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The effect of resistance training set configuration on strength, power, and

hormonal adaptation in female volleyball players

Article in Applied Physiology Nutrition and Metabolism · September 2017

DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2017-0327

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ARTICLE
The effect of resistance training set configuration on strength,
power, and hormonal adaptation in female volleyball players
Hamid Arazi, Aida Khanmohammadi, Abbas Asadi, and G. Gregory Haff

Abstract: The primary purpose of this investigation was to determine the impact of altering the set structure during an 8-week
resistance training program on anthropometric, hormonal, and strength power characteristics. Thirty female volleyball players
were recruited for participation and then randomly assigned to 1 of 3 resistance training groups: (i) cluster sets (CRT; n = 10),
(ii) traditional sets (TRT; n = 10), or (iii) control (CON; n = 10). All athletes were evaluated for thigh and arm circumference, vertical
jump, 20-m sprint, 4 × 9-m shuttle-run, 1-repetition maximum (1RM) back squat, bench press, military press, and deadlift prior
to and after an 8-week periodized training intervention. Blood samples were taken before and after the 8-week training period
to evaluate resting testosterone, cortisol, and insulin-like growth factor 1 responses to the training period. After 8 weeks of training the
CRT group displayed a small but significant improvement in vertical jump (CRT: effect size (ES) = 038, 7.1%) performance when
compared with the TRT group (ES = 0.34, 5.6%). Both the CRT and TRT training interventions resulted in very large increases in
the 1RM squat (CRT: 8.4% ± 1.2%; TRT: 7.3% ± 0.6%), bench press (CRT: 8.3% ± 2.0%; TRT: 8.7% ± 1.9%), military press (CRT: 5.7% ± 1.2%;
TRT: 5.5% ± 1.6%), and deadlift (CRT: 8.2% ± 1.6%; TRT: 8.3% ± 2.2%). There were no significant differences in 20-m sprint or 4 × 9-m
shuttle run times between the CRT, TRT, and CON groups. These results suggest that cluster sets allow for greater improvements
in vertical jump performance and equal improvements in strength gains to those seen with traditional sets.
Key words: inter-repetition rest, intra-set test, cluster set, strength training, testosterone, vertical jump.
Résumé : Le principal objectif de cette étude est de déterminer l’impact de la modification de la structure établie durant un
programme d’entraînement en résistance de 8 semaines sur des variables anthropométriques, hormonales et musculaires (force,
puissance). On recrute 30 joueuses de volleyball et on les répartit aléatoirement dans trois groupes d’entraînement en résistance :
(i) séries groupées (« CRT »; n = 10), (ii) séries traditionnelles (« TRT »; n = 10) et (iii) contrôle (CON; n = 10). On évalue chez toutes les
joueuses les variables suivantes : tour de cuisse et de bras, saut vertical, sprint de 20 m, course-navette de 4 × 9 m, maximum sans
répétition (« 1RM ») à l’accroupissement avec charge arrière, développé couché, développé militaire et soulevé de terre avant et
après 8 semaines d’entraînement périodisé. Avant et après les 8 semaines d’entraînement, on prélève des échantillons de sang
pour l’évaluation au repos de la concentration de testostérone, de cortisol et du facteur de croissance 1 analogue à l’insuline afin
de déterminer les réponses à l’entraînement. Après 8 semaines d’entraînement, le groupe CRT présente une amélioration
significative quoique faible au saut vertical (CRT : AE = 038, 7,1 %) comparativement au groupe TRT (ampleur de l’effet (AE) = 0,34,
5,6 %). Les groupes CRT et TRT présentent de fortes augmentations de 1RM à l’accroupissement (CRT : 8,4 ± 1,2 %; TRT : 7,3 ± 0,6 %),
au développé couché (CRT : 8,3 ± 2,0 %; TRT: 8,7 ± 1,9 %), au développé militaire (CRT : 5,7 ± 1,2 %; TRT : 5,5 ± 1,6 %) et au soulevé
de terre (CRT : 8,2 ± 1,6 %; TRT: 8,3 ± 2,2 %). On ne note pas de différences significatives entre les groupes (CRT, TRT et CON) au sprint
de 20 m et à la course-navette de 4 × 9 m. D’après les résultats, les séries groupées susciteraient une plus grande amélioration au saut
vertical et une amélioration égale de la force comparativement aux séries traditionnelles. [Traduit par la Rédaction]
Mots-clés : repos entre les répétitions, test intra-série, série groupée, entraînement à la force, testostérone, saut vertical.

Introduction One novel technique for introducing variation into a resistance

When constructing a periodized resistance training program training program is the use of cluster sets (Haff et al. 2008a, 2008b).
the ability to introduce training variation is an essential tool for Cluster sets employ short periods of rest (e.g., 14–40 s) that are either
stimulating recovery and adaptation, as well as translating adap- placed between individual repetitions (i.e., inter-repetition rest inter-
tive responses into sport-specific performance gains (Haff et al. vals) or between cluster of repetitions (i.e., intra-set rest intervals)
2008b). Overall training variations can be introduced into a pro- that are contained within an individual set (Tufano et al. 2016). In
gram through the manipulation of training load, number of sets, 2003, Haff et al. (2003) reported that using clusters sets (i.e., 5 repeti-
number of repetitions, set configurations, and the exercises se- tions with 30 s of rest between repetitions) can result in the main-
lected. Through a logical introduction of training variation, novel tenance of velocity across a set of clean pulls when compared with
training stimuli can be introduced into the athlete’s training pro- a traditional set. Similarly, Hardee et al. (2012) report that across 6
gram, thus enhancing the physiological adaptations that under- repetitions of the power clean the manipulation of the inter-
pin targeted performance gains (Hodges et al. 2005). repetition rest interval can slow the fatigue-induced velocity loss

Received 23 May 2017. Accepted 7 September 2017.

H. Arazi. Department of Exercise Physiology, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Guilan, PO Box 41635-1438, Rasht, Iran.
A. Khanmohammadi. Department of Sport Sciences, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Rasht, Iran.
A. Asadi. Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Payame Noor University, Tehran, Iran.
G.G. Haff. Centre for Exercise and Sport Science, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA 6027, Australia.
Corresponding author: Hamid Arazi (email: [email protected]).
Copyright remains with the author(s) or their institution(s). Permission for reuse (free in most cases) can be obtained from RightsLink.

Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 00: 1–11 (0000) dx.doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2017-0327 Published at www.nrcresearchpress.com/apnm on 10 October 2017.
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across a set when compared with a traditional set. More impor- Table 1. Subject characteristics.
tantly the degree of velocity maintenance across a cluster set is CRT group TRT group CON group Total group
largely impacted by the length of the inter-repetition and intra-set Characteristic (n = 10) (n = 10) (n = 10) (n = 30)
rest intervals used. Specifically, Hardee et al. (2012) demonstrated
that utilizing a 20-s inter-repetition rest interval results in a greater Age (y) 18.2±2.4 18.7±1.5 19.1±2.7 18.5±4.2
velocity decline across a set when compared with a 40-s inter- Height (m) 1.61±0.06 1.66±0.05 162.7±5.4 1.63±0.06
repetition rest interval. Similarly, Hansen et al. (2011) demonstrate Weight (kg) 54.5±6.6 56.5±9.0 54.0±7.5 55.1±9.4
Training age (y) 5.5±2.1 4.7±1.4 5.1±1.8 5.2±1.7
that over 6 repetitions there is a greater peak velocity decline in
jump squats performed with a traditional set structure when com- Note: Values are means ± SD. CON, control; CRT, cluster set; TRT, traditional
pared with cluster sets of 1 (inter-repetition rest = 12 s), 2 (intra-set set.
rest = 30 s), or 3 repetitions (intra-set rest = 60 s). Ultimately, based
upon the available literature the use of cluster sets allows for for a specific sport, such as volleyball, is warranted. To our knowl-
higher velocities to be maintained across the training set, which edge there are no current studies that have examined the longitudi-
can have a direct effect on the average power output achieved nal impact of using cluster sets on strength and power performance
during each repetition. Based upon the ability of cluster sets to or hormonal adaptations in female athletes.
maintain movement velocity during resistance training, it has Therefore, the primary purpose of the present investigation
generally been recommended that cluster sets be used with exer- was to determine the impact 8 weeks of resistance training with
cises and training programs that target the development of power differing set configurations (i.e., cluster and traditional sets) on
generating capacities (Haff et al. 2008a, 2008b). Conversely, when anthropometrics, power output, strength, and hormonal adapta-
attempting to target the development of maximal strength it has tions in female volleyball players. We hypothesized that cluster
been recommended that traditional sets are considered more ef- sets would result in greater changes to anthropometric character-
fective (Rooney et al. 1994) or equally effective when compared istics and increases in muscular power when compared with tra-
with cluster sets. However, there is some research that suggests ditional sets.
that cluster sets may also be an effective tool for developing mus-
cular strength (Oliver et al. 2013). Material and methods
One possible explanation for why cluster sets result in an in- Participants
crease in velocity is related to the ability of the inter-repetition or A total of 30 female volleyball players were recruited for partic-
intra-set rest interval allowing for partial recovery of phosphocreatine ipation in the present study. All subjects were familiar with basic
(PCr) stores (Haff et al. 2008a, 2008b; Iglesias-Soler et al. 2014). resistance training methods, but had not consistently performed
With traditional sets of 5 to 10 repetitions there is a progressive resistance training over the past 6 months. Prior to participating
decrease in PCr stores and a concomitant rise in lactate accumu- in the present study all subjects provided written informed con-
lation (Gorostiaga et al. 2012). The introduction of a 10–30-s inter- sent in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and the Insti-
repetition or intra-set rest interval has been suggested to result in a tutional Ethics Review Committee for the University. If a subject
lower acute lactate response (Girman et al. 2014), which may result in was under the age of 18 years parental assent was also acquired in
alterations in acute hormonal responses to a training bout that con- accordance with the Institutional Ethics Committee requirements.
tains cluster sets (Oliver et al. 2015). In one of the few studies exam- All subjects were informed that they were allowed to withdraw from
ining the acute hormonal responses to cluster sets, Oliver et al. this investigation at any time without penalty. Additionally, all sub-
(2015) report that cluster sets result in a significantly lower lactate, jects completed a questionnaire that examined their medical, in-
growth hormone, and cortisol response pattern. The results of jury, and performance histories. To ensure no subjects had any
this study suggest that the use of cluster sets results in less acute orthopedic or health related conditions that could preclude them
metabolic stress, when compared with traditional set structures. from participating in resistance and high-intensity training, all
While there are numerous studies that have examined the acute subjects performed a supervised screening undertaken by a phy-
impact of cluster sets on various mechanical factors, there is lim- sician. Subjects were only included in the present investigation if
ited research exploring the longitudinal impact of cluster sets on they had no history of anterior cruciate ligament injuries or other
physiological and performance adaptations. In one of the first lower limb injuries within the 6 months prior to the initiation of
training studies looking at the use of cluster sets, Oliver et al. the study. A summary of subject characteristics can be found in
(2013) noted that more frequent inter-set rest intervals resulted in Table 1. T1
greater strength and hypertrophic gains when compared with
traditional sets when employed as part of a 12-week resistance Study design
training program that focused on hypertrophic adaptations. More The present study is a longitudinal research design with 3 ran-
recently, Asadi and Ramirez-Campillo (2016) examined the impact domly assigned parallel training groups. Thirty female volleyball
of using cluster sets during a 6-week plyometric training interven- players were randomly assigned into 1 of 3 training groups: (i) tradi-
tion. After 6 weeks the cluster set intervention resulted in large tional set (TRT; n = 10), (ii) cluster set (CRT; n = 10), or (iii) control
significant improvements in countermovement jump (g = 1.23) condition (CON; n = 10). All training groups performed volleyball-
and t-test (g = 1.20) performance, while the traditional set training specific training on 3 nonconsecutive days (Monday, Wednesday,
program only demonstrated medium significant improvements Friday), while the CRT and TRT groups also performed resistance
in countermovement jump (g = 0.74) and t-test (g = 0.70) perfor- training on the days in which volleyball training was not com-
mance. When examining the 20-m sprint test both the traditional pleted (Tuesday, Thursday, Saturday). One week prior to the initi-
(g = 1.22) and cluster (g = 1.10) programs had a very large significant ation of the 8-week training period all subjects were familiarized
impact on 20-m sprint performance. with the testing and training procedures. Across 3 consecutive
Based upon the limited longitudinal research examining clus- days each subject underwent a battery of tests. On day 1 each
ter sets it appears that they may be a beneficial training tool that subject had their anthropometric (i.e., height, weight, and cir-
can impact muscular strength, sprinting speed, and explosive cumferences) assessed. After completing these measures, the sub-
power during various jumping tasks. While this preliminary re- jects were assessed for their 1-repetition maximum (1RM) back
search seems promising, much more longitudinal research is war- squat and military press. On day 2 each subject’s 1RM bench press
ranted to fully understand the role cluster sets play in resistance and deadlift were assessed. On day 3 each subject’s vertical jump,
training programs. Specifically, research that integrates cluster sets 20-m sprint, and 4 × 9-m shuttle-run performance were measured.
into the resistance training practices of athletes who are training Finally, 48 h prior to the initiation of the training period blood

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Arazi et al. 3

Fig. 1. Experimental design. All testing sessions were performed at the same time of day to control for diurnal effects on all measures. 1RM,
1-repetition maximum.

draws were undertaken to determine resting hormone (i.e., tes- Vertical jump assessment
tosterone, cortisol, and insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1)) levels. Prior to the completion of the countermovement vertical jump
Forty-eight hours after the completion of the 8-week training pe- performance test all subjects underwent a standardized warm-up,
riod blood draws were again completed to determine resting hor- which consisted of the performance a 10-min warm-up protocol
monal levels. The same performance battery was then repeated consisting of submaximal running, active stretching, and a 3 sub-
across 3 successive days after the completion of the post-training maximal vertical jumps. After the completion of the warm-up pro-
period blood measurement. A summary of the experimental de- tocol each subject performed 3 maximal countermovement vertical
F1 sign is presented in Fig. 1. jumps, each separated by a 30-s rest period based upon previously
established methods (Arazi et al. 2014). All countermovement verti-
Testing procedures cal jumps were performed with a self-selected countermovement
Testing procedures were divided across 3 successive days prior depth.
to and after the completion of the 8-week training period. All The highest vertical displacement determined from the 3 jumps
testing sessions were conducted in the same order to account for was then used to estimate a peak power output with the use of the
accumulative fatigue. Additionally, all testing sessions were con- equation developed by Sayers et al. (1999):
ducted at the same time of day in order account for diurnal per-
formance effects that have typically been noted when assessing peak power 5 0.67 × jump height
markers of strength and power (Sedliak et al. 2007, 2008). 1 45.3 × body mass 2 2055
Anthropometric measures
Height was measured to the nearest 0.1 cm with the use of a where peak power is in W, jump height in cm, and body mass in
wall-mounted stadiometer (Seca 222, Terre Haute, Ind., USA). Body kg. Even though this formula was developed for the static jump it
mass was measured to the nearest 0.1 kg using a medial scale has been shown to result in a very small measurement error when
(Tanita, BC-418MA, Tokyo, Japan). Circumference measures were used with countermovement jumps (Carlock et al. 2004; Sayers
taken for the mid-arm and mid-thigh with previously established et al. 1999). Additionally, the accuracy of this formula has been
methods (Arazi et al. 2013). Briefly, the right arm and thigh were shown to be unaffected by sex differences and commonly pro-
measured using an anatomical tape measure to the nearest 0.1 cm duced high intra-class correlations (ICC = 0.99) (Haff et al. 2005).
during a full muscle contraction. As such this equation is commonly used when estimating coun-
termovement vertical jump peak powers when assessing athletes
Maximal strength assessment (Carlock et al. 2004; Haff et al. 2005).
Upper and lower body strength were measured with the use of
a series of 1RM tests using free weights (Nebula Fitness Inc., Ver- Sprint testing
sailles, Ohio, USA). Specifically, all subjects performed a warm-up A 20-m sprint test was selected because it is a common test used
with a light resistance that allowed the performance of 5 to 10 in the evaluation of an athlete’s sprinting ability. After the comple-
repetitions. The resistance was then increased with the athlete tion of a standardized warm-up all subjects performed 3 maximal
performing 2–3 repetitions. From this point forward the athlete 20-m sprints, each separated by 120 s of rest to ensure maximal
performed 1 repetition with each progressive increased load until recovery (Asadi and Ramirez-Campillo 2016; Rimmer and Sleivert
volitional failure was achieved (Haff and Triplett 2016). The goal 2000). Briefly, all subjects initiated the sprint from a standardized
was to complete a maximal lift within 5 attempts. Two minutes of starting position that was 0.5 m behind the start line. The sprint
rest was provided between each set. start was automatically initiated as the subject passed the first

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4 Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. Vol. 00, 0000

Table 2. Resistance-training program.

Set 1 Set 2 Set 3
Set Cluster × % Cluster Rest Cluster × % Cluster Rest Cluster × % Cluster Rest Total
Wk Exercises type reps 1RM rest (s) reps 1RM rest (s) reps 1RM rest (s) rest (s)
1−2 Squat, bench press, CRT 1×10 60 0 120 2×5 65 30 90 2×5 70 30 90 360
deadlift, military TRT 1×10 0 120 1×10 0 120 1×10 0 120 360
press
3–4 Squat, bench press, CRT 1×10 70 0 120 2×5 75 20–30 90 1×4 80 20–30 90 320–360
deadlift, military 1×6
press TRT 1×10 0 120 1×10 0 120 1×8 0 120 360
5–6 Jump squat, explosive CRT 1×6 80 0 180 2×3 85 20 120 2×3 90 20 120 420
bench press, deadlift, TRT 1×8 0 180 1×6 0 180 1×4 0 180 540
power clean
7–8 Jump squat, explosive CRT 3×5 UB 30 30 180 3×3 UB 35 20 120 3×1 UB 40 10 120 420
bench press, deadlift, 3×5 LB 45 3×3 LB 50 3×1 LB 55
power clean TRT 1×6 UB 30 0 180 1×4 UB 35 0 180 1×3 UB 40 0 180 540
1×6 LB 45 1×4 LB 50 1×3 LB 55
Note: 1RM, 1-repetition maximum; CRT, cluster set; LB, lower body; reps, repetitions; TRT, traditional set; UB, upper body.

timing gate at the 0-m mark. Timing continued until the subject present study were required to complete all training and each
passed through the final gate at 20 m. Running times were quan- training session was monitored by a trained researcher to ensure
tified with the use of photocell timing gates (JBL Systems, Oslo, that all training exercise were performed correctly with the ap-
Norway) with an accuracy of 0.001 s. The fastest sprint time ob- propriate loads and rest intervals. A summary of the training
tained from the 3 trials was selected for analysis in this study programs used by the TRT and CRT groups can be found in Table 2. T2
(Rimmer and Sleivert 2000).
Statistical analysis
Shuttle-run test All values are presented as means ± SD. For each measure a
To assess the subject’s ability to sprint and change direction a percent change score was calculated ((post 8 weeks − baseline)/
4 × 9-m shuttle run test was performed in accordance with previ- baseline × 100). A Shapiro–Wilk test was performed to determine
ously published methods (Asadi 2013). Briefly, to initiate the test if the data were normally distributed. To determine if significant
the subjects stood behind the starting line and upon command differences existed between the 3 groups a 3 × 2 repeated-measures
sprinted for 9 m. Upon the initiation of the sprint timing was ANOVA was performed for each tested variable. Statistical signif-
automatically started with the use of photo cell timing gates (JBL icance was set at an a ≤ 0.05 for these analyses. When significant
Systems). Upon completing the 9-m sprint the subjects were asked F values were achieved pairwise comparisons in conjunction with
to change direction with their preferred foot and then sprint back a Bonferroni post hoc procedure were performed to determine
to the starting line. After the completion of the fourth 9-m section where significant differences occur whilst controlling for type I
the subjects crossed the finish line and time was immediately errors. All statistics analyses were performed with the use of a
recorded with the timing gate system. A total of 3 min was allotted statistics software package (SPSS version 16.0; SPSS, Chicago, Ill.,
between attempts for each subject to ensure adequate recovery USA).
and a maximization of performance. Customized excel spreadsheets were used to calculate all effect-
size (ES) statistics. Hedge’s g was utilized to calculate an effect size
Blood analyses
Baseline blood samples were taken 48 h prior to the initiation of for all measures (Lakens, 2013). This ES statistic was chosen as it
the training period and 48 h after the completion of the last corrects for bias that can typically be seen with small sample sizes.
training session. At each sampling period 10 mL of blood were The magnitude of the ES statistics was considered as follows: triv-
taken from an antecubital vein using standard venipuncture tech- ial, <0.20; small, 0.20–0.50; medium, 0.5–0.80; large, 0.8–1.30; or
niques. Based upon the work of Häkkinen et al. (1990), all samples very large >1.30 (Seitz et al. 2014). The ES is reported in conjunc-
were taken after 48 h of rest at the same time of day, after a 12-h tion with the 95% confidence interval (CI) for all analyzed mea-
fast and after 8 h of sleep to control of the circadian hormonal sures.
range. All blood samples were collected into a serum separator
tubes by a trained phlebotomist using a vacutainer assembly.
Results
Collected blood samples were then centrifuged at 1100g for 15 min. There was a 100% compliance by all subjects within the present
The resulting serum was frozen at −80 °C and later analyzed for study and no injuries were noted in response to the training in-
testosterone, cortisol, and IGF-1. All analyses were performed with terventions used.
standardized procedures using commercially available enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assays kits (Monobind Inc., Lake Forest, Calif., USA). Anthropometrics
The intra-assay variance was determined based upon a coefficient of After the completion of the 8-week training period there were
variation <6%. no significant changes in arm or thigh circumferences for the CON
group (p > 0.05). Conversely, after 8 weeks of training there was a
Training program significant (p ≤ 0.05) trivial increase in arm (ES = 0.17, 95% CI =
All subjects participated (CON, TRT, and CRT) in 3 days per week −0.71 to 0.17) and thigh (ES = 0.17, 95% CI = −0.71 to 1.03) circum-
volleyball training for 60–70 min on Monday, Wednesday, and ference in the TRT group. Similarly, the CRT group demonstrated
Friday. The TRT and CRT participated in 3 resistance training ses- significant trivial to small increases in the arm (ES = 0.34, 95% CI =
sions per week on Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday. This resistance −0.55 to 1.21) circumference and trivial increases in the thigh
training program comprised a nonlinear undulating, multi-set, (ES = 0.19, 95% CI = −0.69 to 1.06) circumference. There were no
multi-exercise program that incorporated variation in intensity statistical differences (p > 0.05) between the changes in circumfer-
and volume throughout each week of training. All subjects in the ence between the TRT and CRT.

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Arazi et al. 5

Table 3. Strength measures.

Strength (kg) TRT group CRT group CON group
1RM squat
Pre 44.1±1.2 44.6±0.70 44.1±1.1
Post 47.4±1.8*,† 48.2±0.59*,† 44±1.1
% Change 7.3±0.6† 8.4±1.2† −0.25±1.0
ES 2.1 (0.94 to 3.09)b 1.8 (0.69 to 2.73)b −0.1 (−0.97 to 0.78)a
1RM bench press
Pre 24.3±0.6 24.7±0.7 24.6±0.7
Post 26.4±0.9*,† 26.8±1.0*,† 24.5±0.7
% Change 8.7±1.9† 8.3±2.0† −0.4±1.2
ES 2.62 (1.33 to 3.68)b 2.23 (1.04 to 3.23)b −0.13 (−1.15 to 0.75)a
1RM military press
Pre 14.7±0.3 14.9±0.5 14.9±0.2
Post 15.6±0.4*,† 15.8±0.4*,† 14.8±0.2
% Change 5.5±1.56† 5.7±1.2† −0.5±1.1
ES 1.9 (0.78 to 2.87)b 1.78 (0.68 to 2.73)b −0.28 (−1.5 to 0.61)a
1RM deadlift
Pre 23.3±0.5 23.6±0.6 23.8±0.5
Post 25.3±0.8*,† 25.6±0.6*,† 23.7±0.5
% Change 8.3±2.2† 8.3±1.5† −0.6±1.6
ES 2.7 (1.45 to 3.84)b 3.06 (1.67 to 4.19)b −0.27 (−1.14 to 0.62)a
Note: Values are means± SD. ES presented with 95% confidence intervals. Lowercase letters represent the
following: a, trivial nonsignificant increase; b, very large significant increase. 1RM, 1 repetition maximum;
CON, control; CRT, cluster set; ES, effect size; Post, after training; Pre, before training; TRT, traditional set.
*Significant difference compared with Pre (p ≤ 0.05).
†Significant difference compared with CON group (p ≤ 0.05).

Strength measures Hormonal measures

The CON group demonstrated trivial nonsignificant (p > 0.05) After the completion of the 8-week training intervention both
decreases in all strength measures after the completion of the the TRT and CRT groups displayed significantly higher testoster-
8-week training period. Conversely, both the TRT and CRT groups one levels than the CON group (Table 4). Specifically, there was a T4
demonstrated very large significant gains (p = 0.001) in all strength significant medium increase in testosterone for the TRT group
T3 measures (Table 3). Specifically, both groups demonstrated very (ES = 0.49; 14.6% ± 5.7%) and a small increase for the CRT group
large significant increases in 1RM squat (CRT: 8.4% ± 1.2%; TRT: (ES = 0.34; 10.6% ± 4.7%). Additionally, both the TRT and CRT
7.3% ± 0.6%), bench press (CRT: 8.3% ± 2.0%; TRT: 8.7% ± 1.9%), groups displayed significantly greater IGF-1 concentrations after
military press (CRT: 5.7% ± 1.2%; TRT: 5.5% ± 1.6%), and deadlift the 8-week training intervention when compared with the CON
(CRT: 8.2% ± 1.6%; TRT: 8.3% ± 2.2%). group. The CRT group demonstrated a medium significant increase
in IGF-1 concentrations (ES = 0.74; 16.6% ± 12.1%) when compared
Vertical jump measures with the small increases noted in the TRT (ES = 0.44; 15.5% ± 19.7%)
The CRT group demonstrated small but significant increase group. When examining the cortisol responses, it was noted that
(12.3% ± 1.8%; p ≤ 0.05) in the peak power output achieved during both the TRT and CRT groups demonstrated significant decreases in
the vertical jump in response to the 8-week training period, which response to the training period whilst the CON group displayed a
was significantly greater than the trivial increase (8.2% ± 1.5%; p ≤ 0.05) small but significant increase. The CRT group exhibited a large sig-
F2 demonstrated by the TRT group (Fig. 2). Additionally, the CRT nificant decrease (ES = −0.87; −18.5% ± 9.7%) in resting cortisol when
and TRT groups both demonstrated small significant increases compared with the moderate significant decrease (ES = −0.74;
(CRT: 7.1% ± 2.9%; p ≤ 0.05; TRT: 5.6% ± 4.0%; p ≤ 0.05) in vertical −13.4% ± 6.8%) displayed by the TRT group. Finally, a significant
jump displacement, with the CRT group demonstrating signifi- very large increase in the testosterone to cortisol (T/C) ratio was
cantly greater improvements when compared with the TRT group
noted for both the TRT (ES = 1.85; 40.8% ± 4.3%) and CRT (ES = 1.56;
F3 (Fig. 3). The CON group did not significantly improve in either
39.7% ± 7.5%) groups when compared with the CON group.
vertical jump displacement or peak power output after the 8-week
training period. Discussion and conclusion
Sprint and shuttle measures The primary finding of the present investigation was that the
There were no significant differences noted in between the pre- TRT and CRT training models both demonstrated significant in-
and post-training time points for 20-m sprint time for either the creases in vertical jump performance after the completion of the
CON (pretraining: 3.80 ± 0.27 s; post-training: 3.81 ± 0.27 s; ES = 8-week resistance training program. However, the CRT group dis-
0.04, 95% CI = −0.84 to 0.91), TRT (pretraining: 3.81 ± 0.31 s; post- played significantly greater improvements in vertical jumping
training: 3.80 ± 0.31 s; ES = −0.03, 95% CI = −0.91 to 0.85), or CRT performance and power outputs when compared with the TRT
(pretraining: 3.86 ± 0.80 s; post-training: 3.83 ± 0.80 s; ES = −0.04, group. Secondarily, the TRT and CRT groups also demonstrated sig-
95% CI = −0.91 to 0.84) groups. Additionally, there were no signif- nificant increases in muscular strength in response to 8 weeks of
icant differences noted between the pretraining and post-training training when compared with the CON group. Conversely, there
times achieved during the 4 × 9-m shuttle-run test for the CON were no significant differences between any of the measurements
(pretraining: 11.64 ± 0.50 s; post-training: 11.66 ± 0.50 s; ES = 0.04, of maximal strength gains achieved in response to the TRT and
95% CI = −0.84 to 0.91), TRT (pretraining: 12.03 ± 0.70 s; post- CRT training interventions after the completion of the 8-week
training: 12.02 ± 0.70 s; ES = −0.01, 95% CI = −0.89 to 0.86), and CRT training period.
(pretraining: 11.53 ± 0.80 s; post-training: 11.52 ± 0.80 s; ES = −0.01, When examining the scientific literature it is well documented that
95% CI = −0.89 to 0.86) groups. resistance training has the ability to improve jumping performance

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Fig. 2. Peak power output. (A) Change in peak power output. *, Significantly different from baseline (p ≤ 0.05). †, Significantly different from
control group (p ≤ 0.05). (B) Effect Sizes and 95% confidence intervals for peak power output. (C) Peak power output percent change from
baseline to after 8 weeks. *, Significantly different from control group (p ≤ 0.05). ‡, Significantly different from traditional group (p ≤ 0.05).

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Arazi et al. 7

Fig. 3. Vertical jump displacement. (A) Change in displacement. *, Significantly different from baseline (p ≤ 0.05). †, Significantly different
from control group (p ≤ 0.05). (B) Effect sizes and 95% confidence intervals for displacement. (C) Peak power output percent change from
baseline to after 8 weeks. *, Significantly different from control group (p ≤ 0.05). ‡, Significantly different from traditional group (p ≤ 0.05).

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Table 4. Hormonal responses.

Hormone TRT group CRT group CON group
Testosterone (nmol/L)
Pre 2.53±0.69 2.23±0.70 2.20±0.48
Post 2.90±0.76*,† 2.46±0.59*,†,‡ 2.18±0.48
% Change 14.6±5.7† 10.6±4.7† −1.1±3.2
ES 0.49 (−0.40 to 1.38)b 0.34 (−0.54 to 1.22)b −0.04 (−0.92 to 0.84)a
Cortisol (nmol/L)
Pre 497.2±96.3 500.9±82.7 497.5±77.7
Post 427.9±83.5*,† 413.4±101.7*,†,‡ 513.3±72.5
% Change −13.4±6.8† −18.5±9.7†,‡ 3.4±6.2
ES −0.74 (−1.64 to 0.17)c −0.87 (−1.79 to 0.05)e 0.20 (−0.68 to 0.41)b
T/C × 10−3
Pre 4.6±1.0 4.1±1.0 4.3±1.0
Post 6.5±1.0*,† 5.7±1.0*,† 3.8±1.0*
% Change 40.8±5.3† 39.7±7.5† −11.6±3.2
Effect Size 1.85 (0.99 to 2.70)f 1.56 (0.74 to 2.37)f −0.49 (−1.21 to 0.24)d
IGF-1 (mg/L)
Pre 394.1±113.9 507.1±82.7 392.1±96.2
Post 440.3±83.5*,† 581.3±107.7*,†,‡ 388.8±94.2
% Change 15.5±19.7† 16.6±12.1†,‡ −0.75±0.82
ES 0.44 (−0.44 to 1.33)b 0.74 (−0.17 to 1.65)d −0.03 (−0.91 to 0.83)a
Note: Values are means ± SD. ES presented with 95% confidence intervals. Lowercase letters represent the
following: a, trivial nonsignificant increase; b, small significant increase; c, moderate significant increase; d, medium
significant increase; e, large significant increase; f, very large significant increase. CON, control; CRT, cluster set;
ES, effect size; IGF-1, insulin-like growth factor 1; Post, after training; Pre, before training; T/C, testosterone to cortisol
ratio; TRT, traditional set.
*Significant difference compared with pre training (p ≤ 0.05).
†Significant difference compared with control group (p ≤ 0.05).
‡Significant difference compared with traditional group (p ≤ 0.05).

and enhance the ability to express high power outputs during velocities, and result in improved performance of high power
jumping movements (Arazi et al. 2014; Asadi and Ramirez-Campillo movements.
2016; Kirksey et al. 1999; Kraemer et al. 2001). For example, after The present study supports this recommendation in that after
6 weeks of resistance training Kirksey et al. (1999) reported a 2.3% 8 weeks of training the CRT group demonstrated a significantly
increase in vertical jump displacement and a 3.1% increase in greater improvement in both power output and vertical displace-
power output. Similarly, the TRT group in the present study re- ment during the vertical jump assessments when compared with
sulted in a 5.6% increase in vertical jump performance and 8.2% the TRT group. In fact, the CRT group demonstrated a small but
increase in power output in response to the 8 weeks resistance significant 12.4% increase in power output during the vertical
training interventions. These greater increases in vertical jump jump test, which was significantly greater than the trivial 8.2%
performance and power outputs are likely due to the low levels of increase noted in the TRT group. Additionally, the CRT group in
strength exhibited by the subjects in the present study and poten- the present study demonstrated a small but significant 7.1% in-
tially the longer duration of training employed. Because the sub- crease in vertical jump displacement after the training period.
jects in the present study had significantly less resistance training Interestingly, the findings of the present study are very similar to
experience than the subjects in the paper by Kirksey et al. (1999), those reported by Asadi and Ramirez-Campillo (2016), where
larger gains in performance as a result of improved neuromuscular 6 weeks of plyometric training with cluster sets resulted in a 10.1%
control and increasing muscular strength would be expected and increase in vertical jump performance. Based upon these findings
partially explain these findings. While it is clear that resistance train- and the current body of scientific knowledge it appears that using
ing, which utilizes traditional set structures, can impact power- cluster sets as part of a periodized training program can signifi-
generating capacities and directly impact jumping performance, it cantly improve markers of power output when compared with
has been suggested that modifications can be made to training struc- traditional set structures.
tures, such as sets and loadings, to enhance the athlete’s perfor- While it is commonly recommended that cluster sets are useful
mance gains (Haff and Nimphius 2012). for power development it is generally suggested that traditional
In 2008, Haff et al. (2008a, 2008b) suggested that the use of cluster sets may be better suited for increasing maximal strength and
sets as part of a resistance training program would be ideally suited hypertrophy (Haff et al. 2008a, 2008b). Support for this recommen-
for targeting improvements in power-generating capacity. The ratio- dation is generally suggested based upon the work of Lawton et al.
nale behind this recommendation centers on the ability of short (2004), who report significantly greater increases in bench press
periods of inter-repetition or intra-set rest intervals to allow for strength with traditional sets when compared with cluster sets
partial recovery of PCr stores (Haff et al. 2008a, 2008b; Iglesias-Soler when performed with the same percentage load of 6RM. In fact, in
et al. 2014) and the maintenance or enhancement of movement this study the traditional set structure resulted in a 9.7% increase
velocity across a training set (Tufano et al. 2016). In fact, Haff et al. in 1RM, whilst the cluster sets only resulted in a 4.9% increase.
(2003) have previously demonstrated that the use of cluster sets These results are very similar to the very large 8.7% increase in
that employ a 30-s rest interval placed between repetitions re- bench press 1RM seen in the TRT group in the present study.
sulted in significantly higher peak velocities during the acute However, in contrast to the study by Lawton et al. (2004) a very
performance of clean pulls. Based upon these findings, Haff et al. large 8.3% increase in bench press strength was seen in the CRT
(2008a, 2008b) have hypothesized that using cluster sets as part of group after the 8 weeks of training. Interestingly, the CRT group
a resistance training program will allow for a greater training exhibited a large 8.4% increase in 1RM back squat, while the TRT
specificity for power development, as a result of higher training group displayed a very large 7.6% increase in 1RM back squat.

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Arazi et al. 9

Couple these findings with the very large 5.7% increase in military one levels are elevated in women. Similarly, the women in the
press 1RM and the very large 8.3% increase in deadlift 1RM as a present study also demonstrated increases in resting testosterone
result of the cluster set intervention it is clear that cluster sets can levels when compared with the CON group. While not statistically
in fact result in significant improvements in maximal strength if different, the TRT group displayed a 14.6% increase, whilst the CRT
programmed as part of a periodized training program. While tra- group only increased by 10.6%. Alterations in resting testosterone
ditionally not recommended as a tool for the maximization of levels are often related to changes in resistance training volume
muscular strength, cluster sets may actually be useful because and intensity (Haff et al. 2008c; Kraemer and Ratamess 2005). When
they can result in increases in maximal strength, whilst resulting resting testosterone levels are elevated in women they tend to also
in greater gains in power output. Support for this contention can display increases in both strength and power in comparison to
be seen in the work of Oliver et al. (2013) who suggest that the use women with lower resting testosterone (18). Interestingly, in the
of cluster sets can result in significant improvements in both present study the TRT group exhibited higher resting testosterone
muscular strength and power output in response to resistance levels and maximal strength posttraining when compared with
training performed for 8 or 12 weeks in duration. Whilst the present the CRT group. Conversely, the CRT group displayed greater in-
study does suggest that cluster sets can result in improvements in creases in power production, but this occurred with slightly lower
maximal strength, these improvements appear comparable with resting testosterone levels. Taken collectively it appears that the
those demonstrated with traditional set structures. training methods used in the present study created positive ele-
While maximal strength and power-generating capacity are of- vations in resting testosterone levels in women.
ten examined as part of performance testing batteries, it is impor- Resting cortisol levels also appear to be reflective of long-term
tant to see how these factors can translate to other markers that training stress (Kraemer and Ratamess 2005) or alterations in train-
are related to sports performance, such as sprinting speed and ing stressors (Haff et al. 2008c). For example, Haff et al. (2008c) report
change of direction ability. It is well documented that there is a that when training volume load is increased there is a significant
significant correlation between vertical jump, sprint, and change increase in resting cortisol (+48.4%) in women weightlifters. When
of direction performances (Hori et al. 2008). Based upon these
training load is reduced resting cortisol levels are reduced and
relationships it would be expected that training interventions
often return to baseline (Haff et al. 2008c). While both training
that result in improvements in jumping performance should
groups in the present study demonstrated decreases in resting
translate to improvements in sprint and change of direction per-
cortisol, the CRT group resulted in a larger decrease in response to
formances. While the rationale behind this possibility is sound
training. Based upon previous research this might suggest that
the results of the present study suggest that equal sprint and change
the use of cluster sets creates a favorable environment for perfor-
of direction performance gains can be achieved with resistance
mance gain without the metabolic stress associated with traditional
training programs that either use traditional or cluster set struc-
tures. One possible reason for the present findings may be related resistance training sets. While these findings are interesting a better
to the fact that similar gains in lower body strength were achieved understanding of training stress can be found be examining the
with in the CRT (18.4%) and TRT (17.6%) groups. Recent work by relationship of testosterone to cortisol.
Seitz et al. (2014) suggests that lower body strength has a signifi- Typically, when elevations in resting testosterone concentra-
cant relationship to sprinting performance, especially in short tions are coupled with reductions in resting cortisol concentra-
distance sprints such as the 20-m sprint used in the present study. tions it is believed that an enhanced anabolic environment
Additionally, it has been documented that increases in lower body (Staron et al. 1994) and increased performance capacity exists
strength can result in improvements in change of direction per- (Haff et al. 2008c). Additionally, it is also suggested that the use of
formance (Speirs et al. 2016; Suchomel et al. 2016). Therefore, it is the resting T/C ratio may in fact be an indicator an athlete’s per-
plausible that the lack of difference in lower body strength gains formance preparedness (Haff et al. 2008c; Hakkinen et al. 1985). In
seen with the CRT and TRT groups may partially explain why no the present study it was noted that both the CRT and TRT groups
significant differences were seen in sprint and change of direction displayed increases in both maximal strength and power produc-
performance in the present study. tion capacity in the selected tests. As expected both of these groups
While there is a lot of literature that has explored the acute also demonstrated significant very large increases in the T/C ratio
kinematic and kinetic performance responses to cluster sets there when compared with the CON group. Collectively this hormonal
is very little research that has explored the acute and chronic data suggests that both training groups created a favorable resting
hormonal responses to utilizing these types of sets. In one of the hormonal profile and that using either traditional or cluster sets
few studies to look at hormonal responses, Oliver et al. (2015) as part of a resistance training program can result in their volume
reported that traditional sets result in significantly greater meta- and intensity being manipulated to create a hormonal environ-
bolic stress as indicated by lactate responses and greater postex- ment that is favorable when attempting to maximize strength
ercise growth hormone, cortisol, free testosterone, and total and power performances.
testosterone levels when compared with cluster sets. Kraemer Another hormone that can be impacted by manipulations of vol-
and Ratamess (2005) suggest that resistance training protocols ume and intensity during resistance training is IGF-1. Long-term
that create greater metabolic stress through the use of high train- resistance training studies suggest that higher volume resistance
ing volumes, moderate to high intensities, shorter rest intervals, training programs can result in elevations in IGF-1 concentrations in
and large muscle mass exercises produce the greatest acute hor- women (Borst et al. 2001; Kraemer and Ratamess 2005; Marx et al.
monal responses. While acute hormonal responses shed light on 2001). In the present study both the TRT and CRT groups demon-
the overall metabolic and hormonal responses associated with strated increases in resting IGF-1 concentrations when compared
various resistance training interventions, another important con- with the CON group. Interestingly, the CRT group displayed a
sideration is the impact of longitudinal training on resting hor- significantly greater medium increase in IGF-1 concentrations
monal concentrations. after the 8-week training intervention. These findings were not
Generally, changes in resting testosterone concentrations are completely unexpected as Borst et al. (2001) and Marx et al. (2001)
inconsistent or nonexistent in women (Hakkinen et al. 1992; both suggest that following 13 to 24 weeks of resistance training,
Kraemer and Ratamess 2005). For example, Häkkinen et al. (1992) women can express increases in IGF-1. While only 8 weeks in
report that after 3 weeks of intensive resistance training women duration, the present study seems to add evidence to the liter-
display no systematic changes in resting serum or free testoster- ature that suggests resistance training with appropriately peri-
one. Conversely, Staron et al. (1994) have reported that after an odized volumes and intensities can result in increases in resting
8-week progressive resistance training program serum testoster- IGF-1 concentrations.

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