Physics

Project
-
XII-Sapphire

Acknowledgement
 I would like to express a deep sense of thanks and
gratitude to my Teacher who also helped me being a
project guide Ms. Susila Mary for guiding me immensely
through the course of the project. She always exhibited
keen interest in my project. Her constructive advice and
constant motivation have been responsible for the
successive completion of his project.
My sincere thanks goes to our Principal Mam for her co-
ordination in extending every possible support for the
completion of this project.
I must thank to my classmates for their timely help and
support for completion of this project.
Last but not the least, I would like to thank all those who
had helped me practically, theoretically and guided me
behind the scenes which lend a hand towards the
completion of this project.
 Abstract

In the Sonometer experiment what we will do is this.

First, we will set up the Sonometer with the given wire
and weights.
Then we will try to match the vibrating tones of a tuning
fork and the wire, at which point they will resonate
together.
The best way to do this is to place a piece of paper on the
taut wire and see at which length the wire vibrates so
much that it throws off the paper.
We would record those data about the length, tension, and
frequency ‒ and then we’d proceed with another setting of
the same.
At the end of the experiment, we will plot all of those
data on graph papers so that we can figure out how they
are related to each other.
 Table Of Content
Introduction
1. Theory
2. Construction
3. Working
4. Laws
5. Uses
Experiment
1. Aim
2. Materials Required
3. Procedure
4. Observation
5. Calculation
6. Sources of error and Precautions
7. Result
Bibliography
 INTRODUCTION
THEORY
What is Sonometer?
A sonometer is defined as the device that is used for
demonstrating the relationship between the
frequency of the sound that is produced by the
string when it is plucked and the tension, length,
and mass per unit length of the string.
The sound is produced in the transverse standing
wave in the string.

Sonometer Diagram
Construction of Sonometer
 A hollow box of one meter long is used for
making the sonometer.
 This hollow box consists of a uniform metallic
string attached to it.
 The first end of the string is connected to the
hook while the second end is connected to
the weight hanger with the help of a pulley.
 The number of strings used is one and
therefore, it is also known as the monochord.
 In order to increase the tension of the string,
weights are added at the free end.
 To change the vibrating length of the string
which is stretched, two adjustable knives are
placed and their positions are adjusted
accordingly.
Working of Sonometer
Once the set-up is done (as shown in the
sonometer diagram), a transverse standing wave
is produced at the edges of the knives with the
nodes. Along with the nodes, there is a formation
of the anti-nodes.
The mathematical explanation to the working of
the sonometer is as follows:
Let l be the length of the vibrating element
l = λ/2
λ = 2l
Let f be the frequency of the vibrating element. T
be the tension created in the string and μ be mass
per unit length. Then,
v l T
f= =
λ 2l μ √
If ⍴ is the density of the material and d is the
diameter of the string, the mass per unit length μ
is given as
μ = area x density = πr2⍴ = π⍴d2/4
Then frequency is

√
v l T
f= =
λ 2l π d2 ρ
4

f=
l T
√
ld πρ

Laws of Transverse Vibrations

The laws of transverse vibrations on a stretched
string can be divided into two laws, and they are:
 Law of length
 Law of tension
 Law of mass

Law of Length
The law of length states that the frequency of the
vibration of a stretched string and its resonating
length varies inversely as long as the mass per unit
length and the tension of the string is constant.
F ∝ 1/l

Law of Tension
The law of tension states that the frequency of
vibration of a stretched string and the square root
of its tension varies directly as long as the
resonating length and the mass per unit length of
the string is constant.
F ∝ √T

Law of Mass
The law of mass states that the frequency of
vibration of a stretched string and the square root
of its mass per unit length varies inversely
proportional as long as the length and the tension
is constant.
F ∝ 1/√m

What is the use of sonometer?

We already know that the sonometer is used for
demonstrating the relationship between the
frequency and the tension, length, and mass per
unit length of the string. Therefore, the following
can be determined using a sonometer:
 The frequency of the tuning fork
 The frequency of the alternating current
 The tension in the string
 The unknown mass of the object hanging
down

Learning Outcomes
 Students develop the idea about standing
waves
 Students
AIM
To study the relation between the frequency
and the length of a given wire under constant
tension using a sonometer.
Materials required:
 Sonometer
 Step down transformer
  Horse shoe magnet
 A set of slotted weights
 Weight hanger
 Paper rider
 Bridges
Procedure:
 Place the sonometer on the table.
 Attach a weight hanger at the free end of
the string which passes over the pulley.
 Stretch the wire by loading a suitable
maximum mass on the weight hanger.
 The sonometer wire is connected to the
secondary of the step down transformer.
 The horse shoe magnet is mounted at the
middle of sonometer bed so as to produce
a magnetic field perpendicular to the wire.
 The opposite poles of the magnet must
face each other.
 The bridges are placed on either side of
the magnet at equal distance from the
magnet and are close to each other.
 A light paper rider is placed on the wire
between the bridges of the sonometer.
 The A.C. supply is switched on.
 The wire begins to vibrate.
 The length of the wire between the two
bridges is adjusted till the wire vibrates
with maximum amplitude. At this stage,
the paper rider placed on the wire is
thrown off, which shows the condition of
resonance.
 The length of the wire between the two
bridges is measured. This is called the
resonating length l.
 Then calculate the value of (M/l2).
 Repeat the experiment for different loads
and the average value of (M/l2) is found.
 The linear density of the wire, m, can be
calculated using the relation, m = πr2ρ,
where r is the radius of the wire which can
be measured using the screw gauge.
 By knowing the linear density, m, of the
wire, the frequency of A.C. mains supply is
calculated using the formula,

 Draw a graph between mass (M) of the

suspended weights and square of the
 resonating length (l2) by taking M along X-
axis and l2 along Y-axis. The graph should
be a straight sloping line. The slope of the
line gives the value of M/l2, which is a
constant.
Observations:
Find M/l2
Find the diameter of the wire

1.To find the least count (L.C)

1 Linear Scale Division, LSD = 1 mm

Number of full rotations given to screw =4

Distance moved by the screw = 4mm

Hence, pitch p = 4mm/4 = 1mm

Number of divisions on circular scale=100

Hence, least count, L.C = 1mm/100 = 0.01 mm= 0.001 cm

2. Zero Error
(i) zero error = --------------mm

(ii) zero error = ---------------mm

(iii) zero error = ----------------mm

Mean zero error, e = ------------mm

Mean zero correction, c = -e = -------mm

Calculations:
The density of the material of the wire, ρ = ………………kg/m3

Radius of the wire r = ………..m

Linear density of the wire, m = πr2ρ = ………….kg/m

Mean (M/l2) = …………………. kg/m2

Frequency of A.C. main ,

From the graph, M/ = AB/BC = k, a constant.

l2,
Therefore, from the graph, the frequency of A.C. main,

Sources of errors and precautions

1. The sonometer wire should be uniform and without kinks.

2. The pulley should be frictionless

3. The wire should be horizontal and pass freely in between the

poles of magnet.

4. The horse shoe magnet should be placed vertically at the center

of the wire with its face

normal to the length of wire.

5. The current should not exceed one Ampere to avoid the

overheating of the wire.

6. The movement of bridges on the wire should be slow so that the

resonance point can be

found easily

7. The diameter of the wire must be measured accurately at

different points in two mutually

perpendicular directions.

8. The sonometer wire and the clamp used to hold the magnet

should be non-magnetic.

Result:
The frequency of A.C. mains supply = …………. Hz

BIBLIOGRAPHY
https://www.wikipedia.org/

 https://www.google.com/

https://amrita.olabs.edu.in/

Class 12 Lab Manual

Class 12 NCERT Textbook
