Module 1

The Nature of Electricity

STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter is composed of very small particles called
atoms. All matter can be classified into either one of two groups: elements or compounds. In an element, all the
atoms are the same. Examples of elements are aluminum, copper, carbon, germanium, and silicon. A compound
is a combination of elements. Water, for example, is a compound consisting of the elements hydrogen and
oxygen. The smallest particle of any compound that retains the original characteristics of that compound is
called a molecule.
Atoms are composed of subatomic particles of electrons, protons, and neutrons in various combinations.
The electron is the fundamental negative (−) charge of electricity. Electrons revolve about the nucleus or
center of the atom in paths of concentric “shells,” or orbits (Fig. 1-1). The proton is the fundamental positive
(+) charge of electricity. Protons are found in the nucleus. The number of protons within the nucleus of any
particular atom specifies the atomic number of that atom. For example, the silicon atom has 14 protons in
its nucleus so the atomic number of silicon is 14. The neutron, which is the fundamental neutral charge of
electricity, is also found in the nucleus.

Fig. 1-1 Electrons and nucleus of an atom

Atoms of different elements differ from one another in the number of electrons and protons they contain
(Fig. 1-2). In its natural state, an atom of any element contains an equal number of electrons and protons. Since
the negative (−) charge of each electron is equal in magnitude to the positive (+) charge of each proton, the
two opposite charges cancel. An atom in this condition is electrically neutral, or in balance (Fig. 1-2).

Example 1.1 Describe the two simplest atoms.

The simplest atom is the hydrogen atom, which contains 1 proton in its nucleus balanced by 1 electron orbiting the
nucleus (Fig. 1-2a). The next simplest atom is helium, which has 2 protons in its nucleus balanced by 2 electrons orbiting
the nucleus (Fig. 1-2b).

A stable (neutral) atom has a certain amount of energy, which is equal to the sum of the energies of its
electrons. Electrons, in turn, have different energies called energy levels. The energy level of an electron is
proportional to its distance from the nucleus. Therefore, the energy levels of electrons in shells farther from
the nucleus are higher than those of electrons in shells nearer the nucleus. The electrons in the outermost shell
are called valence electrons. When external energy such as heat, light, or electric energy is applied to certain

1
2 THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY

Fig. 1-2 Atomic structure of four common elements

materials, the electrons gain energy. This may cause the electrons to move to a higher energy level. An atom
in which this has occurred is said to be in an excited state. An atom in an excited state is unstable.
When an electron has moved to the outermost shell of its atom, it is least attracted by the positive charges
of the protons within the nucleus of its atom. If enough energy is then applied to the atom, some of the
outermost shell or valence electrons will leave the atom. These electrons are called free electrons. It is the
movement of free electrons that provides electric current in a metal conductor.
Each shell of an atom can contain only a certain maximum number of electrons. This number is called the
quota of a shell. The orbiting electrons are in successive shells designated K, L, M, N, O, P, and Q at increasing
distances outward from the nucleus. Each shell has a maximum number of electrons for stability (Fig. 1-3).
After the K shell has been filled with 2 electrons, the L shell can take up to 8 electrons. The maximum number
CHAP. 1] THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY 3

Fig. 1-3 Energy shells and the quota of electrons for each
shell

of electrons in the remaining shells can be 8, 18, or 32 for different elements. The maximum for an outermost
shell, though, is always 8.

Example 1.2 Structure the copper atom by identifying its energy shells (Fig. 1-2d).
In the copper atom there are 29 protons in the nucleus balanced by 29 orbiting electrons. The 29 electrons fill the K
shell with 2 electrons and the L shell with 8 electrons. The remaining 19 electrons then fill the M shell with 18 electrons,
and the net result is 1 electron in the outermost N shell.

If the quota is filled in the outermost shell of an atom, an element made up of such atoms is said to be
inert. When the K shell is filled with 2 electrons, we have the inert gas helium (Fig. 1-2b). When the outer
shell of an atom lacks its quota of electrons, it is capable of gaining or losing electrons. If an atom loses one
or more electrons in its outer shell, the protons outnumber the electrons so that the atom carries a net positive
electric charge. In this condition, the atom is called a positive ion. If an atom gains electrons, its net electric
charge becomes negative. The atom then is called a negative ion. The process by which atoms either gain or
lose electrons is called ionization.

Example 1.3 Describe what happens to the copper atom when it loses an electron from its outermost shell.
The copper atom becomes a positive ion with a net charge of +1.

THE ELECTRIC CHARGE

Since some atoms can lose electrons and other atoms can gain electrons, it is possible to cause a transfer of
electrons from one object to another. When this takes place, the equal distribution of the positive and negative
charges in each object no longer exists. Therefore, one object will contain an excess number of electrons and
its charge must have a negative, or minus (−), electric polarity. The other object will contain an excess number
of protons and its charge must have a positive, or plus (+), polarity.
When a pair of objects contains the same charge, that is, both positive (+) or both negative (−), the
objects are said to have like charges. When a pair of bodies contains different charges, that is, one body is
positive (+) while the other body is negative (−), they are said to have unlike or opposite charges. The law of
electric charges may be stated as follows:
Like charges repel each other; unlike charges attract each other.
4 THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY

If a negative (−) charge is placed next to another negative (−) charge, the charges will repel each other
(Fig. 1-4a). If a positive (+) charge is placed next to a negative (−) charge, they will be drawn together
(Fig. 1-4c).

Fig. 1-4 Force between charges

THE COULOMB
The magnitude of electric charge a body possesses is determined by the number of electrons compared with
the number of protons within the body. The symbol for the magnitude of the electric charge is Q, expressed in
units of coulombs (C). A charge of one negative coulomb, −Q, means a body contains a charge of 6.25 × 1018
more electrons than protons.∗

Example 1.4 What is the meaning of +Q?

A charge of one positive coulomb means a body contains a charge of 6.25 × 1018 more protons than electrons.

Example 1.5 A dielectric material has a negative charge of 12.5 × 1018 electrons. What is its charge in coulombs?
Since the number of electrons is double the charge of 1 C (1 C = 6.25 × 1018 electrons), −Q = 2 C.

THE ELECTROSTATIC FIELD

The fundamental characteristic of an electric charge is its ability to exert a force. This force is present
within the electrostatic field surrounding every charged object. When two objects of opposite polarity are
brought near each other, the electrostatic field is concentrated in the area between them (Fig. 1-5). The electric

Fig. 1-5 The electrostatic field between two charges of opposite polarity

∗ See page 16 (Chapter 2) for an explanation of how to use powers of 10.

CHAP. 1] THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY 5

field is indicated by lines of force drawn between the two objects. If an electron is released at point A in this
field, it will be repelled by the negative charge and will be attracted to the positive one. Thus both charges
will tend to move the electron in the direction of the lines of force between the two objects. The arrowheads
in Fig. 1-5 indicate the direction of motion that would be taken by the electron if it were in different areas of
the electrostatic field.

Example 1.6 Draw the electrostatic field that would exist between two negatively charged objects.
When two like charges are placed near each other, the lines of force repel each other as shown below.

A charged object will retain its charge temporarily if there is no immediate transfer of electrons to or from
it. In this condition, the charge is said to be at rest. Electricity at rest is called static electricity.

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
Due to the force of its electrostatic field, an electric charge has the ability to do the work of moving another
charge by attraction or repulsion. The ability of a charge to do work is called its potential. When one charge
is different from the other, there must be a difference in potential between them.
The sum of the differences of potential of all the charges in the electrostatic field is referred to as
electromotive force (emf).
The basic unit of potential difference is the volt (V). The symbol for potential difference is V , indicating
the ability to do the work of forcing electrons to move. Because the volt unit is used, potential difference is
called voltage.

Example 1.7 What is the meaning of a battery voltage output of 6 V?

A voltage output of 6 V means that the potential difference between the two terminals of the battery is 6 V. Thus,
voltage is fundamentally the potential difference between two points.

CURRENT
The movement or the flow of electrons is called current. To produce current, the electrons must be moved
by a potential difference. Current is represented by the letter symbol I . The basic unit in which current is
measured is the ampere (A). One ampere of current is defined as the movement of one coulomb past any point
of a conductor during one second of time. Electricity can be termed as electric current.

Example 1.8 If a current of 2 A flows through a meter for 1 minute (min), how many coulombs pass through the meter?
1 A is 1 C per second (C/s). 2 A is 2 C/s. Since there are 60 s in 1 min, 60 × 2 C = 120 C pass through the meter in
1 min.

The definition of current can be expressed as an equation:

Q
I= (1-1)
T
6 THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY

where I = current, A
Q = charge, C
T = time, s
or Q = I × T = IT (1-2)

Charge differs from current in that Q is an accumulation of charge, while I measures the intensity of
moving charges.

Example 1.9 Find the answer to Example 1.8 by using Eq. (1-2).
Write down the known values:

I =2A T = 60 s

Write down the unknown:

Q=?

Use Eq. (1-2) to solve the unknown:

Q=I ×T

Substitute I = 2 A and T = 60 s:

Q = (2 A) × (60 s)

Solve for Q:

Q = 120 C Ans.

CURRENT FLOW
In a conductor, such as copper wire, the free electrons are charges that can be forced to move with relative
ease by a potential difference. If a potential difference is connected across two ends of a copper wire (Fig. 1-6),

Fig. 1-6 Potential difference across two ends

of a wire conductor causes electric
current
CHAP. 1] THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY 7

the applied voltage (1.5 V) forces the free electrons to move. This current is a drift of electrons from the point
of negative charge, −Q, at one end of the wire, moving through the wire, and returning to the positive charge,
+Q, at the other end. The direction of the electron drift is from the negative side of the battery, through the
wire, and back to the positive side of the battery. The direction of electron flow is from a point of negative
potential to a point of positive potential. The solid arrow (Fig. 1-6) indicates the direction of current in terms
of electron flow. The direction of moving positive charges, opposite from electron flow, is considered the
conventional flow of current and is indicated by the dashed arrow (Fig. 1-6). In basic electricity, circuits are
usually analyzed in terms of conventional current because a positive potential is considered before a negative
potential. Therefore, the direction of conventional current is the direction of positive charges in motion. Any
circuit can be analyzed by either electron flow or conventional flow in the opposite direction. In this book,
current is always considered as conventional flow.

SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
Chemical Battery
A voltaic chemical cell is a combination of materials which are used for converting chemical energy into
electric energy. A battery is formed when two or more cells are connected. A chemical reaction produces
opposite charges on two dissimilar metals, which serve as the negative and positive terminals (Fig. 1-7). The
metals are in contact with an electrolyte.

Fig. 1-7 Voltaic chemical cell

Generator
The generator is a machine in which electromagnetic inductance is used to produce a voltage by rotating
coils of wire through a stationary magnetic field or by rotating a magnetic field through stationary coils of
wire. Today, more than 95 percent of the world’s energy is produced by generators.

Thermal Energy
The production of most electric energy begins with the formation of heat energy. Coal, oil, or natural
gas can be burned to release large quantities of heat. Once heat energy is available, conversion to mechanical
energy is the next step. Water is heated to produce steam, which is then used to turn the turbines that drive the
electric generators. A direct conversion from heat energy to electric energy will increase efficiency and reduce
thermal pollution of water resources and the atmosphere.

Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Conversion

In an MHD converter, gases are ionized by very high temperatures, approximately 3000 degrees Fahrenheit
(3000◦ F), or 1650 degrees Celsius (1650◦ C). The hot gases pass through a strong magnetic field with current
resulting. The exhausted gases are then moved back to the heat source to form a complete cycle (Fig. 1-8).
MHD converters have no mechanical moving parts.
8 THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY

Fig. 1-8 Principles of MHD converter

Thermionic Emission
The thermionic energy converter is a device that consists of two electrodes in a vacuum. The emitter elec-
trode is heated and produces free electrons. The collector electrode is maintained at a much lower temperature
and receives the electrons released at the emitter.

Solar Cells
Solar cells convert light energy directly into electric energy. They consist of semiconductor material like
silicon and are used in large arrays in spacecraft to recharge batteries. Solar cells are also used in home heating.

Piezoelectric Effect
Certain crystals, such as quartz and Rochelle salts, generate a voltage when they are vibrated mechanically.
This action is known as the piezoelectric effect. One example is the crystal phonograph cartridge, which contains
a Rochelle salt crystal to which a needle is fastened. As the needle moves in the grooves of a record, it swings
from side to side. This mechanical motion is applied to the crystal, and a voltage is then generated.

Photoelectric Effect
Some materials, such as zinc, potassium, and cesium oxide, emit electrons when light strikes their surfaces.
This action is known as the photoelectric effect. Common applications of photoelectricity are television camera
tubes and photoelectric cells.

Thermocouples
If wires of two different metals, such as iron and copper, are welded together and the joint is heated, the
difference in electron activity in the two metals produces an emf across the joint. Thermocouple junctions can
be used to measure the amount of current because current acts to heat the junction.

DIRECT AND ALTERNATING CURRENTS AND VOLTAGES

Direct current (dc) is the current that moves through a conductor or circuit in one direction only (Fig. 1-9a).
The reason for the unidirectional current is that voltage sources such as cells and batteries maintain the same
CHAP. 1] THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY 9

Fig. 1-9 Waveforms of a constant dc current and dc voltage

polarity of output voltage (Fig. 1-9b). The voltage supplied by these sources is called direct-current voltage,
or simply dc voltage. A dc voltage source can change the amount of its output voltage, but if the same polarity
is maintained, direct current will flow in one direction only.

Example 1.10 Assuming the polarity of the battery were reversed in Fig. 1-9b, draw the new curves of current and
voltage.
With polarity reversed, the current will now flow in the opposite direction. The curves would then appear as follows:

An alternating-current voltage (ac voltage) source periodically reverses or alternates in polarity

(Fig. 1-10a). Therefore, the resulting alternating current also periodically reverses direction (Fig. 1-10b).
In terms of conventional flow, the current flows from the positive terminal of the voltage source, through the
circuit, and back to the negative terminal, but when the generator alternates in polarity, the current must reverse
its direction. The ac power line used in most homes is a common example. The voltage and current direction
go through many reversals each second in these systems.

Fig. 1-10 Waveforms of ac voltage and ac current

10 THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY

Solved Problems

1.1 Match each term in column 1 to its closest meaning in column 2.

Column 1 Column 2
1. Electron (a) Positive charge
2. Neutron (b) Same number of electrons and protons
3. Compound (c) Electrons in first shell
4. Neutral (d) Released electrons
5. Valence electrons (e) Neutral charge
6. Atomic number (f ) Electrons in outermost shell
7. Free electrons (g) Quota filled in outermost shell
8. K shell (h) Number of electrons in nucleus
9. Ion (i) Negative charge
10. Inert (j ) Quota of 2 electrons
(k) Combined elements
(l) Number of protons in nucleus
(m) Charged atom

1.2 Show the atomic structure of the element aluminum with atomic number 13. What is its electron
valence?
Because aluminum has 13 protons in the nucleus, it must have 13 orbiting electrons to be electrically
neutral. Starting with the innermost shells (Fig. 1-3), we have

K shell 2 electrons
L shell 8 electrons
M shell 3 electrons
Total 13 electrons
The atomic structure for aluminum then is shown in Fig. 1-11. Its electron valence is −3 because
it has 3 valence electrons.

Fig. 1-11
CHAP. 1] THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY 11

1.3 In observing the maximum number of electrons in shells K, L, M, and N in Fig. 1-3, you will find that
they are 2, 8, 18, and 32 electrons, respectively. Develop a formula that describes this relationship,
where n is the shell number in sequential order outward from the nucleus.
The formula is 2n2 because the maximum number of electrons in the
K or first shell (n = 1) is 2(l2 ) = 2(1) = 2
L or second shell (n = 2) is 2(22 ) = 2(4) = 8
M or third shell (n = 3) is 2(32 ) = 2(9) = 18
N or fourth shell (n = 4) is 2(42 ) = 2(16) = 32
This relationship is true for most elements.

1.4 What is the net charge of a body that contains 8 protons and 4 electrons?
The numerical value of the net charge is found by subtracting the number of one type of charge
from the number of the other type. So a positive charge of 8 (+8) and a negative charge of 4 (−4)
yields a positive charge of 4 (+4).

1.5 A charged insulator has deficiency of 50 × 1018 electrons. Find its charge in coulombs with polarity.
Since 1 C = 6.25 × 1018 electrons, 8 C = 50 × 1018 electrons. Deficiency of electrons means an
excess of protons. So the insulator has a positive charge of 8 C, or +Q = 8 C.

1.6 Write the word which most correctly completes each of the following statements:
(a) A rubber rod repels a second rubber rod, so both rods have _______________ charges.
(b) Glass rubbed with silk attracts rubber rubbed with fur. If the rubber rod is negative, the glass rod
must be ____________________.
(a) like (law of charges); (b) positive (law of charges)

1.7 Find the current needed to charge a dielectric so that it will accumulate a charge of 20 C after 4 s.
Known values: Q = 20 C; T = 4s
Unknown: I =?
Use Eq. (1-1) to find I :

1.8 A current of 8 A charges an insulator for 3 s. How much charge is accumulated?

Known values: I = 8 A; T = 3 s
Unknown: Q=?
Use Eq. (1-2) to find Q:

1.9 Write the word or words which most correctly complete each of the following statements.

(a) The ability of a charge to do work is its _______________________.

(b) When one charge is different from the other, there is a ________________ of
_____________________.
(c) The unit of potential difference is the ________________________.
12 THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY

(d) The sum of potential differences of all charges is called _________________________.

(e) The movement of charges produces _______________________.
(f ) A greater amount of moving charges means a ___________________ value for the current.
(g) When the potential difference is zero, the value of current is _____________.
(h) The rate of flow of charge is called ___________________.
(i) The direction of the conventional flow of current is from a point of ________ potential to a point
of ______________ potential.
(j ) Electron flow is opposite in direction to ________________ flow.
(k) Direct current (dc) has just ________________ direction.
(l) A _____________________ is an example of a dc voltage source.
(m) An alternating current (ac) _________________ its polarity.

1.10 Match each device in column 1 to its closest principle in column 2.

Column 1 Column 2
1. Battery (a) Electromagnetic induction
2. Generator (b) Free electrons
3. TV camera tube (c) Ionized gases
4. Vacuum tube (d) Chemical reaction
5. Phonograph needle (e) Thermal energy
(f ) Photoelectricity
(g) Mechanical motion

Supplementary Problems

1.11 Match each term in column 1 to its closest meaning in column 2.

Column 1 Column 2
1. Proton (a) Negative charge
2. Molecule (b) Quota of 8 electrons
3. Quota (c) Excited state
4. L shell (d) Maximum number of electrons in a shell
5. Element (e) Atom negatively charged
6. Unstable (f ) Positive charge
7. Shell (g) Mass and volume
 THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY 13

Column 1 Column 2
8. Copper (h) Atomic number is 29
9. Negative ion (i) Quota of 18 electrons
10. Matter (j ) Orbit
(k) Smallest particle having same characteristics
(l) Atomic number is 14
(m) All atoms the same

1.12 Write the word or words which most correctly complete each of the following statements.
(a) Electrons move about the nucleus of an atom in paths which are called _____________.
(b) The nucleus of an atom consists of particles called _____________ and ______________.
(c) The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is known as the _________
___________________ of that atom.
(d) When all the atoms within a substance are alike, the substance is called a chemical
____________________.
(e) A ______________________ is the smallest particle of a compound which retains all the
properties of that compound.
(f ) The energy ____________________ of an electron is determined by its distance from the nucleus
of an atom.
(g) If a neutral atom gains electrons, it becomes a ________________ ion.
(h) If a neutral atom loses electrons, it becomes a _________________ ion.
(i) Unlike charges ________________ each other, while like charges ______________ each other.
(j ) A charged object is surrounded by an __________________ field.

1.13 Show the atomic structure of the element phosphorus, which has an atomic number of 15. What is its
electron valence?

1.14 Show the atomic structure of the element neon, which has an atomic number of 10. What is its electron
valence?

1.15 What is the net charge if 13 electrons are added to 12 protons?

1.16 What becomes of the silicon atom when it loses all the orbiting electrons in its outermost shell?

1.17 A charged insulator has an excess of 25 × 1018 electrons. Find its charge in coulombs with polarity.

1.18 A material with an excess of 25 × 1018 electrons loses 6.25 × 1018 electrons. The excess electrons are
then made to flow past a given point in 2 s. Find the current produced by the resultant electron flow.
14 THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY

Fig. 1-12 Fig. 1-13

1.19 A charge of 10 C flows past a given point every 2 s. What is the current?

1.20 How much charge is accumulated when a current of 5 A charges an insulator for 5 s?

1.21 Match each item in section 1 with its application in section 2.

Section 1 Section 2
1. Water 4. Quartz (a) Solar cell (e) Photoelectric cell
2. Cesium oxide 5. Carbon–zinc (b) Generator (f ) Turbine
3. Silicon 6. Iron–copper (c) Battery (g) MHD converter
(d) Crystal oscillator (h) Thermocouple

1.22 Fill in the missing quantity:

I, A Q, C T, s
(a) ? 10 2
(b) 5 ? 4
(c) ? 9 2
(d) 7 ? 3
(e) 2 6 ?