CLASS ON

UNIT 1B
A.C. Fundamentals

PROFESSOR RAKSHITHA RAVI

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
ECE DEPARTMENT
RVITM
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 UNIT 1
A.C. Fundamentals
CONTENTS
• Generation of sinusoidal voltage,
• frequency of generated voltage,
• average value,
• root mean square value,
• form factor
• peak factor of sinusoidally varying voltage and
current,
• phasor representation of alternating quantities.

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 Types

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 Advantages of AC

• Voltages can be raised or lowered with

transformer.
• Since voltages can be raised or lowered electrical
transmission at high voltages becomes easy.
• Possible to build up high ac voltage
• AC machines are simple in Construction

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 Advantages of pure sine wave

• Easy to write mathematical equations

• Sine and cosine waves are only waves which can
pass through linear circuits containing resistance,
inductance and capacitance without distortion.
• Integration and differentiation can be analysed in
simple way .

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 phasor representation of
alternating quantities.

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 PHASOR REPRESENTATION

RESISTIVE CIRCUIT

INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT

CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT

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 WAVE FORM PEAK & PEAK TO PEAK

CYCLE & TIME PERIOD INSTANTANEOUS VALUE

FREQUENCY &
ANGULAR FREQENCY AVERAGE VALUE

AMPLITUDE ROOT MEAN SQUARE(RMS)

PHASE & PHASE DIFFERENCE

FORM & PEAK FACTORS
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TERMINOLOGY DEFINITION

Wave Form A wave form is a graph in which the instantaneous value of any quantity is plotted
against time

Cycle One complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating quantity in termed
as cycle

Frequency The number of cycles per second of an alternating quantity is known as frequency
(f)

Angular Angular frequency is defined as the number of radians covered in one second(i.e the
angle covered by the rotating coil). The unit of angular frequency is rad/sec.
frequency
(ω = 2∏f)
Time period The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one complete cycle as called
as Time period
(T = 1/f)

Amplitude The AMPLITUDE of a sine wave is the maximum vertical distance reached, in either
direction from the center line of the wave.
(A)

Phase The phase of an alternating quantity is the time that has elapsed since the quantity
has last passed through zero point of reference ..

Phase When two alternating quantities of the same frequency have different zero points,
they are said to have a phase difference. The angle between the zero points is the
difference angle of phase difference
TERMINOLOGY DEFINITION

Peak value Peak is the maximum value, either positive (pk+) or negative (pk-), that a
(pk) waveform attains. Peak values can be expressed for V,I & P .

Peak to peak Peak-to-peak is the difference between the maximum positive and the
(pk-pk) maximum negative amplitudes of a waveform, as shown below. If there is
no direct current ( DC) component in an alternating current ( AC ) wave,
then the pk-pk amplitude is twice the peak amplitude.
Instantaneous This is the value (voltage or current) of a wave at any particular instant.
Value often chosen to coincide with some other event. E.g. The instantaneous
value of a sine wave one quarter of the way through the cycle will be
equal to the peak value.
Average The average of an alternating quantity is defined as the athematic mean
of all the values over one complete cycle.

RMS The RMS value of a set of values (or a continuous-time waveform) is the
square root of the arithmetic mean of the squares of the values, or the
square of the function that defines the continuous waveform.
Form Factor The ratio of RMS value to Average value is called Form factor.

Peak Factor It is defined as the ratio of Maximum value to RMS value of given
(Crest factor) alternating quantity
**** Difference between peak & Amplitude
 Example 1 : An alternating current i is given by i = 141.4 sin 314t
Find i) The maximum value
ii) Frequency
iii) Time Period
iv) The instantaneous value when t=3ms

Solution
i) The maximum value i = 141.4 sin 314t
Maximum value Im=141.4V

ii) Frequency ω = 2∏f3 = 14 rad/sec

f = ω/2∏ = 50 Hz

iii) Time Period T=1/f = 0.02 sec

iv) The instantaneous value when t=3ms

i =141.4 sin(314x0.003) = 114.35A
 AVERAGE VALUE
Definition :The average of an alternating quantity is defined as the
athematic mean of all the values over one complete cycle.

Methods of finding Average : 1. Graphical Method

2. Analytical Method

TheGraphicalMethodoffindingAveragevalueofsinewave

20V Peak
Analytical Method of Finding Average Value of sine wave
The average value can be taken mathematically by taking the
approximation of the area under the curve at various intervals to the
distance or length of the base and this can be done using triangles or
rectangles as shown.

For peak voltage of 20v

Average value =>
 RMS/MEAN VALUE
Definition :The term “RMS” stands for “Root-Mean-Squared”. Most books define this as
the “amount of AC power that produces the same heating effect as an
equivalent DC power”, or something similar along these lines, but an RMS
value is more than just that. The RMS value is the square root of the
mean (average) value of the squared function of the instantaneous
values. The symbols used for defining an RMS value are VRMS or IRMS.

Methods of finding Average : 1. Graphical Method

2. Analytical Method
TheGraphicalMethodoffindingRMSofsinewave

20V Peak
AnalyticalMethodofFindingRMSValueofsinewave

A periodic sinusoidal voltage is constant and can be defined as V(t) =

Vm.cos(ωt) with a period of T. Then we can calculate the root-mean-
square (rms) value of a sinusoidal voltage (V(t)) as

Integrating through with limits taken from 0 to 360o or “T”, the period gives:

For peak voltage (Vpk) of the waveform as 20 Volts using the analytical
method just defined we can calculate the RMS voltage as being:
Mode of Average Value RMS Value
Classification

Definition The average of an alternating The RMS value is the square

quantity is defined as the root of the mean (average)
athematic mean of all the value of the squared
values over one complete cycle. function of instantaneous
values.
Representation 𝐕𝐀𝐕𝐆 or 𝐈𝐀𝐕𝐆 𝐕 𝐑𝐌𝐒 OR 𝐈𝐑𝐌𝐒

Formulae 𝑽 𝑨𝑽𝑮 =
𝟏𝑻
𝑽 (𝒕)dt 𝟏 𝑻
𝑻 𝑶
𝑽𝑹𝑴 = [𝑽 𝒕]𝟐 dt
𝑺 𝑻 𝑶
𝟏 𝑻 𝟏 𝑻
𝑰 = 𝒕 𝑰(𝒕)dt 𝑰 = [𝑰𝒕]𝟐 dt
𝑨𝑽𝑮 𝑻 𝑶 𝑻 𝑶

Properties Average value of a periodic wave RMS value can be

form over complete cycle is calculated conveniently
zero. Hence for symmetric even for a periodic wave
periodic wave forms average form
value is calculated for half cycle
only.
Example 1 : A periodic current has values for equal timeintervals
changing suddenly from one value to next as 0,2,4,6,8,10,
8,6,4,2,0,-2,
-4,-6,-8, -10,-8 . Calculate
1. Average value
2. RMS
3. Form Factor
Solution 4. Peak Factor

1. Average value = (0+2+4+6+8+10+8+6+4+2) = 5A

10

02+22+42+62+82+102+ 82+62+42+22+02+(−2)2+(−4)2+(−6)2+(−8)2+(−10)2+(−8)2
+(−6)2+(−4)2+(−2)2+(0)2
2. RMS = 20

= 5.8309A
𝑅𝑀𝑆 5.8309
3. Form Factor = = = 1.1661
𝐴𝑉𝐸𝑅𝐴𝐺 5

𝑀𝐴𝑋𝐼𝑀𝑈𝑀 10
4. Peak Factor = 𝑉𝐴𝐿𝑈𝐸 = = 1.715
𝑅𝑀 5.8309
𝑆
Example 1 : A For a Sine wave of peak vm,calculate
1. Average value
2. RMS Answer : Average Value = 0.637Vm
3.Form Factor RMS = 0.707Vm
4.Peak Factor Form Factor = 1.11
Peak Factor =1.414
Solution

1. Average value
2. RMS

3.Form Factor
𝑅𝑀 0.707𝑉𝑚
Form Factor = 𝑆 = = 1.11
𝐴𝑉𝐸𝑅𝐴𝐺 0.637𝑉𝑚
4.Peak Factor

𝑀𝐴𝑋𝐼𝑀𝑈𝑀 𝑉𝑚
Peak Factor = 𝑉𝐴𝐿𝑈𝐸 = = 1.414
𝑅𝑀 0.707𝑉
𝑆
Example 2 : For the full wave rectified wave form shown, calculate
1. Average value
2. RMS
3.Form Factor
4.Peak Factor Answer : Average Value = 0.637Vm
RMS = 0.707Vm
Form Factor = 1.11
Peak Factor =1.414
Solution
1. Average value

2. RMS

3. Form Factor
𝑹𝑴 𝟎.𝟕𝟎𝟕𝑽𝒎
Form Factor = 𝑺 = = 1.11
𝑨𝑽𝑬𝑹𝑨𝑮 𝟎.𝟔𝟑𝟕𝑽𝒎
4. Peak Factor

𝑴𝑨𝑿𝑰𝑴𝑼𝑴 𝑽
Peak Factor = 𝑽𝑨𝑳𝑼𝑬 = = 1.414
𝑹 𝟎.𝟕𝟎𝟕𝑽𝒎
 Example 3: For the wave shown, calculate

1. Average value
2.RMS
3.Form Factor
4.Peak Factor

Answer : Average Value = 0.318Vm

RMS = 0.5Vm
Form Factor = 1.11
Peak Factor =1.414
Solution
1. Average value

2. RMS

3.Form Factor
𝑹 𝟎.𝟓 𝑽
Form Factor = = = 1.571
𝑨𝑽𝑬𝑹𝑨𝑮 𝟎.𝟑𝟏𝟖𝑽𝒎
4.Peak Factor
𝑴 𝑨 𝑿 𝑰 𝑴 𝑼 𝑴 𝑽𝑨𝑳𝑼𝑬 𝑽
Peak Factor = =2
= 𝑹 𝟎.𝟐𝑽
 Example 4: For the wave shown, calculate
1. Average value
2.RMS
3.Form Factor
4.Peak Factor

Answer : Average Value = 0.5Vm

RMS = 0.707Vm
Form Factor = 1.414
Peak Factor =1.414
Solution
1. Average value

2. RMS

3.Form Factor
𝑹
𝟎.𝟕𝟎𝟕𝑽𝒎
Form Factor =
𝑨𝑽𝑬𝑹𝑨𝑮
=
𝟎.𝟓 𝑽
= 1.414

4.Peak Factor
𝑴 𝑨 𝑿 𝑰 𝑴 𝑼 𝑴 𝑽𝑨𝑳𝑼𝑬 𝑽
Peak Factor = = 1.414
= 𝑹 𝟎.𝟕𝟎𝟕𝑽𝒎
Example 5: For the wave shown, calculate

1. Average value
2.RMS
3.Form Factor
4.Peak Factor

Answer : Average Value = 0.5Vm

RMS = 0.577Vm
Form Factor = 1.154
Peak Factor =1.733
Solution
1. Average value

2. RMS

3.Form Factor
𝑹
𝟎.𝟓𝟕𝟕𝑽𝒎
Form Factor =
𝑨𝑽𝑬𝑹𝑨𝑮
=
𝟎.𝟓 𝑽
= 1.154

4.Peak Factor
𝑴 𝑨 𝑿 𝑰 𝑴 𝑼 𝑴 𝑽𝑨𝑳𝑼𝑬 𝑽
Peak Factor = = 1.733
= 𝑹 𝟎.𝟓𝟕𝟕𝑽𝒎
 Example 6: For the wave shown, calculate
1. Average value
2.RMS
3.Form Factor
4.Peak Factor

Answer : Average Value = 57.5 V

RMS = 64.42V
Form Factor = 1.12
Peak Factor =1.552
Solution
1. Average value

VAVG =

2. RMS

VRMS = 64.42 V

3.Form Factor
𝑹𝑴
𝟔𝟒.𝟒𝟐
Form Factor = 𝑺
𝑨𝑽𝑬𝑹𝑨𝑮
=
𝟓𝟕.𝟓
= 1.12

4.Peak Factor
𝑴 𝑨 𝑿 𝑰 𝑴 𝑼 𝑴 𝑽𝑨𝑳𝑼𝑬 𝟏𝟎𝟎
Peak Factor = = 1.552
= 𝑹 𝟔𝟒.𝟒𝟐
Example 7: Find the effective value of the resultant current which
carries simultaneously a direct current of 10A and a sinusoidally alternating
current with a peak value of 10A.

Ans : 12.25A
Solution
 =
Element Unit Voltage Current Impedance Power Energy Characteristics

RESISTOR
R = 0 =>
I = ∞ , V = 0 , Short circuit
P = V *I E =∫ P dt
condition (S/C)
Ohm V= IR I= 𝑉
R =
𝑉 =𝐼2𝑅

(C)
𝑅 𝐼 𝑉2 = V *I
= R = ∞ =>
𝑅
I = 0 , V = ∞ , Open circuit
condition (O/C)

INDUCTOR V ∝ 𝑑Φ ∝ 𝑑𝑖 Integrating i(t)= Im sinω𝑡

𝑑𝑖
P=V*I E =∫ P dt  𝒅𝒊 =0 =>V =0 => S/C forDC
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
voltage of V(t) = L
𝑑𝑡  𝒅𝒕𝒅𝒊 = + =>P = +
inductor = ωL Im cosωt
𝒗(𝒕) V L absorbs power, charging
XL = 𝒅𝒊 = - =>P = -
Henry 𝑑𝑖 𝒊( 𝒕) 
∫ v(t) dt = ∫ L 𝒅𝒕
= ωL Imcosωt
(H) 𝑑𝑡 Im sin ω𝑡
= ωL sin(𝑤𝑡+90)
Im sin ω𝑡
I L supplies power, discharging
 𝒅𝒊 = 0 =>P=0 => L is idle
 𝒅𝒕𝒅𝒊 = ∞ => v=∞,i= ∞ => O/C
𝒅𝒊 𝟏 L does not allow sudden
v(t) = L i(t) = 𝟏𝑳 ∫ v(t) dt = Li = L 𝑰𝟐
XL = jωL 𝒊 𝟐 change in current

 Energy across L is finite even

if v=0 ( since E= 𝟏 L 𝐼2)
𝟐

Integrating 𝑞
c= => q=cv v(t)= Vm sinω𝑡 P= V *I E =∫ P dt  𝒅𝑽
𝒅𝒕
=0 =>i =0 => O/C for DC
CAPACITOR current of 𝑉 i(t) = C
𝑑𝑉
𝒅
𝑑𝑡  = + =>P = +
capacitor = ωC vm cosωt 𝒅𝒕

𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑣 𝒗(𝒕) i C absorbs power, charging

∫i(t)dt = ∫C 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑡
= c 𝑑𝑡 XC =
𝒊(𝒕)
Vm sinωt
 𝒅𝑽
𝒅𝒕
= - =>P = -
Farad 𝑑𝑡 = ωCvm cos ω𝑡 v C supplies power, discharging
 𝒅𝑽 = 0 =>P=0 => C is idle
(F)  𝒅𝑽 = ∞ => I = ∞ => S/C
𝒅𝒕
v(t)= 𝟏𝑪 ∫ i(t) dt 𝒅 𝟏 𝒅 𝟏 C does not allow sudden
i(t) = C XC = =Cv = c 𝑽𝟐
𝒋𝝎𝑪 𝟐 change in voltage
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
 Energy across C is finite even
if I =0 ( since E= 𝟏 C 𝑉 2 )
𝟐
 Single Phase Circuits:
Analysis, with phasor diagram, of circuits with
 R,
 L,
 C,
 R-L,
 RC,
 R-L-C for series and parallel configurations.
 Real power, reactive power, apparent power and power
factor.

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 SUMMARY

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 𝑽𝒎𝑰𝒎 𝑽 𝒎 𝑰𝒎
Average Power = 𝑃𝐴𝑣𝑔 = ∫ 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 =
𝟐
cosΦ =
√𝟐 √𝟐
cosΦ = 𝑉𝑅 𝑀 𝑆𝐼 cosΦ
𝑅𝑀
𝑆
Active power : From the expression ,Average power is dependent on the
in phase component of current. The average power is the use full power
that is used to do work on the load. Active Power is also called as
Average/Real/True power and is measured in watts.

ActivePower= P= VICosΦ

Reactive Power: We know that pure inductor and capacitor consume no

power because all the power received from the source in a half cycle is
returned to source in the next half cycle. This circulating power is called
reactive power .It is the product of voltage and reactive part of current
i.e I sinΦ and is measured in KVAR(volt-ampere-reactive)

ReactivePower= Q= VISinΦ

ApparentPower: The product of voltage and current is known as apparent

power (s) and is measured in KVA(volt-ampere)

Apparentpower= S= VI= 𝑷 𝟐 +𝑸 𝟐
6.Power Triangle :

Power Triangle is the representation of a right angle triangle showing

the relation between active power, reactive power and apparent power.
When each component of the current that is the active component
(Icosϕ) or the reactive component (I sinϕ) is multiplied by the voltage
V, a power triangle is obtained shown in the figure below

Q=
P=

P=Active Power = VICosΦ Q

= ReactivePower=VISinΦ
S= Apparentpower= VI= 𝑷 𝟐 +𝑸 𝟐
 Power Factor :It is defined as the cosine of the angle between voltage and current

Power factor = cosΦ

𝑽𝑹
PF = … From Voltage Triangle

𝑹
PF = … From Impedance Triangle
𝒁

𝑷
PF = … From Power Triangle
𝑺

In case of series RL circuit, the power Factor is lagging in nature

Concept of power factor

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