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Several Topics Combi

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Winter Camp 2008 Combinatorics Yufei Zhao Combinatorics Yulei Zao yufeizenit.edu 1 Bijections Basic examples 1. (a) Let n be a positive integer. In how many ways can one write a sum of at least two positive integers that add up to n? Consider the same set of integers written in a different order as being different. (For example, there are 3 ways to express 3 as3=1}141=241=142) (b) Let m,n be positive integers. Determine the number of m-tuples of positive integers (21,2, -- 2m) satisfying 2; +22 +--+ am =m, (c) Let m,n be positive integers. De satisfying 21 + 22-40 tm =m. ve integers (21,025...) er of m-tuples of nonnegat maine the 2. Determine the uumber of paths from (0,0) to (m,n) following the gridlines and moving in the up or right directions. 1.1 Catalan numbers Let us define the nth Catalan number C, by () So (ar, 1, 1,2,5,14,42, 132, 429, ...). There are a huge number of combinatorial interpretations of these numbers, and we'll discuss some of them in lecture, and leave a few more as exercise in the next section, ‘There are two main way of handling these problems: bijection and recurence. ‘The bijections often tend to be very clegant, while the recurrence method tend to be more routine. We focus on the bijection perspective but we also briefly discuss the recurrence method. 1. Show that the number of lattice paths from (0,0) to (n,n) using only up moves and right moves, and | Cooney Et Coo a fe Go EEoH a bet See Retp://ewe-math wit edu/-ratan/ec/ for list of (currently) 161 interpretations Fa Winter Camp 2008 Combinatorics Yulei Zhao 2, Show that the number of expressions containing n pairs of parentheses which are correctly matched is Cu Beg, for n= 3, (OY CO) (}O 0M) 000 3. Show that the number of plane trees with n+ I vertices is C, AAS 4. Show that the number of complete binary trees with n internal vertices is Cy. B.g., for n = 3, fg, forn =3, 5. Show that the number of ways that n+ 1 factors can be completely parenthesized is C,. Eg, for n=3, ((abje}d) ((albe))a) ((ab)(ed)) (a((be)d)) (a(b(eW))) A word about recursion, Tey to show that e Cn = Cn1Co + C20 + interpretation above gives the recurrence relation Cua + CoCr This is not too hard. It is mostly about how to break up a “Catalan problem” into two smaller “Catalan subproblems.” Now, if we turn the table around and ask: given recurrence relation (and the initial conditions of course), hhow cat! we arrive at the formula Cy = zh; (28)? This i also The most standard way is through generating functions (if you know gen to work out this computation youself). ather difficult unless you have seen it before ing functions, you should 1.2 More Catalan exercises 1. Show that the number of triangulations of a convex (n+ 2)-gon is Cy. Kg. for m= ny ho Th PR b Ihe [fe [Ps (F, (& fh, Ba q Lp Fs, [s, , Bs, Bs, LHL DB Cao co 7 Winter Camp 2008 Combinatorics Yulei Zhao 3, Show that the number of ways of stacking coins in the plane so that the bottom row consists of m consecutive coins is Cy. Eg, for n = 3, 000 0 0% SH BS 4, Show that the number of ways of drawing n nonintersecting chords joining 2n given points on a cixcle "COBO 5. Show that Cy equals to the number of (unordered) paiss of latte paths with n +1 steps cach, starting at (0,0), using steps (1,0) or (0,1), ending at the same point, and only intersecting at the beginning and end. Bg. More bijections 1. A triangular grid is obtained by tiling an equilateral triangle of side length n by n? equilateral triangles of side length I. Determine the number of parallelogeanss bounded by line segments of the grid A, AD 2, Form a 2000 x 2002 screen with unit screens, Initially, there are more than 1999 x 2001 unit screens which are on. In any 2 x 2 screen, as soon as there are 3 unit screens which are off, the 4th screen turns off automatically. Prove that the whole screen can never be totally off. 3. (Putnam 2003) A Dyck n-path is a lattice path of n upsteps (1,1) and n downsteps (1, —1) that starts at the origin and never dips below the z-axis. A return is a maximal sequence of contiguous downsteps that terminates on the 2-axis. For example, the Dyck 5-path illustrated has two returns, of length 3 and 1 respectively. Show that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the Dyck n-paths with no retumn of even length and the Dyck (n — 1)-paths. 4, (Canada 2005) Consider an equilateral triangle of side length n, which is divided into unit triangles, as shown, Let f(n) be the number of paths from the triangle in the top row to the middle triangle in the bottom row, such that adjacent triangles in our path share a common edge and the path never travels up (from a lower row to a higher row) of revisits a triangle. An example of one such path is Determine the value of J (20 lustrated below for n= Winter Camp 2008 Combinatorics Yulei Zhao 10 (Putnam 2005) Let $ = {(a,8) | @ = 1,2,...,m, = 1,2,3}, Determine the number of paths in $ starting at (1,1) and ending at (n,1), with unit steps and passing through all the points in $ exactly once each, {IMO Shortlist 2002) Let n be a positive integer. Hach point (x,y) in the plane, where x and y are non-negative integers with x+y 2, if the number & appears in the sequence then so does the number k— 1, and moreover the first occurrence of k—1 comes before the last occurrence of &. For each n, show that there are n! full sequences. (IMO Shortlist 2005) In an m xn rectangular board of mn unit squares, adjacent squares are ones with, a common edge, and a path is a sequence of squares in which any two consecutive squares are adjacent, Each square of the board can be colored black or white. Let V denote the number of colorings of the board such that there exists at least one black path from the left edge of the board to its right edge, and let Af denote the number of colorings in which there exist at least two non-intersecting black paths from the left edgo to the right edge. Prove that N? > M.2"™, Counting in two ways (IMC 2002) Two hundred students participated in a mathematical contest. They had six problems to solve, It is known that each problem was correctly solved by at least 120 participants. Prove that there must be two participants such that every problem was solved by at least one of these two students. (IMO 1998) In a competition, there are a contestants and b judges, where b > 3 is an odd integer Each judge rates each contestant as either "pass” or “fail”. Suppose & is a number such that, for any ‘wo judges, their ratings coincide for at most & contestants. Prove that Winter Camp 2008 Combinatorics Yulei Zhao 3, Show that ifthe edges of Ke, the complete graph with 6 vertices, are colored im 2 colors, then graph contains two monochromatic triangles. (Ilint: count the number of monochromatic “angles”) 4, (Russia 1990) There are 30 senators in a senate. Each pair of senators, the two senators are either friends of each other or enemies of each other. Every senator has exactly six enemies. Every three ‘senators form a committee. Find the total number of committees whose members are either all friends or all enemies of each other. 5. (China 1993) Ten students ordered books. Bach student ordered 3 different books. Each pair of students had ordered at least one same book. The book Mathematics Olympiads was the one which most (a tie being allowed) students ordered. What was the minimum number of students who ordered Mathernaties Olympiads? 6. (USA TST 2005) Let mi be an integer greater than 1. For a positive integer m, let Six Suppose that there exists a 2n-element set J’ such that 1,2,...,mn}. (a) cach clement of 1 is an m-clement subset of Sn (b) cach pair of clements of T shares at most one common element; and (c) each clement of S,, is contained in exactly two elements of T. Determine the maxizaum possible value of m in terms of n. 7. (China TST 1992) Sixteen students took part in a math competition where every problem was a multiple choice question with four choices. After the contest, itis found that any two students had at most one auswer in common, Determine the maximum number of questions. 8. (IMO Shortist 2000) Let n> 4 be a fixed positive integer. Let S = (Pi, Ps,...} be a set of n points im the plane such that no three are collinear and no four are coneyclic, Let ay, 1

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