2 = 10.00 kg H2 ×  = 4.96 × 103 mol
1 kg H 2 28.0g H 2

STUDYMATERIAL: XI CHEMISTRY 15 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

 According to the above equation, 1 mol N2 (g) requires 3 mol H2 (g), for the reaction. Hence, for 17.86 × 102 mol of N2, the moles
of H2 (g) required would be
3 mol H 2 (g)
17.86 × 102 mol N2 × = 5.36 × 103 mol H2
1 mol N 2 (g)
But we have only 4.96 × 103 mol H2. Hence, dihydrogen is the limiting reagent in this case. So NH3(g) would be formed only from
that amount of available dihydrogen i.e., 4.96 × 103 mol.
Since 3 mol H2(g) gives 2 mol NH3(g)
2 mol NH3 (g)
4.96 × 103 mol H2 (g) × = 3.30 × 103 mol NH3 (g)
3 mol H 2 (g)
3.30 × 103 mol NH3 (g) is obtained.
If they are to be converted to grams, it is done as follows :
1 mol NH3 (g) = 17.0 g NH3 (g)
17.0 g NH3 (g)
3.30 × 103 mol NH3 (g) × = 3.30 × 103 × 17 g NH3 (g) = 56.1 × 103 g NH3 = 56.1 kg NH3
1 mol NH3 (g)

Example 6 :
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) contains 40.92% C, 4.58% H, and 54.50% O by mass. What is the empirical formula of ascorbic acid ?
Sol. We are given the mass percentages of the elements in ascorbic acid and asked for its empirical formula.
We first assume, for simplicity, that we have exactly 100g of material (although any number can be used). In 100g of ascorbic acid,
we will have 40.92 g C, 4.58 g H, and 54.50 g O.
Second, we calculate the number of moles of each element in this sample:
 1 mol C 
Moles C = (40.92 g C)  12.01 g C  = 3.407 mol C
 

 1 mol H 
Moles H = (4.58 g H)  1.008 g C  = 4.54 mol H
 

 1 mol O 
Moles O = (54.50g O)  16.00 g O  = 3.406 mol O
 
Third, we determine the simplest whole-number ratio of moles by dividing each number of moles by the smallest number of moles,
3.406:
3.407 4.54 3.406
C:  1.000 , H :  1.33 , O :  1.0000
3.406 3.406 3.406
1
The ratio for H is too far from 1 to attribute the difference to experimental error; in fact, it is quite close to 1 .
3
This suggests that if we multiply the ratio by 3, we will obtain whole numbers:
C : H : O = 3 (1 : 1.33 : 1) = 3 : 4 : 3
The whole-number mole ratio gives us the subscripts for the empirical formula.
Thus, the empirical formula is C3H4O3.

STUDYMATERIAL: XI CHEMISTRY 16 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY