POWER GENERATION ECONOMICS

UNIT COMMITMENT
Multiple Choice Type Questions
1.
Five 200 MW plants are
connected to a grid having a
the generators are operating
at a lagging pf of 0.85, peak demand of 1000 VA. If
the spinning reserve is
a) 0 MW
b) 50 MWN WBUT 2011]
Answer: (c) c) 150 MW d) 250 MW
2. A storage type power
plant is essential for
betterment of a grid that suffers from
a) very low peak [WBUT 2011]
demand
b) very high peak
demand but high load
c)very high peak demand but factor
d) very low peak demand low load factor
but high load factor
Answer: (b)
3. Unit commitment is
a) a must before we solve WBUT 2014]
b) a short term problem economic operation problem
of maintenance scheduling
c) more meaningful for
thermal units
d) all of these
Answer: (d)
4. For long term hydrothermal
a) A head variation can
problem
be ignored WBUT 2014]
b) transmission loss cannot
be
c) unit commitment should be ignored
d) all of these taken into account
Answer: (d)

D
Short Answer Type Questions
1.What do you mean by unit commitment
problem? Discuss the Importance
Spinning Reserve' as related to unit commitment of
problem. WBUT 2008]
OR,
Discuss briefly about unit commitment and spinning
reserve. WBUT 2009]
Answer:
Unit Commitment (UC)
It is not conomical to run all the
units available all the time. To determine
plant that should operate for a particular load is the the nits of a
problem of unit commitment
This problem is of importance for thermal plants as (UC).
for other types of generation
hydro; their operating cost and start-up times are negligible so such as
that their on-off status is
not important.

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is to impose priority
ordering; wherein
A simple but sub-optimal approach to the problem in order as
loaded first to be followcd by the less cflicicnt units
the most efficient unit is
the load increases. most cconomical
highly time-consuming way of finding the
A straightforward but combinations
load demand, is to try all possible
combination of units to meet a particular of each
load: to divide the load optimally among the units
supply this most cconomical
of units that can use the coordination cquations, so as to find the
Combination by of has the
combination: then, to determine the combination, which
operating cost of the can be achieved
among all these. Considerable computational saving
lcast operating cost method for comparing the
branch and bound or a dynamic programming
by using
combinations as certain combinations need not be tried at all.
economics of

Spinning Reserve competitive

liberalisation of the electricity supply industry and the introduction of
The
the dcfinition of ancillary services.
The
markets for electrical energy have required
maintain the security and the quality of the
purpose of these ancillary services is to help
the frequency requires that a certain amount
supply of electricity. In particular, control of between load and
reserve to be able to re-establish the balancc
of active power be kept in can thus be defined as the amount of
generation at all times. In general, reserve
active power over a given period of time
generation capacity that can be used tc produce
production of energy during this period. In
and which has not y'et been committed to the
practice, diferent types of reserve services are
required to respond to different types of
events over different time frames. In
particular, while the term "spinning reserve" is
in different ways. This may lead to
widely used in literature, this service can be defined
some confusion.
To help reduce this confusion, this document proposes a
definition of spinning reserve. It
in several jurisdictions according
then provides the amount of spinning reserve required
to this definition.

2. Discuss the various constraints related to unit commitment problem.WBUT 2010]

Answer:
Constraints in Unit Commitment:
1. Thermal Unit Constraints: Thermal.units require a trained lot of crew to
operate the
units. A thermal power plant undergoes a gradual temperature change and this needs
some time intervals to bring the unit on line. As a result, the following constraints arise:
i Minimum up time: It states that there should be a minimum time of operation on
when the unit runs. It is not desired to turn off immediately after it is brought
line.
ii. Minimum down time: Once the thermal unit is decommissioned, there would be
aminimum time before it can be recommissioned.
iii. Crew constraints: If a plant consists of more than one unit, both the units cannot
be turned on simultaneously as there is usually not enough staff to attend both the
units.
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 POWERGENERATION ECONOMICS
iv. Operational constraints: In
energy must be consumed operation of thermal units,
a certain amount of
to bring the unit on-line. This cnergy docs not
any elfcctive power result in
generation and in unit
treatcd as Start up cost. commitment problem, it has
been
2. Spinning Reserve: Spinning
reserve is defined as follows:
Spinning reserve
P-Pina-P,at any interval oftime.
Spinning reserve must be
maintained
unacceptable decline in frequency, so that the loss of one or more units does not cause
i.e., there must be sufficient
unit is lost, other unit can make reserve such that if one
up for the loss in a specified
time period.
3. Hydro-constraints: As wve
pointed out that unit commitment
importance for the scheduling of problem is of much
thermal units it is not the
that cannot be completely separated meaning of unit commitment
from the scheduling of a
The operation of hydro-thermal hydro-unit.
system having both hydro and
for more complex as hydro-plants thermal plants, however
have negligible operation
operate. Under constraints of costs. but are required to
water available for hydro-generation
time. in a given period of
The problem of minimizing the
operating cost of a hydrothermal
one of minimizing the fuel system can be viewed as
cost of thermal plants. Under
availability for hydro-generation the constraint of water
over a given period of operation.
4.Fuel Constraints: A system in which
constraint that require them to some units have limited fuel
burn a specified amount of fuel on else have
most challenging unit commitment in a given time presents
problem. a

3.What áre the importance of unit

economic load scheduling of power commitments in a grid? Discuss the
basis of
plants in a connected grid. [WBUT 2011]
Answer:
1" Part:
Unit commitment involves determining
the start up and shut down (ON/OFF)
of generating units to be used schedules
to meet forecasted demand over a
hours) period. The objective is to minimize short-term (24 -
168
total production cost to meet system
and reserve requirements while demand
observing a large set of operating constraints.
Optimum allocation (commitment)
of generators (Units) at each generating
Various station load levels (including stations at
sharing among committed generators) are
Commitment problems and optimum allocation the unit
of generation to each station for various
System load levels may be called as load
scheduling problem.
2md
Part:
he factors that govern the economic operation of hydrothermal
plants are incremental
uel costs of steam plants, hydro generation as
a function of head and discharge, water

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hydrothermal
losses. To find the schedules for
transmission
intake losses, incremental presumed that:
operating period, it is
plants for time duration during the of time producing the
water is used over the given period
1)a desired amount of
maximum amount of energy and cost of the thermal units
will be
hence the generation
n) the fuel input and
minimum. sets of co-ordination equations which will
there will be two
With the above end in vicw, and the other set for the
scheduling- one set for the thermal units
be solved for optimum
and the remaining
hydro units. n-controllable generators m are stcam plants
Let us consider that out of co-ordination equations
are
units. Then the
7-m) are hydro generator

d+o-i =0 i=1,2.. m .., (1)

dP SP
... (2)
R +of-1=0 j=m+1,m+2,
H
Here
the ith steam unit
P =output in MW of hydroelectric unit.
P Output in MW ofjth
ith steam unit.
transmission loss associated with the
=Incremental
5P
with the jth hydropower unit.
=Incremental transmission loss associated
8 Pa
unit in Rs/M Wh.
=Incremental cost for the ith thermal
dPg

= Incremental water rate of jth hydro unit in m' / MW -seC.

dP the incremental water rate of the jth hydro plant
into an
R, = Constant which converts
m° per sec.
incremental cost. It has a unit of Rs per hour/ becomne.
transmission losses are neglected, Eqns. (1) and (2)
Ifthe
a-=E0
dP'

Rdd-i=0
P

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The incremental cost

| for the thermal units (

d's and incremental water rate for

dw,
the hydroelectric units are
can be represented by linear
both non-lincar but
for simplified computation,
Pa) d
equations. both of these

4. What is spinning reserve?

grid? What is the downside Why is it important to keep a spinning reserve
of keeping a high spinning in the
Answer: reserve? WBUT 2011]
Part:
Spinning reserve is the
reserve generating
ready to take load. capacity which is connected
to the bus and
2nd
Part:
The total spinning-reserve from
all the generating
the spinning-reserve requirement units must be greater than
of the system. or equal to
MegaWatts (MW) or a This can be either a fixed requirement
specified percentage in
generating unit. Again, the of the largest on-load output
user can choose how strongly of any
purpose of the spinning-rescrve to enforce this constraint. The
requirement is to ensure
capacity from the units on-load that there is enough spare
or 'spinning' at any time
any individual generating unit, to cover the accidental loss of
or to satisfy demands
values. Precisely it may be that are higher than their forecast
told that spinning-reserve
indicate how much spinning-reserve requirement of the system will
a particular unit supplies
user's requirements. It is possible can be customised to the
to impose several different
requirements simultaneously, with spinning reserve
each reserve requirement being
scale. over a different time-

3rd
Part:
The downside of keeping a spinning-reserve
sufficient generating units running in the grid will ensure that
above their Minimum Stable there are
times to allow the total output Generation levels at all
to be quickly reduced by specified
(There may be a variety of reasons a number of MWN.
for such a requirement for example
possibility of demands being lower than to cover the
their forecast values.)
5. Discuss the various types
of Unit Commitment method.
Answer: WBUT 2012, 2015]
The major available method for unit commitment
can be grouped as follows:
Deterministic techniques
Meta-heuristic techniques
Hydrothermal coordination
Deterministic approach includes priority list,
inter/mixed-integer programming
dynamic and linear programming, branch-and-bound method,
method, decomposition technique,
and colony system and Lagrangian relaxation.

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neural networks,
fuzzy logic. artificial
include cxpert system,simulated anncaling. tabu scarch and
Meta-heuristic approaches programming.
geneticalgorithm. cvolutionary
technique). method comprising three
memetic algorithm (hybrid solved using "cquivalcncing" like
be
Large scale UCP can also and disaggregation.
solution
steps: aggregation,
the optimum hourly
Hydrothennal Coordination hydro scheduling is to dctermine
problem of short-term flows through generating stations, reservoir
The hyvdro units, water maxinmize the energy
production from
generation production of objective is to
leveis. The
releases and storage as part of
hydro resources. hydro scheduling is to be done
system. short-term the solution
In a hydrothermal hydrothermal coordination problen requires schedules.
hydrethermal coordination. The as the hydro
generation dispatch as well
for the thernal unit
commitments and
production cost subject to mecting the load
minimize the thermal the hydrothermal
The objective here torequirements. Most of the methods for solving
is
and other generation decomposition methods involving the unit
based on procedure depends on
coordination probiem are problems. The coordination
sub
commitment and hydro scheduling
heuristic decomposition, combined Lagrangian
method used like
the decomposition programming. genetic algorithm etc.
relaxation and network flow
in economic load
scheduling.
Computational method [WBUT 2012]
6. Develop a simple

Answer:
Plant Scheduling: controllable system will
production of electric energy in an n-machine
The total cost of
be given by:
C=C-.0)Rs/hour
. (1)
f.Pa)+S,(Paa)+.+S,PRs/hour
provided
Pi=1, 2,., n), so that C is minimized
Our problem is to select n variables simultaneously satisfied. As we have
and inequality constraints are
certain equality one
not affect fuel cost, there will be only
already observed that the reactive power does
by:
equality constraint to be satisfied. This is given
power supplied by base load units.
Pa =total power demand on the system-total
= group of generators
= Power demanded from the controllable
Pp
(2)
i.e. 2-P=0 (3)
1.e., glaa )=0
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 POWERGENERATION ECONOMICS
where, g is a function.
Along with this cquality constraint,
n number of inequality constraints need to be
satisficd. These are:
umnn<Piuma i=1,2,.. (4)
Rcferring back to Eqn. (1) we observe
that we are to optimize C. a function of n
variables, by independently
sclecting (n-1) variables, the other variable gets
automatically fixed by the equality
constraint Eqn. (2).
The mathematical procedure to find
constrained optimum i.e. optimization technique is
given below for ready reference.
Let us consider a scalar cost function given
by
C=J,X)
are n independent variables. The
(5)
.
,...X, problem is to find out the maximum or
minimum value of C.
The total differential dc may be expressed
as:

dc=d+dx,+
dx d,
x, .. (6)
For an optimal value of C, the total differential
must be zero. This condition demands that
all the partial derivatives in
x,(i=1.2...n) must be zero because the variables are
independent of each other and there is no
constraint in their variation. So. the condition
for optimization is:
O=0 for i =1, 2,..n ... (7)
If the problem is now modified by stating that C is
to be optimized subject to the
condition (constraint) tdhat the equation below be satisfied.
8 ,X2...",) =0 (8)
The above equation is an equality constrain equation.
On partial differentiation of the
above equation, it is obtained

Od, +dr, t... Sd=0

dr, =0
.(9)
With the constraint of this equation to be satisfied along
with the Eqn. (6), there is no
liberty of choosing all the n differentials
dx,.., dr, independently. As such one degree
of freedom is lost in the sense that only (n-1) of the differential
may be chosen
independently and the remaining one is fixed by Eqn. (9). If both
sides of Eqn. (9) is
multiplicd by A and then subtracted from Eqn. (6), the result is: -

... (10)

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optimum
terms vithin parentheses are to be zero. The
then all the n
lf dc has to be zero.
conditions are then:
= .(11)
-=0
Sx Sx,
for
i 1,2..
1) variables i.e. x,X..
Eqn. (8) will yield (n+

and .
These n equations and the constraint

So definition of a lag-range cost

function f* now be given by
. (12)
f-f-ig
written as
Then the n Eqn. (i 1) can be
1,2,.. (13)
O.dJ-2=a for i
x construed that the problem of optimizing the
function f with the
t can thercfore be
is tantamount to obtain the unconstrained
optimization of f*
cquality constraint g =0
lag-range multiplier.
The constant i is ca'led the
which is to be optimized
Now reverting to the problem, (14)
C fPar Poz )
with the equaiity constraint
being satisfied
gPP.PizPJ=0
The augmented cost function (15)
S':f-28
where,2 is the Lag-range multiplier.
Now,
(16)
8f =0 (for i=1,2,.n)
SPa 6Pa

a)+
8Pa
SPa)+JPa)++SPa)
8fPa)- O=(IC), .(17)

where, (IC) is the incremental cost of the ith generator.

.(18)
Also
6Pa
= a+Pra t.m.+Pa t.t Pa-P,]=1
So, from Eqn. (16)
(IC), = i=1,2,...
.(19)
i.e.
ie, (JC) =(IC), =(IC), =2

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 POWERGENERATION ECONOMICS
The optimum condition, therefore, is
obtained when we make sure
controllable generators operatc that all the individual
at equal incremental production
time, the generated powers add up costs and at the same
to the power demanded from
The condition can bc graphically depicted the controllable group.
on the incremental cost curve
1. The optimum condition as shown in Fig.
to be satisficd for a certain
Pa +Paa+..+ Pa IC value 1, such that
t.. + Pin
= Py-

C
(2)

Poa Po Pa Pro
Pa
Fig:1 Graphical depiction optimum
of condition incremental curve
Pais the real power at the point where the horizontal
line drawn form the IC axis at
distance 1 from the origin, cuts the a
ith incremental curve.
We have not yet taken any
cognizance to the n inequality
operating strategy should be that constraints of Eqn. (4). The
if one or several generators reach
be operated at those limits their limits, these will
and the rest of the generators
cost rule. should satisfy equal incremental
If we use a quadratic cost function given
by Eqn. (1) the condition
scheduling or optimum dispatch - is:
for optimum

So P -
B+27,, Pa =2

27
for i=1,2,..n
.(20)
(21)
From the equality constraint
of Eqn. (2)

Pa-Po
or,
2
P,+
or,
(22)
2i 2
The value
of 2 obtained in Eqn. (22) is substituted in Eqn. (21) to obtain
the
of generation. scheduling

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reserve requiremonts in the solution of unit

7. Discuss the importance of
spinning WBUT 2013]
commitment problem.
gencration available
Answer: describe the total amount of
Spinning reserve is the tern
used to losses bein
the present load and
minus
on the system named unils spinning on
the
from all synchronized units systen may be
units on the
supplied. Here. the synchronized
system. all
Total generation output of Load at that time+

Spinning
reserve=synchronized units at Losses at that time J
a particular time
synchronized unit
the power generation of the f"
reserve, Pi.
Let P be the spinning
the system:
load on the system and P, the total loss of
P the total
Pi. -,+P) failure of one or more units does
not.
be maintained so that the
The spinning reserve must one unit fails, there imust be an ample
cause too far a drop in system frequency. Simply, if time period.
units to make up for the loss in a specified
reserve on the other load demand, orit
be a given a percentage of forecasted peak
The spinning reserve must most heavily loaded unit in a given
period of
taking up the loss of the
must be capable of
sufficient
time.
function of the probability of not having
It can also be calculated
as a

generation to mect the load. fast-responding units and slow-

properly allocated among
The reserves must be automatic generation control system to restore
allows the
responding units such that this unit.
quickly interchange the time of outage ofa generating
frequericy and various classes of
spinning reserve, the UC problem may consider
Beyond the
rescrves. These include quick-start diesel or gas-
scheduled reserves' or offline pumped storage hydro-units that
can be
hydro-units and
turbine units as well as most quickly. As such,
synchronized and brought upto maximum capacity to
brought online. assessment, as long as their time
the overall reserve
these units can be counted in
is taken into consideration.
come up 1o maximum capacity transmissio
spread well around the entire power system to avoid
Reserves should be allow different parts
ol

system limitations (ofien called 'bottling' of reserves) and to

disconnected.
to run as 'islands', should they become electrically
the system
WBUT 2013, 2014
8. What is unit commitment? problem with an economical load
dispatc
unit commitment WBUT 2013
Compare an optimal
problem.

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Answer:
"
1
Part:
In operational
scheduling of
the unit commitment. electric power generation,
It involves the most important
schedulcs of generating determining the problems is
units to be used start up and shut down
- 168 hours) period. to meet forecasted demand (ONIOFF)
The aim is to minimize over a short-term (24
and reserve requircments total production cost
while observing a to meet system demand
a complex mathematical large set of operating
optimization problem constraints. In fact it is
variables. Prior to having both integer and continuous
solve
should be solved because the economic dispatch problem.
only unit commitment
the unit commitment solution those units which were allocated to generating problem
can be considered
for power generation.
duties by
2 Part:
Economic load dispatch
economically distributes
Load as it rises to the the actual system.
various units already
set of units to be available online. But the UC problem
to supply the predicted plans for the best
future time periods. or forecast load of the
system over
9. Explain Thermal Unit
Down Time and Crew constraints with emphases to Minimum Up
Constraints. What is 'cooling' Time, Minimum
and 'Banking' of Boilers?
Answer WBUT 2017]
Part: Refer to Question No. 2 of Short
Answer Type Questions.
9nd
part:
Cooling: Open evaporative cooling
HVAC or industrial processes, systems are an essential
part of most commercial
however these well aerated
scrub dust and organic material water systems essentially
from the cooling air stream. setting
environment for corrosion, fouling. up a perfect
scaling. microbial activity
formation. Accordingly a good and bio-film
water treatment program is
regulatory compliance, but also not only essential for
to extend asset longevity,
minimize operating costs and mitigate optimize pant efficiency,
pathogen related public health
Banking of boilers: Boiler Bank Tubes risks.
are Bent to Shape Tubes
Generating Tubes where Water is converted or Steam
to Steam. Boiler Bank
mixture of water and steam. Fabricated Tubes carry a
from Tubes in various sizes
bending of these tubes is generally to and shapes,
larger Radius hence they need
Bending Expertise to avoid wrinkles, surface some Tube
cracking, irregularities, ensuring
life of tube resulting in smooth and efticient long
operation of the Boiler.

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Long Answer Type gucstions

solution of the unit commitment
1. a) Discuss the priority order approach for the WBUT 2008]
problem.
Answer: determine the units of a
economical to run all the units available all the time. To
It is not unit-commitment. This
operate for a particular load is the problem of
plant that should generation such as
as for other types of
problem is of importance for thermal plants so that their On-Off status is not
are negligible
hydro, thec operating cost and start uptime impose priority
sub-optimal approach to the problem is to
important. A simple but followed by the less
efficient unit is loaded first to be
ordering. where in the most highly time
in order as the load increases. A straight-forward but
efficient units
the most economical combination of units to meet a particular
consuming way of finding the load, to
all possible combinations of units that can supply
combination by use of the co
load demand, is to try
the units of each
divide the load optimally among combination.
economical operating cost of the
ordination equations so as to find the most all these.
determine the combination which has the least operating cost among
Then to
followed while using the merit order
b) Explain the shut down algorithm to be WBUT 2008]
approach.
Answer: power plants, it assumes that the
method is applied to economic scheduling of
When this
over the full range or over successive
incremental cost of all the generators is constant
discrete portions within the range. highest
be to load the machines in order of
The economical way of meeting a load will
needs forming of a table which could be
incremental efficiency. This method, therefore,
need any complicated calculations.
looked into, for any load condition and does not
therefore this method is not used.
Normally the incremental cost curves are not constant,

Explain the difference between the Unit Commitment and the Economic
2 a) WBUT 2009]
Dispatch problem.
Answer:
general, involved the consideration of economy of
The optimal system operation, in
fossil-fuel plants, optimal releases of
operation, system security, emissions at certain conflicting
these considerations may make for
water at hydro generation, etc. All
for optimal system operation. We
requirements and usually a compromise has to be made
called the economic dispatch problem.
consider the economy of operation only, also of
aim in the economic dispatch problem is to minimize the total cost
The main
power (production cost) at various stations while satisfying the loads and
generating real thermal
losses in the transmission links. For simplicity we consider the presence of
the which
in the beginning. We will consider the presence of hydro plants,
plants only there is negligible operating cost at
a
with thermal plants. While
operate in conjunction
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 POWER GENERATION ECONOMICS
hydro plant, there is a limitation of availability
of water over a period of time, which must
be uscd to save maximum fuel at the
thermal plants.
The specified variables are real and
reactive powers at PQ buses, real powers
magnitudes at PV buses and voltage and voltage
magnitudc and angle at the slack bus.
variables to be specified for The additional
load flow solution are the
transforners. If the specified variables tap settings of regulating
are allowed to vary in a region
practical considerations (upper constrained by
and lower limits on active and reactive
voltage limits and range of transformer generations bus
tap settings). there results an infinite number
load flow solutions, cach pertaining of
to one set of values of specified
choice in some sense of the values variables. The "best'
of specified variables leads to the "best' oad
solution. Economy of operation is flow
naturally predominant in determining
generation to cach station for various allocation of
system load levels. The first problem in
system parlance is called the "unit commitment' power
(UC) problem and the second is called
the load scheduling' (LS) problem. One
must first solve the UC problem before
proceeding with the LS problem.

b) What are the various costs to be considered

in the Unit Commitment problem?

Answer: WBUT 2009]

The various costs that are considered in the
unit commitment problem include the
of generating equipment particularly of thermal loading
plants, where unit efficiencies and fuel
costs are major factors in the cost of
power production. The proper operation
plants can also affect generation cost where of hydro-"
at times of the year the availability
is high and at other times
must be conserved. Purchase power availability, ofvater
scheduling of overhaul of generating unit co ind the
all affect operating cost.

c) Why are minimum ON time and minimum OFF time

constraints important?
Answer: WBUT 2009]
The minimum ON time and minimum OFF time constraints are .

forecasted demand over a short-term (24 important to. mee

168 hours) period. The objective is
minimize total production cost to meet system to.':
demand and reserve requirements whike
observing a large set of operating constraints.

d)Discuss the basic principle of the dynamic programming

Unit Commitment method in solving the
Problem. WBUT
Answer: 2009].
in a practical problem, the Unit Commitment (UC) table is. to- be
arrived at for the
complete load cycle. If the load is assumed to increase in
small but finite size steps,
ynamic programming (DP) can be used to advantage for computing
the UC table,
wherein it is not necessary to solve the coordination equations;
while at the same time the

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number. For these reasons, only the Dp

combinations to be tried are much reduced in
unit
approach will be advanced here. individual cost characteristics
and the load cycle
available, their load
The total number of units priori, further, it shall be assumed that the
be known a
on the station are assumed to but uniiorm steps of size
combination of units changes in suitably small
on each unit of
AMW (e.g. MW). determined
economical combination is
I

units. the most

Starting arbitrarily with any two combined output of the two units. At each load level
levels of the
for all the discrete load either unit or botli units with
a certain load
may be to run
the most economic answer economical cost curve in discrete form
for the two
The most
sharing between the two. curve of a single cquivalent
unit. The third
be viewed as the cost
units thus obtained. can repeated to find the cost curve of
the three combined
procedure first
unit is now added and the the operating combinations of third and
in this procedure
units. It may be noted that in considerable saving
are not required to be worked out resulting
also third and second units are exhausted. The
effort. The process is repeated, till all available
in computational optimal way of loading k units, it is
this approach is that having obtained the
advantage of 1) units.
determine the optimal manner of loading (k+
quite easy to
defined as follows:
Let a cost function Fy () be
generatingx MW by N units,
F (x)=the minimum cost in Rs/hr of
Sry)=cost of generatingy MW by the Nth
unit
generating (x-v) MW by the remaining (N-1)
Fr-)= the minimum cost of
units.
in the following recursive relation
Now the aprlication of DP results
min
E (x)= " {/o)+Fa(r-v)}
easily determine the combination
of units,
recursive relation, we can
Using the above from the
operating costs for loads ranging in convenient steps
yielding minimum all available
the smallest unit to the sum of the capacities of
minimum permissible load of each unit of
total minimum operating cost and the load shared by
units. In this process the
combination are automatically determined for each load level.
the optimal
Commitment
reserves and constraints in the Unit 2013]
3. Discuss the concept of WBUT
problem.
Answer:
Spinning Reserve
follows:
Spinning reserve is defined as
G
Spinning reserve = 2P-PnaR, at any interval oftime.
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 POWER GENERATION ECONOMICS

Spinning rescrve must be maintaincd

so that the loss of one or more units
unacceptable decline in frequency, does not cause
i.c. there must be sufficient reserve such that if one
unit is lost, other unit can make up for
thc loss
in a specified time period.

Constraints of Unit Commitment

Problems
UCP is a practical problem and
must take into account a large number
constraints. These constraints are of practicat
system. device/operational and environmental
Again, these are broadly categorized type.
as equality and inequality constraints.
Equality constraint is described by
the system power balance (demand plus
Cxport) also known as demand loss and
constraint i.e..

-P
where P, = Load demand
N=Number of units committed at a particular hour

Inequality constraints are:

Minimum up-time and down-time
Unit generation capability (upper/lower) limits
Ramp rate limits
System reserve requirement
Plant crew constraint.
Unit status restrictions (must-run, fixed-MW, unavailable/ available).

The most non-linear constraints are the units minimum up-time

and down-time
restriction. A unit is to be started up only if it will run for a minimum number
of
continuous hours. By contrast, minimum down-time is the number of hours a unit
must
be off-time before it can be brought on-line again. Violation of down-time
constraint may
be alleviated by banking the units.
The upper and lower limits of generation on the generating units force them to operate
within their boundaries of operations.
The rate of increasing or decreasing electrical output from the unit is restricted by the
ramp rate limit.
System reserve requirement pertains to supply the load throughout the scheduling period
with certain degree of reliability even during outage of some committed units.
Plant crew constraint pertains to the number of units that can be started at the same time
in a particular plant due to the limited personnel (crew) available.

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why? WBUT 2014]

type of power plant it is applicable and
4. a) For which
Answer: iteratively solved in conjunction with
are coupled or
decisions ensuring system
The unit commitment pumped storage capabilities and
including
coordinating the use of hydro function may also include
labour constrainte
mncasures. The
reliability using probabilistic normal times that a Tull
operating crew will be
wvhich is the
due to crew policy and
costs,
A foremost consideralion 1s to adequatcly
overtime costs.
available without committing
controls, such as fuel switching.
adopt environmental
WBUT 2014]
in connection with unit commitment:
b) Describe the
following
i) spinning reserve
out units
i) must run and must minimum down time
iii) maximum up time and
iv) maximum up and down
rate
v) Start-up cost.
Answer: Type Questions.
No. 1, 2 & 4 of Short Answer
i) Refer to Question

ii) Must Run Units during the scheduling period.

This is due to
continuously committed
These units are
considerations.
economic and system reliability efficiency or operational reliability or
high
online due to high
These units are always
units.
initial capital cost such as nuclear maintenance and forced outage and
are
service because of
These units are out of
unavailable for commitment.
down-time
constraints are the units minimum up-time and
ii) The most non-linear only if it will run for a minimum
number of
restriction. A unit is to be started up is the number of hours a unit
must
minimum down-time
continuous hours. By contrast, down-time constraint may
brought on-line again. Violation of
be off-time before can be
it

be alleviated by banking the

units.

iv) These rates outline the region of

the dispatch of a unit.
energy is spent
v) Start-up Cost: When a unit
is brought online, a certain amount of
is called
not result into output power. The cost of the spent up energy
which does the unit is practically at
high in case of a 'cold start' where
start-up cost. This may be switched
temperature condition. The start-up cost may be low in case the unit being
room
is very close to the operating temperature.
on was switched off very recently and period. "
cost depends on how a thermal unit is treated during the shutdown
The start-up temperature i
boiler is allowed to cool down and then heated back to operating
the unit
start-up cost is given by:
time for a scheduled turn on, the
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Start-up cost when cooling =C.(1-e F +C

a Thermal timc constant
I Time in hours the
unit was cooled
C. =Cold-start fuel cnergy in kcal/hr
F Fucl cost
C,=Fixed cost
In case, the boiler is allowed to maintain operating
energy (called "banking'), the cost temperature by supplying suffcient
of start-up is given by:
Start-up cost when banking = C,
xtxF+C,
C,
Heat energy/hr for maintaining unit
=
at operating temperature
Time the plant is shutdown
information. Start-up cost is expressed as
a function of the number of hours the
been down (exponential when cooling and unit has
lincar when banking). The shut-down cost is
given by ixed amount for each unit shut down.

Discuss the solutions of unit commitment problem.

5.
Answer WBUT 2015]
It is factthat to run the units available all the time is
not economical. To determine the
units of a plant that should operate for
a particular load is the problem of Unit
Commitment (UC). This problem is of importance
for thermal plants as the other type
generation such as, hydro, the operating cost and start of
up times are negligible so that their
on-off status is not important.
A simple but sub-optimal
solution to the problem is to impose priority ordering
the most efficient unit is loaded first to be followed where in
by the less efficient units in order as
the load increases.
A straight forward but highly time
consuming way of finding the most economical
combination of units to meet a particular load demand, is
to try all possible combinations
of units that can supply this load, to divide the load optimally
among the units of each
combination by use of the coordination equations so as
to find the most economical
operating cost of the combination, then to determine the combination,
which has the least
operating cost among all these. Considerable computational saving can
be achieved by
using branch and bound or a dynamic programming method for
comparing the economics
of combinations as certain combinations need not be tried
at all.

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optimal unit commitmentr How optional

commitment? What is Method?
6. a) What is unit
solved by Dynamic Programming
can be below.
unit commitment problem generating units listed in the Table
four
b) A power system has Generating unit parameters for the system
curve parameters (d=
Table: 0)
Capacity (MW) Cost
Unit No. (Rs/MWV) b (Rs/MW)
Min Max a
0.77 23.5
1.0 12 26.55
1..60
1.0 12 30.0
2.00
1.0 12 32.0
2.50
1.0 12
determine the most economical units to be
It is required to 1 MW. Find also the
d is the fixed cost. MW. Let the load change in steps of
committed for a load of 9 WBUT 2017]
committed units.
minimum cost of operation of the
Answer: Short Answer Type Questions.
Question No. 8(1" Part) of
a) 1* Part: Refer to

2d Part: all the time. To determine

economical to run all the units available
As is evident, it is not for a particular load is the
problem of unit
that should operate other types of
the units of a plant importance for thermal plants as for
commitment (UC). This problem is of negligible so that
their operating cost and start-up times are
generation such as hydro;
their on-off status is not important the problem is to impose
priority ordering, wherein
sub-optimal approach to
A simple but
be followed by the less efficient units in order as
efficient unit is loaded first to
the most
the load increases. economical
highly time-consuming way of finding the most
A straightforward but combinations
a particular load demand, is to try all possible
combination of unitS to meet units of each
supply this load; to divide the load optimally among the
of units that can economical
coordination equations, so as to find the most
combination by use of the least
then, to determine the combination which has the
operating cost of the combination; computational saving can be achieved
by
Considerable
operating cost among all these. method for comparing the economies
bound or a dynamic programming
using branch and all.
combinations as certain combinations need not be tried at
of
Long Answer Type Questions
3d Part: Refer to Question No. 2(d) of
Answer Type Questions.
Similar to Question No.6 Short
of
b)
following: [WBUT 2012]
7. Write short notes on the
a) Unit commitment WBUT 2012, 2015]
b) Spinning reserve
(2) and its Physical significance
c) Lagrangian Multiplier

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 POWERGENERATION ECONOMICS
Answer:
a) Unit commitment:
In operational scheduling
of electric power generation,
the unit commitment. It involves the most important problems is
determining the start
schedules of generating units up and shut down (ON/OFF)
to be uscd to meet
- 168 hours) period. The aim is forecasted demand over a short-term (24
to minimize total production
and reserve requirements while cost to meet system demand
observing a large set
a complcx mathematical optimization of operating constraints. In fact it is
variables. Prior to solve problem having both integer and continuous
the ceconomic dispatch
should be solved beccause only problem. unit commitment problem
those units which were
the unit commitment solution can allocated to generating duties by
be considered for power
generation.
Constraints of Unit Conmitnent
Problems
UCP is a practical problem and
must take into account a
constraints. These constraints large number of practical
are system, device/operational
Again, these are broadly categorized and environmental type.
as equality and inequality
Equality constraint is described constraints.
by the system power
export) also known as demand balance (demand plus loss and
constraint i.e.,

where P = Load demand

N = Number of units committed at a
particular hour
Inequality constraints are:
Minimum up-time and down-time
Unit generation capability (upper/lower)
limits
Ramp rate limits
System reserve requirement
Plant crew constraint.
Unit status restrictions (must-run, fixed-MW,
unavailable/ available).
The most non-linear constraints
are the units minimum up-time
restriction. A unit is to be started up only and down-time
if it will run for a minimum number
Continuous hours. By contrast, minimum of
down-time is the number of hours a unit
be off-time before it
can be brought on-line again. Violation of down-time must
be alleviated by constraint may
banking the units.
The upper and lower
limits of generation on the generating units force
within their boundaries operations. them to operate
of
The rate of increasing
or decreasing electrical output from the unit is restricted
ramp rate limit. by the
ystem reserve requirement pertains to supply the load
throughout the scheduling period
wth certain degree of reliability even during outage
of some committed units.

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 POPULAR PUBLICATIONS

units that can be started at the same time

Plant crew constraint pertains to the number of
personnel (crew) available.
in a particular plant duc to the limited

b) Spinning reserve:
on line (running) must have a definito
To meet contingencies, the capacity of units
times. This margin is called spinning reserve. It
márgin over the load requirements at all
demand upto a certain extent of probable loss of
ensures continuity by mceting the load
used, based on past cxperience, Patton's
generation capacity. While rules of thumb are
promising.
analytical approach to this problem is the most
with operating time and since a unit which
Since the probability of unit outrage increases hours
a particular time has to be started several
is to provide the spinning reserve at
be treated in totality over a period of one
ahead, the problem of security of supply has to
complete certainty. Also, the spinning
day. Furthermore, the loads are never known with
stations of the system and not
reserve has to be provided at suitable generating
necessarily at every generating station.

c)Lagrangian Multiplier (2) and its Physical significance: gradient of g.

For anextremum of exist on g, the gradient of f must line up with the
fto
The gradient is a horizontal vector (i.e., it has no
z-component) that shows the direction
the curve, which is a straight line in
that the function increases; for g it is perpendicular to
this case. If the two gradients are in the same direction,
then one is a multiple (-2) of the

other, so
f=-2Vg
well, giving
The two vectors are equal, so all of their components are as

=0
For all k =l. -n, where the constant 2 is called the language multiplier.
in n+1 unknowns, which is
The extremum is then found by solving the n+1 equations
be so useful.
done without inverting g, which is why language multipliers can
For muliple constraints gl = 0,g2 = 0.*,
+24l +2,Vr2 +=0

Physical Signifcance:
When you want to maximize (or minimize) a multivariable function f(x,y,..subject
to the constraint that another multivariable
function equals a constant, g(x,y,")=C,
follow these steps:
function L as follows:
Step 1: Introduce a new variablel, and define a new
L(ry2)=f(%y,..)-2(g(%,),.)--c)
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 POWER GENERATION ECONOMICS
This function L is called
the "Lagrangian", and
"Lagrange multiplier". the new variable A is referred to as a

Step 2: Sct the gradient of L

cqual to the zero vector.
VL(x,y,2) =0 -Zero vector
In other words, find the critical
points of L.
Step 3: Consider cach solution,
one intoj. Or rather, first
remove the
have 2 as an input. Whichever
,
which will look something
like (x.Yo,
component, then plug it
).Plug each
intof, since f does n
one gives the greatest
(or minimum) point your are (or smallest) value is the maximum
seeking.

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ECONOMIC LOAD
DISPATCH

Multiple Choice Type Questions

power factor (lag) has [WBUTloss
a line af
system working at 0.9 2008
1. A 3-phase balanced line loss would be
the power factor is reduced to 0.6, the d) 7200 kW
3600 kW, If
kW c) 5400 kW
b) 1600
a) 8100 kw
Answer: (d)
of interconnected
operation of power
are the advantages
2. Which of the following WBUT 2008]
system? requirement b) More reliability
a) Less reserve capacity short-circuit level
d) Reduction in
c) High power factor
Answer: (a)
can be obtained from WBUT 2008]
reactive power output
3. Smooth supply of b) synchronous condenser
a) shunt capacitor d) both (b) and (c)
c) static var compensator
Answer: (d)
frequency WBUT 2008]
a lumped inductive load, with increase in supply
4. For b) P & Q increasee
a) P&Q decrease d) P increases but Q decreases
c) P decreases but Q increases of load
Q is the reactive component
where P is the active component and
Answer: (c)
individual
control is achieved by properly matching the
5. Load frequency WBUT 2008, 2014]
machines b) Generated voltage
a) Reactive power ratings
d) Turbine and Generator
c) Turbine input
Answer: (d)
If the loss
are P, = 50 MW. P2 = 40 MW. power
6. The power generated by two plants - 0.0005, then the
loss
B11 0.001, Bz2 = 0.0025 and B12 2014]
co- efficient are WBUT 2009,
will be MWN
MWN c) 4.5 MN d) 8.5
a)5.5MW b) 6.5
Answer: (c)
power system is to be considerea
7. Penalty factor in economic operations of the WBUT 2009, 2010,
2011]
when b) turbine losses are considered
a) generator losses are considered
d) none of these
c) transmission losses are considered
Answer: (c)

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 POWERGENERATION ECONOMICS

The incremental transmission loss of a

8.
a) always positive
plant is WBUT 2010]
b) always negative
c) may be positive or
negative d) none of these
Answer: (c)

9.Reactive pówer is delivered in a system

by WBUT 2010]
a) capacitor bank
b) reactor
c) induction machine
d) all of these
Answer: (d)
10. Load flow solution is done to calculate
a) generated power by slack bus WBUT 2012]
b) system parameter
c) bus voltage & active
power loss
d) bus voltage & phase
angle of each and every bus
Answer: (d)

11. The incremental transmission loss of a plantis

a) positive always WBUT 2013]
b) negative always
c) can be positive or negative
d) zero always
Answer: (c)
12. If for a given alternator in economic operation mode the incremental
cost is
given by (0.012 p +8)Rs/ MW1.=0.2 and plant = 25 then the power
dp generation
1S

a) 1000 MW WBUT 2013]

b) 1250 MW c) 750 MW d) 1500 MW
Answer: (6)

13. The cost function of a 50 MW generator is given by

When 100% loading is applied, the IFC will be
F:)=225+53p +0.02p.
[WBUT 2013]
a) Rs. 55 per MWh b) Rs. 55 per MW
c) Rs. 33 per MWh
d) Rs. 33 per MW
Answer: (c)

14. Interms of plant powers P, and p.. and loss coefficients

transmission loss P is
Bthe total
WBUT 2013]
N
N N

Answer: (c)
BnP'a
m= =l P.P
15. At stack bus, which one of the foltowing combinations of variable is specified?
WBUT 2013]
b) P.Q c) pM d) O.M
Answer: (a)
PGE-73
 PUBLICATIONS
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d) unity matrix
is a matrix
16. Normally Zmatrix
b) sparse matrix
c) full
a) null matrix
Answer: (c) two units in a plant are
characteristics of the Rs/MWh.
incremental cost 0.15p, +3.0
17. The Rs/MHWh, lc, = is WBUT 2013]
Ie =0.1p, +8.0 optimum sharing of the load
100 MW, the
When the total load is P2
P40 MW 60 MW
a) 66.7 MW
b) 33.3 MW 40 MW
c) 60 MW 33.3 MW
d) 66.7 Mw
Answer: (a) incremental transmission loss is
factor of a plant is unity, its WBUT 2013, 2014, 2017]
18. If the penalty d) none of these
c) zero
b)-1.0
a) 1.0
Answer: (Cc)
is 60Hz then change
in
rated frequency
regulation is 5.1 and the WBUT 2014, 2015]
19. If the speed d) none of these
frequency is c)5 Hz
b) 6 Hz
a) 3 Hz
Answer: (a)
of
power system is carried out on the basis WBUT 2014]
20. Economic operation of cost b) equal area criterion power
fuel
a) equal incremental d) all units sharing equal
c) equal fuel cost criterion
Answer: (a)
upon WBUT 2015]
representation, the loss depend
21. In transmission loss b) load
a) generation
parameters d) total power system
c) transmission
Answer: (c)
generator with highest positive incremental
23. For economic
operation, the [WBUT 2017]
transmission loss will operate at
incremental cost of production
a) The lowest positive
b) The lowest negative
incremental cost of production
c) The highest positive
incremental cost of production
d) None of these
Answer: (a)
to plant 2. The loss coefficients
24. In atwo plant system, the load is connected WBUT 2017]
a) B, B,B, are non zero
zero
b) B, and B are non zero but B,is
PGE-74
 POWERGENERATION ECONOMICS
c) B, and B},are non
zero but B,, is zero
d) B,is non zero but
B,and B, are zero
Answer: (d)

25. In the optimum generator

is obtained when scheduling of different plants,
the minimum fuel cost
a) Only the incremental WBUT 2017]
b) The penalty factor fuel cost of each plant is the same
of each plant is the same
The ratio of the incremental
the same fuel cost to the penalty
factor of each plant iss
d) The incremental
fuel cost of each plant
the samne multiplied by its penalty
factor is
Answer: (a)

Short Answer Type guestions

1. The economic dispatches of
and 122 MW and the incrementalthe plants of a power system are 393 MW, 335 MW
IC= 7.92 +0.003125 P
cost are
IC2 7.85 +0.00388 P2
IC 7.97 +0.00964 P respectively. The
Find the modified schedules load increases by 50 MW.
using the method of participation
factor.
Answer: WBUT 2008, 2015]
Total power demand on the
system =392 +335+122+50
899MW
Cost coefficients:
B7.92 7=0.003125
=7.85 2=0 m2og
B=7.97 0.00964
The incremental fuel cost is given by
the equation
P+

2
+
2
L|
27 2x.003125
7.92 7.85
2x.00388
7.97
2x.00964

2 27 27, 2x.003125 2x.00388 2x.00964

899+(7.92 x 160+7.85x 28.865+ 7.97x 51.867)
160+128.865+51.867
899+1267.2+1011.59025 + 413.37999 3591.17024
340.732
=10.5395
340.732

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POPULAR PUBLICATIONS
dispatch
condition for optimum schcduling or optimum
From the
10.5395 7.92 2.6195 2.6195x 160 =419.12 MW
1-
Pa44 271 2x.003125 2x.003125
= 346.5824 MW
10.5395-7.85 2.6895x 128.865
Ps 2x.00388 2x.00388
2 2.56955 2.5695x51.867 = 133.2722 MW
- B_10.5395-7.97 =
Pas
Pas27 2x.00964 2x.00964
generators, 1 and 2, for
supplied by two 200MW
load of 300 MW is
2. A constant
fuel cost are
which the respective incremental
dC0.2P; +40
d'a
dC=0.2P, +30
MW is scheduled
in Rs/h if a load of 220
Calculate the extra cost incurred WBUT 2014]
asP P =110MW.
Answer
-0.2P +40
dP
d-0.2P, +30
dPo
Now for economic operation of the units
dC dC
dPa dP
=0.2P +30
0.2/P +40

Or, 0.2(P-P)=-10
of P-P --50
P+ 300
50
Pa-P
2/P 250
MW
125
P =175 MW

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 POWERGENERATION ECONOMICS

P Plant output
(R+Pa)
30 50
30 25 55
30 40
40 45 85
50 50 100
100 175
100 120 220
For a total load of 220 MW unit I should
take up to 100 MW and unit 2 should supPply
120 MW. For cqual distribution
each unit supplies 110 MW.
The cost of generation for each unit are
C-Jac,ldl, ) dP, = JIC, dP = J{0.2P +40)
JP =0.2P
+40P +k, Rs./h
C Jdc,Idk,)dP = {C dP= {(0.2P, +30
where k and k, are constants.
dr, =0.2P +30P +k Rs.h

The increase in cost for unit 1

C(110)-C (100) =0.2(110 -100)+40(110-100)

= 0.2x210x10+ 400= 420+ 400 = 820 Rs./h
The increase in cost for unit 2
C(110)-C(100) =0.2(110 -100)+3o(110-120)
0.2x 230x(-10)-30x 10= -460 300 -760Rs./h
Net saving caused by optimum scheduling is
-760+820 60 Rs/h
This saving justifies the need for optimal load sharing
and the devices to be installed for
controlling the unit loadings automatically.

3. Develop the condition of economic operation of a power system considering

transmission line loss.
WBUT 2014]
Answer: Refer to Question No. 1(a)
of Long Answer Type Questions.
4. The fuel costs in Rs/hr for the three thermal units are given by.
FP)=300+7R +0.004P Rs./hr.
F(P)=450+7.3P, +0.0025PŽRs./hr.
RB)=600+6.6P +0.003P Rs./hr.
PP are in MW. Find the optimum schedule and compare the cost of this to the
case when the generators share the load equally if the demand is
500 MW. Neglect
losses. WBUT 2015]

PGE-77
 PUBLICATIONS
POPULAR

Answer:
=30+7R+0.004P Rs/hr.
F
Rs/hr.
F= 450+7.3P +0.0025P
+0.003 Rs/hr.
F 600+6.6P
Here power demand
P=500MW
Cost coeficients:
A-7 0.004
B 7.3 =0.0025
B =3.6 0.003by the cquation
is given
The incremental fuel cost 7.3 6.6
+
2x0.004 2x0.0025 2x0.003
22L + 1
2x0.004 2x0.0025 2x0.003
27 27 2, 500+(875+1460+1099.9S6)
500+(7x125+7.3x 200+6.6x 166.66)
491.66
125+200+166.66
500+3434.956 3934.956-8.003
491.66 491.66
scheduling or optimum dispatch
From the condition for optimum
=125MW
P 2x0.004
271

P =8-7.3 =0.7x
2x0.0025
200=140 MW

8-66 =1.4x166.66 =233.324 MW

P-4B_
t B-30,02x0.003
275
Total fuel cost
C=C +C +C = (300+ 875 +62.5)=71237.5/hr.
C =(300+7x125+0.004x125)
(450 +1022 + 49)=1521/hr.
C =(450+ 7.3x 140 +0.0025 x 140)=
C =(600+ 66x 233.324 +0.003x 233.324
= (1539.9384 +163.320)={2303.2584/ hr.
C=(1237.5 +1521+2303.2584)/ hr. =T5061.7584 /hr.

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 POWER GENERATION ECONOMICS
5. Explain the problems
of economic load dispatch. How
settled? the problems can be
Answer: [WBUT 2017]
1" Part: Refer to
Question No.
2nd Part: Refer to Question No. 8(b) of Long Answer Type Questions.
3(a) of Long Answer Type Questions.
6. What are the advantages of
Indian interconnected power interconnected power System? What is the name of
Indian power System? What system? How many Zones are interconnected in
are the names of those
Bengal has been included? zones? In which zone West
Answer: [WBUT 2017]
1 " part:
The connection of several generating
stations in parallel is known as interconnected
system. The advantages are as follows: grid
Exchange of Peak Loads:
An important advantage of interconnected
station can be exchanged. If the load system is that the peak load of the power
curve of a power station shows a peak
is greater than the rated capacity demand that
of the plant, then the excess load can be
stations interconnected with it. shared by other

Use of Older Plant:

The interconnected system makes it possible
to use the older and less efficient plants
carry peak loads of short durations. Although to
such plants may be inadequate when
alone, yet they have sufficient capacity used
to carry short peaks of loads when
with other modern plants. Therefore, interconnected
interconnected system gives a direct key
of obsolete plants. to the use

Increases Diversity Factor:

The load curves of different interconnected
stations are generally different. The
that the maximum demand on the system is resultis
much reduced as compared to the sum
individual maximum demands on different stations. of
In other words, the diversity
the system is improved, thereby increasing factor of
the effective capacity of the system.

2 part: Power Grid Corporation of India -

Its original name was the
Transmission Corporation Limited'. National Power

3 part: 5 zones are inter-connected.

4th
part: The grids were the Northem, Eastern, Western, North
Easterm and Southern
Grids.

part: west Bengal is included in easterm zone.

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Questions
Long Answer Type
load dispatch for a power
co-ordination equation for optimum factor.
1. a) Derive the
and hence an expression for penalty
system including transmission losses
economic operation of the generating
significance of penalty factor in WBUT 2008]
What is the
plant? OR, a function of
a power system can be expressed as
of the assumptions
Show that transmission loss generators in the system. State
outputs of the WBUT 2009
the active power
you make. OR,
generation.
for transmission loss as a function of plant
Derive the expression WBUT 2013, 2015]

Answer: generation at any time under equality

objective is to minimize the overall cost of
The loss, i.e.
demand with transmission
constraint of meeting the load
c-XC(P) (1)

..(2)
--P=0
=

plants
where k= total number of generating
generation ofith plant
all buses (system load demand)
P = sum of load demand at
P =total system transmission loss.
To solve the problem, we write the Lagrangianas

ca)-h-a
iel
in this section
(3)

that, if the power factor of load at

each bus is
It will be shown later
active
loss P can be shown to be a function of
assumed to remain constant, the system
power generation at each plant, i.e.
P=P.(Pa Pa) ..(4)
above, Pi=1,2,,k) are the only contro!
Thus in the optimization problem posed
variables.
For optimum real power dispatch,

0-d-+i-0, k . (5)
ad4+2=0,
dla
i=1,2,.,
the output of only one plant
can
Rearranging Eqn. (5) and recognizing that changing
affect the cost at only that plant, we have

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 POWER GENERATION ECONOMICS

dC
dP dC
= or, L,= l, i=1,2,, k (6)
dP
1

where
(1-8P,/dPa) (7)
is called the penalty factor of the ith plant.
The Lagrangian multiplier 2 is in rupees per megawatt-hour,
when fuel cost is in rupees
per hour. Eqn. (6) implies that minimum fuel
cost is obtained, when the incremental fuel
cost of each plant multiplied by its penalty factor is
the same for all the plants.
The(k +1) variables (Pa Pezs.Pa,2) can be obtained from k potential dispatch

Eqn.(6) together with the power balance Eqn.(2).

The partial derivative is
oa
referred to
as the incremental transmission loss (ITL), ,associated with the
ith generating plant.
Eqn.(6) can be written in the alternative form
(IC) =[1-(ITL),] i=1,2,3,.....k (8)
This Eqn.(8) is referred to as the exact Co-ordination equation.

b) A power system consists of two 100 MW units whose input cost data are
represented by the equations:
C =0.05P +20P, +800 Rupees I hour
C =0.06P+15P,+1000 Rupees / hour
Total received power PR 150 MW. WBUT 2008]
Answer:
The incremental production costs of both the units are
dC
(0.05x 2)P + 20 Rs. per MWhr
dP
= (0.06 x 2)P, +15 Rs. per MWhr
dP
Now for economic operation of the units
dCdC,
dP dP
1.e., 0.1R +20 = 0.12P +15 (1
=150 MW (2)
and +P
Solution of these equations
=59.1M
P=90.90MW
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Now cost of generation = C, +C2

2156.6405 Rs./hr.
C=0.05P* +202 + 800 0.05x 59.1 + 20x 59.1 +800
1000 0.06 x 90.902 4+15x 90.90+1000 = 2859.2686 Rs./hr.
C, =0.06P; +15P, + =
Rs./hr.
Total cost=2156.6405+2859.2686 = 5015.909
are WBUT 2009]
2. The loss coefficients for a system with plants B22 =0.0015
Bi1 0.001 Bi2 0.0007
B
If the power outputs are 200 MW and
150 MW respectively, determine the load on
the plants.
the system. Also calculate the penalty factors of
If the system 2 is Rs. 130 per MWh, calculate
the incremental fuel costs of the
plants.
Answer:
Total losses on the system
x 150 +.0015x 150
=B,P +28,PP+ BP =001x200 + 2x.0007 200x
= .001x 40000+2x.0007 x 30000+.0015x 22500 40+42+33.75
234.25MW
(350-115.75) MW =234.25MW
Load on the system= (200+150-115.75) MW =
Penalty factor of the plant
1

4 1115.75
-2.369
1-.578
1 200
Penalty factor of the plant 2
= 4.378
1OP1115.75 1-.7716
oPGr 150
i=Rs 130 per MWh

dPa =
Incremental fuel cost of plant ' is G l=130x 2.369 308.0568 Rs/MWhr

dC
Incremental fuel cost of plant 2 is
dPa
OG,)
dC =130x4.378 =569.14
dPo
Total incremental fuel cost is, (308.0568 +569.14) = 877.1968 Rs/MWh.

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 POWER GENERATION ECONOMICS
3. a) Develop a
simple computer approach
problem. for solving the economic dispatch
Answer: WBUT 2010
Economic Load Dispatch
The cconomic load dispatchby Newton-Raphson Method:
problem can be defined
by equation
F=f(x, u)
.(la)
s(x,a)=0
h(x, u) s0 (16)
...(lc)
minu Smax
XminX S max
subjected to the power balance
equation (2) and the power limit constraint,
Minimize F(P)=E(«/+BP+1)
Subjected to
F (2)

(i) the power balance NG

equation
2P= Pon, +P and
(ii) the inequality constraints

as P,
P SPS Pa
and 7, are the cost coefficients,
for i= 1,
2,3,..., NG where,
Pond, = total load demand of the
system,
P=real power generation at ith generator bus,
NG=total number of generators,
Pactive power loss in the transmission lines.
Transmission line loss can be
expressed as
NG NG NG
=B+BP, +2P B, P, (3)
The Lagrange function to obtain optimal
power generation being given
NG
by
P )-.(P.)+2| R+-2.| NG

4)
The necessary condition for optimization
is given by

(5)

and oLPAR. +R-2 (6)

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The solution of a non-linear equation can be obtained using Newton-Raphson method in

which any change in control variables, about their initial valucs, can be obtaincd using
Taylor's expansion. Taylor's expansion of second order of equations (5) and (6) can be
written as

AP + aL OL_P. +OAA= - .. (7a)

and
A L OL
.. (7b)
OAdP
for i=1, 2, 3,.., NG
Equations (7a) and (7b) can then be written in a matrix form as
8L L_ 1
oPP P2 || AP aP
(8a)
L_ 8LA OL

for i=1, 2, 3,.., NG and k =1,2,3,., NG

or, [HrHAr
H
or, HChange in control variables=J (8b)
where H and are called Hessian and Jacobian matrix, respectively. The order of
different submatrices of |H| matrix and their interrelationships are given below:
Order of | Hre= NGxNG
Order of
H= NGxI and#J=[H,
Order of [H]=1x1
The order of different sub-matrices of |J| matrix are given below:
Order of I= NGx1
Order of [ J]= Nxl
The first order derivatives required for equations (7a) and (76) are given belor

L)L),oR-|
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 POWERGENERATION ECONOMICS

NG

(20.+)+2+28,P. k
(9a)

for i= 1,2, 3,..., NG

aLP2)P NG
Pua+P-2 (96)
The second order derivatives of equation (9a) with respect to
P, are obtained as:
oL = 2a,
2a, +21B,
+ 228, for i= 1,2, 3,.. . (10a)
oPan aP NG

L =22.B 22B
OPO (106)
oPor
for = 1, 2,3,..., NG; k =1, 2,3,..., NG but
i *k i
The second order derivatives of equation (9a) with respect to l are given in equation (IOc)
8L L_ o-1+B,+2B,= NG

.. (10c)
k=l

for i = 1, 2,3,.., NG
The second order derivatives of equation (9b) with respect to l are obtained as:
L =0 (10d)
Economic load dispatch problem may be solved by solving equation (8a) or (8b) using
equations (9a) - (10d). The flowchart, in order to find economic generation schedule
using Newton-Raphson method, is shown in figure 1.

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Start

Read,
1. Total no. of generators, NG, total load = Paad

for each generator, i.e. for

2. aPT .., NG
1,2,3,
B-coeficients matrix
4. Tolerance allowed, eE and maximum number
of iterations allowed, KPMAX

Compute initial value of A, where a=

Compute initial genceration at all gencrator buses,

P--A/2a, for i= 1,2,3,., NG

Set iteration count kp=0

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 POWERGENERATTON ECONOMICS

Compute the clements of Jacobian

matrix [J], using equations (9a) and (96)|

Compute the clements of Hessian matrix

[H. using equations (10a) -(10a)

Solve equation (8) to obtain

the AP, for i= 1,
2.3,... NG and A

Update the control variables

pkp-l= p) +AP for i= 1,2.3,. NG

and (o*1)= j04°). az)

Calculate tolerance, tol =

a-(a

tol e?
kpkp +1 Using equation (3), compute
transmission line loss. P

-
No Is Compute Totat cost of generation
kp> KPMAX NG

=
A

Yes

Display and/or store

. No. of iterations required, kp

2. Final value of 2, 2P)

3.
Final economic generation,
plkP)
for i=l,2.3,..., NG
4. Transmiss ion line loss, P
5. Total cost of generation,
F

Fig: 1 Flowchart to find economic generation

schedule using Newton-Raphson method Stop

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WBUT 2010, 2013]

b) in a tree plant system the cost functions are given by
P)=500+7 +0:002 P
(P)=400+6.5 P +0.003 P
FR)=200+7.2P, +0.006 P
The transmission loss is expressed as
=0.00002P* +0.00005 P +0.00001
economic dispatch schedule.
Assume total load to be 900 Mw. Find the
Answer:
(IC), =7+0.002 x2
(IC), =6.5+0.003x 2P,
(IC). = 7.2+0.006x21,
(IC), =(IC), = (IC), =2
R+P+B=900 MW
900 7 6.5 7.2
2x0.002 2x0.003 2x0.006,

(2x0.002 2x0.003 2x0.006

900+(7x250 +6.5x 166.67+ 7.2x83.33)
(250+166.67+83.33)
900+(1750 +1083.355 +600) 4333.355R 667
500 500
250 =416.775 MW
P--8.6671-1.6671x
2x0.002
2,
86671-6.5 =
361.19 MW
27 2x0.003
8.6671-7.2-122.25 MW
P 2x0.006
27
P =0.00002P +0.00005P +0.00001P
+0.0001x122.253
P = 0.00002x 416.775*+0.00005x 361.190
3.474+6.52291+1.4945 11.4914 MW.
WBUT 2012]
4. Explain 'Flow only algorithm' with required equations.
Answer:
Newton-Raphson Method
non-linear
Newton-Raphson method is a practical and powerful method of solving
compared t
algebric equations. It works faster, and is sure to converge most cases as
in
memory.
Gauss-Siedel method. The only drawback is the large requirement of computer De
storage scheme. Convergence can
which can be overcome through a compact
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 POWERGENERATION ECONOMICS

considerably spceded up by performing the first iteration

through the G.S. method, and
using the values so obtaincd for solving N.R.
iterations.
Set of n non-linear algebric equations is
considered

It is
S(2.=0 where i =

assumed that initial values of unknowns

be the corrections to be found out,
actual solution. Therefore,
1,2,...,n
are as , x,..., x.
... (1)
Let Ax, Ar,., Ar,
which on being added to the initial values, give the

S+Ar..,+Ax,) = 0; i=1, 2,., n .. (2)

Expanding these cquations around
the initial values by Taylor series,

Ax .. Sxn
+higher order terms =0

where are the derivatives of

f w.r.t. (x, X2,., x) evaluated at

Neglecting the higher order terms, Eqn. (3)

can be written in matrix form as: -

|)
(4)

L
Sx,
or in vector matrix form
S+J'Ar° =0 .. (5)
where Jis the Jacobian Matrix evaluated at r.
In compact notation,

Sx (6)
In eqn. (5)Ar" is the vector of approximate correction.
This can be written in the formn
ar=
(") (7)

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inverse of J°. But in

practice, evaluation of
Thus Ar can be evaluated by calculating and not really needed. Also
matrix is not done, as it is computationally expensive
inverse (5) can be written in the form:
-

inverse has to be found for every iteration. So eqn. ...(8)

J'Ar-S equations, can be solved for Ar
eficientlyby
These being a set of linear algebric
dated values of x are then,
triangularization and back substitution. Up
=+Ar°
In general, for the (r+1) th iteration
)ar-) ... (9)
or, (())ar =s)
or, ()ar =s .. (10)
and )=x+ Ar
desired accuracy i.e.
Iterations are continued till Eqn. (1) is satisfied to any
=
(a specified value), 1,2,.,
s()|<e i "

and the correction Ar'. It

Thus each iteration involves the evaluation of ir)
S(r).
the GS
by NR method is more compared to
indicates hat time taken for each iteration computation time
but the method converges in only a few itcrations and the total
method,
is much less than by the GS method.
for the
5. a) How the transmission loss
formula is expressed? Draw the flow chart
transmission loss.
solution of coordination equation considering WBUT 2012, 2014]

Answer: as
In general fom, the transmission loss can be expressed ... (1)
=PBP +P'B, + Boo

loss formula.
Eqn. () is the generalised transmission
equation considering transmission loss.
Flow chart for the solution of coordination

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 POWER GENERATION ECONOMICS

Start

Read. [Y] matrix formed by the

given line data

Compute [Zn.]= [Ys».J and [Rza.]=

Real [Z»). Xa.] = Im [Zpm]

Read
Total no. of generator buses, NG
2. Total no. of buses, NB
3.
.6 P.0; for each bus, i.e., for
i= 1,2,3,. NB

Compute current at load buses,

,=, for i = 1,2,3,..NB

Compute k-coefficient at load

buses, kj =NE for i =
1,2.3... NB

j=NG+

Compute m-coefticient at generator 2j

buses, m; -. for
NB i =1,2,....., NG

j=NG+1|

Form C matrix and compute C} [RBus c

Compute diagonal elements of a matrix

where aji =
for i= 1,2,3,.. NG and (NG+1)XNG+1)
Z.
Compute and store. [p] = Real =Ic¥ [*BusC]\«
Compute and store the transmiss ion line loss,
P
Pe1
Ps2
LPs.Pe2PsNG JUB|

PsNG
Stop

Fig: 1
Flowchart to find out loss cocflicients (i.e., [B} matrix) and transmission line loss

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In a system
ofN sources, always
ER,,+E8+B J=l
i cocfficients or
B-coefficients (Nx M matrix) and is

are called loss transmitted

where B terms 125 MW is generation
symmetrical. If a load of
Determine the
given figure. incurred.
in Rs.24/MWhr.
two-bus system is shown 15.625 MW is power is
b) A
1 to the
load, a loss ofcost of received
from plant demand if the
schedule and load
P2

PI
LOAD

plants are
cost of the WBUT 2012]
The incremental production
al=0.05P, +20
di-0.025R +I
+15,
dP
not be affected
by
in the line will
Answer: alone, therefore the losses
at bus 2
Since the load is
generator of plant 2. =0
=B,R as B, = B, =0and B
15.625 B, x 125

B, =.001

Now coordination
equation
dR
+L=
=.001p or =002P
where P
equation for plant
I we get
Substituting in the coordination
0.025+15+ 2x.002=2
or, 0.025P +0.048P +15 =24
or, .073/ =9
or,
R=123.28 MW
coordination equation for plant 2
and from the
0.05P +20 = 24

or, =80 =80 MW

05
transmission loss .001x 123.28* =15.19 MW
P =
The =188.1 MW
The load P, =123.28+80-15.19
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 POWERGENERATION ECONOMICS
6. Describe how a "Predicted
daily generation schedule load curve" helps a load dispatch
for an interconnected system. engineer planning
Answer: [WBUT 2013]
The most important planning
aspect of the control centre is load
generation scheduling. Usually, forecasting and
short-term load forecasting is
forecasting is done on a daily preferred where the
basis. The forecasting mechanism
the load curve as accurately ensures the prediction of
as possible with reference
day, the corresponding day in to
the previous week and year and
t e
load curves of the previous
weather conditions. A forecasting also taking into account
program includes some allowances
with special events, if any. in order to cope
An attempt is made to make
incorporating the objective forecasting method effective by
of economic operation in the forecasting
In some forecasting programs, program.
sometimes the skill of a human
experience is included, but usually operator and his/her
load forecasting is attempted
computer algorithms based on following automatic
extrapolation methods. Implementation
programs based on artificial of forecasting
neural networks (ANN) is
account the role of weather, labour more effective and takes into
problem possibilities, disputes and
The next planning aspect is to contingencies.
determine the power reserve in the
amount of power reserve is usually system. A certain
maintained in the interconnected system
the load demand in order to provide in excess of
the scope for maintenance of units
spare capacity to meet minor contingencies. and to have some
It also covers the errors in
the load demands. However, the capacity the estimation of
of reserve depends on the number and
the generating units, maintenance requirements, size of
characteristics of plants, security aspect,
load level, seasonal factors etc. though
active power reserve determination is
customary, still it is preferred to maintain more
some reserve of reactive power.
Plant scheduling and unit commitment are
also very important planning aspects.
scheduling is done in such a way that the major Usually,
hydro-plants and the thermal plants serve
as base load plants. Some low-merit thermal
plants, captive plants and pumped
plants serve as peak load plant. The base load plants storage
operate for full time while the peak
load plants are pressed into service for the
required intervals of time only.
Maintenance of line loadability is also an important
aspect of planning in control centres.
The control centre should plan the routing
of power flow through designated lines in
order to avoid any overloading.
In proper system planning, the role
of reactive power is very important. Proper reactive
power flow can only maintain the voltage level
at different load bus within specified
values. Reactive generation at strategic locations is very
important. Proper reactive power
scheduling should also include adequate security margins.
The reactive power flow
control is also an important aspect. During light load period
the system encounters
reactive power surplus and the long lines may suffer from Ferranti effect.
Shunt inductive
reactors are then to be pressed into service to control the voltage at the
remote ends of the
lines. On the other hand, during heavy load period, the system voltage
drops and it needs
to inject capacitive reactive power into the system. Capacitive
reactive, compensators are
then pressed into service.

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Plant 2
7.
Plant PG D
LoadLoad PD
PGI
transmitted from plant 1 to the
figure. If 100 MW is generation for
system is shown in incurred. Find the required 25/MWH
A two bus of 10 MW is system is Rs.
load, a transmission loss the
by the load when below:
power recelved
each plant and the are given
incremental fuel cost of the two plants
The
L=0.02P +16.0 Rs/MWH
dPa WBUT 2014]
+20.0 Rs/MWH
=0.04P
PL., Therefore,
Answer: any effect on
load is at bus 2 alone, P2 will not have
Since the
and B =0=B
B=0
Hence, P = B,R
Since, Po = 0, Pa=R
=10MW
For, P =100MW, P
or, B,,
=0.001(MW)
ie,
i.e 10 B,(100)
1
For plant

0.02P+16.00 = -A(1-BR)
=2(1-28,la) (1)
and for plant 2 becomes
0.04P+20.00=
we get
Substituting the value of B, and i=25,
P=128.57 MW
P2=125.00MW
The transmission power loss is
P=B,=0.001x(128.57) =16.53MW

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 POWERGENERATION ECONOMICS
and the load is
PD2P =
+Pa-P 128.57 +125 -16.53=237.04 MW
8. a) How input-output
efficiency and Heat-rate curve of a generator can be represented? Explain
(H.R.) the
b) If n-number of generators curve.
cost of generation will be are running in parallel,
minimum? then under what conditions,
c) The input-output curve
of a 10 MW station is expressed
I= 4x10° (10+8L+0.41 )where as followsS:
l is the input KJ/hour
(i) Without plotting and Lis the output in MW.
any curve find the load at
occurs? which the minimur efficiency
(i) Find the increase in input
required to increase the
5 MW by means of
input-output curve and also by station output from 3 to
incremental rate curve.
Answer: WBUT 2017]
a) The energy input can be obtained
by measuring the coal INPUT
tonnage used during the hour and then
energy content in MBTU/ton. The multiplying by the coal Fuelrate
plot the fuel input can be MBTU/hr
plotted in MBTU/hr as a function R
of the
MW. Such a plot is called an input-output power output P, in
curve.
OUTPUT P
Heat-rate Curve: The heat rate curve plots
the heat energy required per MWH
generated electrical output for the of
generator as a function of
the generator's MW output. Thus,
the heat rate curve
indicates the efficiency of the unit
over its operating range.
Generally, units are least efficient
at the minimum and
maximum portions of their MW output capability
efficient somewhere in the middle and most
of their operating range.
The vertical axis is plotted in MBTUMWH
and the
horizontal axis is plotted in MW. You may interpret
the heat
rate for a generator producing X MW as follows:
the heat (Output) Mw
rate indicates the amount of heat input energy
per MWH of generation required. to
produce X MW of power.
The lower this number, the less input energy is
required to produce each MWH of
electricity.

b) The easiest way to setup n-number of generator .

parallel system is to use generators

that are exactly alike, or at least have the same output
rating and alternator pitch.
Another flexible approach to backing up your power requirements is
to have two' or more
generators of variable output. In either scenario, these can be connected
in parallel with
paralleling switchgear to achieve maximum output during peak. requirement
desired minimal output during other times.
or the
Individual units operating in parallel are typically of smaller capacities. The
n these generators
engines used
are usually industrial, on-road or high-volume engines designed with
PGE-95
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of reliability and low
gives them a high degree
technology that
advanced manufacturing
unit of power.
cost of generation per
occurs:
maximum efficiency
c)i) Load at which
I=4x10 (10+8L +0.42)

or,
=4x108+04
Efficiency =pur
Output
Input

Efficiency, 7=-4x10+8+0.4L

when+8+0.4L is minimum
will be maximum
Theefficiency L

d+8+0.4L|=0

1004 0

or, t-25 0.4

or, L=5MW 5MW (Ans.)
at which the maximum efficiency occurs=
Hence, the lcad
i) Increase in input:
curve
By input output
When load, L=3MW
Input, 1,
=4x10°(10+8x3+04x3) =15d.4x10°kJ/h

When load, L=5MW

(10+8x5+0.4x5)=240x 10°kJ/h
Input, 1, =4x10°
(240-150.4)x10° =89.6x 10 kJ/h
Increase in input = I, - =

following
9. Write short notes on thé wBUT 2009, 2010
2011)
a) Reactive power
optimization WBUT 2010,
ioau dispatch
b) Economic load
orof economic operation
operation wwithout consider
c) Algorithm for computer solution WBUT 2013]
2014
losses in the system peak load plants WBUT 2013, 20141
d) Load sharing between
base load and WBUT
e) Active and reactive
power optimization WBUT2014
curve
) Predicted load
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 POWER GENERATION ECONOMICS

Answer:
a) Reactive power optimization:
The power flow solution calculates power
flows and dctermines bus voltages at an
operating point. However, it is left to the
engineering judgement of the system planner to
determine optimum way of system operation
considering operating objectives, operating
and cquipment constraints. Such an
cxercise is very tedious and time consuming for a
practical system with large number of operating
controls and constrairts. A properly
designed optimal power flow solution provides the
best and most optimum practical
solution to achicve improvement in a single
or multiple hierarchical objectives while
respecting various constraints on the system operation.
An OPF can determine the most
effective subset of controls and their solution for a
given operating condition to improve
the specified objectives. OPF can consider different
objectives for improvement such as
transmission loss minimization, voltage stability improvement
and minimization of
system operating cost.
OPF/RPO analysis module of Power Application is
based on the dual LP programming
approach and has the following features:
Newton-Raphson load flow for solution at an operating point.
OPF/RPO solution of multiple-islanded systems. The
solution is available for
each of the islands having a reference (slack) node.
The reference node is
automatically identified by the algorithm as the largest
generator node in each
island.
Choice of objectives for the OPF/RPO (Transmission loss minimization,
Voltage
Stability improvement, Removal of operating violations, Economic
dispatch).
Optimal load flow.
OPF/RPO control options are active power injections, reactive power
injections,
shunt compensations, series compensations. phase shifters, transformer taps.
OPF/RPO sensitivity calculations with respect to the performance objective
provides information for suitable location of shunt reactive power compensation
and also identifies most effective controllers for optimization.
No limits on the number of study cases and related reports in a single execution
of the program.

b) Economic load dispatch:

Economic load dispatch (ELD) problem is a constrained optimization problem in power
systems that have the objective of dividing the total power demand among the online
participating generators economically while satisfying the various constraints. Over the
year, many efforts have been made to solve the problem, incorporating different kinds of
constraints or multiple objectives, through various mathematical programming and
optimization techniques. The conventional methods include Lambda iteration method,
base point and participation factors method, gradient method, etc. Among these methods,
lambda iteration is most common one and owing to its ease of implementation, has been
applied through various software packages to solve ELD problems. But for effective
implementation of this method, the formulation needs to be continuous. The basic ELD
Considers the power balance constraint apart from the generating capacity limits.
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However, a practical ELD must take ramp rate limits, prohibilcd operating zones, valye
to provide the
point loading eftccts and multi fuel options into consideration
a non-convex
completeness for the ELD problem formulation. The resulting ELD
1s

by the traditional
optimization problem. which is a challenging one and cannot be solved
solved by dynamic
methods. An ELD problem with valve point loading has also been
power systems
programming (DP). Though promising results are obtained in small sized
while solving it with DP. it unnecessarily raises the length of solution procedure resulting
in stipulated time frames.
in its vulnerability to solve large size ELD problems
such as Genetic
Moreover. evolutionary and behavioural random search algorithms
been
Algorithm (GA). Particle Swarm Optimization (Ps0) etc, have previously
implemented on the ELD problem at hand. In addition, an integratcd parallel GA
incorporating ideas form simulated annealing (SA) and Tabu search (TS) techniques was
parameter. Yalcinoz
also proposed in utilizing generator's output power as the encoded
has used a real-coded representation technique along with arithmetic genetic operators
and elitistic selection to yield a quality solution. GA has been deployed to solve ELD
with various modifications over the years. In a similar attempt, a unit independent
encoding scheme has also been proposed based on cqual incremental cost criterion. In
spite of its successful implementation, GA does posses some weaknesses leading to
longer computation time and less guaranteed convergence, particularly in case of epistatic
objective function containing highly correlated parameters.
This paper proposes a new optimization approach, to solve the ELD
using a hybrid
Bacterial Foraging (BF) - Differential Evolution (DE) algorithm, which is a recently
emergcd stochastic optimization technique. Passion proposed the Bacterial Foraging
optimization technique, where the social foraging behaviour of Escherichia coli (those
living in our intestines) has been studied thoroughly. On the other hand DE is a simple
Genetic Algorithm (GA), which implements a differential mutation operator that
distinguishes it form traditional GA. In this work the chemotaxis step of bacterial
foraging is made adaptive and merged with the DE in order to tackle real world problems
in a more elegant way.

c)Algorithm for computer solution of economic operation without considering

losses in the system:
The simplest procedure for the economic scheduling of thermal power generating plants,
with losses neglected, is conventionally the 2-iteration method, the algorithm being
presented below:
Step 1: An initial estimate of 2° is to be assigned.
Step 2: To compute P° corresponding to the following numerical relation.
=a,(°) +A)+7
(2 being identical to the initial estimate of the A of the i-th generator

Step 3: To computeP°

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 POWERGENERATION ECONOMICS

Step 4: To check whetherP =P is satisfied.

[Usually
2P- P. = c S0.001 (a tolerance)

Step 5: f 2" becomes less than P it is required to assign a new value ot

2=2 +A2] and go to step 2. Computational

loop is continued
N

tillP-P .
Step 6: 1f P" becomes greater than
P, in step 4, a new value of A'=
assigned and then it is required to
2°-
AA] is
proceed to step 2. Computational
loop is continued till
2-P6.
Step 7: To stop, if step 4 is satisfied.
If the effects of power limits are to be considered,
a partial modification is needed in
algorithm. As 2 is increased or decreased the
in the iterative process,
if a particular
generator loading P reaches the prescribed
limit (P or P) its loading from
now is
held fixed at this value and the balance
of the load demand is then shared between
remaining generation on equal incremental the
cost basis. This operation is also said to be
optimal.

d) Analysis of Load Sharing between

Base Load and Peak Load Stations:
If the combination of two plants/services is
to be used, in that case the next problem is
sharing of load between the plants. It is
not desirable to transfer all the loads to one
and also depending upon the operating plant
characteristics of the various plants the
between the plants should be so decided load
that overall economy is achieved. This
sharing can be easily manipulated by viewing load
the load duration curve of the plants as
follows:

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Fig. 1
shows a load duration curve.

kWpoat

Ape

d (kW)
2
Load duration
curve

Atu KWa

Time (hours)

Fig: 1
Load duration curve of the pilants

Let ApeArea ofcurve for peak load plant,

AnaseArea of curve for base load plant,
kW=Load for peak load plant,
kWha=Load for base load plant,
C Total operating cost of the combination and
h=Hours per year.
Let the base load be supplied by a plant having the annual cost equation as
(Rs.=a +b,kW +ckWh .(1)
For the plant supplying the peak load let the equation be
(Rs.), = a, +b,kW +ckWh (2)
having
Since the base load plant is operated most of the time, therefore, normally a plant
CC us used for meeting the base load.
Let >b,.
on
Let the load between the two plants (Fig. 1) be divided by arbitrary line drawn
10
load duration curve represented by *1'. Under these conditions let kWpase be the kW
base load plant and let kWpeat be the load for peak load plant.

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 POWER GENERATION ECONOMICS
In this case the total
operating cost of the combination is given as:
Ca, ta, +bkW,+b.kW+GA
Now, if the base power is tC, (3)
cxtended by the amount d(k\W)
cost of thc combination will of to line 2', the total operating
modify as follows:
C a, +a, +b,(kW, + dkW)
+b,(kW,-dkW)
+(4e+dkWxh)c, +(4,dkWxh)c . (4)
The change in cost,
C-C=(h, -b,)ck\W +(G -<,)dkWxh
The optimum condition requirements (5)
are that above change must
be zero. 1.e.,
h4 C2-C
(6)
Thus it is possible to share the
load between the plants due
operation is effected. to which overall economy in
The method described above for
distributing the load among the
interconnccted system can be two power plants in an
used for any type of plants
(i) Thermal and hydro, (iii) Nuclear and as (i) Thermal and diesel,
hydro and so on.
e) Active and reactive power
optimization:
Reactive power optimization is an
important function both in planning
day-to-day opcrations of power for the future and
systems. It uses all the reactive
judiciously, while planning suitable power sources
location and size of VAR compensation
With increasing fuel costs and in a system.
capital investments, economics
and scheduling have a tremendous of reactive power planning
effect on the profitable and
power system. reliable operation of a
Electric power systems all over the world
are moving towards deregulated
markets. To control fequency, stability, electricity
security and voltage profile of the
ensure the generation and transmission, system and to
ancillary services like frequency control,
control and system restart are needed. network
Reactive power and voltage control is
ancillary services to maintain voltage profile one of the
through injecting or absorbing
power in electricity market. A number reactive
of optimization techniques have been
the literature to solve the reactive power optimization proposed in
problems.
To minimize the active power loss and
the voltage deviation under some operational
constraints, reactive power optimization in power
system nced fnd a optimal solution,
containing the reactive pover output of generators
(or voltage of generators V), the
reactive power compensation capacity (including the capacity
of shunt capacitors Q, and
reactance 0,) and transformer tap-settings (7). lt has a
significant influence on security
and economic operation of power systems.
The augmented objective function is to minimize the
active power loss AP and
voltage deviation AV, the

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F=min
(1)
AP
cocllicicnt of nodal voltage
node number and is the equivalent
where n is the
is the maximum voltage of
node i, min s the minimum
deviation Al,. Supposing m
AV, is given as below:

Ar=
-
voltage of node i, the definition of

0
(>m
(mSV,s ) (2)
(<) constrains in the
and reactive power balance
Equality constraints contain active
following.
AP=P-P-V2"(G,cos6, +B,sin,)=0 (3)
cos
AQ -0, +N,AQ, -N,AQ, -V2Y(G,sin6, -B, 6,)=0
Pand Q, are
and reactive power supply of bus i,
where Pa and Q are active power
bus i and j, 0, is
reactive load of bus i, V and V, is the voltage module of
active and
i and j. AQ, and AQ,
are the unit capacity of
the difference angle between bus
and N, are working span of capacitor
and
capacitor and reactance of bus i. N,
reactance of bus i.
Inequality constraints contain:

NmSN SNamas
SNpm
mSNu
Tye7, S1,
QmSQa SQinas
S SS
where a, Na, Ng, , are voltage of generator, working span of capacitor, working
are
reactance and transformer tap. All of them are control variables. Q and S,
span of
branch ij and they are state
reactive power output of generator i and power flow on
variables.

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 POWER GENERATION ECONOMICS
Predictive Load Curve:
Unit commitment refcrs to
committing a generating unit to be
clectricity during a specific time online and generating
slot, so that the generation requirements
can be met and other EMS of the system
functions can take necessary
as thermal units require action. Generating stations such
quite an amount of time
gencrate the required voltage to come up to the required speed,
and get synchronized to the
committcd, it should be available system. Once the unit isS
to supply load; however. to leave
committed all the time becomes the generating unit
an expensive affair. It makes
commit the units when they much more sense to de-
are not required. Once the
depending on the requirement, it is load forecasting is done,
committed and de-committed economical to know when each
for specific time slots. unit is to be

Unit IV

Unit I11

Unit I Iod curve

Unit I

6 AM 12 Noon 6 PM Mid Night 6 AM

Time of the day

Fig: 1
Unit commitment of four generating stations
Fig. 1 ilustrates a simple unit commitment
example where four units are supplying the
load on the system and the units are committed
and made available, de-committed
turned off and when there is a demand as seen from and
the predicted load curve.
The unit commitment problem is not as simple as
discussed above, as each power utility
will be working under a large number of constraints
and laws and these have to be nuilt
into the unit commitment problem, so that an
optimal economical schedule is available
for the operations.
Keeping ample spinning reserve as per the directive of the regulatory
authority in each
country is a constraint. Spinning reserve is the ditference between
the total generation
capacity available of all the units online (spinning) and the load supplied
including the
losses. It gives an indication of how much extra capacity the
system possesses to take
care of an emergency, whether the sudden loss of a
generating unit or a transmission line.
Each utility will have norms for the percentage of generation or
load as spinning reserve.
ypically, the reserve is equivalent to the largest generation unit, so that the sudden loss
of any unit can be handled. The spinning reserve could also be a mix of stations that can
be quick started with traditional thermal plants. The
spinning reserve can also be

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corridor congestion may not pose a

geographically distributed so that the transmission
threat. minimum
constraints for unit commitmcnt include the maximum uptime and
Other time and costs, hydro units that may be
downtime for thermmal units, startup and shutdown
the reservoir
they have to run continuously due to rain and flooding of
in a state where utilitics may also
generating units that may have to conserve fucl. Respective
and other
constraints to be considered while mecting their unit commitment.
have their own time intervals and the number of units
commitment defincs a specific number of
The unit combinations can be exponentially high; however, once
to commit. Thc permutations and
actual system loading comes into the picture, the number of
the constraints are set and the
mcthods used are Lagrange relation, dynamic
feasible solutions diminishes. The usual
that are well established.
programning and priority list schemes

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