I

ntr
oduct
ion

I
ssuesandar
gument
s

Cr
it
icalt
hinki
ngi
sthecar
eful
,del
i
ber
atedet
ermi
nat
ionofwhet
her
weshoul
daccept
,rej
ectorsuspendj
udgmentaboutacl
aim-and
oft
hedegr
eeofconf
idencewi
thwhi
cht
oacceptorr
ejecti
t.I
n
ot
herwor
ds,
cri
ti
calt
hinki
ngi
sthear
tofensur
ingt
haty
ouuse
t
hebestt
hinki
ngy
ouar
ecapabl
eofi
nanysetofci
rcumst
ances.
Theabi
l
ityt
othi
nkcr
it
ical
l
yisv
ital
l
yimpor
tant
,inf
actourl
i
ves
dependoni
t.Thewayweconductourl
i
vesdependsonwhatwe
bel
i
evet
obet
rue-
onwhatcl
aimsweaccept
.Themor
ecar
eful
l
y
weev
aluat
eacl
aim andt
hemor
eful
l
ywesepar
atei
ssuet
hatar
e
r
elev
antt
oitf
rom t
hoset
hatar
enot
,themor
ecr
it
icali
sour
t
hinki
ng.

Now,
whenev
erwehav
etot
hinkcr
it
ical
l
ythef
ir
sti
tem of
busi
nessi
stomakesur
ewear
efocusi
ngont
hecor
recti
ssue.
Butt
henwhati
sani
ssue?Ani
ssuei
sanymat
terofcont
rov
ersy
oruncer
tai
nty
;itmaybei
ndi
sput
e,i
ndoubt
,orsi
mpl
y“upf
or
r
evi
ew.
”Forexampl
epeopl
emayhav
eopposi
ngv
iewson
abor
ti
on.Onepar
tbei
ngf
orandt
heot
heragai
nstabor
ti
on.I
n
t
hiscase,
whati
sati
ssuei
s“whet
herabor
ti
oni
smor
all
y”
accept
abl
e.Ani
ssuecanal
sobeamat
terofi
nter
naldi
sput
efora
si
ngl
eindi
vi
dual
.Forexampl
e,“
whet
herIshoul
dacceptt
he
mar
ri
agepr
oposaloft
hisguy
,”“
whet
herIshoul
dbuyanewcar
”
et
c.Myuncer
tai
ntyi
swhatmakesi
tani
ssuef
orme.Howt
hen
dower
esol
vei
ssues?I
ssuesar
eset
tl
edt
hroughar
gument
s.
Gener
all
yanar
gumentcanbet
houghtofasanat
temptt
o
suppor
tacl
aim bygi
vi
ngr
easonsf
orbel
i
evi
ngi
t.Thecl
aim one
at
tempt
stosuppor
tisknownast
heconcl
usi
onoft
hear
gument
;
t
hecl
aimst
hatser
veasr
easonsf
orbel
i
evi
ngt
heconcl
usi
onar
e
knownaspr
emi
ses.

So,
thenanar
gumenti
sanat
temptt
osuppor
tacl
aim(
the
concl
usi
on)bypr
ovi
dingr
easonsorar
easonf
orbel
i
evi
ngi
t(t
he
pr
emi
ses)
.Inot
herwor
ds,
inanar
gument
,pr
emi
sesar
edesi
gned
t
opr
ovi
desuppor
tforaconcl
usi
on.

Fact
sandOpi
nions

Thewor
dfacti
sof
tenusedt
oindi
cat
eoremphasi
zet
hatacl
aim
i
str
ue.Forexampl
e,i
tisaf
actt
hatmountKi
l
imanj
aroi
sin
Tanzani
awhi
chmeanst
hesameasi
tist
ruet
hatmount
Ki
l
imanj
aroi
sinTanzani
a.Thewor
dopi
nionont
heot
herhandi
s
usedt
oindi
cat
ethatacl
aimi
sbel
i
eved,
orj
udgedt
obet
rueby
someone,
oft
enaf
teracer
tai
namountoft
hought
.E.
g.,
Iti
s
Juma’
sopi
niont
hatmountKi
l
imanj
aroi
sinTanzani
asay
sthat
Jumabel
i
evesmountKi
l
imanj
aroi
sinTanzani
a.Si
mil
arl
y,i
tis
Jane’
sopi
niont
hatMountKi
l
imanj
aroi
sinKeny
asay
sthatJane
bel
i
evest
hatMountKi
l
imanj
aroi
sinKeny
a.

Tal
ki
ngaboutt
het
woopi
nionsabov
e,i
tmaybeseent
hatt
he
f
ir
stopi
nioni
str
ue,
thati
sthecl
aimi
snotj
ustJuma’
sopi
nion,
it
i
sal
soaf
act
.Thesecondopi
nioni
sfal
se,
i.
e.,
iti
snotaf
actt
hat
MountKi
l
imanj
aroi
sinKeny
a.Thi
smeanst
hatsomeopi
nions
ar
efact
ual(
true)andsomear
enot
.Ther
efor
eoneoft
hegoal
sof
cr
it
icalt
hinki
ngi
stohel
pusf
orm opi
nionst
hatar
efact
ualand
av
oidf
alseopi
nions.

Fact
ualmat
ter(
mat
teroff
act
)

Wesayt
hatani
ssuei
saboutaf
act
ualmat
teroramat
teroff
act
whent
her
ear
eest
abl
i
shedmet
hodsf
orset
tl
ingi
t,i
.e.
,whent
her
e
ar
egener
all
yaccept
edcr
it
eri
aorst
andar
dsonwhi
cht
hei
ssue
cabbej
udged.Not
icet
hatsay
ingsomet
hingi
saf
act
ualmat
teri
n
t
hissensei
sdi
ff
erentf
rom say
ingt
hati
tisaf
act
.Forexampl
e,
consi
dert
hei
ssueofwhet
herl
eukemi
ainhumansi
scausedbya
v
irusornot
.(I
tisnotknownasofy
etwhet
herl
eukemi
aiscaused
byv
irusornot
).Butev
ent
houghwedonotknowt
hati
tisaf
act
t
hatav
iruscausesl
eukemi
a,i
tisaf
act
ualmat
terbecauset
her
e
ar
eaccept
edmet
hodsandcr
it
eri
abymeansofwhi
cht
he
quest
ioncanbeanswer
ed,
namel
y,t
hemet
hodsofl
abor
ator
y
sci
ence.Anot
herexampl
e;whet
herLaur
entBagbowont
hel
ast
el
ect
ionsi
nIv
oryCoastornot
.Or
,whet
herLi
byanswantt
he
oust
erofMuammarGaddaf
iornot
.

Mat
ter
sofPur
eOpi
nion

SupposeRoset
hinksdogsmakebet
terpet
sthancat
sandAi
sha
t
hinkscat
sar
ebet
ter
.Af
tersomedi
scussi
on,
itmi
ghtbeei
ther
RoseorAshercoul
dconv
incet
heot
hert
ochangehi
smi
nd,
buti
t
i
satl
eastl
i
kel
ythatbot
hwi
l
lst
ickwi
tht
hei
ror
igi
nalopi
nions.
Ther
eisnosetoff
act
sornogener
all
yaccept
edmet
hodor
st
andar
dwemi
ghtempl
oyt
hatwoul
denabl
eust
odeci
det
he
i
ssuedef
ini
ti
vel
yonewayort
heot
her
.Fort
hisr
easonwet
hinkof
i
ssuesl
i
ket
hisasmat
ter
sofpur
eopi
nion.

Onecanbeei
therwr
ongorcor
rectwhendi
sagr
eei
ngonamat
ter
off
act
,i.
e.,
twoconf
li
cti
ngopi
nionsaboutamat
teroff
actcannot
bebot
hcor
rect
.Butweal
l
owt
wopeopl
etohol
dconf
li
cti
ng
opi
nionsaboutmat
ter
sofpur
eopi
nion.
Ot
herexampl
esofmat
ter
sofpur
eopi
nion:Somebodymaymake
t
hiscl
aim,
”Godexi
sts”andt
heot
hercont
ends,
“Goddoesnot
exi
st.
”Or“
pol
i
ciesofl
i
ber
ali
sm ar
eessent
ialf
ordev
elopment
.”Or
“
Tanzani
aisani
cecount
ryt
oli
vei
n.”“
Chr
ist
iani
tyi
stheonl
ytr
ue
r
eli
gion”or“
Isl
am i
stheonl
ytr
uer
eli
gion.
”

Obj
ect
iveandsubj
ect
ivecl
aims

Connect
edt
othet
woconcept
sabov
ear
esubj
ect
iveand
obj
ect
ivecl
aims.Now,
clai
msaboutf
act
ualmat
ter
sar
eal
so
knownasobj
ect
ivecl
aims,
wher
eascl
aimsaboutmat
ter
sofpur
e
opi
nionar
eknownassubj
ect
ivecl
aims.Obj
ect
ivecl
aimsar
e
st
atement
sthatar
etr
ueorf
alser
egar
dlessofourper
sonal
pr
efer
ences,
tast
es,
biasesandsoon.Subj
ect
ivecl
aimsar
e
expr
essi
onoft
hosepr
efer
ences,
tast
es,
biasesandsoon,
al
thought
heymayappearatf
ir
stt
obeaboutsomet
hingel
se.For
exampl
e,i
fIsayt
hatMi
ri
ndat
ast
esbet
tert
hanFant
a,Iam say
ing
i
not
herwor
dst
hatIl
i
ket
het
ast
eof
Mir
indabet
tert
hanIl
i
ket
he
t
ast
eofFant
a.So,
IfJanesay
sMi
ri
ndat
ast
esbet
tert
hanFant
a
andAshasay
sFant
atast
esbet
tert
hanMi
ri
nda,
theycanbot
hbe
cor
rectbecauseeachi
sreal
l
yexpr
essi
nghi
sownt
ast
es.

NB:
1.Manypeopl
eassumet
hatacl
aimi
ssubj
ect
ive–amat
terof
pur
eopi
nionsi
mpl
ybecausei
tiscont
rov
ersi
al.Thi
sisabad
mi
stake.Whet
hert
hedeat
hpenal
tyl
ower
scr
imer
ates,
whet
her
humanbei
ngsev
olv
edf
rom mor
epr
imi
ti
vepr
imat
es,
whet
hert
he
wor
ldhasanendornot
-thesear
eal
lcont
rov
ersi
ali
ssues,
butal
l
oft
hem ar
efact
ualmat
ter
s.Thati
s,wecani
magi
nepr
ocedur
es
bywhi
cht
heycanbet
est
edt
odet
ermi
newhet
hert
heyar
etr
ue.

Ther
ear
elegi
ti
mat
edi
sput
esaboutt
heobj
ect
iveandsubj
ect
ive
nat
ureofsomecl
aims.Manypl
acecl
aimsaboutmor
ali
ssuesi
n
t
hiscat
egor
y.“
Steal
i
ngi
swr
ongi
ssai
dbyt
obeanobj
ect
ive
cl
aim,
ast
atementoff
act
,ot
her
stakei
ttobeasubj
ect
ivecl
aim,
anexpr
essi
onofpur
eopi
nion.Ther
ear
esomesophi
sti
cat
ed
ar
gument
sabouthowsuchcl
aimsshoul
dbecl
assi
fi
ed.The
samei
str
uef
orcl
aimsl
i
ke“Godexi
sts.
”Somesayt
hisi
sa
st
rai
ghtf
orwar
dobj
ect
ivecl
aim;
other
ssayi
tisn’
tacl
aim atal
l
.
Howev
eronesor
tsoranal
ysest
heseki
ndsofcl
aims,
theydo
hav
eonet
hingi
ncommon:whet
herornotwecanf
inal
l
y
det
ermi
net
het
rut
haboutt
hem,
itst
il
lremai
nst
ruet
hatsome
opi
nionsar
ebet
terr
easoned(
orhav
emor
eval
ue)
-andi
ndeed,
mor
eint
ell
i
gent
-thanot
her
s.

2.Pr
obl
emsoccurwhenwef
ailt
ounder
standt
hedi
ff
erences
bet
weenmat
ter
soff
actandmat
ter
sofpur
eopi
nion,
and
bet
weenobj
ect
iveandsubj
ect
ivecl
aimswi
thwhi
chwest
ate
t
hem.Wecanwast
eti
mebyt
ryi
ngt
oconv
incesomeonet
o
changehi
sorhermi
ndonamat
terofpur
eopi
nion,
sincei
nthe
l
ongr
unt
her
eisnowayt
ofi
nal
l
yset
tl
ethemat
ter
.Ont
heot
her
hand,
wemakeaser
iousmi
stakei
fwet
reatamat
teroff
actasi
f
i
twer
eoneofpur
eopi
nion.Cal
l
ingi
tpur
eopi
nioncanbean
excusef
orf
ail
i
ngt
opur
suet
hei
ssue;
itcanbeawayofav
oidi
ng
adi
ff
icul
tpr
obl
em orabandoni
ngi
tbef
orewe’
vet
ri
edourbestt
o
set
tl
eitonewayoranot
her
.

3.Ther
eisanot
hermi
staket
hati
ssocommont
hati
tdeser
ves
speci
alconsi
der
ati
on.Youcaneasi
l
yspott
hemi
stakebecausei
t
al
mostal
way
stakest
hesamef
orm,
event
hesamewor
ds:
“
Ever
yonei
sent
it
ledt
ohi
sorherownopi
nion.
”Now,
iti
str
ue
t
hati
nsomesense,
ever
yonei
sent
it
ledt
ohi
sorherownopi
nion
onany
thi
ng.Ther
easonf
ort
hisi
sthat
,inany
thi
ngexcepta
compl
etel
yaut
hor
it
ari
andi
ctat
orshi
p,peopl
ear
enotf
orcedt
o
hol
dagi
vensetofopi
nions.But
-andt
hisi
sthemi
stake–t
he
f
actt
hatwedonotf
orcepeopl
etohav
ethi
sort
hatopi
nionona
subj
ectdoesnotmeant
hatoneopi
nionmaynotbemuchmor
e
i
ntel
l
igent
,muchmor
epr
act
ical
,muchmor
ehumanet
hansome
ot
heropi
nion.I
ndeedsomeopi
nionsar
esobad,
sost
upi
d,orso
danger
oust
hati
tmaybehazar
dousorev
eni
mmor
alt
ohol
d
t
hem.Opi
nionssuchassomer
acesar
esuper
iort
hanot
her
s,or
humansl
aver
yisaj
ust
if
iabl
efor
m ofl
abouroranyonehast
he
r
ightt
oter
minat
ehi
s/herownl
i
fe.Al
thoughi
tisv
italt
oar
gue
agai
nstsuchdef
ect
iveopi
nions,
ther
ealdangeroft
he
“
ent
it
lementer
ror
”ist
hati
tkeepspeopl
efr
om t
alki
ngand
r
easoni
ngwi
thoneanot
her
.Weshoul
dn’
tconf
uset
heequalv
alue
ofpeopl
ewi
tht
heequalv
alueofpeopl
e’
sopi
nions.Remember
j
ustbecauseHumanRi
ght
sChar
tergi
vesequalwor
tht
opeopl
e,i
t
doesnotgi
veequalwor
tht
opeopl
e’
sopi
nions.

Thi
nki
ngaboutourownt
hinki
ng

Ev
ery
bodyt
hinks.I
tisnat
uralt
ohumanst
othi
nk.Buthuman
t
hinki
ngl
eftt
oit
sel
fof
tengr
avi
tat
etowar
dspr
ejudi
ce,
ov
ergener
ali
zat
ion,
commonf
all
aci
es,
sel
fdecept
ion,
rigi
dit
yand
nar
rowness.Ther
efor
ehumant
hinki
ngneedst
obedi
sci
pli
ned,
humanmi
ndsneedst
obet
rai
nedsoast
oav
oidt
heabov
e
t
hinki
ngpr
obl
ems.Thecr
it
icalt
hinki
ngt
radi
ti
onseeksway
sof
under
standi
ngt
hemi
ndandt
hent
rai
ningt
hei
ntel
l
ectsot
hat
such“
err
ors”
,“bl
under
s”and“
dist
ort
ions”oft
houghtar
e
mi
nimi
zed.I
tassumest
hatt
hecapaci
tyofhumansf
orgood
r
easoni
ngcanbenur
tur
edanddev
elopedbyaneducat
ional
pr
ocessai
meddi
rect
lyatt
hatend.

Thi
nki
ngpl
aysav
erypower
fulr
olei
nourl
i
ves.Youar
einmany
way
swhaty
out
hink.What
every
ouar
edoi
ng,
what
every
ouf
eel
,
andwhat
every
ouwant–al
lar
edet
ermi
nedbyt
hequal
i
tyofy
our
t
hinki
ng.Thi
nki
ngi
nfl
uencesourf
eel
i
ngsandf
inal
l
yourf
eel
i
ngs
wi
l
linf
luencet
hewaywebehav
eandact
.Onehast
obeawar
eor
consci
ousofhi
s/herownt
hinki
ng.Howev
erf
ormostpeopl
e,
mostoft
hei
rthi
nki
ngi
ssubconsci
ous,
thati
smostpeopl
ear
e
notawar
eoft
hei
rthi
nki
ng.Andwheny
ouar
enotawar
eofy
our
t
hinki
ngy
ouhav
enochanceofcor
rect
ingi
t.Whent
hinki
ngi
s
subconsci
ousy
ouar
einnoposi
ti
ont
oseeanypr
obl
emsi
nit
.
And,
ify
oudon’
tseeanypr
obl
emsi
nity
ouwon’
tbemot
ivat
edt
o
changei
t.Ev
ent
ual
l
ymostpeopl
ear
evi
cti
msoft
hei
rown
t
hinki
ng.Mostpeopl
ear
ethei
rownwor
stenemy
.Thei
rthi
nki
ngi
s
acont
inualsour
ceofpr
obl
ems,
prev
ent
ingt
hem f
rom
r
ecogni
zi
ngoppor
tuni
ti
es,
keepi
ngt
hem f
rom exer
ti
ngener
gy
wher
eitwi
l
ldot
hemostgood,
poi
soni
ngr
elat
ionshi
ps,
and
l
eadi
ngt
hem downbl
i
ndal
l
eys.Thati
swhycr
it
icalt
hinki
ngi
s
essent
ial
l
ydef
inedast
hear
toft
aki
ngchar
geofy
ourownmi
nd.
Andi
fwecant
akechar
geofourownmi
nds,
wecant
akechar
ge
ofourl
i
ves;
wecani
mpr
ovet
hem,
bri
ngi
ngt
hem underoursel
f
commandanddi
rect
ion.Thi
sinv
olv
esbecomi
ngi
nter
est
edon
howourmi
ndswor
k,howwecanmoni
tor
,fi
net
uneandmodi
fy
t
hei
roper
ati
onsf
ort
hebet
ter
.Iti
nvol
vesget
ti
ngi
ntot
hehabi
tof
r
efl
ect
ivel
yexami
ningouri
mpul
seandaccust
omedway
sof
t
hinki
ngandact
ingi
nev
erydi
mensi
onofourl
i
ves.

Al
lthatwedo,
wedoont
hebasi
sofsomemot
ivat
ionorr
easons.
Butwer
arel
yexami
neourmot
ivat
ionst
oseei
ftheymakesense.
Wer
arel
yscr
uti
nizeourr
easonscr
it
ical
l
ytoseei
ftheyar
e
r
ati
onal
l
yjust
if
ied.Consi
dert
hef
oll
owi
ngr
eall
i
feexampl
es:

1.Asconsumer
swesomet
imesbuyt
hingsi
mpul
siv
elyand
uncr
it
ical
l
y,wi
thoutst
oppi
ngt
odet
ermi
newhet
herwer
eal
l
yneed
whatwear
eincl
i
nedt
obuyorwhet
herwecanaf
for
ditorwhet
her
i
tisgoodf
orourheal
thorwhet
hert
hepr
icei
scompet
it
ive.

2.Aspar
ent
sweof
tenr
espondt
oourchi
l
dreni
mpul
siv
elyand
uncr
it
ical
l
y,wi
thoutst
oppi
ngt
odet
ermi
newhet
herouract
ions
ar
econsi
stentwi
thhowwewantt
oactaspar
ent
sorwhet
herwe
ar
econt
ri
but
ingt
othei
rsel
f-
est
eem orwhet
herwear
e
di
scour
agi
ngt
hem f
rom t
hinki
ngorf
rom t
aki
ngr
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
or
t
hei
rownbehav
ior
.
3.Asci
ti
zenst
oo,
weof
tenv
otei
mpul
siv
elyanduncr
it
ical
l
y,
wi
thoutt
aki
ngt
het
imet
ofami
l
iar
izeour
sel
veswi
tht
her
elev
ant
i
ssuesandposi
ti
ons,
wit
houtt
hinki
ngaboutt
hel
ongr
un
i
mpl
i
cat
ionofwhati
sbei
ngpr
oposed,
wit
houtpay
ingat
tent
iont
o
howpol
i
tici
ansmani
pul
ateusbyf
lat
ter
yorv
agueandempt
y
pr
omi
ses.

4.Asf
ri
ends,
tooof
tenwebecomet
hev
ict
imsofourown
i
nfant
il
eneeds,
“get
ti
ngi
nvol
ved”wi
thpeopl
ewhobr
ingoutt
he
wor
sti
nusorwhost
imul
ateust
oacti
nway
sthatwehav
ebeen
t
ryi
ngt
ochange.

5.Ashusbandsorwi
vest
oo,
oft
enwet
hinkonl
yofourown
desi
resandpoi
ntsofv
iew,
uncr
it
ical
l
yignor
ingt
heneedsand
per
spect
ivesofourmat
es,
assumi
ngt
hatwhatwewantandwhat
wet
hinki
scl
ear
lyj
ust
if
iedandt
rue,
andt
hatwhent
heydi
sagr
ee
wi
thust
heyar
ebei
ngunr
easonabl
eandunf
air
.

6.Aspat
ient
s,t
ooof
tenweal
l
owour
sel
vest
obecomepassi
ve
anduncr
it
icali
nourheal
thcar
e,notest
abl
i
shi
nggoodhabi
tsof
eat
ingandexer
cise,
notquest
ioni
ngwhatourdoct
orsay
s,not
desi
gni
ngandf
oll
owi
nggoodpl
ansf
orourownwel
l
ness.
7.Ast
eacher
s,t
ooof
tenweal
l
owour
sel
vest
ouncr
it
ical
l
yteach
aswehav
ebeent
aught
,gi
vi
ngassi
gnment
sthatst
udent
scan
mi
ndl
essl
ydo,
inadv
ert
ent
lydi
scour
agi
ngt
hei
rini
ti
ati
veand
i
ndependence,
missi
ngoppor
tuni
ti
est
ocul
ti
vat
ethei
rsel
f-
di
sci
pli
neandt
hought
ful
ness.

I
tisqui
tepossi
bleand,
unf
ort
unat
ely
,qui
te“
nat
ural
”tol
i
vean
unexami
nedl
i
fe;
tol
i
vei
namor
eorl
essaut
omat
ed,
uncr
it
ical
way
.Iti
spossi
blet
oli
ve,
inot
herwor
ds,
wit
houtr
eal
l
ytaki
ng
char
geoft
heper
sonswear
ebecomi
ng;
wit
houtdev
elopi
ngor
act
ingupont
heski
l
lsandi
nsi
ght
swear
ecapabl
eof
.Howev
er,
if
weal
l
owour
sel
vest
obecomeunr
efl
ect
iveper
sons–(
orr
ather
,
t
otheext
entt
hatwedo)–wear
eli
kel
ytodoi
njur
ytoour
sel
ves
andt
oot
her
s,andt
omi
ssmanyoppor
tuni
ti
est
omakeourown
l
i
ves,
andt
hel
i
vesofot
her
s,f
ull
er,
happi
er,
andmor
epr
oduct
ive.

Ont
hisv
iew,
youcanseecr
it
icalt
hinki
ngi
sanemi
nent
lypr
act
ical
goalandv
alue.I
tisf
ocusedonananci
entGr
eeki
dealof“
li
vi
ngan
exami
nedl
i
fe”
…(r
ememberSocr
ates.
.?
).I
tisbasedont
heski
l
ls,
t
hei
nsi
ght
sandt
hev
aluesessent
ialt
othatend.I
tisawayof
goi
ngaboutl
i
vingandl
ear
ningt
hatempower
susasi
nst
ruct
ors
andourst
udent
sinqui
tepr
act
icalway
s.Whent
akenser
iousl
yit
cant
ransf
orm ev
erydi
mensi
onofourl
i
fe.
Whenwet
ryt
othi
nkaboutourownt
hinki
ngwehav
etot
ake
st
ockoft
het
hingsorf
act
orst
hathav
ehad,
andcont
inuet
ohav
e
i
nfl
uenceonourt
hinki
ng,
oronourwor
ldv
iew.Themedi
a,t
he
school
i
ng,
thef
ami
l
y,ourpeer
s,r
eli
gion,
tradi
ti
onsandcust
oms
andmanyot
her
s;al
loft
heseagent
shav
ehadandcont
inuest
o
exer
tapr
ofoundi
nfl
uenceonourt
hinki
ngandourl
i
vesi
ngener
al.
Theyhav
ebot
hnegat
iveandposi
ti
veef
fect
s.Af
terr
ecogni
zi
ng
t
hef
actt
hatal
ltheseagent
sar
eresponsi
blef
oraper
son’
swor
ld
v
iew,
onehast
otaket
het
roubl
etochal
l
enget
hecont
ent
sof
t
hese‘
soci
ali
zat
ion’
agent
s.Toquest
ional
lthathasi
nfl
uenced
t
hewaywev
iewt
hewor
ld.Tochal
l
enget
hewr
ongnot
ionsi
nthe
medi
a,f
ami
l
y,school
,rel
i
gionet
c,et
c.

Amongot
hert
hingst
hiscour
sewi
l
lhel
pyout
oimpr
ovet
he
qual
i
tyofy
ourt
hinki
ngbyquest
ioni
ngal
ltheunquest
ioned
i
magi
nat
iveassumpt
ions,
andt
her
efor
ehel
pyout
oachi
evey
our
goal
sandambi
ti
ons,
makebet
terdeci
sions,
andunder
stand
wher
eot
her
sar
etr
yingt
oinf
luencey
ourt
hinki
ng.I
twi
l
lhel
pyou
t
otakechar
geofwhaty
oudoi
nyouracademi
candpr
ivat
eli
fe,
howy
our
elat
ewi
thot
her
sandev
enwhatemot
ionsy
ouf
eel
.
Oncey
oudi
scov
ert
hepowerandt
her
oleoft
hinki
ngi
nyourl
i
fe
y
ouwi
l
lbecomeabet
terpr
obl
em sol
ver
,youw2i
l
lbeabl
etouse
powermor
ewi
sel
y,y
ouwi
l
lbecomel
esssubj
ectt
omani
pul
ati
on,
y
ouwi
l
lli
veaf
ull
er,
mor
ehappyandsecur
eli
fe.

Ot
herbenef
it
sofcr
it
icalt
hinki
ngi
ncl
ude:

1.I
NAcademi
cPer
for
mance

Under
standt
hear
gument
sandbel
i
efsofot
her
s

Cr
it
ical
l
yev
aluat
ingt
hosear
gument
sandbel
i
efs

Dev
elopanddef
endone’
sownwel
l
-suppor
tedar
gument
sand
bel
i
efs.

2.I
NtheWor
kpl
ace

Hel
psust
oref
lectandgetadeeperunder
standi
ngofourown
andot
her
s’deci
sions

Encour
ageopen-
mindednesst
ochange

Ai
dusi
nbei
ngmor
eanal
yti
cali
nsol
vi
ngpr
obl
ems
3.I
NDai
l
yli
fe

Hel
psust
oav
oidmaki
ngf
ool
i
shper
sonaldeci
sions.

Pr
omot
esani
nfor
medandconcer
nedci
ti
zenr
ycapabl
eofmaki
ng
gooddeci
sionsoni
mpor
tantsoci
al,
pol
i
ticalandeconomi
cissues.

Ai
dsi
nthedev
elopmentofaut
onomoust
hinker
scapabl
eof
exami
ningt
hei
rassumpt
ions,
dogmas,
andpr
ejudi
ces.

Thi
nki
ngi
ntheCont
empor
aryGl
obal
i
singWor
ld

Real
i
tyi
ntoday
’swor
ldi
ssoqui
ckl
ychangi
ngt
hati
tisdi
ff
icul
t
t
omast
eronet
hingbef
oreanot
hercomesi
ntoexi
stence.New
gl
obalr
eal
i
tiesar
erapi
dlypenet
rat
ingt
hedeepestst
ruct
uresof
ourl
i
ves:economi
c,soci
al,
cul
tur
al,
pol
i
ticalandenv
ironment
al
r
eal
i
ties.Andt
hesenewgl
obalr
eal
i
tieshav
epr
ofound
i
mpl
i
cat
ionsf
ort
hinki
ngandl
ear
ning,
busi
nessandpol
i
tics,
humanr
ight
sandhumanconf
li
cts.Theser
eal
i
tiesar
ebecomi
ng
i
ncr
easi
ngl
ycompl
ex,
andmanyr
epr
esentsi
gni
fi
cantdanger
s
andt
hreat
s.Tr
adi
ti
onal
l
y,ourt
hinki
nghasbeendesi
gnedf
or
r
out
ine,
forhabi
t,f
oraut
omat
ion,
andf
ixedpr
ocedur
e(mazoea,
kuf
any
aaukuami
nij
ambobi
l
akuj
i
uli
zakwani
ni)
.Butt
he
pr
obl
emswenowf
aceandwewi
l
lincr
easi
ngl
yfacer
equi
rea
r
adi
cal
l
ydi
ff
erentf
orm oft
hinki
ng;
thi
nki
ngt
hati
smor
ecompl
ex,
mor
eadapt
abl
e,andmor
esensi
ti
vet
odi
ver
gentpoi
ntsofv
iew.
Thewor
ldi
nwhi
chwenowl
i
ver
equi
rest
hatwecont
inual
l
yre-
l
ear
n,t
hatwer
out
inel
yret
hinkourdeci
sions,
andwer
egul
arl
yre-
ev
aluat
ethewaywewor
kandl
i
ve.Theset
hreeRswi
l
l
i
ncr
easi
ngl
ydet
ermi
net
hequal
i
tyofourwor
k,t
hequal
i
tyofour
l
i
vesandmor
eourv
erysur
viv
al.

Thef
oll
owi
ngar
esomeexampl
esofnewgl
obalr
eal
i
tiest
hat
posebi
gchal
l
engesandt
hreat
stot
hewor
ldt
oday
.

Ther
evol
uti
ont
hati
staki
ngpl
acei
ngl
obalcommuni
cat
ions.Thi
s
i
sabl
essi
ngi
ndi
sgui
se.I
magi
ne,
from f
axmachi
nest
oe-
mai
l
,
f
rom compl
exel
ect
roni
cmar
ket
ingsy
stemst
osy
stemst
hatt
rack
usandpenet
rat
eourpr
ivat
eli
ves.Thi
smeanst
hatwear
enot
onl
ypr
ovi
dingposi
ti
veoppor
tuni
ti
esf
orpeopl
etobemor
e
ef
fi
cientwi
tht
hei
rti
me,
butsy
stemst
hatr
enderusv
ulner
abl
e
andwi
eldpowerov
erus.

Ont
heonehandwehav
enet
wor
kswher
egoods,
ser
vicesand
i
deasar
efr
eel
yexchangedwi
thi
ndi
vi
dual
swor
ldov
er,
andont
he
ot
herhandwef
acewor
ldwi
desur
vei
l
lancesy
stemst
hatr
ender
pr
ivacyani
l
lusi
on.Oneasks,
howdower
espondt
othese
r
evol
uti
onar
ychanges?
Whati
sonet
oresi
standwhati
sonet
o
suppor
t?Whati
sthef
ateofourf
reedoms,
humanr
ight
s,secur
it
y,
i
ntegr
it
y,et
c.?

Wear
ecaughtupi
nat
hreat
eni
ngwor
ld,
onei
nwhi
chwecanno
l
ongerant
ici
pat
etheknowl
edgeanddat
awewi
l
lneedont
hej
ob
becausewecannol
ongerpr
edi
ctt
heki
ndsofj
obswewi
l
lbe
doi
ng.Awor
ldi
nwhi
chpr
ivacyi
sincr
easi
ngl
ypenet
rat
edby
mul
ti
plei
nvasi
vet
echnol
ogi
es:f
acer
ecogni
ti
onsof
twar
e,DNA
t
est
ing,
emai
lrev
iewsy
stems,
credi
tcar
dtr
acki
ng,
andaut
o-
t
racki
ngsy
stems.Awor
ldi
nwhi
chgl
obalf
orcessubj
ectt
o
v
irt
ual
l
ynocont
rolmakef
arr
eachi
ngdeci
sionst
hatdeepl
y
i
mpactonourl
i
ves.Awor
ldi
nwhi
chcommi
tmentt
oreasonand
r
ati
onal
i
tyhasbeensubst
it
utedwi
thsuper
sti
ti
ousbel
i
efs,
bel
i
efs
i
nsuper
nat
uralbei
ngsandal
lsor
tsofi
rr
ati
onal
i
ty,
thi
ngst
hat
hav
ecl
aimedahandf
ulofl
i
vesespeci
all
yindev
elopi
ngcount
ri
es.

Consi
deri
ssuesofenv
ironment
aldegr
adat
ion,
globalwar
ming,
wor
ldhunger
,ov
erpopul
ati
on,
diseasesl
i
keAI
DS,
flue,
biol
ogi
cal
,
nucl
earandweaponsofmassdest
ruct
ion,
ter
ror
ism andmany
ot
herchal
l
engesandt
hreat
s.
Al
lthesechal
l
engesandt
hreat
spoi
ntt
othef
actt
hatwi
thoutt
he
i
ntel
l
ect
ualabi
l
ityt
oreasont
hrought
hesecompl
expr
obl
ems,
wi
thoutbei
ngabl
etoanal
yzet
hel
ayer
swi
thi
nthem,
wit
hout
knowi
nghowt
oident
if
yandpur
suet
hei
nfor
mat
ionweneedt
o
sol
vet
hem,
wear
eadr
if
tinaseaofconf
usi
on.Wi
thoutt
hegr
asp
oft
hepol
i
ticalr
eal
i
tiesandeconomi
cpr
essur
esandsci
ent
if
ic
dat
a(ont
hephy
sicalenv
ironment
)al
lofwhi
char
e
si
mul
taneousl
ychangi
ng,
wecannotr
ever
set
het
rendoft
he
det
eri
orat
ionoft
hequal
i
tyofl
i
fef
oral
li
nhabi
tant
soft
heear
th.

Abr
iefhi
stor
yoft
hei
deaofCr
it
icalThi
nki
ng

Hi
stor
yofcr
it
icalt
hinki
ngal
l
owsust
odi
sti
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sht
wo
cont
radi
ctor
yint
ell
ect
ualt
endenci
es:at
endencyont
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tof
t
hel
argemaj
ori
tyt
ouncr
it
ical
l
yacceptwhat
everwaspr
esent
ly
bel
i
evedasmor
eorl
esset
ernalt
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handaconf
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cti
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endency
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it
ical
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o
sy
stemat
ical
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yquest
ionwhatwascommonl
yaccept
edandseek
asar
esul
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,mor
eref
lect
ivecr
it
eri
aand
st
andar
dsf
orj
udgi
ngwhati
tdoesanddoesnotmakesenset
o
acceptast
rue.

Mostschol
arst
racet
her
oot
sofcr
it
icalt
hinki
ngt
oSocr
ates,
2500y
ear
sago;
butwet
endt
odi
ff
ert
osomeext
ent
.Asf
orus,
t
her
oot
soft
hespi
ri
tofcr
it
icalt
hinki
ngdat o6thcent
esbackt ury
B.
C.E.
(BCEmeansbef
oret
hecommoner
aorbef
oreChr
ist
,ify
ou
l
i
ke)
.Thi
swast
hebegi
nni
ngofser
iousphi
l
osophi
calt
hinki
ng.
Goi ond6thcent
ngbey ur o8TH cent
yBCEbackt uryBCEwesee
t
hatl
i
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nGr
eeceandpr
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tsoft
hewor
ldwas
domi
nat
edbymy
thol
ogi
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aini
ngt
henat
uralwor
ld.
Andt
hiswor
ldv
iewwaspr
imar
il
yinf
luencedbyt
hegr
eat
est
poet
sofanci
entGr
eece,
namel
y,HomerandHesi
od.Homerand
Hesi
od’
stwel
vedei
ti
eswer
eresponsi
blef
ort
hef
unct
ioni
ngof
t
heuni
ver
seandt
heaf
fai
rsofpeopl
e.Ev
ery
thi
ngwast
her
efor
e
expl
ainedi
nter
msofmy
thsandf
olkt
ales.

I
twasnotunt
ili
nthe6thBCEt
hatwewi
tnesst
headv
entof
t
hinker
swhoquest
ionedt
hepowerandul
ti
mat
elyt
heexi
stence
oft
hegods.Theset
hinker
sincl
udeamongot
her
sThal
es,
Py
thagor
as,
andHer
acl
i
tus.Justast
hedemocr
atsconst
ruct
eda
humancent
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ate,
sodi
dthephi
l
osopher
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veofa
wor
ldwher
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fect
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ated.Soi
nst
eadof
t
hinki
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hewor
ldasapr
oductofsomedei
tyorsuper
nat
ural
power
,theseear
lyphi
l
osopher
ssett
ofi
ndoutt
hest
ufforar
che’
outofwhi
chev
ery
thi
ngcomes.Thi
smar
ksashi
ftf
rom my
tht
o
cr
it
icalt
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nanci
entGr
eeceandhencet
hebegi
nni
ngof
phi
l
osophy
,west
ernphi
l
osophyt
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eci
se.Themai
ntaskofa
cr
it
icalt
hinkeri
stoquest
ionunwar
rant
edbel
i
efsand
assumpt
ions,
tosepar
atet
her
ati
onalf
rom t
hei
rr
ati
onal
.Andt
his
i
swhatexact
lyt
heear
lyphi
l
osopher
sdi
d.Thati
swhyt
heyar
e
cr
edi
tedofbei
ngt
hef
ir
stcr
it
icalt
hinker
s,t
hef
ir
stphi
l
osopher
s.

I
nabout470-
399BCE,
ther
eemer
gedagr
eatt
hinkercal
l
ed
Socr
ates.Socr
ateswasmor
econcer
nedwi
thmor
al,
andpol
i
tical
l
i
feofpeopl
e.Thi
sist
osayhewasnotsomuchi
nter
est
edwi
th
specul
ati
ngaboutt
hephy
sicalwor
ldl
i
kemostofhi
s
pr
edecessor
s.

Socr
atesdi
scov
eredbyamet
hodofpr
obi
ngquest
ioni
ngt
hat
peopl
ecoul
dnotr
ati
onal
l
yjust
if
ythei
rconf
identcl
aimst
o
knowl
edge.Conf
usedmeani
ngs,
inadequat
eev
idence,
orsel
f-
cont
radi
ctor
ybel
i
efsof
tenl
urkedbeneat
hsmoot
hbutl
argel
y
empt
yrhet
ori
c.Socr
atesest
abl
i
shedt
hef
actt
hatonecannot
dependupont
hosei
n"aut
hor
it
y"t
ohav
esoundknowl
edgeand
i
nsi
ght
.Hedemonst
rat
edt
hatper
sonsmayhav
epowerandhi
gh
posi
ti
onandy
etbedeepl
yconf
usedandi
rr
ati
onal
.Heest
abl
i
shed
t
hei
mpor
tanceofaski
ngdeepquest
ionst
hatpr
obepr
ofoundl
y
i
ntot
hinki
ngbef
oreweaccepti
deasaswor
thyofbel
i
ef.He
est
abl
i
shedt
hei
mpor
tanceofseeki
ngev
idence,
closel
y
exami
ningr
easoni
ngandassumpt
ions,
anal
yzi
ngbasi
cconcept
s,
andt
raci
ngouti
mpl
i
cat
ionsnotonl
yofwhati
ssai
dbutofwhati
s
doneaswel
l
.Hi
smet
hodofquest
ioni
ngi
snowknownas
"
Socr
ati
cquest
ioni
ng"andi
sthebestknowncr
it
icalt
hinki
ng
t
eachi
ngst
rat
egy
.Inhi
smodeofquest
ioni
ng,
Socr
ates
hi
ghl
i
ght
edt
heneedi
nthi
nki
ngf
orcl
ari
tyandl
ogi
calconsi
stency
.

Socr
atessett
heagendaf
ort
het
radi
ti
onofcr
it
icalt
hinki
ng,
namel
y,t
oref
lect
ivel
yquest
ioncommonbel
i
efsandexpl
anat
ions,
car
eful
l
ydi
sti
ngui
shi
ngt
hosebel
i
efst
hatar
ereasonabl
eand
l
ogi
calf
rom t
hosewhi
ch-
-howev
erappeal
i
ngt
heymaybet
oour
nat
iveegocent
ri
sm,
howev
ermucht
heyser
veourv
est
ed
i
nter
est
s,howev
ercomf
ort
abl
eorcomf
ort
ingt
heymaybe-l
ack
adequat
eev
idenceorr
ati
onalf
oundat
iont
owar
rantourbel
i
ef.

Socr
ates'
pract
icewasf
oll
owedbyt
hecr
it
icalt
hinki
ngofPl
ato
(
whor
ecor
dedSocr
ates'
thought
),Ar
ist
otl
e,andt
heGr
eek
skept
ics,
allofwhom emphasi
zedt
hatt
hingsar
eof
tenv
ery
di
ff
erentf
rom whatt
heyappeart
obeandt
hatonl
ythet
rai
ned
mi
ndi
spr
epar
edt
oseet
hrought
hewayt
hingsl
ookt
ousont
he
sur
face(
del
usi
veappear
ances)t
othewayt
heyr
eal
l
yar
ebeneat
h
t
hesur
face(
thedeeperr
eal
i
tiesofl
i
fe)
.Fr
om t
hisanci
entGr
eek
t
radi
ti
onemer
gedt
heneed,
forany
onewhoaspi
redt
ounder
stand
t
hedeeperr
eal
i
ties,
tot
hinksy
stemat
ical
l
y,t
otr
acei
mpl
i
cat
ions
br
oadl
yanddeepl
y,f
oronl
ythi
nki
ngt
hati
scompr
ehensi
ve,
wel
l
-
r
easoned,
andr
esponsi
vet
oobj
ect
ionscant
akeusbey
ondt
he
sur
face.

I
nthemi
ddl
eages,
(4thCt
o15thC)t
het
radi
ti
onofsy
stemat
ic
cr
it
icalt
hinki
ngwasembodi
edi
nthewr
it
ingsandt
eachi
ngsof
sucht
hinker
sasThomasAqui
nas(
SummaTheol
ogi
ca)who-
to
ensur
ehi
sthi
nki
ngmett
het
estofcr
it
icalt
hought
-al
way
s
sy
stemat
ical
l
yst
ated,
consi
der
ed,
andanswer
edal
lcr
it
ici
smsof
hi
sideasasanecessar
yst
agei
ndev
elopi
ngt
hem.Aqui
nas
hei
ght
enedourawar
enessnotonl
yoft
hepot
ent
ialpowerof
r
easoni
ngbutal
sooft
heneedf
orr
easoni
ngt
obesy
stemat
ical
l
y
cul
ti
vat
edand"
cross-
exami
ned.
"Ofcour
se,
Aqui
nas'
thi
nki
ngal
so
i
l
lust
rat
est
hatt
hosewhot
hinkcr
it
ical
l
ydonotal
way
srej
ect
est
abl
i
shedbel
i
efs,
onl
ythosebel
i
efst
hatl
ackr
easonabl
e
f
oundat
ions.

I
ntheRenai
ssance(
15t
hand16t
hCent
uri
es)
,af
loodofschol
ars
i
nEur
opebegant
othi
nkcr
it
ical
l
yaboutr
eli
gion,
art
,soci
ety
,
humannat
ure,
law,
andf
reedom.Theypr
oceededwi
tht
he
assumpt
iont
hatmostoft
hedomai
nsofhumanl
i
fewer
einneed
ofsear
chi
nganal
ysi
sandcr
it
ique.Amongt
heseschol
arswer
e
Col
et,
Erasmus,
andMor
einEngl
and.Theyf
oll
owedupont
he
i
nsi
ghtoft
heanci
ent
s.

Fr
anci
sBacon,
inEngl
and,
wasexpl
i
cit
lyconcer
nedwi
tht
heway
wemi
suseourmi
ndsi
nseeki
ngknowl
edge.Her
ecogni
zed
expl
i
cit
lyt
hatt
hemi
ndcannotsaf
elybel
eftt
oit
snat
ural
t
endenci
es.I
nhi
sbookTheAdv
ancementofLear
ning,
hear
gued
f
ort
hei
mpor
tanceofst
udy
ingt
hewor
ldempi
ri
cal
l
y.Hel
aidt
he
f
oundat
ionf
ormoder
nsci
encewi
thhi
semphasi
sont
he
i
nfor
mat
ion-
gat
her
ingpr
ocesses.Heal
socal
l
edat
tent
iont
othe
f
actt
hatmostpeopl
e,i
flef
ttot
hei
rowndev
ices,
dev
elopbad
habi
tsoft
hought(
whi
chhecal
l
ed"
idol
s")t
hatl
eadt
hem t
o
bel
i
evewhati
sfal
seormi
sleadi
ng.Hecal
l
edat
tent
iont
o"I
dol
sof
t
het
ri
be"(
theway
sourmi
ndnat
ural
l
ytendst
otr
icki
tsel
f)
,"I
dol
s
oft
hemar
ket
-pl
ace"(
theway
swemi
susewor
ds)
,"I
dol
soft
he
t
heat
er"(
ourt
endencyt
obecomet
rappedi
nconv
ent
ional
sy
stemsoft
hought
),and"
Idol
soft
heschool
s"(
thepr
obl
emsi
n
t
hinki
ngwhenbasedonbl
i
ndr
ulesandpoori
nst
ruct
ion)
.Hi
s
bookcoul
dbeconsi
der
edoneoft
heear
li
estt
ext
sincr
it
ical
t
hinki
ng,
forhi
sagendawasv
erymucht
het
radi
ti
onalagendaof
cr
it
icalt
hinki
ng.

Somef
if
tyy
ear
slat
eri
nFr
ance,
Descar
teswr
otewhatmi
ghtbe
cal
l
edt
hesecondt
exti
ncr
it
icalt
hinki
ng,
Rul
esf
ort
heDi
rect
ion
oft
heMi
nd.I
nit
,Descar
tesar
guedf
ort
heneedf
oraspeci
al
sy
stemat
icdi
sci
pli
ningoft
hemi
ndt
ogui
dei
tint
hinki
ng.He
ar
ti
cul
atedanddef
endedt
heneedi
nthi
nki
ngf
orcl
ari
tyand
pr
eci
sion.Hedev
elopedamet
hodofcr
it
icalt
houghtbasedont
he
pr
inci
pleofsy
stemat
icdoubt
.Heemphasi
zedt
heneedt
obase
t
hinki
ngonwel
l
-thoughtt
hroughf
oundat
ionalassumpt
ions.Ev
ery
par
toft
hinki
ng,
hear
gued,
shoul
dbequest
ioned,
doubt
ed,
and
t
est
ed.

I
nthesamet
imeper
iod,
SirThomasMor
edev
elopedamodelofa
newsoci
alor
der
,Ut
opi
a,i
nwhi
chev
erydomai
noft
hepr
esent
wor
ldwassubj
ectt
ocr
it
ique.Hi
simpl
i
citt
hesi
swast
hat
est
abl
i
shedsoci
alsy
stemsar
einneedofr
adi
calanal
ysi
sand
cr
it
ique.Thecr
it
icalt
hinki
ngoft
heseRenai
ssanceandpost
-
Renai
ssanceschol
arsopenedt
hewayf
ort
heemer
genceof
sci
enceandf
ort
hedev
elopmentofdemocr
acy
,humanr
ight
s,
andf
reedom f
ort
hought
.

I
ntheI
tal
i
anRenai
ssance,
Machi
avel
l
i(ThePr
ince)cr
it
ical
l
y
assessedt
hepol
i
ticsoft
heday
,andl
aidt
hef
oundat
ionf
or
moder
ncr
it
icalpol
i
ticalt
hought
.Her
efusedt
oassumet
hat
gov
ernmentf
unct
ionedast
hosei
npowersai
ditdi
d.Rat
her
,he
cr
it
ical
l
yanal
yzedhowi
tdi
dfunct
ionandl
aidt
hef
oundat
ionf
or
pol
i
ticalt
hinki
ngt
hatexposesbot
h,ont
heonehand,
ther
eal
agendasofpol
i
tici
ansand,
ont
heot
herhand,
themany
cont
radi
cti
onsandi
nconsi
stenci
esoft
hehar
d,cr
uel
,wor
ldoft
he
pol
i
ticsofhi
sday
.

HobbesandLocke(
in16t
hand17t
hCent
uryEngl
and)di
spl
ayed
t
hesameconf
idencei
nthecr
it
icalmi
ndoft
het
hinkert
hatwe
f
indi
nMachi
avel
l
i.Nei
theraccept
edt
het
radi
ti
onalpi
ctur
eof
t
hingsdomi
nanti
nthet
hinki
ngoft
hei
rday
.Nei
theraccept
edas
necessar
il
yrat
ionalt
hatwhi
chwasconsi
der
ed"
nor
mal
"int
hei
r
cul
tur
e.Bot
hlookedt
othecr
it
icalmi
ndt
oopenupnewv
ist
asof
l
ear
ning.Hobbesadopt
edanat
ural
i
sti
cvi
ewoft
hewor
ldi
nwhi
ch
ev
ery
thi
ngwast
obeexpl
ainedbyev
idenceandr
easoni
ng.Locke
def
endedacommonsenseanal
ysi
sofev
ery
dayl
i
feandt
hought
.
Hel
aidt
het
heor
eti
calf
oundat
ionf
orcr
it
icalt
hinki
ngaboutbasi
c
humanr
ight
sandt
her
esponsi
bil
i
tiesofal
lgov
ernment
sto
submi
ttot
her
easonedcr
it
ici
sm oft
hought
fulci
ti
zens.

I
twasi
nthi
sspi
ri
tofi
ntel
l
ect
ualf
reedom andcr
it
icalt
houghtt
hat
peopl
esuchasRober
tBoy
le(
int
he17t
hCent
ury
)andSi
rIsaac
Newt
on(
int
he17t
hand18t
hCent
ury
)di
dthei
rwor
k.I
nhi
s
Scept
icalChy
mist
,Boy
lesev
erel
ycr
it
ici
zedt
hechemi
calt
heor
y
t
hathadpr
ecededhi
m.Newt
on,
int
urn,
dev
elopedaf
ar-
reachi
ng
f
ramewor
koft
houghtwhi
chr
oundl
ycr
it
ici
zedt
het
radi
ti
onal
l
y
accept
edwor
ldv
iew.Heext
endedt
hecr
it
icalt
houghtofsuch
mi
ndsasCoper
nicus,
Gal
i
leo,
andKepl
er.Af
terBoy
leandNewt
on,
i
twasr
ecogni
zedbyt
hosewhor
efl
ect
edser
iousl
yont
henat
ural
wor
ldt
hategocent
ri
cvi
ewsofwor
ldmustbeabandonedi
nfav
or
ofv
iewsbasedent
ir
elyoncar
eful
l
ygat
her
edev
idenceandsound
r
easoni
ng.

Anot
hersi
gni
fi
cantcont
ri
but
iont
ocr
it
icalt
hinki
ngwasmadeby
t
het
hinker
soft
heFr
enchenl
i
ght
enment
:Bay
le,
Mont
esqui
eu,
Vol
tai
re,
andDi
der
ot.Theyal
lbeganwi
tht
hepr
emi
set
hatt
he
humanmi
nd,
whendi
sci
pli
nedbyr
eason,
isbet
terabl
etof
igur
e
outt
henat
ureoft
hesoci
alandpol
i
ticalwor
ld.Whati
smor
e,f
or
t
heset
hinker
s,r
easonmustt
urni
nwar
duponi
tsel
f,i
nor
dert
o
det
ermi
neweaknessesandst
rengt
hsoft
hought
.Theyv
alued
di
sci
pli
nedi
ntel
l
ect
ualexchange,
inwhi
chal
lvi
ewshadt
obe
submi
tt
edt
oser
iousanal
ysi
sandcr
it
ique.Theybel
i
evedt
hatal
l
aut
hor
it
ymustsubmi
tinonewayoranot
hert
othescr
uti
nyof
r
easonabl
ecr
it
icalquest
ioni
ng.
TheAgeofEnl
i
ght
enment(
orsi
mpl
ytheEnl
i
ght
enment
)is
anot
heri
mpor
tantl
andmar
kint
hehi
stor
yofcr
it
icalt
hinki
ng.I
tis
t
heer
ainWest
ernphi
l
osophy
,int
ell
ect
ual
,sci
ent
if
icandcul
tur
al
l
i
fe,
cent
eredupont
he18t
hcent
ury
,inwhi
chr
easonwas
adv
ocat
edast
hepr
imar
ysour
cef
orl
egi
ti
macyandaut
hor
it
y.I
tis
al
soknownast
heAgeofReason.

TheEnl
i
ght
enmentwasl
essasetofi
deast
hani
twasasetof
v
alues.Ati
tscor
ewasacr
it
icalquest
ioni
ngoft
radi
ti
onal
i
nst
it
uti
ons,
cust
oms,
andmor
als,
andast
rongbel
i
efi
nrat
ional
i
ty
andsci
ence.

Enl
i
ght
enmentbr
oket
hrough"
thesacr
edci
rcl
e,
"whosedogma
hadci
rcumscr
ibedt
hinki
ng.TheSacr
edCi
rcl
eisat
erm usedby
Pet
erGayt
odescr
ibet
hei
nter
dependentr
elat
ionshi
pbet
ween
t
heher
edi
tar
yar
ist
ocr
acy
,thel
eader
soft
hechur
chandt
het
ext
oft
heBi
ble.Thi
sint
err
elat
ionshi
pmani
fest
sit
sel
faski
ngs
i
nvoki
ngt
hedoct
ri
ne"
Div
ineRi
ghtofKi
ngs"t
orul
e.Thuschur
ch
sanct
ionedt
her
uleoft
heki
ngandt
heki
ngdef
endedt
hechur
ch
i
nret
urn.TheEnl
i
ght
enmenti
shel
dtobet
hesour
ceofcr
it
ical
i
deas,
suchast
hecent
ral
i
tyoff
reedom,
democr
acy
,andr
eason
aspr
imar
yval
uesofsoci
ety
.Thi
svi
ewar
guest
hatt
he
est
abl
i
shmentofacont
ract
ualbasi
sofr
ight
swoul
dleadt
othe
mar
ketmechani
sm andcapi
tal
i
sm,
thesci
ent
if
icmet
hod,
r
eli
gioust
oler
ance,
andt
heor
gani
zat
ionofst
atesi
ntosel
f-
gov
erni
ngr
epubl
i
cst
hroughdemocr
ati
cmeans.I
nthi
svi
ew,
the
t
endencyoft
hephi
l
osophesi
npar
ti
cul
art
oappl
yrat
ional
i
tyt
o
ev
erypr
obl
em i
sconsi
der
edt
heessent
ialchange.

Ei
ght
eent
hCent
uryt
hinker
sext
endedourconcept
ionofcr
it
ical
t
houghtev
enf
urt
her
,dev
elopi
ngoursenseoft
hepowerofcr
it
ical
t
houghtandofi
tst
ool
s.Appl
i
edt
othepr
obl
em ofeconomi
cs,
it
pr
oducedAdam Smi
th'
sWeal
thofNat
ions.I
nthesamey
ear
,
appl
i
edt
othet
radi
ti
onalconceptofl
oyal
tyt
otheki
ng,
it
pr
oducedt
heDecl
arat
ionofI
ndependence.Appl
i
edt
oreason
i
tsel
f,i
tpr
oducedKant
'sCr
it
iqueofPur
eReason.

I
nthe19t
hCent
ury
,cr
it
icalt
houghtwasext
endedev
enf
urt
her
i
ntot
hedomai
nofhumansoci
all
i
febyComt
eandSpencer
.
Appl
i
edt
othepr
obl
emsofcapi
tal
i
sm,
itpr
oducedt
hesear
chi
ng
soci
alandeconomi
ccr
it
iqueofKar
lMar
x.Appl
i
edt
othehi
stor
y
ofhumancul
tur
eandt
hebasi
sofbi
ologi
call
i
fe,
itl
edt
oDar
win'
s
DescentofMan.Appl
i
edt
otheunconsci
ousmi
nd,
iti
sref
lect
ed
i
nthewor
ksofSi
gmundFr
eud.Appl
i
edt
ocul
tur
es,
itl
edt
othe
est
abl
i
shmentoft
hef
iel
dofAnt
hropol
ogi
calst
udi
es.Appl
i
edt
o
l
anguage,
itl
edt
othef
iel
dofLi
ngui
sti
csandt
omanydeep
pr
obi
ngsoft
hef
unct
ionsofsy
mbol
sandl
anguagei
nhumanl
i
fe.

I
nthe20t
hCent
ury
,ourunder
standi
ngoft
hepowerandnat
ureof
cr
it
icalt
hinki
nghasemer
gedi
nincr
easi
ngl
ymor
eexpl
i
cit
f
ormul
ati
ons.I
n1906,
Wil
l
iam Gr
aham Sumnerpubl
i
shedal
and-
br
eaki
ngst
udyoft
hef
oundat
ionsofsoci
ologyandant
hropol
ogy
,
Fol
kway
s,i
nwhi
chhedocument
edt
het
endencyoft
hehuman
mi
ndt
othi
nksoci
ocent
ri
cal
l
yandt
hepar
all
elt
endencyf
or
school
stoser
vet
he(
uncr
it
ical
)funct
ionofsoci
ali
ndoct
ri
nat
ion:

"
School
smakeper
sonsal
lononepat
ter
n,or
thodoxy
.School
educat
ion,
unl
essi
tisr
egul
atedbyt
hebestknowl
edgeandgood
sense,
wil
lpr
oducemenandwomenwhoar
eal
lofonepat
ter
n,as
i
ftur
nedi
nal
athe.
..
Anor
thodoxyi
spr
oducedi
nregar
dtoal
lthe
gr
eatdoct
ri
nesofl
i
fe.I
tconsi
stsoft
hemostwor
nand
commonpl
aceopi
nionswhi
char
ecommoni
nthemasses.The
popul
aropi
nionsal
way
scont
ainbr
oadf
all
aci
es,
hal
f-
tr
uths,
and
gl
i
bgener
ali
zat
ions(
p.630)
."

Att
hesamet
ime,
Sumnerr
ecogni
zedt
hedeepneedf
orcr
it
ical
t
hinki
ngi
nli
feandi
neducat
ion:

"
Cri
ti
cism i
stheexami
nat
ionandt
estofpr
oposi
ti
onsofanyki
nd
whi
char
eof
fer
edf
oraccept
ance,
inor
dert
ofi
ndoutwhet
her
t
heycor
respondt
oreal
i
tyornot
.Thecr
it
icalf
acul
tyi
sapr
oduct
ofeducat
ionandt
rai
ning.I
tisament
alhabi
tandpower
.Iti
sa
pr
imecondi
ti
onofhumanwel
far
ethatmenandwomenshoul
dbe
t
rai
nedi
nit
.Iti
souronl
yguar
ant
eeagai
nstdel
usi
on,
decept
ion,
super
sti
ti
on,
andmi
sappr
ehensi
onofour
sel
vesandourear
thl
y
ci
rcumst
ances.Educat
ioni
sgoodj
ustsof
arasi
tpr
oduceswel
l
-
dev
elopedcr
it
icalf
acul
ty..
..
Ateacherofanysubj
ectwhoi
nsi
sts
onaccur
acyandar
ati
onalcont
rolofal
lpr
ocessesandmet
hods,
andwhohol
dsev
ery
thi
ngopent
ounl
i
mit
edv
eri
fi
cat
ionand
r
evi
sioni
scul
ti
vat
ingt
hatmet
hodasahabi
tint
hepupi
l
s.Men
educat
edi
nitcannotbest
ampeded.
..
Theyar
esl
owt
obel
i
eve.
Theycanhol
dthi
ngsaspossi
bleorpr
obabl
einal
ldegr
ees,
wi
thoutcer
tai
ntyandwi
thoutpai
n.Theycanwai
tforev
idence
andwei
ghev
idence.
..
Theycanr
esi
stappeal
stot
hei
rdear
est
pr
ejudi
ces.
..
Educat
ioni
nthecr
it
icalf
acul
tyi
stheonl
yeducat
ion
ofwhi
chi
tcanbet
rul
ysai
dthati
tmakesgoodci
ti
zens(
pp.632,
633)
."

NB:Thet
wocol
oredt
ext
sabov
emustbe‘
memor
ized.
’
JohnDeweyagr
eed.Fr
om hi
swor
k,wehav
eincr
easedoursense
oft
hepr
agmat
icbasi
sofhumant
hought(
it
sinst
rument
alnat
ure)
,
andespeci
all
yit
sgr
oundi
ngi
nact
ualhumanpur
poses,
goal
s,and
obj
ect
ives.Fr
om t
hewor
kofLudwi
gWi
tt
genst
einwehav
e
i
ncr
easedourawar
enessnotonl
yoft
hei
mpor
tanceofconcept
sin
humant
hought
,butal
sooft
heneedt
oanal
y sa
zeconcept ndassess
t
hei
rpowerandl
i
mit
ati
ons.Fr
om t
hewor
kofPi
aget
,wehav
e
i
ncr
easedourawar
enessoft
heegocent
ri
candsoci
ocent
ri
c
t
endenci houghta
esofhumant ndoft
hespeci
alneedt
odev
elop
cr
it
icalt
houghtwhi
chi
sabl
etor
easonwi
thi
nmul
ti
plest
andpoi
nts,
andt
ober
aisedt
othel
evelof"
consci
ousr
eal
i
zat
ion.
"Fr
om t
he
massi
vecont
ri
but
ionofal
lthe"
har
d"sci
ences,
wehav
elear
ned
t
hepowerofi
nfor
mat
ionandt
hei
mpor
tanceofgat
her
ingi
nfor
mat
ion
wi
thgr
eatcar
eandpr
eci
sion,
andwi
thsensi
ti
vi
tyt
oit
spot
ent
ial
i
naccur
acy
,di
stor
ti
on,
ormi
suse.Fr
om t
hecont
ri
but
ionofdept
h-
psy
chol
ogy
,wehav
elear
nedhoweasi
l
ythehumanmi
ndi
ssel
f-
decei
ved,
howeasi
l
yitunconsci
ousl
yconst
ruct
sil
l
usi
onsand
del
usi
ons,
howeasi
l
yitr
ati
onal
i
zesandst
ereot
ypes,
proj
ect
sand
scapegoat
s.

Tosum up,
thet
ool
sandr
esour
cesoft
hecr
it
icalt
hinkerhav
e
beenv
ast
lyi
ncr
easedi
nvi
rt
ueoft
hehi
stor
yofcr
it
icalt
hought
.
Hundr
edsoft
hinker
shav
econt
ri
but
edt
oit
sdev
elopment
.Each
maj
ordi
sci
pli
nehasmadesomecont
ri
but
iont
ocr
it
icalt
hought
.

Mor
edef
ini
ti
onsofcr
it
icalt
hinki
ng

“Cr
it
icalt
hinki
ngconsi
stsofament
alpr
ocessofanal
yzi
ngor
ev
aluat
ingi
nfor
mat
ion,
par
ti
cul
arl
yst
atement
sorpr
oposi
ti
ons
t
hatpeopl
ehav
eof
fer
edast
rue.I
tfor
msapr
ocessofr
efl
ect
ing
upont
hemeani
ngofst
atement
s,exami
ningt
heof
fer
edev
idence
andr
easoni
ng,
andf
ormi
ngj
udgment
saboutt
hef
act
s.”or

“Cr
it
icalt
hinki
ngi
sthei
ntel
l
ect
ual
l
ydi
sci
pli
nedpr
ocessof
act
ivel
yandski
l
lful
l
yconcept
ual
i
zing,
appl
yi
ng,
anal
yzi
ng,
sy
nthesi
zi
ng,
and/
orev
aluat
ingi
nfor
mat
iongat
her
edf
rom,
or
gener
atedby
,obser
vat
ion,
exper
ience,
ref
lect
ion,
reasoni
ng,
or
communi
cat
ion,
asagui
det
obel
i
efandact
ion.“

Mor
eDef
ini
ti
ons…

Cr
it
icalThi
nki
ngi
sthegener
alt
erm gi
vent
oawi
der
angeof
cogni
ti
veandi
ntel
l
ect
ualski
l
lsneededt
o:

(
i)
Eff
ect
ivel
yident
if
y,anal
yze,
andev
aluat
ear
gument
s.
(
ii
)Di
scov
erandov
ercomeper
sonalpr
ejudi
cesandbi
ases.

(
ii
i)
For
mul
ateandpr
esentconv
inci
ngr
easonsi
nsuppor
tof
concl
usi
ons.

(
iv)
Maker
easonabl
e,i
ntel
l
igentdeci
sionsaboutwhatt
obel
i
eve
andwhatt
odo.

Whatar
eyoudoi
ngwheny
ouar
ethi
nki
ngcr
it
ical
l
y?Wheny
ouar
e
t
hinki
ngcr
it
ical
l
yyouar
eact
ual
l
y:

(
i)
Anal
yzi
ng

(
ii
)Ev
aluat
ing

i
i
i)Reasoni
ng

(
iv)
Maki
ngdeci
sions

(
v)Sol
vi
ngpr
obl
ems

Si
xSt
epsi
nCr
it
icalThi
nki
ng
St
ep1:Knowl
edge

I
nter
msofcr
it
icalt
hinki
ng,
thebasi
clev
elofacqui
sit
ionof
knowl
edger
equi
rest
haty
oubeabl
etoi
dent
if
ywhati
sbei
ngsai
d:
t
het
opi
c,t
hei
ssue,
thet
hesi
s,andt
hemai
npoi
nts.

St
ep2:Compr
ehensi
on

Compr
ehensi
onmeansunder
standi
ngt
hemat
eri
alr
ead,
hear
dor
seen.I
ncompr
ehendi
ng,
youmaket
henewknowl
edget
haty
ou
hav
eacqui
redy
ourownbyr
elat
ingi
ttowhaty
oual
readyknow.
Thebet
tery
ouar
einv
olv
edwi
tht
hei
nfor
mat
ion,
thebet
tery
ou
wi
l
lcompr
ehendi
t.Asal
way
s,t
hepr
imar
ytestofwhet
hery
ou
hav
ecompr
ehendedsomet
hingi
swhet
hery
oucanputwhaty
ou
hav
ereadorhear
dint
oyourownwor
ds.Rev
iewsomekeywor
ds
t
hathel
pyoui
dent
if
ywhencompr
ehensi
oni
scal
l
edf
or.
Remembert
hatcompr
ehendi
ngsomet
hingi
mpl
i
est
haty
oucan
gobey
ondmer
elypar
rot
ingt
hemat
eri
albackbuti
nst
eadt
haty
ou
cangi
vet
hemat
eri
aly
ourownsi
gni
fi
cance.

St
ep3:Appl
i
cat
ion

Appl
i
cat
ionr
equi
rest
haty
ouknowwhaty
ouhav
eread,
hear
d,or
seen,
thaty
oucompr
ehendi
t,andt
haty
oucar
ryoutsomet
askt
o
appl
ywhaty
oucompr
ehendt
oanact
ualsi
tuat
ion.Rev
iewt
he
somet
askst
hatr
equi
reappl
i
cat
ion.

St
ep4:Anal
ysi
s

Anal
ysi
sinv
olv
esbr
eaki
ngwhaty
our
eadorheari
ntoi
ts
componentpar
ts,
inor
dert
omakecl
earhowt
hei
deasar
e
or
der
ed,
rel
ated,
orconnect
edt
oot
heri
deas.Anal
ysi
sdeal
swi
th
bot
hfor
m andcont
ent
.Rev
iewhowcr
it
icalt
hinker
sanal
yzef
orm.
Rev
iewhowcr
it
icalt
hinker
sanal
yzecont
ent
.

St
ep5:Sy
nthesi
s

Sy
nthesi
sinv
olv
est
heabi
l
ityt
oputt
oget
hert
hepar
tsy
ou
anal
yzedwi
thot
heri
nfor
mat
iont
ocr
eat
esomet
hingor
igi
nal
.
Rev
iewsomekeywor
dst
hathel
pyoui
dent
if
ywhensy
nthesi
sis
cal
l
edf
or.

St
ep6:Ev
aluat
ion
Ev
aluat
ionoccur
soncewehav
eunder
stoodandanal
yzedwhati
s
sai
dorwr
it
tenandt
her
easonsof
fer
edt
osuppor
tit
.Thenwecan
appr
aiset
hisi
nfor
mat
ioni
nor
dert
odeci
dewhet
hery
oucangi
ve
orwi
thhol
dbel
i
ef,
andwhet
herornott
otakeapar
ti
cul
aract
ion.
Rev
iewsomekeywor
dst
hathel
pyoui
dent
if
ywhensy
nthesi
sis
cal
l
edf
or.Nev
erputev
aluat
ionaheadoft
heot
herst
epsi
ncr
it
ical
t
hinki
ngst
eps;
other
wise,
youwi
l
lbegui
l
tyofa"
rusht
o
j
udgement
."Whenemot
ionsubst
it
utesf
orr
easons,
eval
uat
ion
i
ncor
rect
lypr
ecedesanal
ysi
s.

EXERCI
SE1:Foreachoft
hef
oll
owi
ngt
estquest
ions,
deci
de
whi
choft
hesi
xst
epsy
ouar
easkedt
oper
for
m.

Expl
ainwhati
smeantbyt
hephr
ase"
negat
iver
einf
orcement
".
Answer

Whowast
heaut
horoft
heDecl
arat
ionofI
ndependence? Answer

Compar
eandcont
rastt
het
hemesofJackLondon’
sCal
loft
he
Wi
l
dandWhi
teFang. Answer

Fory
ourf
inalexam i
nhomeeconomi
cs,
youwi
l
lbeaskedt
otake
anexi
sti
ngdr
esspat
ter
nandmodi
fyi
tint
oyourowndesi
gn.
Answer

Di
scusst
hemer
it
soft
heMar
shal
lPl
anf
oll
owi
ngWor
ldWarI
I.
Answer

Oft
hef
oll
owi
ngmy
thol
ogi
calf
igur
es,
whi
chdoesnotbel
ongwi
th
t
heot
her
s?Si
ren,
Kel
pie,
Lor
elei
,Amazon.Answer

Combi
ningt
het
heor
iesofJohnSt
uar
tMi
l
l,Jer
emyBent
ham,
and
JohnRawl
s,sket
chouty
ourownt
heor
yofsoci
alj
ust
ice.Answer