Static electricity

Static electricity is an imbalance of

electric charges within or on the surface
of a material. The charge remains until it
is able to move away by an electric
current or electrical discharge. The word
"static" is used to differentiate it from
current electricity, where an electric
charge flows through an electrical
conductor.[1]
 Example of the effect of static electricity on a
child's hair.

A static electric charge can be created

whenever two surfaces contact and or
slide against each other and then
separate. The effects of static electricity
are familiar to most people because they
can feel, hear, and even see sparks if the
excess charge is neutralized when
brought close to an electrical conductor
(for example, a path to ground), or a
region with an excess charge of the
opposite polarity (positive or negative).
The familiar phenomenon of a static
shock – more specifically, an
electrostatic discharge – is caused by
the neutralization of a charge.

Causes
Materials are made of atoms that are
normally electrically neutral because they
contain equal numbers of positive
charges (protons in their nuclei) and
negative charges (electrons in "shells"
surrounding the nucleus). The
phenomenon of static electricity requires
a separation of positive and negative
charges. When two materials are in
contact, electrons may move from one
material to the other, which leaves an
excess of positive charge on one
material, and an equal negative charge on
the other. When the materials are
separated they retain this charge
imbalance. It is also possible for ions to
be transferred.

Contact-induced charge separation

Styrofoam peanuts clinging to a cat's fur due to

static electricity. This effect is also the cause of static
cling in clothes.

Electrons or ions can be exchanged

between materials on contact or when
they slide against each other, which is
known as the triboelectric effect and
results in one material becoming
positively charged and the other
negatively charged. The triboelectric
effect is the main cause of static
electricity as observed in everyday life,
and in common high-school science
demonstrations involves rubbing different
materials together (e.g., fur against an
acrylic rod). Contact-induced charge
separation causes your hair to stand up
and causes "static cling" (for example, a
balloon rubbed against the hair becomes
negatively charged; when near a wall, the
charged balloon is attracted to positively
charged particles in the wall, and can
"cling" to it, suspended against gravity).
Pressure-induced charge separation

Applied mechanical stressed generates a

separation of charge in many types of
crystals and ceramics molecules.

Heat-induced charge separation

Heating generates a separation of charge

in the atoms or molecules of certain
materials. All pyroelectric materials are
also piezoelectric. The atomic or
molecular properties of heat and
pressure response are closely related.
Charge-induced charge separation

A charged object brought close to an

electrically neutral conductive object
causes a separation of charge within the
neutral object. This is called electrostatic
induction. Charges of the same polarity
are repelled and move to the side of the
object away from the external charge,
and charges of the opposite polarity are
attracted and move to the side facing the
charge. As the force due to the
interaction of electric charges falls off
rapidly with increasing distance, the
effect of the closer (opposite polarity)
charges is greater and the two objects
feel a force of attraction. Careful
grounding of part of an object can
permanently add or remove electrons,
leaving the object with a global,
permanent charge.

Removal and prevention

A network card inside an antistatic

bag.

An antistatic wrist strap with crocodile

clip.

Removing or preventing a buildup of

static charge can be as simple as
opening a window or using a humidifier,
to increase the moisture content of the
air, making the atmosphere more
conductive. Air ionizers can perform the
same task.[2]

Items that are particularly sensitive to

static discharge may be treated with the
application of an antistatic agent, which
adds a conducting surface layer that
ensures any excess charge is evenly
distributed. Fabric softeners and dryer
sheets used in washing machines and
clothes dryers are an example of an
antistatic agent used to prevent and
remove static cling.[3]

Many semiconductor devices used in

electronics are particularly sensitive to
static discharge. Conductive antistatic
bags are commonly used to protect such
components. People who work on
circuits that contain these devices often
ground themselves with a conductive
antistatic strap.[4][5]

In the industrial settings such as paint or

flour plants as well as in hospitals,
antistatic safety boots are sometimes
used to prevent a buildup of static charge
due to contact with the floor. These
shoes have soles with good conductivity.
Anti-static shoes should not be confused
with insulating shoes, which provide
exactly the opposite benefit – some
protection against serious electric
shocks from the mains voltage.[6]
Within medical cable assemblies and
lead wires, random triboelectric noise is
generated when the various conductors,
insulation, and fillers rub against each
other as the cable is flexed during
movement. Noise generated within a
cable is often called handling noise or
cable noise, but this type of unwanted
signal is more accurately described as
triboelectric noise. When measuring low-
level signals, noise in cable or wire may
present a problem. For example, the
noise in an ECG or another medical signal
may make accurate diagnosis difficult or
even impossible. Keeping triboelectric
noise at acceptable levels requires
careful material selection, design, and
processing as cable material is
manufactured.[7]

Static discharge
The spark associated with static
electricity is caused by electrostatic
discharge, or simply static discharge, as
excess charge is neutralized by a flow of
charges from or to the surroundings.

The feeling of an electric shock is caused

by the stimulation of nerves as the
current flows through the human body.
The energy stored as static electricity on
an object varies depending on the size of
the object and its capacitance, the
voltage to which it is charged, and the
dielectric constant of the surrounding
medium. For modelling the effect of
static discharge on sensitive electronic
devices, a human being is represented as
a capacitor of 100 picofarads, charged to
a voltage of 4,000 to 35,000 volts. When
touching an object this energy is
discharged in less than a microsecond.[8]
While the total energy is small, on the
order of millijoules, it can still damage
sensitive electronic devices. Larger
objects will store more energy, which may
be directly hazardous to human contact
or which may give a spark that can ignite
flammable gas or dust.
Lightning

Natural static discharge

Small hairs standing up after a

thunderstorm, as a result of the left
over weak static electricity

Lightning is a dramatic natural example

of static discharge. While the details are
unclear and remain a subject of debate,
the initial charge separation is thought to
be associated with contact between ice
particles within storm clouds. In general,
significant charge accumulations can
only persist in regions of low electrical
conductivity (very few charges free to
move in the surroundings), hence the flow
of neutralizing charges often results from
neutral atoms and molecules in the air
being torn apart to form separate
positive and negative charges, which
travel in opposite directions as an electric
current, neutralizing the original
accumulation of charge. The static
charge in air typically breaks down in this
way at around 10,000 volts per
centimeter (10 kV/cm) depending on
humidity.[9] The discharge superheats the
surrounding air causing the bright flash,
and produces a shock wave causing the
booming sound. A lightning bolt is simply
a scaled-up version of the sparks seen in
more domestic occurrences of static
discharge. The flash occurs because the
air in the discharge channel is heated to
such a high temperature that it emits light
by incandescence. The clap of thunder is
the result of the shock wave created as
the superheated air expands.

Electronic components

Many semiconductor devices used in

electronics are very sensitive to the
presence of static electricity and can be
damaged by a static discharge. The use
of an antistatic strap is mandatory for
researchers manipulating nanodevices.
Further precautions can be taken by
taking off shoes with thick rubber soles
and permanently staying with a metallic
ground.

Static build-up in flowing flammable

and ignitable materials

Static electricity is a major hazard

when refueling an aircraft.

Discharge of static electricity can create

severe hazards in those industries
dealing with flammable substances,
where a small electrical spark might
ignite explosive mixtures.[10]
The flowing movement of finely
powdered substances or low
conductivity fluids in pipes or through
mechanical agitation can build up static
electricity.[11] The flow of granules of
material such as sand down a plastic
chute can transfer charge, which can be
measured using a multimeter connected
to metal foil lining the chute at intervals,
and can be roughly proportional to
particulate flow.[12] Dust clouds of finely
powdered substances can become
combustible or explosive. When there is a
static discharge in a dust or vapor cloud,
explosions have occurred. Among the
major industrial incidents that have
occurred due to static discharge are the
explosion of a grain silo in southwest
France, a paint plant in Thailand, a
factory making fiberglass moldings in
Canada, a storage tank explosion in
Glenpool, Oklahoma in 2003, and a
portable tank filling operation and a tank
farm in Des Moines, Iowa and Valley
Center, Kansas in 2007.[13][14][15]

The ability of a fluid to retain an

electrostatic charge depends on its
electrical conductivity. When low
conductivity fluids flow through pipelines
or are mechanically agitated, contact-
induced charge separation called flow
electrification occurs.[16][17] Fluids that
have low electrical conductivity (below
50 picosiemens per meter), are called
accumulators. Fluids having conductivity
above 50 pS/m are called non-
accumulators. In non-accumulators,
charges recombine as fast as they are
separated and hence electrostatic charge
accumulation is not significant. In the
petrochemical industry, 50 pS/m is the
recommended minimum value of
electrical conductivity for adequate
removal of charge from a fluid.

Kerosines may have conductivity ranging

from less than 1 picosiemens per meter
to 20 pS/m. For comparison, deionized
water has a conductivity of about
10,000,000 pS/m or 10 µS/m.[18]
Transformer oil is part of the electrical
insulation system of large power
transformers and other electrical
apparatus. Re-filling of large apparatus
requires precautions against electrostatic
charging of the fluid, which may damage
sensitive transformer insulation.

An important concept for insulating fluids

is the static relaxation time. This is
similar to the time constant τ (tau) of an
RC circuit. For insulating materials, it is
the ratio of the static dielectric constant
divided by the electrical conductivity of
the material. For hydrocarbon fluids, this
is sometimes approximated by dividing
the number 18 by the electrical
conductivity of the fluid. Thus a fluid that
has an electrical conductivity of 1 pS/m
has an estimated relaxation time of
about 18 seconds. The excess charge in
a fluid dissipates almost completely after
four to five times the relaxation time, or
90 seconds for the fluid in the above
example.

Charge generation increases at higher

fluid velocities and larger pipe diameters,
becoming quite significant in pipes
8 inches (200 mm) or larger. Static
charge generation in these systems is
best controlled by limiting fluid velocity.
The British standard BS PD CLC/TR
50404:2003 (formerly BS-5958-Part 2)
Code of Practice for Control of
Undesirable Static Electricity prescribes
pipe flow velocity limits. Because water
content has a large impact on the fluids
dielectric constant, the recommended
velocity for hydrocarbon fluids containing
water should be limited to 1 meter per
second.

Bonding and earthing are the usual ways

charge buildup can be prevented. For
fluids with electrical conductivity below
10 pS/m, bonding and earthing are not
adequate for charge dissipation, and
anti-static additives may be required.
Fueling operations

The flowing movement of flammable

liquids like gasoline inside a pipe can
build up static electricity. Non-polar
liquids such as gasoline, toluene, xylene,
diesel, kerosene and light crude oils
exhibit significant ability for charge
accumulation and charge retention during
high velocity flow. Electrostatic
discharges can ignite the fuel vapor.[19]
When the electrostatic discharge energy
is high enough, it can ignite a fuel vapor
and air mixture. Different fuels have
different flammable limits and require
different levels of electrostatic discharge
energy to ignite.
Electrostatic discharge while fueling with
gasoline is a present danger at gas
stations.[20] Fires have also been started
at airports while refueling aircraft with
kerosene. New grounding technologies,
the use of conducting materials, and the
addition of anti-static additives help to
prevent or safely dissipate the buildup of
static electricity.

The flowing movement of gases in pipes

alone creates little, if any, static
electricity.[21] It is envisaged that a
charge generation mechanism only
occurs when solid particles or liquid
droplets are carried in the gas stream.
In space exploration

Due to the extremely low humidity in

extraterrestrial environments, very large
static charges can accumulate, causing a
major hazard for the complex electronics
used in space exploration vehicles. Static
electricity is thought to be a particular
hazard for astronauts on planned
missions to the Moon and Mars. Walking
over the extremely dry terrain could
cause them to accumulate a significant
amount of charge; reaching out to open
the airlock on their return could cause a
large static discharge, potentially
damaging sensitive electronics.[22]
Ozone cracking

Ozone cracking in natural rubber

tubing

A static discharge in the presence of air

or oxygen can create ozone. Ozone can
degrade rubber parts. Many elastomers
are sensitive to ozone cracking. Exposure
to ozone creates deep penetrative cracks
in critical components like gaskets and
O-rings. Fuel lines are also susceptible to
the problem unless preventive action is
taken. Preventive measures include
adding anti-ozonants to the rubber mix,
or using an ozone-resistant elastomer.
Fires from cracked fuel lines have been a
problem on vehicles, especially in the
engine compartments where ozone can
be produced by electrical equipment.

Energies involved
The energy released in a static electricity
discharge may vary over a wide range.
The energy in joules can be calculated
from the capacitance (C) of the object
and the static potential V in volts (V) by
the formula E = ½CV2.[23] One
experimenter estimates the capacitance
of the human body as high as
400 picofarads, and a charge of
50,000 volts, discharged e.g. during
touching a charged car, creating a spark
with energy of 500 millijoules.[24] Another
estimate is 100–300 pF and 20,000 volts,
producing a maximum energy of 60
mJ.[25] IEC 479-2:1987 states that a
discharge with energy greater than
5000 mJ is a direct serious risk to human
health. IEC 60065 states that consumer
products cannot discharge more than
350 mJ into a person.

The maximal potential is limited to about

35–40 kV, due to corona discharge
dissipating the charge at higher
potentials. Potentials below 3000 volts
are not typically detectable by humans.
Maximal potential commonly achieved
on human body range between 1 and
10 kV, though in optimal conditions as
high as 20–25 kV can be reached. Low
relative humidity increases the charge
buildup; walking 20 feet (6 m) on vinyl
floor at 15% relative humidity causes
buildup of voltage up to 12 kV, while at
80% humidity the voltage is only
1.5 kV.[26]

As little as 0.2 millijoules may present an

ignition hazard; such low spark energy is
often below the threshold of human
visual and auditory perception.

Typical ignition energies are:

0.017 mJ for hydrogen,

0.2–2 mJ for hydrocarbon vapors,
1–50 mJ for fine flammable dust,
 40–1000 mJ for coarse flammable
dust.

The energy needed to damage most

electronic devices is between 2 and 1000
nanojoules.[27]

A relatively small energy, often as little as

0.2–2 millijoules, is needed to ignite a
flammable mixture of a fuel and air. For
the common industrial hydrocarbon
gases and solvents, the minimum ignition
energy required for ignition of vapor–air
mixture is lowest for the vapor
concentration roughly in the middle
between the lower explosive limit and the
upper explosive limit, and rapidly
increases as the concentration deviates
from this optimum to either side.
Aerosols of flammable liquids may be
ignited well below their flash point.
Generally, liquid aerosols with particle
sizes below 10 micrometers behave like
vapors, particle sizes above
40 micrometers behave more like
flammable dusts. Typical minimal
flammable concentrations of aerosols
lay between 15 and 50 g/m3. Similarly,
presence of foam on the surface of a
flammable liquid significantly increases
ignitability. Aerosol of flammable dust
can be ignited as well, resulting in a dust
explosion; the lower explosive limit
usually lies between 50 and 1000 g/m3;
finer dusts tend to be more explosive and
requiring less spark energy to set off.
Simultaneous presence of flammable
vapors and flammable dust can
significantly decrease the ignition energy;
a mere 1 vol.% of propane in air can
reduce the required ignition energy of
dust by 100 times. Higher than normal
oxygen content in atmosphere also
significantly lowers the ignition energy.[28]

There are five types of electrical

discharges:

Spark, responsible for the majority of

industrial fires and explosions where
static electricity is involved. Sparks
occur between objects at different
electric potentials. Good grounding of
all parts of the equipment and
precautions against charge buildups on
equipment and personnel are used as
prevention measures.
Brush discharge occurs from a
nonconductive charged surface or
highly charged nonconductive liquids.
The energy is limited to roughly
4 millijoules. To be hazardous, the
voltage involved must be above about
20 kilovolts, the surface polarity must
be negative, a flammable atmosphere
must be present at the point of
discharge, and the discharge energy
must be sufficient for ignition. Further,
because surfaces have a maximal
charge density, an area of at least
100 cm2 has to be involved. This is not
considered to be a hazard for dust
clouds.
Propagating brush discharge is high in
energy and dangerous. Occurs when an
insulating surface of up to 8 mm thick
(e.g. a teflon or glass lining of a
grounded metal pipe or a reactor) is
subjected to a large charge buildup
between the opposite surfaces, acting
as a large-area capacitor.
Cone discharge, also called bulking
brush discharge, occurs over surfaces
of charged powders with resistance
above 1010 ohms, or also deep through
the powder mass. Cone discharges are
 not usually observed in dust volumes
below 1 m3. The energy involved
depends on the grain size of the
powder and the charge magnitude, and
can reach up to 20 mJ. Larger dust
volumes produce higher energies.
Corona discharge, considered non-
hazardous.

See also
Electrical charge
Electrostatic discharge
Electrostatic generator
Electrostatics
Triboelectric effect
Van de Graaff generator
 Wimshurst machine

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External links
Media related to Static electricity at
Wikimedia Commons
The dictionary definition of static
electricity at Wiktionary

Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Static_electricity&oldid=1182006314"
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