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ME 2141 - Complete Module

This document outlines the course modules and content for a Basic Electrical Engineering course. The course is divided into 3 modules covering basic electrical concepts, direct current circuits and network theorems, and single-phase alternating current circuits. It includes the course learning outcomes, module topics and outlines, study schedule, and assessment guidelines. The goal is for students to understand fundamental electrical concepts, analyze series and parallel circuits, and solve direct and alternating current circuit problems.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

90 views114 pages

ME 2141 - Complete Module

Uploaded by

NICOLE ANN MARCELINO

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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MODULE IN
BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

ME 2141

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Property of and for the ex clusiv e use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retriev al sy stem, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopy ing, recording, or otherw ise of any part of this document, w ithout the prior w ritten permiss ion of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 1
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents Page

Title Page 3

Course Introduction 4

Course Study Guide and House Rules 5

Study Schedule 8

Assessment and Evaluation Guide 14

Formativ e Assessment Guide 14
Summativ e Assessment Guide 14
Technological Tools 15

Facilitator Contact Details 16

Module 1 17
Module 2 53
Module 3 68

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ME 2141

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the module, you should be
able to:

1. Describe the basic concepts, theory

and problem solv ing techniques
needed in the electrical circuits.

2. Analyze series and parallel direct

and alternating current circuits.
Source:
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/275986283390989902/ 3. Solv e direct current and alternating
current circuits for different circuit
connections.

BASIC ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING

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Course Introduction
This 2-unit course, the Mechanical Engineering students attain a w orking know ledge of
engineering techniques in DC and AC circuit connection, fundamental theory of electricity,
some circuit v ariables and its relation to other dev ices, different basic techniques in circuit
analysis such as Ohm’s law , Kirchhoff’s law , and a series combination of resistance,
inductance and capacitance analysis.

Module and Unit Topics

To ensure that you w ill demonstrate the abov e-cited course learning outcome at the end of
the semester, this course designed to be deliv ered in 36 contact hours w as div ided into 3
modules. Each module contains a discussion w ith its topic learning outcomes and topic
outline. Each module is designed using the 5E constructiv ist model of learning, dev eloped
by Rodger Bybee, that encourages students to engage, explore, explain, elaborate, and
ev aluate their know ledge of topics cov ered therein. I t means that at the end of each unit,
each module, and the course as a w hole, you w ill be assessed on your progress in attaining
the course learning outcomes. Outcomes-based education dictates that only w hen you
can demonstrate the course learning outcomes by the end of this course, can you be given
a passing mark. The modules that form the building blocks to help you attain the course
learning outcomes are as follow s:

MODULE 1: Basic Concepts of Electrical Circuits

This module allow s you to rev iew fundamental concepts in the pre-requisite course,
EnggPhys (Lec & Lab). The discussion w ill focus on the basic electrical ideas and units,
understand the importance of Ohm’s law , and apply it to a v ariety of electrical circuit
connections. I t w ill also discuss how to determine the pow er and energy of the system and
the relationship betw een v oltage, current, resistance, and pow er. The module w ill also
Property of and for the ex clusiv e use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retriev al sy stem, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopy ing, recording, or otherw ise of any part of this document, w ithout the prior w ritten permiss ion of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

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discuss how to identify and determine the equiv alent resistance of types of circuit
connections: series circuit, parallel circuit, series-parallel circuit, and parallel-series circuit..
MODULE 2: Direct Current Circuits-Network Theorems and Laws
This module w ill enable you to analyze circuits using any of the sev eral netw ork theorems.
The netw ork theorems could be used for single source circuits or multi-source circuits. This
module w ill discuss the Δ-Y and Y-Δ Transformations, and Kirchhoff’s law applied in different
circuit connections.

MODULE 3: Single Phase Alternating Current Circuits

This module introduces the fundamentals of single-phase alternating current circuits. I t w ill
discuss how alternating current is generated and describes the sinusoidal w av eform. I t w ill
also define and explain the amplitude, effectiv e, mean, peak to peak v alue, frequency,
and period. The module w ill also discuss and explain the basic alternating current circuit:
Resistiv e Circuit, I nductiv e Circuit, Capacitiv e Circuit, and possible series and parallel
combinations. You w ill also inv estigate the relationships betw een v oltage and current in the
R-L-C series and parallel AC circuits by applying the concept of phasors in electrical
calculations. The netw ork theorems that you learned in module 2 are also applicable to AC
circuits.

Course Study Guide

Finishing this course successfully relies heav ily on your self-discipline and time management
skills. The course modules w ere prepared for you to learn diligently, intelligently, and
independently. Keeping yourself motiv ated to follow the schedules specified in the learning
plan, maintaining excellence in the expected student outputs, and mastering the different
technologies and procedures required in the deliv ery and feedback for this course, w ill instil
in you important qualities you w ill need in the future as an engineer practicing your
profession. The follow ing course guides and house rules are designed for you to practice
decorum consistent w ith standards expected w ithin a formal academic env ironment. These
guides shall lay the groundw ork for consistency, coherence, cooperation, and clear
communication among learners and instructors throughout the conduct of this course:

1. MANAGE YOUR MINUTES. Create a study routine and stick to it. Keep
requirement deadlines and study schedules alw ays in mind by prov iding v isual
cues posted in your place of study or listed in your reminders (electronically,
online, or on paper). Remember that there are other daily activ ities that take
up your time, not to mention other courses you may be concurrently taking.
Choose a time of day w hen you are most likely to maximize learning.
Communicate your schedule to other members of your household so they could
help you keep it. I t w ould also help to prepare a dedicated space in your
residence conduciv e for learning.
2. MIND YOUR MANNERS. Treat the distance learning env ironment as an
academic space not too different from a physical classroom. Do not do in the
distance learning env ironment, acts you w ould not normally do in a face-to-
Property of and for the ex clusiv e use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retriev al sy stem, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopy ing, recording, or otherw ise of any part of this document, w ithout the prior w ritten permiss ion of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

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face classroom set up. Av oid asking questions that hav e already been
answ ered in the lessons or in the instructions prev iously discussed or prov ided.
Acts like these w ill reflect your poor focus and uninspired preparation for this
course. Practice Electronic Conversation Etiquette in group chats, open forums,
and similar electronic v enues.
a. Use appropriate language and tone, correct grammar and spelling,
and complete sentences acceptable in an academic forum. Av oid
text-speak, slang, all caps, and other informal expressions in your
posts.
b. Express your opinions politely and do not dominate the conv ersation.
c. Av oid lengthy as w ell as offensiv e posts by sticking to the topic of the
discussion.
d. Take time to understand the salient points of the discussion, and
prov ide a meaningful and w ell-thought response to the posts of other
participants.
e. For a liv e meeting or v ideo/v oice conferencing set-up, mute your
microphone w hen you are not speaking to keep the focus on the
main speaker.
3. MASTER THE MEDIUM. The distance learning courses w ill be deliv ered making
use of the institutional Google Suite account of Saint Louis Univ ersity. I t w ould
be w orthw hile on your part to dev ote some time and effort to learn the
applications you w ill need to access your course materials, interact with me and
your classmates, and submit course requirements. Applications of note are
Google Classroom, Google Driv e, and Google Meet. There are also av ailable
alternativ es to Microsoft Office tools you might w ant to explore. Certain
requirements w ill require you to take a v ideo on your smart phone, sav e it, and
submit it electronically. Work on this skill as w ell. I f you are offline, identify the
most conv enient means for express mail correspondence and inform me as
early as possible so w e can make the necessary arrangements ahead of time.
4. MAKE MASTERPIECES. Go beyond minimum requirements. The course learning
outcomes w ill serv e as a guide to the minimum expected competencies you
are to acquire at the end of this course. I t does not limit you from performing
beyond it. Keep in mind that the quality of your w ork reflects the amount of
thought and care you put into the process of completing it. I t prov ides a v ery
tangible measure of how much of the competencies you hav e dev eloped and
fully obtained throughout this course.
5. CONNECT CONSTANTLY. There are more than sufficient online and offline
modes to ensure that you are w ell informed and prov ided on time w ith the
needed learning materials, instructions, requirements, and feedback either from
me or from your classmates. Exhaust all means possible to keep in touch and
updated. My contact details can be found at the latter part of this document
and w ill be made av ailable and w idely disseminated to enrolees of this course.
6. OBSERVE ORIGINALITY. Your course outputs w ill largely be submitted in
electronic form. I t is going to hav e a highly traceable and comparable digital
footprint that can be easily checked for originality. Cite your sources properly
for referenced statements you decide to use in your ow n w ork. Attribute
statements by persons other than you by using terms like according to, he
said/she said, and the like.
Property of and for the ex clusiv e use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retriev al sy stem, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopy ing, recording, or otherw ise of any part of this document, w ithout the prior w ritten permiss ion of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

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7. INSTIGATE INDEPENDENCE. You are the focus of this course. Nobody else. All
assessment and ev aluation tools in this course are designed to measure your
competence and not anybody else’s. You may use all resources at your
disposal, and ask other people for adv ice. I n the end how ev er, it is going to be
your independent w ork that w ill be judged against the standards set for this
course. The only w ay for you to maximize this course to your adv antage is to
learn as much from it as an indiv idual. Make it count.
8. RESPECT THE ROUTINE. There are traditionally respected routines w e follow in the
conduct of our ev eryday liv es. Please be mindful of univ ersally accepted norms
of courtesy attached to regular schedules of personal and family time. Unless
of utmost importance, please refrain from any form of communication between
8:30 PM and 7:30 AM ev eryday and the w hole day on Sundays and official
holidays. You shall expect me to adhere to this guideline myself. This w ill allow
us all to dedicate personal time and space to other aspects of our life and
maintain a healthy w ork-life/study-life balance.
9. FINISH THE FIVE. To be able to help you build your ow n understanding from
experience and new ideas, the modules in this course are designed based on
the 5E I nstructional Model (Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, and Ev aluate).
The follow ing icons w ill help you find some of the most critical areas in the units
of the learning modules:

Part of module unit that is designed to pique

your interest in the topics to be discussed by
accessing your prior knowledge and build up
your curiosity to learn more.

Part of the module unit that presents the main

lesson through materials that will give you a
general picture of the topics to be discussed,
introducing you to new concepts and ideas.

Part of the module unit that contains detailed

discussions of topics and provide you the
definition of the smaller pieces of the general
picture you encountered in the previous stage.

Part of the module unit that expounds on the

ideas of the previous stage and allows you to
extrapolate into a broader field or delve deeper
into the finer details of the topics.

Part of the module unit that gives us the

opportunity to gauge your attainment of the
learning outcomes using formative and
evaluative assessment tools.

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Additional Guidelines for Offline Students:

 I f you are a student opting for the correspondence-based learning (CBL)
mode, you w ill be tasked to send back the accomplished requirements at
giv en stages of the course through express mail correspondence to me, on or
before the scheduled date. I w ill prov ide you w ith the feedback on your
submissions at the soonest possible time through any of the av ailable means
of communication.
 While w aiting for my feedback of your accomplished requirements, continue
doing the tasks in the succeeding units of the module.
 I f needed, do not hesitate to keep in touch w ith me through any av ailable
means.

Study Schedule
Below is the complete w eekly schedule for the attainment of the topic learning outcomes
v is-a-v is the activ ities. This contains also the schedule of the deadlines of the submission
of the accomplished course requirements or assignments and the examination.

TOPIC LEARNING
Dates ACTIVITIES
OUTCOMES

MODULE 1 Basic Concepts of Electrical Circuits

UNIT 1 Electrical Ideas and Units

October 5, TLO 1: Discuss the Engage: Pre-requisite review of Engineering
2020 basic electrical ideas Physics (Lec and Lab)
and units.
Explore: Read topics on:
Chapter 1: Basic concepts: system of units,
basic quantities, and circuits elements (Page 1-
. 8)

Reference:
Irwin & Nelms (2015). Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis

Explain: Read the follow ing:

Chapter 1: Basic Electrical I deas and Units
(Page 3-15)
Chapter 2: Wires, Cables, and I nsulation (Page
18-38)

Reference:
Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and
Alternating Current (2 nd Edition).Prentice-Hall, Inc.

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Elaborate: Watch the following video on

YouTube:

Into The Ordinary. (2017, November 24). What is

electricity? – Electricity Explained – (1) [Video].
Youtube:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ru032Mfsfig

Evaluate: Graded activity/assignment w ill be

giv en.

UNIT 2 Ohm’s Law, Power, and Energy

October 6, TLO 2: Define Ohm’s Engage: Read the follow ing:
2020 law , Pow er, and Chapter 1.2: Force, Work, and Pow er
Energy Chapter 1.5: Energy and Electrical Power
October 12,
2020 Reference:
Nahv i & Edminister (2003). Theory and Problems of Electric
Circuits. 4 t h Edition. Schaum’s Outline Series. McGRAW -HILL

TLO 3: I dentify
fundamental types of
Explore: Read topics on:
direct current circuit.
Chapter 2.1 Ohm’s Law (Page 25)

Reference:
Irwin & Nelms (2015). Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis

Explain: Read the follow ing:

Chapter 3: Ohm’s Law , Power and Energy
(Page 42-72)

Reference:
Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and
Alternating Current (2 nd Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Elaborate: Answer Formative Assessment

Evaluate: Graded activity/assignment will be

giv en.

October 13, Graded Quiz on Module 1

2020

MODULE 2 Direct Current Circuits – Network Theorems and Laws

UNIT 1 Δ-Y and Y-Δ Transformations

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October TLO 4: Distinguish Engage: Read topics on:

19,2020 delta and w ye Chapter 4: Direct-Current Circuits II –Network
connection of Theorems, Law s: Δ-Y and Y-Δ Transformation
resistances in direct (Page 97-104)
current resistances.
Reference:
Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and
Alternating Current (2 nd Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc

Explore: Read topics on:

Chapter 2: DC Netw ork Theorems: Delta/Star
Conv ersion (Page 138-143)
Reference:
Theraja, A.K. and Theraja, B.L. (2005). A Textbook of
Electrical Technology, Vol.1.S.Chand & Company Ltd

Explain: Read topics on:

Chapter 5: DC Equiv alent Circuits, Network
Theorems, and Bridge Circuits (Page 85-87)

Reference:
O’Malley, J. (1992). Basic Electrical Analysis 2ne
Edition. Schaum’s Outline of Theory and
Problems. McGraw-Hill

Elaborate Answer Formative Assessment

Evaluate: Graded activity/assignment will be

giv en.

UNIT 2 Kirchhoff’s Law

October 20, TLO 5: Apply and Engage: Read topics on:
2020 formulate equations Chapter 4: Direct-Current Circuits II –Network
using Kirchhoff’s law s. Theorems, Law s: Kirchhoff’s Law (Page 77-82)

Reference:
Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and
Alternating Current (2 nd Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc

Explore: Read topics on:

Chapter 2: DC Netw ork Theorems: Kirchhoff’s
Law s (Page 53-55)

Reference:
Theraja, A.K. and Theraja, B.L. (2005). A Textbook of
Electrical Technology, Vol.1.S.Chand & Company Ltd

Explain: Read topics on:

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Chapter 3: Series and Parallel DC Circuits (Page

31-34)

Reference:
O’Malley, J. (1992). Basic Electrical Analysis 2ne
Edition. Schaum’s Outline of Theory and
Problems. McGraw-Hill

Elaborate Answer Formative Assessment

Evaluate: Graded activity/assignment will be

giv en.

October 20, Graded Quiz(Assignment) on Module 2

2020
Oct. 22-23 Midterm Exam on Module 1 and 2

MODULE 3 Single Phase Alternating Current Circuits

UNIT 1 Sinusoidal Voltage and Current Waves

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October 26- TLO 6: Construct Engage: Read topics on:

27, 2020 sinusoidal v oltage and Chapter 10: Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents
current w aves. (Page 271-289)

TLO 7: Calculate the Reference:

period, frequency, Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and
Alternating Current (2 nd Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc
instantaneous and
peak v alue, rms and
av erage value of the Explore: Read topics on:
Chapter 11: A.C. Fundamentals (Page 454-
sinusoidal w ave
496)

Reference:
Theraja, A.K. and Theraja, B.L. (2005). A Textbook of
Electrical Technology, Vol.1.S.Chand & Company Ltd

Explain: Read topics on:

Chapter 10: Sinusoidal Alternating Voltage
and Current (Page 194-198)

Reference:
O’Malley, J. (1992). Basic Electrical Analysis
2ne Edition. Schaum’s Outline of Theory and
Problems. McGraw-Hill

Elaborate Answer Formative Assessment

Evaluate: Graded activity/assignment will be

giv en.

September 2, Graded Quiz on Module 3: Unit 1

2020
UNIT 2 Resistance, Capacitance, and Inductance (RLC) Circuits

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September TLO 8: Describe Engage: Read topics on:

3,9, &10, Resistance, Chapter 11: Electrical Circuits-Alternating
2020 Capacitance, and Current: Resistance (R), I nductance (I), and
I nductance Circuits. Capacitance (C) Circuits (Page 293-319)

TLO 9: I dentify series Chapter 12: Electrical Circuits-Alternating

and parallel resistance- Current: Parallel and Series-Parallel Circuits
inductance- (Page 324-341)
capacitance (RLC)
circuit. Reference:
Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and
Alternating Current (2 nd Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc

Explore: Read topics on:

Chapter 13: Series A.C. Circuits (Page 507-556)
Chapter 14: Parallel A.C. Circuits (Page 557-
598)

Reference:
Theraja, A.K. and Theraja, B.L. (2005). A Textbook of
Electrical Technology, Vol.1.S.Chand & Company Ltd

Explain: Read topics on:

Chapter 12: Basic AC Circuit Analysis,
I mpedance, and Admittance (Page 232-238)

Reference:
O’Malley, J. (1992). Basic Electrical Analysis
2ne Edition. Schaum’s Outline of Theory and
Problems. McGraw-Hill

Elaborate Answer Formative Assessment

Evaluate: Graded activity/assignment will be

giv en.

September Graded Quiz on Module 3: Unit 2

16, 2020
September Final Exam on Module 3
17-18, 2020

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Evaluation
The course modules rely on formativ e and summativ e assessments to determine the progress
of your learning in each module. To obtain a passing grade in this course, you must:

1. Read all course readings and answ er the formativ e assessment.

2. Submit all assignments and graded quizzes/activ ities.
3. Take the Midterm/Final Examination.

 I f you are a student under the offline DL mode, accomplish all print-based and
electronically sav ed discussion activ ities and requirements, and submit them on
time v ia express mail correspondence.

Formative Assessment Activities

Formativ e assessments for this course are applied to ungraded activ ities that are used to
monitor your learning experience and prov ide feedback to improv e both your learning
approach as w ell as my instructional approach.
• You are required to answ er the formativ e assessment activ ities but your scores in
activ ities w ill not be included in the computation of your final grade.
• The graded activ ity or assignment are designed to help you to critically analyze
the course readings for better understanding w hile the formativ e assessment
activ ities are designed as a rev iew management tool to prepare you for the
graded quizzes and examinations.
• Successfully answ ering formativ e activ ity questions and requirements will serve as
prompts to tell you if you need to study further or if you may already move forward
to the next unit of the module.
• The completeness of your answ ers to the formativ e assessment activ ities w ill still
be checked and w ill still be part of your course completion.
• I n doing your formativ e assessment activ ities, you can alw ays ask the help of your
family and friends.
• The formativ e assessment activ ities are required so you can take it anytime within
the scheduled days assigned for each module.

Summative Assessment Activities

The ev aluativ e assessments are graded activ ities designed to determine if your acquisition
of learning and performance in tests is at par w ith standards set at certain milestones in this
course.

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A. Quizzes, Examinations, and Assignments

Graded quizzes, examinations, and assignments are essential to determine w hether your
performance as a student is at par w ith standards/goals that need to be achiev ed in
this course. The scores obtained from each of the graded activ ities w ill contribute to
your final grade, the w eights of w hich are presented in the grading system described in
the succeeding sections of this text. Direct scoring can be used on straightforw ard
requirements like short answ ers and multiple-choice responses, w hile scoring rubrics will
be prov ided for answ ers that are typically lengthy and inv olv e a more complex lev el of
thinking on your part.

Technological Tools
To be able to accomplish all the tasks in this course, you w ill need a computer or a laptop
w ith the follow ing softw are applications: Word Processing, Presentation, and Publication for
requirements that do not require online access. A smart phone w ith v ideo recording and
editing features w ill also be used for activ ities that w ill require you to record v ideos for saving
and submission.

I f you are a student online, access to the institutional Google Classroom w ill be prov ided
through your institutional account. An inv itation to join the Google Classroom w ill be sent to
you through the SLU Student Portal and your institutional email account, so make sure to
activ ate your institutional email account. I t is equally important that you check your SLU
Student Portal account at least tw ice a w eek and turn your Gmail Notifications on in your
mobile phone and computer.

I f you are a student offline, the deliv ery of instructions and requirements w ill be primarily
through express mail correspondence of printed modules and sav ed digital content on a
USB flash driv e. Feedback and clarifications w ill be facilitated through text messaging and
v oice calls; hence, you need to hav e regular access to a cell phone. I f you need to call, or
you w ant to talk to me, send me a message first and w ait for me to respond. Do not giv e my
CP number to anybody. I w ill not entertain messages or calls from numbers that are not
registered in my phone. Hence, use only the CP number you submitted to me.

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Contact Information of the Facilitator

Engr. Viv ian V. Compala
CHE 3151 Course Facilitator

Cellphone : +63908-711-1174
SLU local extension number : Electrical Engineeing, loc. 393
I nstitutional email address : v [email protected]

Engr. Helyn Y. Kidsolan

CHE 3151 Course Facilitator

Cellphone : +63910-8610-021
SLU local extension number : Electrical Engineeing, loc. 393
I nstitutional email address : [email protected]

Engr. George I v an Anthony M. Laconsay

CHE 3151 Course Facilitator

Cellphone : +63908-711-1174
SLU local extension number : Electrical Engineeing, loc. 393
I nstitutional email address : [email protected]

Engr. Marc Gabriel M. Labagnoy

CHE 3151 Course Facilitator

Cellphone : +63917-718-3411
SLU local extension number : Electrical Engineeing, loc. 393
I nstitutional email address : [email protected]

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MODULE 1
Basic Concepts of Electrical Circuits

Unit 1: Electrical Ideas and Units

UNIT LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Discuss the basic electrical ideas and units.

References:

Admin. (2019, Nov ember 07). Electromotive Force - Definition, Formula, Unit, Difference. Retriev ed August 01,
2020, from https://byjus.com/physics/electromotive-force/

DOE FUNDAMENTALS HANDBOOK ELECTRICAL SCIENCE Volume 1 of 4. (n.d.). Retriev ed July 31, 2020, from
https://docplayer.net/13054405-Doe-fundamentals-handbook-electrical-science-volume-1-of-4.html

Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and Alternating Current (2 nd Edition).Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Theraja, A.K. and Theraja, B.L. (2005). A Textbook of Electrical Technology, Vol.1.S.Chand & Company Ltd.

Unknown. (1970, January 01). ELECTRICITY: CONDUCTORS & CONDUCTIVITY #3. Retrieved July 31, 2020, from
http://catholicscienceteacher7.blogspot.com/2014/02/electricity-conductors-conductivity-3_6.html

ENGAGE
What is Electricity?
Electricity is defined as "the flow of electrons through simple materials and dev ices" or "that
force w hich mov es electrons." Scientists think electricity is produced by v ery tiny particles
called electrons and protons. These particles are too small to be seen, but exist as subatomic
particles in the atom. To understand how they exist, you must first understand the structure
of the atom.

The Atom

The atom is the smallest particle to w hich

an element can be reduced w hile still
keeping the properties of that element

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An atom consists of a positiv ely charged nucleus surrounded by negativ ely charged
electrons, so that the atom as a w hole is electrically neutral.

The nucleus is composed of tw o kinds of subatomic particles: protons and neutrons

 The proton carries a single unit positiv e charge equal in magnitude to the electron
charge.

 The neutron is slightly heav ier than the proton and is electrically neutral, as the name
implies.

The Carbon Atom

Example:

The carbon atom contains six protons in its

nucleus; therefore, the atomic number for
carbon is six.

Electrostatic Force
The attraction of electrons and neutrons are called electrostatic force. Without this
electrostatic force, the electron, w hich is trav eling at high speed, could not stay in its orbit.
Bodies that attract each other in this w ay are called charged bodies.

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The first law of Electrostatic Force

The negativ e charge of the electron is equal, but opposite to, the positiv e charge of the
proton. These charges are referred to as electrostatic charges. In nature, unlike charges
(like electrons and protons) attract each other, and like charges repel each other. These
facts are know n as the First Law of Electrostatics and are sometimes referred to as the law
of electrical charges.

Electrostatic Force
A special force is acting betw een the charged objects. Forces of this type are the result of
an electrostatic field that exists around each charged particle or object. This electrostatic
field, and the force it creates, can be illustrated w ith lines called "lines of force" as show n
below .

Electrostatic field between two charges of

opposite polarity.

Electrostatic field between two charges of

like polarity.

The sum of the potential differences of all charged particles in the electrostatic field is
referred to as electromotive force (EMF).

19
`

Potential difference between two charged

objects

Electrons
 Electrons are subatomic particles of an atom

 The electrons carry a negativ e electrostatic charge

 Under certain conditions electrons mov e from atom to atom.

 The direction of mov ement between atoms is random unless a force causes the
electrons to mov e in one direction.

20
`

EXPLORE
Read Chapter 1: Basic concepts: system of units, basic quantities, and circuits elements
(Page 1-8)
Reference:
I rw in & Nelms (2015). Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis

EXPLAIN

Electrical Circuits

An electrical circuit is a path or line through which an electrical current flows (as
shown below). The path may be closed (joined at both ends), making it a loop. A
closed circuit makes electrical current flow possible. It may also be an
open circuit where the electron flow is cut short because the path is broken. It also
includes several sources, resistors and other circuit elements such as capacitor,
transformers and motors interconnected in a network.Source: ESchooltoday. (n.d.). Retriev ed July
31, 2020, from https://eschooltoday.com/science/electricity/what-is-an-electrical-circuit.html)

Source: https://www.elprocus.com/basic-electrical-circuits-and-their-working-for-electrical-engineers/

21
`

Electrical Properties

What are the Electrical Properties of

Materials?

 Electrical properties are the

physical conditions that allow
an electrical charge to move from
atom to atom in a specific
material.

 These properties differ greatly

between the three major types
of materials: solids, liquids and
Electrical conductors are materials that allow gases.
electricity to flow through them easily. Most
metals are good conductors.

Source: Unknown. (1970, January 01). ELECTRICITY: CONDUCTORS & CONDUCTIVITY #3. Retriev ed July 31, 2020, from
http://catholicscienceteacher7.blogspot.com/2014/02/electricity-conductors-conductiv ity-3_6.html

Electrical Charge and Electric Current

The magnitude of the charge is commonly giv en in coulombs, and for each negatively
charge electron it is 1.59𝑥10−19 coulomb.

Electric Charge – a body is said to be charge, if it has either excess or deficit of electrons
from its normal v alues due to sharing.

𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃 (𝑪) = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟖𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖

Electric Current – the rate of charge flow past a giv en point in an electric circuit.

𝑸 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃
𝑰= =
𝒕 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅
w here 𝑰 = current, ampere;
𝑸 = charge, coulombs;
𝒕 = time, second, during w hich electrons move

I f the current in amperes is constant, charge in coulombs is transferred at a constant rate;

under this condition the total transferred charge is merely equal to the product of amperes
and seconds, w hence 𝑸 = 𝑰𝒕.

22
`

For a nonuniform current, on the other hand, the transferred charge will vary with current
changes; in such cases the electron motion w ill be constant only during such short intervals
as the current is steady.

Source:
Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and Alternating Current (2 nd Edition).Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Graph illustrating variations of current with time.
The shaded area is the electric charge for time 𝒕𝒙 .

The equation represented by low er-case symbols for coulombs and amperes,

𝒒 = 𝒊𝒕

the quantity 𝒒 is an area, 𝒊 is plotted along v ertical axis(ordinate), and 𝒕 is plotted along
horizontal axis(abscissa).

23
`

Example 1.

The current in a conductor changes uniformly from zero to 2 ampere in 3 seconds, remains
steady at 2 amperes for 6 seconds, and then drops uniformly to 1.5 amperes in 8 seconds.
Calculate the total amount of charge transferred in the elapsed time of 17 seconds.

Solutions:
𝒊,𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔

A2
A1 A4

3seconds 6seconds 8seconds

𝒕, 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔

𝟏 𝟏
𝑨𝟏 = (𝟑)(𝟐) = 𝟑 𝑨 ∙ 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝑨𝟑 = (𝟎. 𝟓)(𝟖) = 𝟐 𝑨 ∙ 𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝟐 𝟐

𝑨𝟐 = (𝟔)(𝟐) = 𝟏𝟐 𝑨 ∙ 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝑨𝟒 = (𝟖)(𝟏. 𝟓) = 𝟏𝟐 𝑨 ∙ 𝒔𝒆𝒄

𝒒 = 𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐 + 𝑨𝟑 + 𝑨𝟒 = 𝟑 + 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟐 + 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟐𝟗 𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒔

Example 2.

A positiv ely charged dielectric has a charge of 2 coulombs. I f 12.5𝑥1018 free electrons are
added to it, w hat w ill be the net charge on the said dielectric?

Solution:
𝑄1 = +2𝐶
1𝐶
𝑄2 = −12.5𝑥1018 (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠)𝑥 = −2𝐶
6.28𝑥10 18 (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠)
𝑸𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑸𝟏 + 𝑸𝟐 = 𝟐 + (−𝟐) = 𝟎 𝑪

Electron Velocity in Conductors

Although all the free electrons in a conductor begin mov ing almost instantaneously upon
the application of an electric pressure, their actual v elocity, or drift, is exceedingly slow; this,
as w ill presently be show n, depends only upon the current density in the giv en conductor,
i.e., the number of amperes per unit of cross-sectional area.

24
`

Velocity of electrons in inches per second is equal to the ratio of electrons per second to
electrons per inch:

𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

𝑣= = 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ

Considering a copper conductor hav ing a cross-sectional area of 𝐴 sq. inches and carrying
a constant current of 𝑰 ampere. Since there are 6.28𝑥1018 electrons per coulomb, and 1 amp
of current inv olv es a motion of 1 coulomb per sec, it follow s that 6.28𝑥1018 𝑥 𝐼 electrons are
mov ed per second. Furthermore, 1 inches of conductor length contains 𝐴 – cubic inch., and
each cubic inch of copper has 1.64𝑥1024 free electrons; this means, therefore, that there are
1.64𝑥1024 𝑥 𝐴 electrons in each inch of conductor length.

The general expression,

6.28𝑥1018 𝑥 𝐼 𝐼
𝑣= 24 = 3.83𝑥10−6 [ ]
1.64𝑥10 𝑥 𝐴 𝐴

The quantity 𝐼/𝐴 in the bracket is the current density in the conductor, and this is
conv eniently replaced by Δ, w hich is specified in amperes per square inch of cross-
sectional area; therefore, the equation for electron velocity becomes

𝑣 = 3.83𝑥10−6 ∆

 cannot be applied to conductor materials other than coper, since copper wire was
assumed in its deriv ation
 the constant 3.83𝑥10−6 w ill not be the same for all substances

The constant is, therefore, proportional to resistivity, a term that represent opposition to
current (transfer of charge) in a given material unit dimensions.

Example 3.

A No. 12 copper w ire, common to house-w iring installations, has a cross-sectional area of
0.00513 sq. in. Calculate the electron v elocity w hen the conductor current is 15 amperes.

Solution:

𝐼 15
∆= = = 2923.976608 𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑞 𝑖𝑛.
𝐴 0.00513

𝒗 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒙 ∆= 𝟑. 𝟖𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒙 𝟐𝟗𝟐𝟑.𝟗𝟕𝟔𝟔𝟎𝟖 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟗𝟖𝟖𝟑𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝒊𝒏. 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒄.

25
`

Electromotive Force (EMF)

Electromotiv e force is defined as the electric potential produced by either electrochemical

cell or by changing the magnetic field. EMF is the commonly used acronym for
electromotiv e force.

When an emf is applied to the ends of a conductor it is proper to refer to the existence of a
potential difference betw een such ends; also, since increments of emf are required for
successiv e increments of conductor, it is customary to regard a potential difference as a
drop in potential along the length of the conductor. Still another term, more commonly used
than those already giv en, is voltage; it too suggests the existence of force that tends to
create a current.

The unit for electromotiv e force is Volt.

EMF is numerically expressed as the number of Joules of energy giv en by the source divided
by each Coulomb to enable a unit electric charge to mov e across the circuit.

𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 =
𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠

EMF is giv en as the ratio of w ork done on a unit charge w hich is represented as follow s:

𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝐸𝑀𝐹 =
𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠

Potential Difference – The amount of energy per unit charge needed to mov e a charged
particle from a reference point to a designated point in a static electric field.

𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆

𝒗=
𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃

26
`

Electrical Resistance and Resistivity

The magnitude of the current passing through a conducting material depends not only upon
the impressed emf but on the properties of the conductor as w ell. Since electrical
conductivity v aries w ith the different materials it is therefore proper and conv enient to
assume that all substances possess a reciprocal property, i.e., a tendency to oppose
current.

The electrical resistance, 𝑹, is an electrical quantity that measures how the dev ice or
material reduces the electric current flow through it. The resistance is measured in units
of ohms (Ω).

The unit of resistance is the international ohm and is defined as the resistance at zero
degrees centigrade of a column of mercury of uniform cross section, having a length of
106.3 centimeters and a mass of 14.4521 grams.

The factors that could affect resistance are the following:

1. Length (𝒍)

𝑹 ∝𝒍

2. Cross-sectional Area (𝐴𝒍)

𝟏
𝑨 ∝
𝑹

3. Type of Material
*Specific resistance/resistivity (ρ) – an intrinsic property of a material that is
measured as its resistance to current per unit length for a uniform cross section

𝝆𝒍
𝑹=
𝑨
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆: 𝒍 − 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝜋
𝑨 − 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 1𝐶𝑀 = 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
4𝑥106
𝝆 − 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚
4𝑥106
1 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 = 𝐶𝑀
𝜋

4. Temperature

27
Resistivities of Common Elements and Alloys @ 20 oTemperature
C Coefficient , α
Material
ELEMENTS ALLOYS (@ 20 oC)
Silver 9.9 Nickel
Brass 420.006
Copper, annealed 10.37 Iron , commercial
German Silver 0.0055
199
Copper, hard-drawn 10.65 Tungsten
Manganin 0.0045
265
Gold, pure 14 Copper, annealed
Lucero 0.00393
280
Aluminum 17 Aluminum
Advance 0.0039
294
Magnesium 28 Lead
Constantan 0.0039
302
Tungsten 33 Copper Excello
, hard-drawn 0.00382
550
Zinc 36 Silver
Nichrome 0.0038
600
Nickel 47 Zinc II
Nichrome 0.0037
660
Iron, cast 54 Gold , pure
Chromel 0.0034
625-655
Platinum 60 Platinum 0.003
Iron, commercial 75 Brass 0.002

Lead 132 Nichrome 0.00044

Mercury 577 German Silver 0.0004

Nichrome II 0.00016
𝑹 ∝𝑻 𝑻 ∝𝑹 Manganin 0.00003
Advance 0.000018
𝑹𝟐
= 𝟏 + 𝜶𝟏 (𝒕𝟐−𝒕𝟏 ) Constantan 0.000008
𝑹𝟏

𝑹𝟐 𝑻 + 𝒕𝟐
=
𝑹𝟏 𝑻 + 𝒕𝟏

𝟏
𝜶𝒕 =
𝑻+𝒕

𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆:
𝑹𝟏 − 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑹𝟐 − 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝒕𝟏 − 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆
𝒕𝟐 − 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑻 − 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
𝜶 − 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑. 𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕

Electrical Conductivity - is used to specify the electrical character of a material. I t is simply

the reciprocal of the resistivity.
Property of and for the ex clusiv e use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retriev al sy stem, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopy ing, recording, or otherw ise of any part of this document, w ithout the prior w ritten permiss ion of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

28
𝟏
𝝈=
𝝆

Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity

The conductivity of most materials decreases as temperature increases. Alternately, the

resistivity of most material increases w ith increasing temperature.

𝝆𝟐 = 𝝆𝟏 [𝟏 + 𝒂(𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 )]

Where: ρ1 = resistivity at initial temperature T 1

ρ2 = resistivity measured at temperature T 2
a = Temperature Coefficient
T1 = Initial temperature
T2 = Final or new temperature

Example 4.

Calculate the number of free electrons in a copper conductor hav ing a diameter of 0.064
inches and a length of 1000 ft.

Copper are excellent conductors because it has 𝟏. 𝟔𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 electrons per cubic inch.

𝜋𝑑 2 𝜋(0.064) 2
𝐴= = = 3.216990877𝑥10 −3 𝑠𝑞 𝑖𝑛.
4 4

12𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑥𝑙 = 3.216990877𝑥 10−3 𝑠𝑞 𝑖𝑛. 𝑥 (1000𝑓𝑡 𝑥 ) = 38.60389053 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
1𝑓𝑡

𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 38.60389053 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑥 𝟏. 𝟔𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒
𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
= 𝟔. 𝟑𝟑𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟖𝟎𝟒𝟔𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓

Example 5.

A coil of copper w ire has a length of 600 ft. What is the length of an aluminum conductor, if
its cross sectional area and resistance are the same as those of the copper coil?

Solution:
Copper Aluminum
Length, 𝒍 𝑙 𝐶𝑢 =600 ft. 𝑙𝐴𝑙 =Unknown (?)
Cross sectional Area, 𝑨 𝑨𝑪𝒖 = 𝑨𝑨𝒍
Resistance 𝑹𝑪𝒖 = 𝑹𝑨𝒍
Resistivity (Refer to Table) 10.37 17

𝑹𝑪𝒖 𝑨𝑪𝒖 = 𝑹𝑨𝒍 𝑨𝑨𝒍

𝝆𝑪𝒖 ∙ 𝒍 𝑪𝒖 = 𝝆𝑨𝒍 ∙ 𝒍𝑨𝒍
Property of and for the ex clusiv e use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retriev al sy stem, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopy ing, recording, or otherw ise of any part of this document, w ithout the prior w ritten permiss ion of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

29
(𝟏𝟎. 𝟑𝟕)(𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒇𝒕) = (𝟏𝟕)( 𝒍𝑨𝒍 )

(𝟏𝟎. 𝟑𝟕)(𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒇𝒕)
𝒍𝑨𝒍 = = 𝟑𝟔𝟔𝒇𝒆𝒆𝒕
𝟏𝟕

Example 6.

A 50 meters conductor has a cross sectional area of 1.5mm2 and resistance of 15 Ω.

Calculate the conductiv ity.

Solutions:
𝒍 = 𝟓𝟎 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔
𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝑹 = 𝟏𝟓 Ω
𝝆𝒍 𝑨𝑹
𝑹 = ; 𝑨𝑹 = 𝝆𝒍; 𝝆 =
𝑨 𝒍
𝟐 𝟏𝒄𝒎 𝟐 𝟏𝒎 𝟐
[𝟏. 𝟓𝒎𝒎 𝒙( ) 𝒙( ) ] 𝒙 𝟏𝟓Ω
𝑨𝑹 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝝆= = = 𝟒. 𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟕𝒎 ∙ Ω
𝒍 𝟓𝟎 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔
𝟏 𝟏
𝝈= = −𝟕
= 𝟐. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 /𝒎 ∙ Ω = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝑴/𝒎 ∙ Ω
𝝆 𝟒. 𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝒎 ∙ Ω

Example 7.

The resistance of a w ire is 126.40 Ω at 100ºC and 100 Ω at 30ºC. Determine the temperature
coefficient of copper at:
a.) 0ºC
b.) 30ºC
c.) 100ºC

Solutions:
𝑹𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐𝟔. 𝟒𝟎 Ω
𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 Ω
𝒕𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎°𝑪
𝒕𝟐 = 𝟑𝟎°𝑪
𝑻 − 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
𝜶 − 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑. 𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕

a.) 0ºC
Property of and for the ex clusiv e use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retriev al sy stem, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopy ing, recording, or otherw ise of any part of this document, w ithout the prior w ritten permiss ion of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

30
𝑹𝟐 𝑻 + 𝒕𝟐
=
𝑹𝟏 𝑻 + 𝒕𝟏

𝟏𝟎𝟎Ω 𝑻 + 𝟑𝟎°𝑪
= ; 𝑻 = 𝟐𝟑𝟓.𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟐°𝑪
𝟏𝟐𝟔. 𝟒𝟎Ω 𝑻 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎°𝑪

𝟏 𝟏
𝜶𝟎°𝑪 = = = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟓𝟐𝟓𝟕𝟕𝟑𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 /°𝑪
𝑻 + 𝒕 𝟐𝟑𝟓. 𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟐°𝑪 + 𝟎°𝑪

b.) 30ºC

𝑹𝟐 𝑻 + 𝒕𝟐
=
𝑹𝟏 𝑻 + 𝒕𝟏

𝟏𝟎𝟎Ω 𝑻 + 𝟑𝟎°𝑪
= ; 𝑻 = 𝟐𝟑𝟓.𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟐°𝑪
𝟏𝟐𝟔. 𝟒𝟎Ω 𝑻 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎°𝑪

𝟏 𝟏
𝜶𝟑𝟎°𝑪 = = = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟕𝟏𝟒𝟐𝟖𝟓𝟕𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 /°𝑪
𝑻 + 𝒕 𝟐𝟑𝟓. 𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟐°𝑪 + 𝟑𝟎°𝑪

c.) 100ºC

𝑹𝟐 𝑻 + 𝒕𝟐
=
𝑹𝟏 𝑻 + 𝒕𝟏

𝟏𝟎𝟎Ω 𝑻 + 𝟑𝟎°𝑪
= ; 𝑻 = 𝟐𝟑𝟓.𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟐°𝑪
𝟏𝟐𝟔. 𝟒𝟎Ω 𝑻 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎°𝑪

𝟏 𝟏
𝜶𝟏𝟎𝟎°𝑪 = = = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟖𝟑𝟕𝟐𝟓𝟏𝟑𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 /°𝑪
𝑻 + 𝒕 𝟐𝟑𝟓. 𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟐°𝑪 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎°𝑪

Example 8.
Property of and for the ex clusiv e use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retriev al sy stem, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopy ing, recording, or otherw ise of any part of this document, w ithout the prior w ritten permiss ion of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

31
The field w inding of a series motor has a resistance of 120 Ω at 15ºC. After running for 2 hours
the resistance increased by 20Ω. I f the temperature coefficient of the w inding at 0ºC is 0.004,
find the temperature increased.

Solutions:
𝑹𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 Ω after 2 hours 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎Ω + 𝟐𝟎 Ω = 𝟏𝟒𝟎Ω (resistance increased by 20Ω)
𝒕𝟏 = 𝟏𝟓°𝑪
𝜶𝟎°𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒 (temperature coefficient)
𝒕𝟐 =?
𝟏
𝜶𝒕 =
𝑻+𝒕
𝟏
𝜶𝟎°𝑪 = ; 𝜶𝟎°𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒
𝑻+𝟎℃
𝟏
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒 = ; 𝑻 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎℃ (computed absolute v alue)
𝑻+𝟎℃

𝑹𝟐 𝑻 + 𝒕𝟐
=
𝑹𝟏 𝑻 + 𝒕𝟏
𝟏𝟒𝟎Ω 𝟐𝟓𝟎℃ + 𝒕𝟐
= ; 𝒕 = 𝟓𝟗. 𝟏𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟕℃
𝟏𝟐𝟎Ω 𝟐𝟓𝟎℃ + 𝟏𝟓℃ 𝟐

Example 9.

The substation bus bar is made up of 2 inches round copper bars of 20 ft. long. What is the
resistance of each bar if resistiv ity is 1.724 x10-6 Ω-cm?

𝝆𝒍
𝑹= ; 𝑹 =?
𝑨

𝜋(2𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ)2 2.54𝑐𝑚 2
𝐴= 𝑥( ) = 20.26829916 𝑐𝑚2
4 1𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ

12𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ 2.54𝑐𝑚.
𝑙 = 20𝑓𝑡. 𝑥 𝑥 = 609.6 𝑐𝑚
1𝑓𝑡 1𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ.

𝜌 = 1.724𝑥10−6 Ω − 𝑐𝑚

𝝆𝒍 (1.724𝑥10−6 Ω − 𝑐𝑚)(609.6 𝑐𝑚)

𝑹= = = 𝟓. 𝟏𝟖𝟓𝟏𝟗𝟐𝟖𝟓𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 Ω = 𝟓𝟏. 𝟖𝟓𝟏𝟗𝟐𝟖𝟓𝟔𝝁Ω
𝑨 20.26829916 𝑐𝑚2

Kinds of Current

32
1. Direct Current (DC)
- Charge flow s in only one direction
- e.g. batteries

2. Alternating Current (AC)

- electrons in the circuit are first mov ed in one direction and then in the opposite
direction, constantly alternating back and forth about relatively fixed position
- e.g. radio, TV, refrigerator, printer

Direct Current v s. Alternating Current

Symbol for AC
Symbol for
Source
Battery

Symbol for
Resistor

Source: https://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/electricCircuits/AC/AC_1.html

The difference between AC and DC mainly includes the following

Source: https://www.elprocus.com/main-difference-between-ac-and-dc-currents/

ELABORATE

33
Watch the follow ing video on YouTube: I nto The Ordinary. (2017, Nov ember 24). What is
electricity? – Electricity Explained – (1) [Video]. Youtube:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ru032Mfsfig

EVALUATE
Graded activ ity/assignment will be giv en. (Google Classroom)

Unit 2: Ohm’s Law, Power, and Energy

34
UNIT LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Define Ohm’s Law, Power, and Energy

References:

Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and Alternating Current (2 nd Edition).Prentice-Hall, Inc.

ENGAGE
Read the follow ing:

Chapter 1.2: Force, Work, and Pow er

Chapter 1.5: Energy and Electrical Power

Reference: Nahv i & Edminister (2003). Theory and Problems of Electric Circuits. 4 t h Edition. Schaum’s Outline Series.
McGRAW -HILL

EXPLORE
Read topics on: Chapter 2.1 Ohm’s Law (Page 25)

Reference: Irwin & Nelms (2015). Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis

EXPLAIN
Read the follow ing:

Chapter 3: Ohm’s Law , Power and Energy (Page 42-72)

Reference: Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and Alternating Current (2 nd Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Ohm’s Law

I n 1827, George Simon Ohm discov ered that there w as a definite relationship between
v oltage, current, and resistance in an electrical circuit. Ohm’s Law defines this relationship
and can be stated in three w ays.

1. Applied v oltage equals circuit current times the circuit resistance.

35
𝑽=𝑰𝒙𝑹
2. Current is equal to the applied v oltage div ided by the circuit resistance.
𝑽
𝑰=
𝑹
3. Resistance of a circuit is equal to the applied v oltage divided by the circuit
current.
𝑽
𝑹= w here:
𝑰
I = current (A)
V = v oltage (V)
R = resistance (Ω)

Power

Power is the rate at w hich w ork is done, or the rate at w hich heat is generated. The unit
commonly used to specify electric pow er is the w att (W). Pow er is also described as the
current (I ) in a circuit times the v oltage (V) across the circuit.

𝑷=𝑽𝒙𝑰
𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝒙 𝑹

Electrical Energy vs. Heat Energy

Heat prematurely degrades w ire quality causing energy loses and burnouts.
Resistance in the w ire converts a portion of electrical energy into heat.
Heat in the w ire decreases the efficiency of the system.
Contraction and expansion of the w ire and w ire fittings.
Electrical Arcing (sparks).

36
Example 1.

The pow er draw n by a resistiv e coil made of copper w ire is 220 w atts at 110 Volts of 20ºC.
Calculate the pow er consumed by the coil at 115 Volts and 100ºC. The temperature of
coefficient is 0.000393.

Solution:
𝑉2
𝑃=
𝑅
1102
𝑅20 = = 55Ω
220
𝑅2 = 𝑅1 [1 + 𝛼( 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )]
𝑅100 = 55[1 + (0.000393)(100 − 20)] = 56.7292Ω

𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟐
𝑷𝟏𝟎𝟎 = = 𝟐𝟑𝟑. 𝟏𝟑 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔
𝟓𝟔. 𝟕𝟐𝟗𝟐
∴𝑃 ∝𝑇

Example 2.

A coil copper w ire has resistance of 90Ω at 20ºC and is connected to a 230V supply. By how
much must the v oltage be increased in order to maintain the current constant if the
temperature of the coil rises to 60ºC? Take the temperature coefficient of resistance of
copper as 0.00428 from 0ºC.

Solution:

𝑹𝟏 = 𝟗𝟎 Ω ; 𝒕𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎℃
𝒕𝟐 = 𝟔𝟎℃
𝟏 𝟏
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆: 𝜶𝟎℃ = ; 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟐𝟖 = ; 𝑻 = 𝟐𝟑𝟑. 𝟔𝟒𝟒𝟖𝟓𝟗𝟖℃
𝑻+𝟎 𝑻+𝟎

Solv e for 𝑹𝟐 :

𝑹𝟐 𝑻 + 𝒕𝟐
=
𝑹𝟏 𝑻 + 𝒕𝟏

𝑹𝟐 𝟐𝟑𝟑.𝟔𝟒𝟒𝟖𝟓𝟗𝟖℃+ 𝟔𝟎℃
= ; 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟒. 𝟏𝟗𝟑𝟎𝟕𝟑 Ω
𝟗𝟎Ω 𝟐𝟑𝟑.𝟔𝟒𝟒𝟖𝟓𝟗𝟖℃+ 𝟐𝟎℃

The current at 𝒕𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎℃:

𝑉 230 𝑉 23
𝐼= = = 𝐴 = 2.555555556 𝐴
𝑅 90Ω 9
Property of and for the ex clusiv e use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retriev al sy stem, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopy ing, recording, or otherw ise of any part of this document, w ithout the prior w ritten permiss ion of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

37
Therefore,
23
𝐼= 𝐴 = 2.555555556 𝐴 ; 𝑅 2 = 104.193073 Ω @ 𝑡2 = 60℃
9

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = (2.555555556 𝐴 )(104.193073 Ω) = 𝟐𝟔𝟔. 𝟐𝟕𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟔𝟒 𝑽 @ 𝑡2 = 60℃

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑(𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒) = 𝑉60℃ − 𝑉20℃ = 266.2711864 𝑉 − 230𝑉 = 𝟑𝟔. 𝟐𝟕𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟔𝟒𝟒 𝑽

Example 3.

A small light bulb is connected to a 6V battery and draw s a 2 A of current. What is the net
resistance of the bulb?

Solution:

𝑉 = 6𝑉 ; 𝐼 = 2 𝐴
𝑽 𝟔𝑽
𝑹= = = 𝟑Ω
𝑰 𝟐𝑨

Example 4.

Calculate the resistance of (a) a 100 w atts 120 v olts incandescent, (b) a 750 w atts 115-v olt
toaster, (c) a 1300 w atts 110-v olt portable iron.

Solution:

38
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Source:
DOE FUNDAMENTALS HANDBOOK ELECTRICAL SCIENCE Volume 10f 4. (1992). U.S. Department of Energy,
W ashington, D.C. 20585
W ebsite: https://www.standards.doe.gov /standards-documents/1000/1011-bhdbk-1992-v 1/@@images/file

Each electrical circuit has at least four basic parts: (1) a source of electromotive force, (2)
conductors, (3) load or loads, and (4) some means of control.

FIGURE 1.
Closed Circuit is an uninterrupted, or unbroken,
path for current from the source (EMF), through the load, and back to the source.

FIGURE 2.
Open Circuit or incomplete circuit exists if a break in the circuit occurs;
this prev ents a complete path for current flow .

39
.

FIGURE 3.
Short Circuit is a circuit w hich offers v ery little resistance to current flow and can cause
dangerously high current flow through a circuit. Short circuits are usually caused by an
inadv ertent connection between two points in a circuit w hich offers little or no resistance to
current flow . Shorting resistor R in Figure w ill probably cause the fuse to blow .

TWO FUNDAMENTAL TYPES OF CIRCUIT

1. SERIES CIRCUITS
A series circuit is a circuit w here there is only one path for current flow . I n a series
circuit the current w ill be the same throughout the circuit. This means that the current
flow through R1 is the same as the current flow through R2 and R3.

The total resistance in a series circuit is equal to the sum of all the parts of that circuit,
as show n in equation.

𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 +.. 𝒆𝒕𝒄

w here:
RT = resistance total
R1, R2, and R3 = resistance in series

40
Example 5.

A series circuit has a 60Ω, 100Ω and 150Ω resistor in series. What is the total resistance of the
circuit?

Solutions:

𝑹𝑻 = 𝟔𝟎Ω + 𝟏𝟎𝟎Ω + 𝟏𝟓𝟎Ω = 𝟑𝟏𝟎Ω

The total v oltage (V T) across a series circuit is equal to the sum of the v oltages across each
resistor in the circuit as show n in equation:
𝑽𝑻 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑+. . 𝒆𝒕𝒄

To find the total v oltage across a series circuit,

multiply the current by the total resistance as
show n in equation:

𝑽𝑻 = 𝑰𝑹𝑻
Where:
V T = total v oltage
I = current
RT = total resistance

Example 6.

Giv en the figure below , calculate the total v oltage.

Solutions:
𝑽𝑻 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎𝑽 + 𝟐𝟒𝑽 + 𝟑𝟔𝑽 = 𝟕𝟎 𝑽
Property of and for the ex clusiv e use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retriev al sy stem, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopy ing, recording, or otherw ise of any part of this document, w ithout the prior w ritten permiss ion of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

41
Example 7.

A series circuit has a 50Ω, 75Ω, and 100Ω resistor in series. Find the v oltage necessary to
produce a current of 0.5amps.

Solutions:

𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 = 𝟓𝟎Ω + 𝟕𝟓Ω + 𝟏𝟎𝟎Ω = 𝟐𝟐𝟓Ω

𝑰 𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝑨
Using Ohm’s Law :
𝑽𝑻 = 𝑰𝑹𝑻 = (𝟎. 𝟓)(𝟐𝟐𝟓) = 𝟏𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 𝑽

Example 8.

A 120 V battery is connected in series w ith three resistors: 40 Ω, 60 Ω, and 100Ω. Find the
v oltage across/v oltage drop each resistor.

42
Solutions:

𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 = 𝟒𝟎Ω + 𝟔𝟎Ω + 𝟏𝟎𝟎Ω = 𝟐𝟎𝟎Ω

𝑽 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑽
𝑰𝑻 = 𝑻 = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝑨  I n a series circuit, the current that flows through each of the
𝑹𝑻 𝟐𝟎𝟎Ω
components is the same(constant).

Using Ohm’s Law:

𝑽𝟏 = 𝑰𝑻 𝑹𝟏 = (𝟎. 𝟔)(𝟒𝟎) = 𝟐𝟒 𝑽

𝑽𝟐 = 𝑰𝑻 𝑹𝟐 = (𝟎. 𝟔)(𝟔𝟎) = 𝟑𝟔 𝑽
𝑽𝟑 = 𝑰𝑻 𝑹𝟑 = (𝟎. 𝟔)(𝟏𝟎𝟎) = 𝟔𝟎 𝑽
Check: Total v oltage (V T) across a series circuit is equal to the sum of the v oltages across
each resistor

𝑽𝑻 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 = 𝟐𝟒𝑽 + 𝟑𝟔𝑽 + 𝟔𝟎𝑽 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑽

2. PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Parallel circuits are those circuits w hich hav e tw o or more components connected
across the same v oltage source. Resistors R 1, R2, and R3 are in parallel w ith each other
and the source. Each parallel path is a branch w ith its ow n indiv idual current. When
the current leav es the source V, part I 1 of I T w ill flow through R1; part I 2 w ill flow through
R2; and part I 3 w ill flow through R3. Current through each branch can be different;
how ev er, v oltage throughout the circuit w ill be equal.

𝑽𝑻 = 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽𝟑 = 𝑽𝟒 =. . . = 𝑽𝑵

𝑰 𝑻 = 𝑰 𝟏 + 𝑰 𝟐 + 𝑰 𝟑 +.. . +𝑰 𝑵

The total resistance in a parallel circuit can also be found by using the equation:

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + +. . . +
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝑵
𝟏
𝑹𝑻 = 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ + + ⋯+
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝑵

43
When any tw o resistors are unequal in a parallel circuit, it is easier to calculate R T by
multiplying the tw o resistances and then div iding the product by the sum, as shown
in equation (this is v alid w hen there are only tw o resistors in parallel).

𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝑻 =
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐

Example 9.

Tw o resistors, each draw ing 3A, and a third resistor, draw ing 2A, are connected in parallel
across a 115 V source. What is total current?

Solution:

Since the total current of parallel circuit:

𝑰𝑻 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑
Therefore, 𝑰 𝑻 = 𝟑𝑨 + 𝟐𝑨 + 𝟐𝑨 = 𝟕𝑨

Example 10.

Tw o branches, R1 and R2, are across a 120 V pow er source. The total current flow is 30 A.
Branch R1 takes 22 amps. What is the current flow in Branch R 2?

44
Solution:

The total current of parallel circuit: 𝑰 𝑻 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐

Since the total current giv en: 𝑰 𝑻 = 𝟑𝟎𝑨 ; 𝑰 𝟏 = 𝟐𝟐𝑨
Therefore,
𝟑𝟎𝑨 = 𝟐𝟐𝑨 + 𝑰 𝟐 𝟑𝟎𝑨 − 𝟐𝟐𝑨 = 𝑰 𝟐

𝟖𝑨 = 𝑰 𝟐

Example 11.

A parallel circuit consists of R1 = 15Ω, R2 = 20Ω and R3 = 10Ω, w ith an applied v oltage of
120V. What current w ill flow through each branch?

Solution:

The total voltage of parallel circuit: 𝑽𝑻 = 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽𝟑 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑽

Since the resistance are given: 𝑹𝟏 = 𝟏𝟓Ω ; 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎Ω ; 𝑹𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎Ω
Therefore,
𝑽𝑻 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑽
𝑰𝟏 = = = 𝟖𝑨
𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝟓Ω
𝑽𝑻 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑽
𝑰𝟐 = = = 𝟔𝑨
𝑹𝟐 𝟐𝟎Ω

45
𝑽𝑻 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑽
𝑰𝟑 = = = 𝟏𝟐𝑨
𝑹𝟑 𝟏𝟎Ω
Check:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟔𝟎
𝑹𝑻 = 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 = 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 = Ω
+ + + + 𝟏𝟑
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝟏𝟓Ω 𝟐𝟎Ω 𝟏𝟎Ω

𝑽𝑻 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑽
𝑽𝑻 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑽
𝑰𝑻 = = = 𝟐𝟔 𝑨
𝑹𝑻 𝟔𝟎 Ω
𝟏𝟑
𝑰 𝑻 = 𝑰 𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰 𝟑 = 𝟖𝑨 + 𝟔𝑨 + 𝟏𝟐𝑨 = 𝟐𝟔𝑨

Example 12.

Find the total resistance of a 4Ω, an 8Ω, and a 16Ω resistor in parallel.

Solution:

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏𝟔
𝑹𝑻 = 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 = 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 = Ω
+ + + + 𝟕
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝟒Ω 𝟖Ω 𝟏𝟔Ω

Example 13.

What v alue of resistance must be added, in parallel, w ith an 8Ω resistor to provide a total
resistance of 6Ω?

46
Solution:

𝑹𝑹𝒙
𝑹𝑻 =
𝑹 + 𝑹𝒙
(𝟖Ω)(𝑹𝒙)
𝟔Ω =
𝟖Ω + 𝑹𝒙
𝑹𝒙 = 𝟐𝟒Ω

TWO FUNDAMENTAL TYPES OF COMBINATION CIRCUIT

Complex circuits are frequently found in practice to consists of tw o or more interconnected

sections, each of w hich may be a single resistor or tw o or more resistors in series or parallel;
the interconnection of the sev eral sections may likew ise be arranged in series or parallel.

1. SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT
I n the series-parallel shown, the major (series) circuit is made up of tw o section which
combine resistors in parallel.

Series-Parallel Circuit

Source: https://www.ceb.cam.ac.uk/research/groups/rg-eme/Edu/series-parallel-circuits

Note: The term “series-parallel” uses the word series first emphasizes the major circuit,
and the w ord parallel second to indicate the minor connections.

47
2. PARALLEL-SERIES CIRCUIT
In the parallel-series circuit shown, the major (parallel) circuit is made up of
two minor circuit which combine resistors in series.

Source: https://www.physicsforums.com/threads/finding-current-in-parallel-and-series-circuits.939427/

Note: The term “parallel-series” uses the w ord parallel first emphasizes the major
circuit, and the w ord series second to indicate the minor connections.

Example 14.

What is the v alue of the unknow n resistor R as show n in the figure? I f the voltage drop
across the 500Ω resistor is 2.5V? All resistance are in ohm.

Source: Theraja, A.K. and Theraja, B.L. (2005). A Textbook of Electrical Technology, Vol.1.S .Chand & Company Ltd.

48
Solution:

Example 15.

A 12ohm resistor is connected in parallel w ith a series combination of resistors of 8 ohms

and 16 ohms. I f the drop across the 8ohm resistor is 48 v olts, determine the total impressed
emf and the total current.

Solutions:

49
Example 16.

Tw o 30-ohm resistors are connected in series. When a resistor R is connected across one of
them the total circuit resistance is 40 ohms. Calculate the ohmic v alue of R.

Solution:

Example 17.

Giv en the figure below, calculate the total resistance, RAB

A B

Solution:

50
Example 18.

Giv en the circuit below , find the currents: 𝐼1 , 𝐼2, 𝐼3 and 𝐼4

Source: Theraja, A.K. and Theraja, B.L. (2005). A Textbook of Electrical Technology, Vol.1.S.Chand & Company Ltd.

Solution:

51
ELABORATE
Formative Assessment
1. A w ire whose resistance is r ohms is being cut into four equal parts. I f these parts are
to be connected in parallel, how much is the equiv alent resistance in ohms.
2. What resistance must be connected in parallel w ith a 1.0-ohm resistance to giv e an
equiv alent resistance of 0.2 ohms?
3. A resistor of 3 ohms is connected in parallel w ith one of 2 ohms resistance. I f the
combination is connected in series w ith a 4 ohms resistor. What is the equiv alent
resistance of the w hole combination of three resistors?
4. Three resistors of 3, 6 and R ohms, respectively are connected in parallel across a
constant current source of 10 A. Find the v alue of R if its draw s 2 A?

EVALUATE
Graded activ ity/assignment will be giv en. (Google Classroom)

52
MODULE 2
Direct Current Circuits – Network Theorems and Laws

Unit 1: Δ-Y and Y-Δ Transformation

UNIT LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Distinguish delta and wye connection of resistances

References:

Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and Alternating Current (2 nd Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc.

ENGAGE
Read topics on:
Chapter 4: Direct-Current Circuits II –Network Theorems, Law s: Δ-Y and Y-Δ Transformation
(Page 97-104)

Reference: Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and Alternating Current (2 nd Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc

EXPLORE
Read topics on:
Chapter 2: DC Netw ork Theorems: Delta/Star Conversion (Page 138-143)
Reference: Theraja, A.K. and Theraja, B.L. (2005). A Textbook of Electrical Technology, Vol.1.S.Chand &
Company Ltd

EXPLAIN
Read topics on:
Chapter 5: DC Equiv alent Circuits, Network Theorems, and Bridge Circuits (Page 85-87)

Reference: O’Malley, J. (1992). Basic Electrical Analysis 2ne Edition. Schaum’s Outline of
Theory and Problems. McGraw-Hill

53
Δ-Y and Y-Δ Transformation
Resistors are sometimes interconnected to form rather complex netw orks; they may, in fact,
be so complex that the common rules applicable to simple series and parallel circuits cannot
be used for the calculation of equiv alent resistances, branch currents, and v oltage drops.
Under such conditions it is generally necessary to transform all or parts of the complex circuits
into electrically equiv alent circuits that lend themselv es to simple and straightforw ard
solutions. Tw o elemental arrangements of resistors, w ithin and parts of larger netw orks, that
are frequently responsible for the difficulties indicated are Δ-connected (refer to Figure 2-1)
resistors and Y-connected (refer to Figure 2-2) resistors.
Source: Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and Alternating Current (2 nd Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc.

𝑹𝑨
𝑹𝒀 𝑹𝒁

𝑹𝑪

𝑹𝑩

𝑹𝑿

Figure 2-1. Δ-connected Figure 2-2. Y-connected

Significantly, the transformation of a delta(Δ) into an equiv alent star(Y) or of a star (Y) into
an equiv alent delta(Δ) may often conv ert a circuit that is difficult to handle into one that is
comparativ ely simple show n in Figure 2-3.

54
𝑹𝒀 𝑹𝒁
𝑹𝑨

𝑹𝑪

𝑹𝑩

𝑹𝑿

Figure 2-3. Arrangements to indicate equiv alence of delta and star connection of
resistors.

Consider Figure 2-3 w hich, for conv enience, show s a star inside a delta. The star-connected
resistor are labeled 𝑅𝐴, 𝑅 𝐵,and 𝑅 𝐶, and the delta-connected resistors are labeled 𝑅 𝑋, 𝑅𝑌,and
𝑅𝑌. Note particularly the symmetrical placement 𝑅𝑋 opposite 𝑅𝐴, 𝑅𝑌 opposite 𝑅𝐵, and 𝑅 𝑍
opposite 𝑅𝐶.

55
𝑹𝒀 𝑹𝒁
𝑹𝑨

𝑹𝑪

𝑹𝑩

𝑹𝑿

To conv ert a delta(Δ) to a Wye/Star(Y) To conv ert a delta(Δ) to a Wye/Star(Y)

𝑹𝒀 × 𝑹𝒁 𝑹𝑨 𝑹𝑩 + 𝑹𝑩 𝑹𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪 𝑹𝑨
𝑹𝑨 = 𝑹𝑿 =
𝑹𝑿 + 𝑹𝒀 + 𝑹𝒁 𝑹𝑨

𝑹𝒁 × 𝑹𝑿 𝑹𝑨 𝑹𝑩 + 𝑹𝑩 𝑹𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪 𝑹𝑨
𝑹𝑩 = 𝑹𝒀 =
𝑹𝑿 + 𝑹𝒀 + 𝑹𝒁 𝑹𝑩

𝑹𝑿 × 𝑹𝒀 𝑹𝑨 𝑹𝑩 + 𝑹𝑩 𝑹𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪 𝑹𝑨
𝑹𝑪 = 𝑹𝒁 =
𝑹𝑿 + 𝑹𝒀 + 𝑹𝒁 𝑹𝑪

Each of the resistances in the star is equal to the Each of the resistances in the delta is equal to
product of the resistances of the adjacent arms the sum of the products of the resistances in the
of the delta divided by the sum of three star, taken two at a time, divided by the
resistances. resistance in the opposite leg.

Example 1.

The w iring diagram show n in Figure 2-3 is know n as a Wheatstone-bridge circuit. For the
resistance v alues giv en the bridge is unbalanced, and it is desired to find (a) the equiv alent
resistance of the circuit and (b) the total current.

56
Solution:

Figure 2-3. Wheatstone-bridge

57
Alternativ e Solutions:

Solution 1:

Solution 2:

58
Solution 3:

ELABORATE
Formative Assessment
1. Using Y-∆ or ∆-Y transformations, determine the equiv alent resistance and total
current.

EVALUATE
Graded activ ity/assignment will be giv en. (Google Classroom)

59
Unit 2: Kirchhoff’s Law

UNIT LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Apply and formulate equations using Kirchhoff’s laws.

References:

Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and Alternating Current (2 nd Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc.

ENGAGE
Read topics on:
Chapter 4: Direct-Current Circuits II –Network Theorems, Law s: Kirchhoff’s Law (Page 77-82)
Reference: Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and Alternating Current (2 nd Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc

EXPLORE
Read topics on:
Chapter 2: DC Netw ork Theorems: Kirchhoff’s Laws (Page 53-55)

Reference: Theraja, A.K. and Theraja, B.L. (2005). A Textbook of Electrical Technology, Vol.1.S.Chand &
Company Ltd

EXPLAIN
Read topics on:
Chapter 3: Series and Parallel DC Circuits (Page 31-34)

Reference: O’Malley, J. (1992). Basic Electrical Analysis 2ne Edition. Schaum’s Outline of
Theory and Problems. McGraw-Hill

60
Kirchhoff’s Laws

Tw o simple but important law s that w ere first expressed by Gustav Kirchhoff; one for
currents and the other for v oltages, are known as Kirchhoff’s laws.

For DC Circuits they may be stated follows:

a. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) – the algebraic sum of the currents at any
junction/node of an electric circuit is zero.

Source: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/dccircuits/dcp_4.html

Figure 2-4. Kirchhoff’s Current Law

b. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) – the algebraic sum of the v oltages and the resistance
v oltages in any closed loop of an electric current is zero.

61
Source: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/dccircuits/dcp_4.html

Figure 2-5. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Definition of Terms:

a. Loop – any closed path through the circuit in w hich no node is encountered more than
once.
b. Node – is simply a point of connection of tw o or more circuit elements.
c. Branch – is a portion of a circuit containing only a single element and the nodes at
each end of the element.

Example 1.

Giv en the figure below, find the current flowing in each branch using Kirchhoff’s Circuits
Law .

Solutions:

62
The circuit has 5 branches, 3 nodes (1,2 and reference) and 3 independent loops.

Note: Assume the direction of the current.

Nodes

Using Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL):

At node 1: −𝑰 𝟏 − 𝑰 𝟐 − 𝑰 𝟒 = 𝟎 (current aw ay from node 1negativ e)

At node 1: 𝑰 𝟐 − 𝑰 𝟑 − 𝑰 𝟓 = 𝟎 (current aw ay from node 2negativ e; current tow ard node 2 

positiv e)

Using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):

63
Note: You can assign the loops (counterclockwise or clockwise).

Note: The loops w ill be your guide for getting the KVL equations (from reference point).
At loop 1: 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑽 + (𝟏. 𝟓Ω)(𝑰 𝟏) − (𝟐𝟏Ω)(𝑰 𝟒) = 𝟎

At loop 2: (𝟐𝟏Ω)(𝑰 𝟒) − (𝟑Ω)(𝑰 𝟐) − (𝟔Ω)(𝑰 𝟓) = 𝟎

At loop 3: (𝟔Ω)(𝑰 𝟓 ) − (𝟏. 𝟓Ω)(𝑰 𝟑) − 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝑽 = 𝟎

Equations:

KCL:
−𝑰 𝟏 − 𝑰 𝟐 − 𝑰 𝟒 = 𝟎  equation 1

𝑰 𝟐 − 𝑰 𝟑 − 𝑰 𝟓 = 𝟎  equation 2

KVL:
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑽 + (𝟏. 𝟓Ω)(𝑰 𝟏) − (𝟐𝟏Ω)(𝑰 𝟒 ) = 𝟎  equation 3
(𝟐𝟏Ω)(𝑰 𝟒 ) − (𝟑Ω)(𝑰 𝟐) − (𝟔Ω)(𝑰 𝟓) = 𝟎  equation 4

(𝟔Ω)(𝑰 𝟓) − (𝟏. 𝟓Ω)(𝑰 𝟑 ) − 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝑽 = 𝟎  equation 5

64
Correct directions of current:

65
Example 2.

Giv en the figure below, find the current flowing in each branch using Kirchhoff’s Circuits
Law .

Source: https://www.peoi.org/

Solution:

66
ELABORATE
1. Analyze the given circuit and solve for the branch currents.

(a)

4Ω
5V 0.1Ω 5V

I2
I3
0.2 5V 0.5Ω
Ω
6Ω

(b)

EVALUATE
Graded activ ity/assignment will be giv en. (Google Classroom)

67
MODULE 3
Single Phase Alternating Current Circuits

Unit 1: Sinusoidal Voltage and Current Waves

UNIT LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Construct sinusoidal v oltage and current w av es.

 Calculate the period, frequency, instantaneous and peak v alue, rms and average
v alue of the sinusoidal w av e

References:

Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and Alternating Current (2 nd Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Theraja, A.K. and Theraja, B.L. (2005). A Textbook of Electrical Technology, Vol.1.S.Chand & Company Ltd.

ENGAGE
Read topics on:

Chapter 10: Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents (Page 271-289)

Reference: Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and Alternating Current (2 nd Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc

EXPLORE
Explore: Read topics on:
Chapter 11: A.C. Fundamentals (Page 454-496)
Reference: Theraja, A.K. and Theraja, B.L. (2005). A Textbook of Electrical Technology, Vol.1.S.Chand &
Company Ltd

EXPLAIN
Read topics on:
Chapter 10: Sinusoidal Alternating Voltage and Current (Page 194-198)

Reference:O’Malley, J. (1992). Basic Electrical Analysis 2ne Edition. Schaum’s Outline of

Theory and Problems. McGraw-Hill

68
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Alternating current describes the flow of charge that changes direction periodically (refer to
Figure 3.1). As a result, the v oltage lev el also rev erses along w ith the current. AC is used to
deliv er pow er to houses, office buildings, etc. (Source:https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/alternating-
current-ac-v s-direct-current-dc/all)

Source:https://www.power-and-beyond.com/what-is-alternating-current-a-907931/

Figure 3.1. Alternating current (green curv e). The horizontal axis measures time; the
v ertical, current or v oltage.

Generation of Alternating Voltages and Currents

Alternating v oltage may be generated by rotating a coil in a magnetic field, as show n in
Figure 3.2 or by rotating a magnetic field w ithin a stationary coil, as show n in Figure 3.3.

69
Figure 3.2 rotating a coil in a magnetic field Figure 3.3 rotating a magnetic field w ithin
a stationary coil
Source: Theraja, A.K. and Theraja, B.L. (2005). A Textbook of Electrical Technology, Vol.1.S.Chand & Company Ltd.

The v alue of the v oltage generated depends, in each case, upon the number of turns in
the coil, strength of the field and the speed at w hich the coil or magnetic field rotates.
Alternating v oltage may be generated in either of the tw o w ays shown in Figure 3.2 and
Figure 3.3, but rotating-field method is the one w hich is mostly used in practice.

Generation of Alternating EMF’s

A v oltage can be dev eloped in a coil of w ire in one of three w ays; these are

(1) By changing the flux through the coil

(2) By mov ing the coil through a magnetic field so that flux cutting results, and
(3) By altering the direction of the flux w ith respect to the coil

I n the first of these the v oltage is said to be an induced voltage and, in accordance w ith
Faraday’s law , its magnitude at any instant of time is giv en by the equation
𝒅∅
𝒆=𝑵 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕
𝒅𝒕
Where
N=number of turns in the coil
𝑑∅
=rate at w hich the flux, in maxw ells, changes through the coil
𝑑𝑡
Note particularly that, by this method of dev eloping an emf, there is no physical motion of
coil or magnet; the current through the exciting coil that is responsible for the magnetism is
altered to change the flux through the coil in w hich the v oltage is induced. By the second
or third method there is actual physical motion of coil or magnet, and in altered positions of
coil or magnet flux through the coil changes. A v oltage dev eloped in either of these w ays is
said to be a generated emf and is giv en by the equation

𝒆 = 𝑩𝒍𝒗 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕

Where
B=flux density, lines per square inch
𝑙=length of the w ire, in., that is mov ed relativ e to the flux
𝑣=v elocity of the w ire, in. per sec., w ith respect to the flux

Source: Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and Alternating Current (2 nd Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Generation of a Sine Wave of Voltage

The fact that the v oltage developed in a coil of a generator changes
Property of and for the ex clusiv e use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retriev al sy stem, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopy ing, recording, or otherw ise of any part of this document, w ithout the prior w ritten permiss ion of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

70
(1) in magnitude from instant to instant as v arying values of flux are cut per second and

(2) in direction as coil sides change positions under north and south poles, implies that an
alternating emf is generated.

Source:http://electricalengineeringforbeginners.blogspot.com/2013/06/generation-of-sine-wave-of-voltage.html

Figure 3.4 A rotating coil illustrating that the generated voltage is proportional to 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

I n general case, assuming uniform flux-density distribution between north and south poles,
the generated v oltage in a coil located 𝛼° from the v ertical (refer to Figure 3.4) w ill be
𝒆 = 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶

The reason for this relationship betw een instantaneous v oltage 𝑒 and maximum v oltage 𝐸𝑚
is that a coil side such as a, mov ing tangentially to a circle as indicated, cuts lines of force in
proportion to its vertical component of motion. I f the v ector length 𝑎𝑦 represents a constant
rotating v elocity, it should be obv ious that v ector 𝑥𝑦 is, at the instant show n, its v ertical
component; the v ector length 𝑎𝑥 is the horizontal component and implies that motion in this
𝑥𝑦
direction inv olv es no flux-cutting action. Since the v elocity ratio ⁄𝑎𝑦 = sin 𝛼 is also a
measure of the v oltage in coil side 𝑎 w ith respect to the maximum v oltage( w hen the coil is
located horizontally) it follow s that sin 𝛼 is a v arying proportionality factor that equates 𝑒 to
𝐸𝑚.

The equation 𝒆 = 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶 may be used to determine a succession of generated-v oltage

v alues in a coil as it rotates through a complete rev olution.

A more conv enient w ay of representing the equation is to draw a graph to illustrate the
smooth v ariation of v oltage w ith respect to the angular position of the coil; such a graph is
called a sine wave. Since the w av e repeats itself it is periodically, in this respect each
Property of and for the ex clusiv e use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retriev al sy stem, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopy ing, recording, or otherw ise of any part of this document, w ithout the prior w ritten permiss ion of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

71
complete succession of v alues is called a cycle, w hile each positiv e or negativ e half of the
cycle is referred to as an alternation (refer Figure 3.5).

+𝐸𝑚
𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚 sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

−𝐸𝑚

Source:https://www.etcourse.com/relation-radians-and-angular-v elocity-ac-circuits.html

Figure 3.5 A sinusoidal voltage wave.

To summarized by defining an alternating voltage as an emf that varies in magnitude and

direction periodically. Moreover, w hen the emfs are proportional to the trigonometric sine
function, it is referred to as a sinusoidal alternating voltage.
Source: Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and Alternating Current (2 nd Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc.

The Figure 3.6 also represents alternating current w av es. But w hile is scarcely possible for the
manufacturers to produce sine-w av e generators or alternators, yet sine w av e is the ideal
form sought by the designers and is the accepted standard. The w av es dev iating from the
standard sine w av e are termed as distorted w av es.

72
Source: Theraja, A.K. and Theraja, B.L. (2005). A Textbook of Electrical Technology, Vol.1.S.Chand & Company Ltd.

Figure 3.6 Alternating Waves

Frequency and Electrical Degrees

An AC generator (refer to Figure 3.7), usually called an alternator, hav ing two poles w ill
dev elop one cycle of v oltage variations for each revolution of the rotating element of the
machine,i.e., armature w inding or field poles. I f the rotation occurs at the rate of one
rev olution per second (rps) then the v oltage wave is said to hav e a frequency of one cycle
per second (cps). Obv iously, the greater the speed the higher w ill be the frequency; thus
at 3,000 rpm (60rps) the frequency will be 60 cps. Now then, since each cycle is dev eloped
for one pair of poles, it should be clear that a multipolar alternator w ill generate P/2 cps
per rev olution and the frequency will be (p/2)x(rps) cycles per second. I ndicating the
rotating speed in the more conv enient units of rpm, rps becomes rpm; thus
𝑷 × 𝒓𝒑𝒎
𝒇=
𝟏𝟐𝟎
Where
𝑷 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝒇 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧
𝒓𝒑𝒎 = 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒

Representing one complete cycle as occurring in 360º --w hether or not the alternator
has tw o poles or is multipolar (refer to Figure 3.8)

73
Source: Theraja, A.K. and Theraja, B.L. (2005). A Textbook of
Source: https://savree.com/en/product/synchronous-ac- Electrical Technology, Vol.1.S.Chand & Company Ltd
generators/

Figure 3.7 Synchronous AC Generator Figure 3.8 Multi-pole AC Generator

The number of cycles degrees in a circle, called electrical degrees, is P/2 x (mechanical
degrees). Thus, for example, if the machine has 2 poles, 4 poles, 6 poles, or P poles, there w ill
be, respectiv ely, 360º, 720º, 1,080, or (P/2 x mech deg) in a circle; i.e., elec deg = mech deg
x (P/2).

Example 1.

An alternating has 6 poles. (a) At w hat speed must the machine be driv en to dev elop 60
cycles? 25 cycles? (b) What frequency is dev eloped if the speed is 1,000 rpm? 1,600 rpm?

Solution:
𝑷×𝒓𝒑𝒎
Using the equation: 𝒇 =
𝟏𝟐𝟎

𝑓×120 60 ×120
a. 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 60 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝑟𝑝𝑚 ) = = = 𝟏, 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒓𝒑𝒎
6 𝑃
𝑓 × 120 25 × 120
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 25 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝑟𝑝𝑚 ) = = = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒓𝒑𝒎
𝑃 6
𝑃×𝑟𝑝𝑚 6×1000
b. 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑎𝑡 1000 𝑟𝑝𝑚 (𝑓1,000 ) = = = 𝟓𝟎 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒆𝒔
120 120
𝑃 × 𝑟𝑝𝑚 6 × 1600
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑎𝑡 1600 𝑟𝑝𝑚 (𝑓1,600 ) = = = 𝟖𝟎 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒆𝒔
120 120

Sine Wave

The Figure 3.9 show n a sinusoidal w aveform and Figure 3.10 show n a sinew ave with respect
to time.

74
Source: Source: Theraja, A.K. and Theraja, B.L. (2005). A Textbook of Electrical Technology, Vol.1.S.Chand & Company Ltd

Figure 3.9 Sine Wave

+𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥

−𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥

Source: https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/definitions/sine-wave-2

Figure 3.10 Sine Wave with respect to Time

Period of a Sine Wave

The period of a sine wave can be measured betw een any tw o corresponding points on
the w aveform.

The time required for a sine w ave to complete one full cycle is called the period (T).

A cycle consists of one complete positive, and one complete negative alternation.

75
Frequency of a Sine Wave
Frequency (𝑓) is the number of cycles that a sine w av e completes in one second. The
more cycles completed in one second, the higher the frequency.

Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz)

The relationship betw een frequency (𝑓) and period (𝑇) is:
𝟏
𝒇=
𝑻

Example 2.

Calculate the frequency of each w av eform show n:

0.001s ec 4.5ms

Solution:
𝟏
Using equation: 𝒇 =
𝑻
1
a. 𝑓 = = 1000𝐻𝑧 = 𝟏𝒌𝑯𝒛
0.001 𝑠𝑒𝑐
1
b. 𝑓 = = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛
4.5𝑚𝑠

Sinusoidal Alternating Currents

When a v oltage that v aries sinusoidally is impressed across a resistor of constant ohmic value,
the current will be directly proportional to the emf at ev ery instant of time. This implies that
𝒆 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶
𝒊= = = 𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶
𝑹 𝑹
𝑬𝒎
w here 𝑰 𝒎 =
𝑹

I t is for this reason that the current w av e is also sinusoidal; moreov er, since the current and
v oltage v ary simultaneously and in unison, being zero, a positiv e maximum, a negativ e
minimum, etc., at exactly identical instants of time, the current is said to be in phase w ay as

76
an alternativ e emf, it is a current that varies in magnitude and direction periodically. Thus,
w hat w as said about frequency and w av e form applies equally to currents.

I t is generally more desirable to express the angle, in the sine function of the current (or
v oltage) equation, in terms of radians. When this is done, 𝛼 = 𝜋⁄2 radians at 90º, 𝛼 = 𝜋 radians
at 180º, 𝛼 = 3 𝜋⁄2 radians at 270º, and 𝛼 = 2𝜋 radians at 360º. Also, since 1 cycle occurs in
1/𝑓 sec or 2𝜋 radians, it is proper to say that the angular v elocity, w hose symbol is 𝜔, equals
2𝜋/(1/𝑓) = 2𝜋𝑓 radians per second. Thus, the angle in radians at any instant of time 𝑡
becomes 2𝜋𝑓𝑡, and the equation for the sinusoidal current becomes
𝒊 = 𝑰 𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒕 = 𝑰 𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕

An identical equation for a v oltage that is in phase w ith the current would, of course, be

𝒆 = 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒕 = 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕

Tw o such w av es are shown in Figure 3.11.

𝑒 = 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕
+𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑖 = 𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕
+𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥

−𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥

+𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥

Source: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/accircuits/phase-difference.html

Figure 3.11 Sinusoidal voltage and current waves in phase

Peak Values of Sine Waves

The peak value of a sine w av e is the v alue of v oltage or current at the positiv e or negative
maximum w ith respect to zero. (refer to Figure 3.13)

Peak v alues are represented as:

𝑬𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌 = 𝑬𝒑𝒌 same as 𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙

77
Peak-to-Peak Values of Sine Waves
The peak-to-peak value of a sine w ave is the v oltage or current from the positive peak to
the negativ e peak. (refer to Figure 3.13)

The peak-to-peak values are represented as:

𝑬𝒑𝒌−𝒑𝒌 and 𝑰 𝒑𝒌−𝒑𝒌

w here:

𝑬𝒑𝒌−𝒑𝒌 = 𝟐𝑬𝒑𝒌 and 𝑰 𝒑𝒌−𝒑𝒌 = 𝟐𝑰 𝒑𝒌

RMS Value of a Sine Wave

The term “RMS” stand for “Root-Mean-Squared” defined this as the “amount of AC pow er
that produces the same heating effect as an equiv alent DC pow er (refer to Figure 3.12).

The RMS v alue is the square root of the mean (av erage) value of the squared function of
the instantaneous v alues. The symbols used for defining an RMS v alue are 𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝑰 𝒓𝒎𝒔.

+𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
+𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠

−𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠
−𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥

Source: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/accircuits/rms-voltage.html

Figure 3.12 RMS Voltage Equivalent

The rms (root mean square) v alue, or effective value, of a sinusoidal v oltage is equal to the
dc v oltage that produces the same amount of heat in a resistance as does the sinusoidal
v oltage. (refer to Figure 3.13). The RMS v alues are represented as:
𝑬𝒑𝒌
𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
√2
𝑰 𝒑𝒌
𝑰 𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
√2

78
Average Value of a Sine Wave
The average value is the total area under the half-cycle curve divided by the distance in
radians of the curv e along the horizontal axis. (refer to Figure 3.13)

The average values are represented as:

2𝑬𝒑𝒌
𝑬𝒂𝒗𝒈 =
𝜋
2𝑰 𝒑𝒌
𝑰 𝒂𝒗𝒈 =
𝜋

Source: https://www.electricaltechnology.org/2019/05/rms-value-average-v alue-peak-v alue-instantiations-v alue-form-

factor-peak-factor.html

Figure 3.13 Different Terms used in AC Circuits and Sine Wave

Angular Measurement of a Sine Wave

A degree is an angular measurement corresponding to 1/360 of a circle or a complete
rev olution.

A radian (rad) is the angular measure along the circumference of a circle that is equal to
the radius of the circle.

There are 2𝜋 radians or 360º in one cycle of a sine w ave.

The angular v elocity represented as: 𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔𝒆𝒄

79
Example 3.

What are the maximum v oltage and the period in ms for a giv en voltage having an
equation of e=100sin377t v ?

Solution:

Example 4.

The maximum v alue of the sinusoidal v oltage w ave generated in one coil of an alternator
is 12 v olts. How many electrical degrees form the zero point in the cycle (increasing
positiv ely) will the v oltage be (a) +8.5 v olts, (b) -8.5 v olts?

Solution:

80
Example 5.

A 60 cycle current has a maximum v alue of 6.5 Ampere. What w ill be the instantaneous
v alue of current (a) 0.0025 sec after the w av e passes through zero in a positiv e direction,
(b) 0.01042 sec after the w ave passes through zero in a positiv e direction?

Solution:

Example 6.

What is the angular v elocity(ω) for a 60 cycle circuit? A 25 cycle circuit? A 50 cycle circuit?

Solution:

81
Example 7.

Determine the RMS

and AVERAGE v alue of

the plotted v oltages.

Solution:

82
Example 8.

A current source in a linear circuit has 𝑖 = 9 sin(400𝜋𝑡) 𝐴, find the follow ing:
(a) maximum current
(b) effective value
(c) frequency
(d) angular v elocity
(e) instantaneous current at 𝑡 = 2𝑚𝑠

Solution:

83
Phase Relationship of a Sinusoidal Waveform
The phase of a sine w ave is an angular measurement that specifies the position of a sine
w ave relative to a reference. When a sine w ave is shifted left or right w ith respect to this
reference, there is a phase shift. (Refer to Figure 3.14)

+𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶 +𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥

−𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶

𝒆 = 𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜶 𝒆 = 𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜶 + ∅) 𝒆 = 𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜶 − ∅)

(𝒂) (𝒃) (𝒄)

Source: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/accircuits/phase-difference.html

Figure 3.14. Phase Relationship of a Sinusoidal Waveform

When a sine wave is shifted to the right to the reference by an angle ∅, it is term
LAGGING (refer to Figure 3.14c).

When a sine wave is shifted to the right to the reference by an angle ∅, it is term
LEADING (refer to Figure 3.14b).

When comparing two sinusoidal waveforms it more common to express their

relationship as either a sine or cosine with positive going amplitudes and this is
achieved using mathematical identities. We can convert any sinusoidal waveform
with or without an angular or phase difference from either a sine wave or cosine
wave or vice versa.

Example 8.

Giv en the equation 𝑖 = 9 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 20°) 𝐴, identify the other mathematical identities.

Solution:

84
.

Example 9.

Find the equation of the total v oltage of the following equations:

𝑒1 = −150sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋⁄4) V
𝑒2 = −300sin (𝜔𝑡) V
𝑒3 = −200cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜋⁄6) V
𝑒4 = 100sin (𝜔𝑡 − 𝜋⁄3) V
𝑒5 = 250sin (𝜔𝑡 + 3𝜋⁄2) V
𝑒6 = 120 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋⁄4 )V
𝑒7 = −75cos(𝜔𝑡) V

Solution:

R
Property of and for the ex clusiv e use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retriev al sy stem, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopy ing, recording, or otherw ise of any part of this document, w ithout the prior w ritten permiss ion of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

85
Using the phasor diagram:

𝒆 Horizontal (x) Vertical (y) 𝑅 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = √(−540.9188) 2 + (−606.0208) 2

𝒆𝟏 −150cos (45°) −150sin(45°) = 𝟖𝟏𝟐.𝟑𝟏𝟒𝟐 𝑽
𝒆𝟐 −300 0 𝑦 −606.0208
𝒆𝟑 −200sin(30°) −200cos (30°) 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑥 −540.9188
𝒆𝟒 100cos (60°) −100sin (60°) = 48.2487° + 180° = 𝟐𝟐𝟖.𝟐𝟒𝟖𝟕°
𝒆𝟓 0 −250 𝑜𝑟 48.2487° − 180 = −𝟏𝟑𝟏. 𝟕𝟓𝟏𝟑°
𝒆𝟔 −120cos (45°) 120sin (45°) (Third Quadrant)
𝒆𝟕 0 −75
TOTAL −𝟓𝟒𝟎. 𝟗𝟏𝟖𝟖 𝑽 −𝟔𝟎𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟎𝟖 𝑽 𝒆 = 𝟖𝟏𝟐. 𝟑𝟏𝟒𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + 𝟐𝟐𝟖. 𝟐𝟒𝟖𝟕°) 𝑽
x=-540.9188 V and y=-606.0208 V
𝑜𝑟
(Quadrant: III)
𝒆 = 𝟖𝟏𝟐. 𝟑𝟏𝟒𝟐𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟏𝟑𝟏. 𝟕𝟓𝟏𝟑°) 𝑽

Example 10.

For the follow ing pairs of sinusoids, determine which one LEADS and LAGS by how much.
Sketch the curv e 𝑒 and 𝑖.
a. 𝑒 = 20 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 60°) 𝑉 and 𝑖 = 60 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 30°)𝐴
b. 𝑒 = 311 sin(2500𝑡 + 170°) 𝑉 and 𝑖 = 15.5 sin(2500𝑡 − 140°) 𝐴
c. 𝑒 = 13.928 cos(2𝑡 − 21.04°) 𝑉 and 𝑖 = 15 cos(2𝑡 − 11.8°) 𝐴

Solutions;

86
Property of and for the ex clusiv e use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retriev al sy stem, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopy ing, recording, or otherw ise of any part of this document, w ithout the prior w ritten permiss ion of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

87
ELABORATE
Formative Assessment
1. A current w ave has the equation i=16sin(377t) A. At w hat seconds (time) w ill the
instantaneous v alues of current be the following: 5A, 8A, 12A, 9A, -4A, -7A and -5A?
(Draw the waveform)
2. A 25 cycle sinusoidal emf w av e has an effective value of 240 v olts. Determine the
instantaneous v alues of emf at 0.01 sec after the w av e passes through zero in a
positiv e direction?
3. What is the period in milliseconds for a giv en v oltage having an equation of v(t) =
100sin377t?
4. For the follow ing pairs of sinusoids, determine which one LEADS by how much. (draw
the phasor diagram)
a. e = 10cos(2t - 21°)V and i = 5cos(2t - 11°)A
b. e = 20sin(ωt + 50°)V and i = 60cos(ωt - 10°)A
c. e = 311sin(250t + 120°)V and i = 15.5sin(250t - 165°)A

EVALUATE
Graded activ ity/assignment will be giv en. (Google Classroom)

88
Unit 2: Resistance, Capacitance, and Inductance (RLC) Circuits

UNIT LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Describe Resistance, Capacitance, and I nductance Circuits.

 I dentify series and parallel resistance-inductance-capacitance (RLC) circuit.

References:

Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and Alternating Current (2 nd Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc.

ENGAGE
Read topics on:

Chapter 11: Electrical Circuits-Alternating Current: Resistance (R), I nductance (I ), and

Capacitance (C) Circuits (Page 293-319)

Chapter 12: Electrical Circuits-Alternating Current: Parallel and Series-Parallel Circuits (Page
324-341)
Reference: Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and Alternating Current (2 nd Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc

EXPLORE
Read topics on:
Chapter 13: Series A.C. Circuits (Page 507-556)

Chapter 14: Parallel A.C. Circuits (Page 557-598)

Reference: Theraja, A.K. and Theraja, B.L. (2005). A Textbook of Electrical Technology, Vol.1.S.Chand &
Company Ltd

EXPLAIN

Read topics on:

Chapter 12: Basic AC Circuit Analysis, I mpedance, and Admittance (Page 232-238)

Reference: O’Malley, J. (1992). Basic Electrical Analysis 2ne Edition. Schaum’s Outline of
Theory and Problems. McGraw-Hill

89
PURE RESISTANCE

𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑝 = 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜔𝑡
𝑝 𝑒 𝑖

𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

Source: https://www.engineeringenotes.com/electrical-engineering/circuits/single-phase-ac-circuit-with-diagram-
electrical-engineering/27590

Figure 3.15 Purely Resistive Circuit

When a sinusoida emf 𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑉 is impressed across a fixed resistor of 𝑅 ohm, the
𝐸
current, at any instant of time, w ill be 𝑖 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 as show n in Figure 3.15 (a).
𝑅
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
Since = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥, the maximum v alue of the resulting sinusoidal current, the current
𝑅
equation is 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡. Comparing the v oltage and current relationship it should be clear
that the w aves are in phase w ith each other; i.e. 𝑒 and 𝑖 are zero simultaneously and
increasing in the same direction, and corresponding positive and negativ e maximum
v alues occur simultaneously.

I n Figure 3.15 (b), the fact that the w aves are in phase w ith each other means that the rms
v alues of the v oltage and currents are likewise in phase. Draw ing the effective voltage
phasor w ith an open arrow head and an effective current phasor w ith a closed arrowhead,
the conv entional method that distinguishes currents from v oltages, this in-phase
relationship is show n in Figure 3.15 (c).

90
Summary:

Where:
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑅 = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

For sinusoidal v oltage supply:

𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2

Therefore,
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 × 𝑅

Phasor diagram: 𝐼 is in phase w ith 𝐸

𝐼 𝐸

91
1. Real or True or Activ e or Average Power (unit: Watts(W))

𝑷 = 𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑷= 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔
𝟐

𝑷 = 𝑰 𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐 × 𝑹 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔

2. Reactiv e Power (unit: v olt-ampere reactives (VArs))

𝑸 = 𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝑽𝑨𝒓𝒔

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑸= 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝑽𝑨𝒓𝒔
𝟐

3. Apparent Pow er (unit: v olt-ampere (VA))

𝑺 = 𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑽𝑨

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑽𝑨 𝑺=
𝟐
4. Energy Expended (unit: Joules or w att-sec)

𝑾 = 𝑷𝒕

Pow er Triangle

Where:

𝜽 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑝. 𝑓. )𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

𝑷
𝒑. 𝒇. = 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 =
𝑺
𝑸
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 =
𝑷
𝜃
Note:

For Pure Resistance, since 𝜃 = 0°

Source: https://testguy.net/content/358-Power-
Triangle-Calculator
Pow er factor(p.f.)=𝑐𝑜𝑠0°=1 or unity

92
Example 11.

An incandescent-lamp load, generally considered to be made up of resistors, takes 4.8 kW

form a 120 Volt ac source. Calculate (a) total current, (b) the instantaneous maximum
v alue of pow er, (c) the resistance of the load

Solution:

Example 12.

Giv en the circuit below, compute the effective current?

Solution:
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 120 𝑉; 𝑅 = 60 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 120 𝑉
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = =𝟐𝑨
𝑅 60 Ω

93
PURE INDUCTANCE

𝜋
𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − )
2
𝑝 𝑒 𝑖

𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 /2

−𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑤𝑡
𝑝=
2

Source: https://www.engineeringenotes.com/electrical-engineering/circuits/single-phase-ac-circuit-with-diagram-
electrical-engineering/27590

Figure 3.16 Purely Inductive Resistance

When a sinusoidal v oltage is impressed across a pure inductance , Figure 3.16(a) (the
resistance of the coil is considered to be negligibly small), the currents w av e w ill also be
sinusoidal. How ev er, unlike the pure resistance circuit in w hich 𝑒 and 𝑖 are in phase, the
current w ill lag behind the v oltage by 𝛑/𝟐 radians or 90 degrees; the follow ing analysis w ill
v erify this statement.

The basic formula for the 𝐿 circuit shows not only that the current is out of phase w ith the
v oltage by 𝛑/𝟐 radians, but that because a negative sign precedes that 𝛑/𝟐 radians, the
current lags behind the v oltage.

I n Figure 3.16 (b), clearly illustrates this relationship between 𝑒 and 𝑖 and indicates that:

(1) When 𝜔𝑡 = 0, 𝑖 = − 𝐸𝑚⁄𝜔𝐿 = −𝐼𝑚

(2) When 𝜔𝑡 = 𝜋⁄2 , 𝑖 = 0
(3) When 𝜔𝑡 = 𝜋, 𝑖 = + 𝐸𝑚⁄𝜔𝐿 = +𝐼𝑚
(4) When 𝜔𝑡 = 3 𝜋⁄2 , 𝑖 = 0

The phasor diagram indicating that the current 𝑰 lags behind the voltage 𝑬 shown in Figure
3.17 (c).

94
The next step is to identify the units of 𝜔𝐿 in the relationship 𝐸𝑚⁄𝜔𝐿 = 𝐼𝑚. Div iding both sides
of the latter equations by √2 and rearranging terms becomes 𝜔𝐿 = 𝐸/𝐼. But the ratio of
v olts (𝐸) to amperes (𝐼) alw ays yields ohms. I t follow s , therefore, that 𝜔𝐿 must bein ohms
units. Thus, representing 𝜔𝐿 by the symbol 𝑋𝐿 and applying the term inductive reactance to
it,
𝑿𝑳 = 𝝎𝑳 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑳 𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔

Summary:

Where:
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑋𝐿 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠; 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠 (Ω)

𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧 (𝐻𝑧)
𝐿 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦 (𝐻)

For sinusoidal v oltage supply:

𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2

Therefore,
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 × 𝑋𝐿

95
Phasor diagram: 𝐼 lags 𝐸 by 90º
For Pure Inductance, since 𝜃 = 90°

𝑃 = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠90° 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠

𝑷 = 𝟎 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔

𝑄 = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛90 𝑉𝐴𝑟𝑠

𝑸 = 𝑬 𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑽𝑨𝒓𝒔

𝑺 = 𝑬 𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑽𝑨

Therefore, 𝑺 = 𝑸

Note:

The average power in an inductiv e circuit is

zero, because the av erage v alue of a sine
w av e ov er one complete cycle is zero.

Energy Expended (unit: Joules or w att-sec)

𝑰 𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐𝑳
𝑾𝑳 = 𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝟐
𝑰 𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟐𝑳
𝑾𝑳 = 𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝟒

Example 13.

An inductance of 0.106 Henry is connected to a 120-Volt 60-cycle source. Calculate (a)

the inductiv e reactance, (b) the current in the circuit, (c) the av erage power taken by the
inductor. Write the equations for (d) the current.

96
Solution:

Example 14.

A pure inductor is connected across a 10 V, 200 Hz supply, and the current flow ing through
it is measured as 0.4 A. Determine the v alue of its inductance.

Source:
http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/eresources/9780750687379/revisionnotes/Additional_worked_examples_for_Chapter_1_Furth
er.pdf

97
PURE CAPACITANCE

𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝜋
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + )
𝑝 𝑒 𝑖 2

𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 /2
𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑤𝑡
𝑝=
2

Source: https://www.engineeringenotes.com/electrical-engineering/circuits/single-phase-ac-circuit-with-diagram-
electrical-engineering/27590

Figure 3.17 Purely Capacitive Resistance

When a capacitor is connected to a sinusoidal source of emf, Figure 3.17(a), it w ill continually
go through periods of charge and discharge and w ill, moreov er, undergo periodic polarity
changes. Also, the current v ariations w ill be sinusoidal but, unlike the pure resistance circuit
in w hich 𝑒 and 𝑖 are in phase, the curre nt will lead the voltage by 𝝅⁄𝟐 radians or 90 degrees.

The basic formula for the 𝐶 circuit show s not only that the current is out of phase w ith the
v oltage by 𝝅⁄𝟐 radians, but that, because a positiv e sign precedes that 𝝅⁄𝟐 radians, the
current leads the v oltage.

I n Figure 13.7 (b) clearly illustrates this relationship betw een 𝑒 and 𝑖 and indicates that:

(1) When 𝜔𝑡 = 0, 𝑖 = 𝜔𝐶𝐸𝑚 = +𝐼𝑚

(2) When 𝜔𝑡 = 𝜋⁄2 , 𝑖 = 0
(3) When 𝜔𝑡 = 𝜋, 𝑖 = −𝜔𝐶𝐸𝑚 = −𝐼𝑚
(4) When 𝜔𝑡 = 3 𝜋⁄2 , 𝑖 = 0

The phasor diagram indicating that the current 𝑰 leads the voltage 𝑬 is how n in Figure 3.17
(c).

98
Thus,
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜔𝐶𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥

Div iding both sides of the latter equations by √2 and rearranging terms, (1⁄𝜔𝐶 ) = 𝐸/𝐼. But the
ratio of v olts (𝐸 )to amperes (𝐼) alw ays yields in ohms. I t follow s, therefore, that (1⁄𝜔𝐶 ) must
be in ohm units. Thus representing (1⁄𝜔𝐶 ) by the symbol 𝑋𝑐′ and applying the term capacitive
reactance to it,
1 1
𝑋𝐶′ = = 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
𝜔𝐶′ 2𝜋𝑓𝐶′

Where 𝐶′ is in Farads. I f the capacitance 𝐶 is expressed in the more conv enient microfarad
unit,
𝟏𝟎𝟔
𝑿𝑪 = 𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔
𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪

Summary:

Where:
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
1 1
𝑋𝐶 = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠; 𝑋𝐶 = = 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠 (Ω)
𝜔𝐶 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧 (𝐻𝑧)
𝐶 = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 (𝐹)

99
For sinusoidal v oltage supply:
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2

Therefore,
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 × 𝑋𝐶

Phasor diagram: 𝐼 leads 𝐸 by 90º

For Pure Capacitance, since 𝜃 = 90°

𝑃 = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠90° 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠

𝑷 = 𝟎 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔

𝑄 = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛90 𝑉𝐴𝑟𝑠

𝑸 = 𝑬 𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑽𝑨𝒓𝒔

𝑺 = 𝑬 𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑽𝑨

Therefore, 𝑺 = 𝑸

Note:

The average power in an capacitiv e circuit is

zero, because the av erage v alue of a sine
w av e ov er one complete cycle is zero.

Energy Expended (unit: Joules or w att-sec)

𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐𝑪
𝑾𝑪 = 𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝟐
𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟐𝑪
𝑾𝑪 = 𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝟒

Example 15.

A 127𝜇𝐹 capacitor is connected to a 125-v olt 50-cycle source. Calculate (a) the capacitive
reactance, (b) the current in the circuit, (c) the av erage pow er taken by the capacitor,
Write the equations for (d) the current.

100
Solution:

Example 16.

A perfect capacitor is connected across a 6 V, 5 kHz supply, and the resulting current flow
is 88.6 mA. Calculate the capacitance v alue.

Source:http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/eresources/9780750687379/revisionnotes/Additional_worked_examples_for_Chapter_
1_Further.pdf

101
R and L Series

Phasor Diagram:
Therefore,

𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √𝐸𝑅 2 + 𝐸𝐿 2

𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 2

𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 × 𝑍 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

Where:
𝑍 = 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
2
𝑍 = √𝑅 + 𝑋𝐿 2 Ω
𝑝. 𝑓. = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐸𝑅 ⁄𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑅 ⁄𝑍
𝑟. 𝑓. = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝐸𝐿 ⁄𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑋𝐿 ⁄𝑍
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝐸𝐿 ⁄𝐸𝑅 = 𝑋𝐿 /𝑅

Impedance Triangle

𝑃 = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 (𝑝. 𝑓. ) = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 𝑅 = 𝐸𝑅 2 ⁄𝑅 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠

𝑄 = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 (𝑟. 𝑓. ) = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 𝑋𝐿 = 𝐸𝐿 2 ⁄ 𝑋𝐿 𝑉𝐴𝑟𝑠

𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
𝑆 = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 𝑍 = 𝑉𝐴
𝑍

Also, 𝑆 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄 2 𝑉𝐴

102
Example 17.

A coil of resistance 25 ohms and inductance 40 mH is connected to a 50 Hz a.c. supply,

and the current w hich then flows is 5.36 A. Calculate (a) the supply v oltage, (b) the circuit
phase angle, and (c) the pow er dissipated.

Source:
http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/eresources/9780750687379/revisionnotes/Additional_work ed_examples_for_Chapter_1_Furth
er.pdf

Solution:

103
R and C Series

Phasor Diagram:

Therefore,
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √𝐸𝑅 2 + 𝐸𝐶 2

𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶 2

𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 × 𝑍 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

Where:
𝑍 = 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
𝑍 = √𝑅2 + 𝐸𝐶2 Ω
𝑝. 𝑓. = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐸𝑅⁄𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑅⁄𝑍
𝑟. 𝑓. = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝐸𝐶⁄𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑋𝐶⁄𝑍
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝐸𝐶⁄𝐸𝑅 = 𝑋𝐶 /𝑅

Impedance Triangle

𝑃 = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 (𝑝. 𝑓. ) = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 𝑅

= 𝐸𝑅 2⁄𝑅 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠

𝑄 = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 (𝑟. 𝑓. ) = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 𝑋𝐶

= 𝐸𝐶 2⁄𝑋𝐶 𝑉𝐴𝑟𝑠

𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
𝑆 = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 𝑍 = 𝑉𝐴
𝑍

Also, 𝑆 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄 2 𝑉𝐴
Property of and for the ex clusiv e use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retriev al sy stem, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopy ing, recording, or otherw ise of any part of this document, w ithout the prior w ritten permiss ion of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

104
Example 18.

A 10 µ F capacitor is connected in series with a 270 resistor across a 20 V, 50 Hz supply.

Calculate (a) the current flowing, (b) the v oltage across the resistor and the capacitor,
and (c) the circuit pow er factor.

http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/eresources/9780750687379/revisionnotes/Additional_worked_examples_for_Chapter_1_Furth
er.pdf

Solution:

105
R-L-C Series

Therefore,

𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 = √𝑬𝑹𝟐 + (𝑬𝑳 − 𝑬𝑪 )𝟐

𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝑰 𝒓𝒎𝒔 √𝑹𝟐 + (𝑬𝑳 − 𝑬𝑪 )𝟐

𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝑰 𝒓𝒎𝒔 × 𝒁 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔

Where:
𝒁 = 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔

𝒁 = √𝑹𝟐 + (𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 ) 𝟐 Ω
𝒑. 𝒇. = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝑬𝑹⁄𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝑹⁄𝒁
𝒓. 𝒇. = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = (𝑬𝑳 − 𝑬𝑪 )⁄𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 = (𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 )⁄𝒁

𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 = (𝑬𝑳 − 𝑬𝑪 )⁄𝑬𝑹 = (𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 )/𝑹

Note: Transpose 𝑋𝐿 and 𝑋𝐶 if 𝑋𝐶 > 𝑋𝐿

𝑷 = 𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 (𝒑. 𝒇. ) = 𝑰 𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐𝑹 = 𝑬𝑹 𝟐⁄𝑹 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔

𝑸 = 𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰 𝒓𝒎𝒔 (𝒓.𝒇. ) = 𝑰 𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐(𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 ) = 𝑬𝑳 𝟐⁄ 𝑿𝑳 = 𝑬𝑪 𝟐⁄𝑿𝑪 𝑽𝑨𝒓𝒔

𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐
𝑺 = 𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝑰 𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐𝒁 = 𝑽𝑨
𝒁

Also, 𝑺 = √𝑷𝟐 + 𝑸𝟐 𝑽𝑨

106
Example 19.

A 2 kΩ resistor, a perfect 0.5 H inductor and a perfect 2.2 μF capacitor are connected, in
turn, across a 5 V, 1 kHz supply. Calculate the total current and the pow er factor of the
circuit.

Solution:

107
R and L in Parallel

Phasor Diagram:

Therefore,
√𝑹𝟐 + 𝑿𝑳 𝟐
𝑰𝑻 = √𝑰𝑹 𝟐 + 𝑰𝑳 𝟐 = 𝑬 𝒓𝒎𝒔 ( )𝑨
𝑹𝑿𝑳
𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔
𝑰𝑻 = 𝑨
𝒁

Where:
𝒁 = 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔
𝑹𝑿𝑳
𝒁= Ω
𝟐
√ 𝑹 + 𝑿𝑳
𝟐

𝒑. 𝒇. = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝑰𝑹 ⁄ 𝑰𝑻 = 𝒁⁄𝑹
𝒓. 𝒇. = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝑰𝑳 ⁄𝑰𝑻 = 𝒁⁄𝑿𝑳
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 = 𝑰𝑳 ⁄𝑰𝑹 = 𝑹/𝑿𝑳

𝟐
𝑷 = 𝑬 𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 (𝒑. 𝒇. ) = 𝑰𝑹 𝟐 𝑹 = 𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 ⁄𝑹 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔

𝑸 = 𝑬 𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 (𝒓. 𝒇. ) = 𝑰𝑳 𝟐 𝑿𝑳 = 𝑬 𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐 ⁄𝑿𝑳 𝑽𝑨𝒓𝒔

𝑬 𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐
𝑺 = 𝑬 𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝑻 = 𝑰𝑻 𝟐 𝒁 = 𝑽𝑨
𝒁

Also, 𝑺 = √𝑷𝟐 + 𝑸 𝟐 𝑽𝑨

108
Example 20.

For the parallel RL circuit show n below , determine (a) current flow through the resistor (b)
current flow through the inductor (c) total current (d) phase angle betw een the voltage and
the total current flow . express all current in polar notation

Source: https://electricalacademia.com/basic-electrical/parallel-rl-circuit/

Solution:

109
R and C in Parallel

Source: electricala2z

Phasor Diagram:

Therefore,
√𝑹𝟐 + 𝑿𝑪 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝑰 𝑻 = √𝑰 𝑹 + 𝑰 𝑪 = 𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑨
𝑹𝑿𝑪
( )
𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔
𝑰𝑻 = 𝑨
𝒁

Where:
𝒁 = 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔
𝑹𝑿𝑪
𝒁= Ω
√𝑹 + 𝑿𝑪
𝟐 𝟐

𝒑. 𝒇. = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝑰 𝑹⁄𝑰 𝑻 = 𝒁⁄𝑹

𝒓. 𝒇. = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝑰 𝑪⁄𝑰 𝑹 = 𝒁⁄ 𝑿𝑪
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 = 𝑰 𝑳⁄𝑰 𝑹 = 𝑹/𝑿𝑪
𝟐
𝑷 = 𝑬 𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 (𝒑. 𝒇. ) = 𝑰𝑹 𝟐 𝑹 = 𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 ⁄𝑹 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔

𝑸 = 𝑬 𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 (𝒓. 𝒇. ) = 𝑰𝑪 𝟐 𝑿𝑪 = 𝑬 𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐 ⁄𝑿𝑪 𝑽𝑨𝒓𝒔

𝑬 𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐
𝑺 = 𝑬 𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝑻 = 𝑰𝑻 𝟐 𝒁 = 𝑽𝑨
𝒁

Also, 𝑺 = √𝑷𝟐 + 𝑸 𝟐 𝑽𝑨

110
Example 21.

A 30 ohms resistance and 40 ohms capacitiv e reactance are in parallel w ith a 120V pow er
source, as show n in Figure below . Find the 𝑰 𝑻 , Z , pf , P , Q ,and S

Source: http://nuclearpowertraining.tpub.com/h1011v3/css/Power-In-Parallel-R-C-Circuit-76.htm

Solution:

111
R-L-C in Parallel

Source: electricala2

Therefore,

𝑰 𝑻 = √𝑰 𝑹𝟐 + (𝑰 𝑳 − 𝑰 𝑪 )𝟐

√𝑿𝑳 𝟐 𝑿𝑪𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐 (𝑿𝑪 − 𝑿𝑳 ) 𝟐

𝑰𝑻 = 𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔
𝑹𝑿𝑳 𝑿𝑪
𝑰 𝑻 = 𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 /𝒁 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔

Where:
𝒁 = 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔
𝑹𝑿𝑳 𝑿𝑪
𝒁= Ω
𝟐 𝟐
√𝑿𝑳 𝑿𝑪 + 𝑹𝟐 (𝑿𝑪 − 𝑿𝑳 ) 𝟐

𝒑. 𝒇. = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝑰 𝑹⁄𝑰 𝑻 = 𝒁⁄𝑹

𝒓. 𝒇. = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = (𝑰 𝑳 − 𝑰 𝑪)⁄𝑰 𝑻 = 𝒁( 𝑿𝑪 − 𝑿𝑳 )⁄𝑿𝑳 𝑿𝑪

𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 = (𝑰 𝑳 − 𝑰 𝑪 )⁄𝑰 𝑹 = 𝑹(𝑿𝑪 − 𝑿𝑳 )/𝑿𝑳 𝑿𝑪

Note: Transpose 𝐼𝐿 and 𝐼𝐶 if 𝐼𝐿 > 𝐼𝐶

112
Example 22.

I n the circuit show n below , R=55ohms, L=0.08H, and C=1μF, find the impedance and the
v oltage source.

Source: https://electricala2z.com/electrical-circuits/parallel-rlc-circuit-analysis-example-problems/

Solution:

ELABORATE
Solv e the following problems:
1. A resistance of 100Ω, an inductance of 75.0 mH, and a capacitor of 4.0 F are
connected in series w ith a generator (100 v olts at 2500 rad/sec). Find
a. the current in the circuit
b. the v oltage across each circuit component
c. the pow er dissipated in the circuit
d. the phase angle betw een the current and the v oltage in the circuit.

113
2. An AC series circuit has R = 300Ω, L = 0.90 H, and C = 2.0F w ith a generator of 50 V and
ω = 1000 rad/sec. Find
a. the current in the circuit
b. the v oltage across each of R, L, and C
c. the phase angle betw een voltage and current in the circuit.
d. the pow er dissipated in the circuit

3. A series RC circuit w ith R=4kΩ and C=0.40μF is connected to an AC v oltage source

v(t)=100sin200t. Determine the follow ing:
(a) What is the r.m.s current in the circuit?
(b) What is the phase betw een the v oltage and the current?
(c) Find the pow er dissipated in the circuit.
(d) Find the v oltage drop both across the resistor and the capacitor.
(e) What is the ov erall pow er factor? I s it leading or lagging?

EVALUATE
Graded activ ity/assignment will be giv en.

114

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