X-ray
Radiography
Dr. Pujitha
What are X-rays 2
X-rays are a part of electromagnetic radiation
with wavelength in the range of 10-8 to 10-10 m
Soft x-rays 10-8 to 10-9, hard x-rays10-9 to 10-10
E=hν, E=hc/λ
Lower wavelength → high energy
Properties of X-rays 3
Travels in straight line with speed of light
Path cannot be changed by application of additional e/m field
Can be diffracted b/w two materials
Pass through matter
Degree of penetration will depends on material properties
Have enough energy to ionize the matter
Can damage human cells
What X-ray does 4
X-rays penetrate through solid and gets partially
absorbed by the material
Absorption depends on material’s density and
thickness and characteristics of radiation
The radiation passed through material can be
detected/ recorded on either film/sensitized paper,
viewed on a fluorescent screen, or detected and
monitored by electronic sensing equipment
Once the exposed radiographic film has been
developed, an image of varying density will be
observed
The portions of the film which have received the
largest amounts of radiation being the darkest
The amount of absorption will also be affected by the
presence of certain defects such as voids or porosity
within the material- thus can be used to inspect
materials
Uses and limitations 5
Can detect any feature in a component or Capital cost is high when
structure provided a variation in compared to other
density/thickness methods
The main types of defect which can be protect personnel from the
distinguished are porosity and other voids and effects of radiation, and
inclusions, where the density of the inclusion stringent safety precautions
differs from that of the basis material have to be employed
Mostly used to detect internal flaws below the Planar cracks are difficult to
surface but not limited to defects, For best be detected, the detection
results, defects parallel to radiation beam with depends on orientation
good thickness with beam
checking of welds and castings, inspection of Lamination defects are
components. impossible to detect
Production of X-rays 6
An electric current at a low voltage flows through the cathode filament to heat it to incandescence
and stimulate the thermionic emission of electrons
A large electrical potential difference (the tube voltage) exists between the cathode and anode
target to accelerate the electrons across the space separating the two
Tungsten is used as a target material, highly efficient emitter of X-rays and extremely high melting
point, 3380°C, and can therefore withstand the high temperatures generated by the impinging
electrons.
Tungsten will be inserted in water cooled
copper block to dissipate heat
Target material X-ray tube made up of glass/ceramic/metal
Low
Voltage
Windows are low atomic weight Be to
minimize x-ray absorption
The electron beam is focused so that it
window
impinges on a small area of the target, this
small area being termed the 'focal spot‘
Smaller spot size better radiographic image
V = 40-1000 kV
Process 7
Electron impingement results in <1% of X-ray radiation, 99% of it characteristic
converts to heat, ejects additional e- from material and these will be
recaptured Continuous
Type of X-rays
deceleration of electrons when they collide with atoms of the target
material produces X-rays of many wavelengths. This is called as high voltage
'white' radiation, or continuous or bremsstrahlung radiation
The collision can knock of electron from inner shell and when an high Low voltage
energy electron falls back to its original orbital position, the energy
release will be emitted as radiation at a specific frequency also
called as characteristic x-ray
quantity (intensity of radiation) quality (how penetrating radiation)
High Tube current
Parameters Filament current(changes rate of thermionic emission),
The tube voltage(changes penetrating power and energy), tube Low Tube current
current (flow of electrons related to filament temperature)
Attenuation 8
of Radiation
High density Lower Ix
Low density Higher Ix
High thickness Lower Ix
low thickness Higher Ix
Summary of previous lecture 9
Properties of X-rays
How X-rays are produced
Interaction of X-rays with matter
Factors affecting produced X-rays
Parameters causing Attenuation of X-ray radiation upon interaction with
matter
10
Interactions 11
X-rays can be absorbed or scattered or transmitted
X-ray interaction with atoms happens through photo-electric effect, Rayleigh scattering,
Compton scattering and pair production
Photo-electric effect
The photo-electric effect is an interaction in which a photon is consumed in breaking
the bond between an outer orbital electron and its atom.
Any excess photon energy beyond the bond strength is absorbed as electron kinetic
energy; E=1/2 mv2 + (work function)
Dominant absorption mechanism upto 0.2MeV
Compton scattering
Compton scattering is an interaction in which an incident photon causes an orbital
electron to be ejected from an atom.
Only a portion of the photon energy is used for this purpose and the photon emerges at
so me scatter angle with a lower energy, that is, of a longer wavelength.
This longer wavelength may be in the visible sector of the electro-magnetic spectrum.
Interaction continued 12
Pair production
Pair production can occur if the incident photon energies exceed 1
MeV
Two lower-energy photons of scattered radiation are emitted for each
high-energy photon absorbed
hv = mo+ c2 + mo- c2 + K.E
Rayleigh scattering
Rayleigh scattering is an interaction in which a photon is deflected
without any loss of photon energy or release of electrons.
The angle of deflection is high for low-energy photons and low for high-
energy photons.
Not useful for radiography
Principles of image formation 13
The same principles of shadow formation that apply to visible light transmission are applicable
to radiographic shadow formation.
Parameters effecting the image are physical size of the source, the distance between the
source and sample, and the distance between the sample and film
The quality and sharpness of radiographs will be greatly improved as the following ideal
conditions are approached.
The focal spot should be as small as possible; ideally it should be a point source.
The radiographic source should be as far away from the sample as possible while still obtaining
adequate penetration.
The X-ray film should be as close as possible to the sample being radiographed.
Source rays should be perpendicular to the film surface.
The plane of the sample and the plane of the film should be parallel.
Image formation 14
The image formed on a radiograph is similar to the shadow cast on a
screen by an opaque object placed in the light path.
The attenuated beam is passed through the radiographic film which forms
invisible image/latent image
X-ray film is made up of radiation-sensitive, photographically active
material made in the form of emulsion quoted on the supporting material
called base
Emulsion
Photosensitive layer of radiographic film thickness 3-5 µm
Major components Silver halides with gelatin
Radiographic film darken upon impingement of X-rays
X-rays are absorbed by AgBr and converts Ag+ to Ag
which is responsible for causing contrast in the film
Lower intensity white contrast less darkness
High intensity dark contrast more darkness
Emulsion 15
90-99% silver bromide
1-10% silver iodide, for increasing its sensitivity
A latent image on radiographic film is an invisible image produced by
the exposure of film to the radiation
By chemically processing the latent image it is made visible to human
eye
Most sensitive to the photons with energy range of 45 keV
Efficiency of the image formation can be further improved by usage of
intensifying screens
Characteristics/properties 16
of X-ray film
Photographic density (D)
D=log Bo/BT , Bo intensity of incident, X-rays
BT intensity of transmitted beam
Exposure (E) is intensity * exposure time
E=I*t
D preferable range 1.5-3.3
For example D=1 this indicates the
transmission of around 10% beam
Radiographic contrast (Cs) density
difference between two regions
Cs=D1-D2, = log Bo/B1 - Bo/B2 = log B2/B1
Cs 0.2 is needed
Characteristics/properties of X-ray 17
film
Film gradient/gamma (G)
Slope of the straight line portion of film
characteristic curve
High gradient better visibility of features
G = D1-D2 / (log E1- log E2)
For same time of exposure
G = D1-D2 / (log I1/I2) also G =Cs/ log I1/I2
Film Latitude
Range of log relative exposure producing
density within acceptable range
Contrast/gradient is inversely proportional
to latitude
Previous class 18
screens
Photographic density-characteristic s shape curve
Radiographic contrast
Film gradient
Film latitude
Characteristics/properties of X-ray film 19
Film speed
Reciprocal of exposure required to
produce density of 1.0 above base+fog
Graininess
AgBr is a granular material. The grainsize
effects the exposure time and resolution
ability
Issue with AgBr clustering, fine grain size is
required
Intensifying screens 20
The efficiency of the image formation or the quality of the
image can be improved by using these intensifying
screens
Filter out unwanted scattered radiation
Scattered intensity with main beam will haze and effect
the image quality adversely
Scattered intensity from the wall, floor and BSE of sample
itself
Metallic screens such as Pb is used to absorb low intensity
scattered beams
0.13 mm Pb is often used to filter out scattered intensity
Pb work function 88 keV can absorb unwanted radiation
and ejects out e-
These e- can acts as extra source will now go and fall on
the film and they will additionally expose the film by
reacting with AgBr.
Fluorescent screens 21
screens will essentially have fluorescent material or phosphor kind of
material, which emits light when they interact with x-rays
since the x-ray films are more sensitive to visible light compared to x-ray
radiation these photons or visible lights can improve the quality of the
image
materials like calcium tungstate and rare earth halides lanthanum
oxybromide are used
• Fluoro-metallic screens combine the advantages of both the lead and fluorescent
screens.
• They comprise a combination of a fluorescent layer and a thin sheet of lead and
they are mounted with the fluorescent side in contact with the film. The lead filters
out scattered radiation and the fluorescent portion intensifies the film image.
• A good image quality is obtainable and exposure times can be reduced
considerably compared with those which would be necessary for film with
metallic lead screens only
22
Radiographic sensitivity
Radiographic sensitivity is the ability to detect small flaws or discontinuities
Three major factors affecting sensitivity are:
1. Film graininess
2. Image unsharpness
3. Flaw image contrast.
Film graininess Film graininess occurs during the development process
when the developer used tends to clump many silver grains together into
a mass that can be seen by the human eye. The degree of graininess is a
function of both film type and processing.
Image unsharpness 23
Unsharpness is defined as the width of the visible density band change
observed for the image of a sharp edge or knife-edge (Inability to
properly reproduce boundary of an object)
Unsharpness is the cumulative effect of movement unsharpness,
fluorescent screen unsharpness, and inherent unsharpness.
Movement of the film, object, or radiation source causes movement
unsharpness.
Geometric unsharpness is caused by the finite size of the radiation
source and relative distance of the source, object, and film.
The light scattering of the screen materials causes fluorescent screen
unsharpness.
The scattering of secondary electrons in the film emulsion causes
inherent unsharpness
Image quality related to x-ray 24
source
can be enlarged, distorted, overlap, unsharpenss
Geometric unsharpness (Ug)Primarily happens due to focal spot size, if you finite
size source it acts as multiple sources. Boundary can be visible as diffused
boundary
degree of geometric unsharpness, can be reduced by reducing the size of the
source of radiation, by reducing the object to film distance, or by increasing the
source to object distance.
The intensity of radiation at any point diminishes as the distance from the source
increases, according to the inverse square law. This can be written as IL2 =
constant, where I is the intensity and L is the distance from the source
Tube current inversely proportional to time reciprocity law
i1t1/l12 = i2t2/l22
25
Flaw image contrast 26
The thickness of the sample, the penetration characteristics of the
source, and the degree of secondary scattering affect flaw image
contrast
Contrast can refer to radiographic contrast, film contrast, or sample
contrast.
Radiographic contrast, which is dependent on sample contrast and
Film contrast, refers to the differences in density, for various radiographic
areas.
Film contrast depends on the type of film used and film processing. It is
also dependent on film density over its useful range and limited to some
extent by the ability to illuminate the film.
Sample contrast is a function of the thickness or density of various
sections of the sample. It depends on the radiographic quality
(kilovoltage and wavelength) and the amount of scattered radiation
Image quality indicators (IQIs) 27
Penetrameters or image quality indicators (IQIs) provide a check on the
adequacy of the radiographic technique.
They help determine optimum radiographic sensitivity to an ideal flaw
or defect.
Penetrameters may consist of step changes in material thickness—
machined grooves, sharp-edged holes, wires of known diameter, or a
combination of these man-made variables.
Step thickness, groove width, hole, or wire diameter are usually some
multiple of the thickness (T) of the sample.
Actual flaws or discontinuities may not have sharp-edged holes;
therefore, it may be more difficult to detect their changes in density.
In this case, actual flaws or simulated flaws may aid in contrast sensitivity
studies.
Penetrameters 28
Penetrameters with a 2% thickness of the object (T) to be
radiographed and 1T, 2T, and 4T hole diameters are common.
These are identified as 2-1T, 2-2T, and 2-4T penetrameters.
Usually, the penetrameter is made of the same material as the object
to be radiographed and is placed on the source side of the object.
Ideally, the penetrameter is placed in the area of interest where the
flaw or defect is most likely to occur.
The image of the required penetrameter and hole on the radiograph
is an indication that the radiograph has the required sensitivity.
In cases where the penetrameter cannot be placed on the actual
object, such as weld reinforcement, a shim can be used to simulate
the weld reinforcement and the penetrameter can be placed on top
of the shim.
Wire type penetrameters
29
Conventional vs digital 30
radiography
limitations
Uses film Film handling, Developing, Storage – pulling out old images difficult
Digital radiography no need of films to capture images
The output x-ray signals will be captured by a detector and converted into
electrical signals- These electrical signal converts to digital signal and forms
digital image
Can modify things when needed, once stored in digital form
Conventional radiography is in static mode and negative image is obtained
Digital radiography dynamic mode- image can me modulated during
radiation – positive image is obtained
Digital Radiography 31
digital radiographic images are captured using either special Flat panel detectors
phosphor screens or flat panels containing micro-electronic sensor
No darkroom is needed to process film, and captured images can
be digitally enhanced for increased detail.
There are a number of forms of digital radiographic imaging
including:
Computed Radiography (CR)
Real-time Radiography (RTR)
Direct Radiographic Imaging (DR)
Computed Tomography (CT)
Computed Radiography
Computed Radiography (CR) is a digital imaging process that uses
a special imaging plate which employs storage phosphors.
32
Computed Radiography
Barium fluoro halide
activated europium (Eu)
Computed Radiography….
After exposure the imaging plate is read
electronically and erased for re-use in a
special scanner system.
34
Computed Radiography….
As a laser scans the imaging plate, light is emitted where X-rays stimulated the
phosphor during exposure. The light is then converted to a digital value.
optical Photo-multiplier Tube
Scanner
Laser Beam
A/D
Converter
Imaging
Plate 110010010010110
Motor
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Computed Radiography
Digital images are typically sent to a computer
workstation where specialized software allows
manipulation and enhancement.
Examples of computed radiographs:
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Basics 37
38
Direct digital Radiography
39
No cassettes reading or film development is
required
Signals from X-ray receptors are directly send
to computer for image reconstruction
Minimal work is required by technician
Has flat panel detectors or charge coupled
devices connected to computer through
wires
Image is available within seconds of capture
Readout process
40
TFT array Thin film transistor array
Indirect Conversion 41
Real time radiography 42
Real-Time Radiography (RTR) is a term used to describe a form of radiography
that allows electronic images to be captured and viewed in real time.
Because image acquisition is almost instantaneous, X-ray images can be
viewed as the part is moved and rotated.
Manipulating the part can be advantageous for several reasons:
It may be possible to image the entire component with one exposure.
Viewing the internal structure of the part from different angular perspectives
can provide additional data for analysis.
Time of inspection can often be reduced.
Real-Time Radiography….
The equipment needed for an RTR includes:
X-ray tube
Image intensifier or other real-time detector
Camera
Computer with frame grabber board and software
Monitor
Sample positioning system (optional)
7
9
Real-Time Radiography….
•The image intensifier is a device that
converts the radiation that passes
through the specimen into light.
•It uses materials that fluoresce when
struck by radiation.
•The more radiation that reaches
the input screen, the more light
that is given off.
•The image is very faint on the input
screen so it is intensified onto a
small screen inside the intensifier
where the image is viewed with a
camera.
80
Real-Time Radiography….
•A special camera which • A monitor is then connected to
captures the light output the camera to provide a
of the screen is located viewable image.
near the image
intensifying screen. • If a sample positioning system is
employed, the part can be
•The camera is very moved around and rotated to
sensitive to a variety of image different internal features
different light intensities. of the part.
81
Real-Time Radiography….
Comparing Film and Real-Time Radiography
Real-time images are lighter in Film images are darker in
areas where more X-ray photons areas where more X-ray
reach and excite the fluorescent photons reach and ionize the
screen. silver molecules in the film.
46
Radiographic Images
47
48
Radiation safety 49
Thick wall
Pb lined walls
Radiation going out of
room should be zero
Red light
Amount of exposure in
human working with
radiation
