Module 6: Grammar outline

Objectives:

1. Explain the concept of pronouns among other parts of speech in ilokano context

1. Give examples of words that fall under each category

3. Discuss how Ilokano words meet the lexicon concept of grammar.

4. Evaluate and discuss the characteristics of each part of Ilokano speech.

Overview:
This grammar outline is aimed primarily at introducing the fundamentals of Ilokano word
formation that may assist readers in using this dictionary.
Synopsis for linguists
Ilokano, like its sister Philippine languages, is a predicate-initial language with a complex, head
marking, highly prefixing morphology. Affixes denote a wide range of grammatical categories
including aspect, focus, number, volition, transitivity, reciprocity and some lexical categories
such as pretense, smell and relative size. Noun phrases may function as predicates and
arguments. As arguments, they are usually preceded by noun markers (articles or
demonstratives) that inflect for case (core or oblique), number (singular vs. plural) and time.
Articles also inflect for reference ( common vs. personal).
Pronouns inflect for person, number and case (ergative, absolutive and oblique). There is an
inclusive/ exclusive distinction in the first person plural forms. When core ( non-oblique)
pronouns are used with predicates, they are enclitic. There is a pervasive particle )a/nga) used to
link related constituents (heads and attributes) called a ligature, and a number of uninflecting
adverbial particles. All roots (non-p/articles) may be nominalized or verbalized by morphology
or syntactic function.

Unit 1. Pronouns
Ilokano has five sets of pronouns: independent absolutives, independent possessives, enclitic
absolutives, enclitic egrative forms and obliques.
pronouns in Ilokano encode person and number. The first person plural pronouns differentiate
inclusivity (including the addressee: I/we + you and exclusivity (excluding the addressee: we but
not you). Second person pronouns encode respect. Pronouns do not mark gender distinctions.

Independent absolutive pronouns

siak first person singular (I)

sika second person singular, informal pronoun (you)

isu(na) Third person singular (he, she it)

data sita first person dual inclusive (you and I)

dakami sikami first person plural exclusive ( we, not you)

datayo sitayo first person plural inclusive ( I/we and you)

dakayo sikayo second person plural; second person singular formal ( you sir/ maam)

isuda third person plural (they); second person formal ( more formal than dakayo)

Independent pronouns may stand alone in an utterance as full predicates. When a nominal
appears in predicate position, it usually serves to identify or contrast a referent.
Asino ti napan? (who went?)
Siak. I (did).
Isuna. (He/she (did).
Isuda. They (did).
Siak ti napan idiay Tagudin. (Napanak idiay Tagudin.)
Isuda ti nasadut. (Nasadutda.) They (are the ones who) are lazy. They are lazy.

When partially reduplicated, the independent pronouns express uniqueness.

sisiak only I
siksika only you
is-isu(na) only he/she
Dakdakami. Only us (exclusive)

Enclitic absolutive pronouns (-ak series)

The enclitic absolutive pronouns are referred to in the dictionary as -ak series pronouns to avoid
confusion among many linguistic traditions of naming them ( absolutive, nominative, focus). In
this grammar sketch, we will refer to them as absolutives, a sthey encode both single arguments
of intransitive verbs and patient (object) arguments of transitive verbs, the absolutive category.
as second position enclitics, they usually attach to the first constituent of their phrase. The
absolutive (-ak series) paradigm is as follows:

Independent -ak series pronoun English gloss

siak -ak I
sika -ka you

isu, isuna isu he, she

data, sita -ta you and I

dakami -kami we, not you

datayo -tayo we and you

dakayo -kayo you (plural); you (formal)

isuda -da they; you (very formal)

lalaki boy
lalakiak I am a boy
nangan ate
nanganka you ate

Idi napanda idiay Bacnotan, nagsangitkami.

(when they went to Bacnotan, we cried.)

In negative constructions, the absolutive pronouns enclticize to the negative particle ( saan or di)
in the verb phrase, the first constituent of the verb phrase.
Saanda a nangan. They did not eat.
Dida nangan. They did not eat.

Ergative enclitic pronouns

The ergative enclitic pronouns are used to indicate possession of a nominal (concrete noun
nominalization) and to indicate the actor of a transitive verb. In the body of this dictionary, they
are also referred to as the -ko series pronouns to avoid confusion in the many linguistic traditions
of naming them ( actor, nonfocus object, genitive). As enclitics, they have the same morpho-
syntactic properties as the -ak series pronouns. With verb phrases, they attach to the first
constituents.
The -ko series

Independent -ko series English gloss

siak -ko; -k

sika -mo; -m my

isu, isuna -na you

data, sita -ta his/her

dakami -mi our (dual, inclusive)

datayo -tayo our (exclusive)

dakayo -yo your (plural); your (polite)

isuda -da their

The first and second person singular pronouns have two forms -ko, -k; and -mo, -m respectively.
The forms -k and -m are used after vowels and fuse with the suffixes -en or -an where the final -n
of the suffix is lost,making these pronouns more like affixes than clitics.
balayko my house (balay + ko)
pusam you cat (pusa + m)
inumek I (will) drink something (inumen +ko)
Intedko kenkuana. I gave it to him.

Ilokano transitive verbs and possessed nouns may express both the actor and patient or
possessor/ possessed) pronominally with enclitics. In this case, the -ko pronouns express the
agent ( or possessor) and the -ak pronouns express the patient ( or possessed entity). Some of the
forms have fused together and are now portmanteau enclitics that neutralize certain
combinations. i,e, -mo/-na + -ak = -nak
-yo/-da+-ak = -dak
-na+-ka= -naka
-da/-kami + -ka = -daka

Actor Patient

siak sika isu data dakami datayo dakayo isuda

siak -ka -k(o) -kayo -(k)o ida

sika -nak -m(o) -nakami -m(o) ida

isu -nak -naka -na -nata -nakami -natayo -nakayo -na ida

data -ta -ta ida

dakami -daka -mi -dakayo -mi ida

datayo -tayo -tayo ida

dakayo -dak -yo -data -dakami -yo ida

isuda -dak -daka -da -data -dakami -datayo -dakayo -da ida
 Tulongandak man. Please help me (you people)
Riingennak intono alas sais. Wake me up at six.
Nakitadakami idiay simbaan. They saw us in the church.
Dika piliten nga ayatennak. I dont force you to love me.
Aw-awisendak nga agahedres. They are inviting me to play chess.
Abogadoka. You are my lawyer.
Kasinsinnak. I am you first cousin.
Lakayko (isuna). He is my husband.
Kayatka a manugangen. I want you as a son/ daughter in law.

The Oblique Pronouns

The oblique pronouns are formed by adding the enclitic ergative (-ko series) pronouns to the
stem kania- or with the personal oblique articles ken ( singular) or kada (plural).

Independent oblique pronoun English gloss

siak kaniak to me
sika kaniam; kenka to you
isu kaniana; kenkuana to him/ her
data kanaiata; kadata to us ( you and I)
dakami kaniami; kadakami to us ( not you)
datayo kaniatayo; kadatayo to us ( and you)
dakayo kaniayo; kadakayo to you (plural; polite)
Isuda kaniada; kadakuada to them (or you - polite)

Oblique pronouns are used to indicate direction toward a person or persons or transference of an
object toward the party specified by the oblique pronoun:
Kinunana kadakami. He told it to us.
Napan kadakayo. He went to you.
Nalawa kaniak. It is loose on me.
Intedna kaniana. He gave it to him/her.
Isu ti immay kaniak. He is the one who came to me.
Adda kaniak. I have it ( It is with me).
Adu kadakayo. You people have a lot ( There is so much with you).

Independent possessive pronouns

There are two sets of independent possessive pronouns formed by attaching teh -ko series
pronouns to either of the stem, kukua- or -bagi- as shown in the following paradigm:

Independent bagi- genitive kukua- genitive English Gloss

siak bagik kukuak mine
sika bagim kukuam yous
isu bagina kukuana his/hers
data bagita kukuata ours (dual inclusive)
dakami bagimi kukuami ours (exclusive)
datayo bagitayo kukuatayo ours (inclusive)
dakayo bagiyo kukuayo yours; plural polite
isuda bagida kukuada theirs

Makimabagi daytoy? Whose is this?

Bagik dayta. That’s mine.
Bagimon no kayatmo. It’s yours if you want it.
Kukuada ti balay. The house is theirs.
Kukkuami ti dakkel a anuang. The large buffalo is ours.

The reflective pronouns

Reflexive pronouns in Ilokano are formed from the root bagi (body) and an ergative enclitic.
Notice the difference in stress between the reflexive pronouns and the independent pronouns
outlined from the stem bagi.

Independent pronouns Reflexive pronoun English gloss

siak bagik myself
sika bagim yourself (singular)
isu bagina himself; herself; itself
data bagita ourselves ( you and I)
dakami bagimi ourselves 9 not you)
datayo bagitayo ourselves ( and you)

dakayo bagiyo yourselves ( plural; polite)

isuda bagida themselves ( or you polite)

Ibilangyo ti bagiyo a nagasat. Consider yourselves lucky.

Nakitana ti bagian iti sarming. He saw himself in the mirror.
Bag-utem ‘ta dayang ken
salaknibam ta bagim. Unsheathe that spear and save yourself.
Pinatayna ti bagina. He killed himself.

Evaluation:
Enumerate the different kinds of Pronouns in Ilokano and give examples. Explain how each one
is grammatically used.

Unit 2. Nouns
Ilokano nouns may be classified into personal nouns and non-personal nouns based on their
morphosyntactic behavior, the articles they take and their plural formation. They may also
consist of a simple root or a morphologically complex derived form.
Nouns may appear in discourse as predicate arguments, obl;ique referents and even predicates.
Post-predicate nominal slots are introduced by determiners (articles and determiners).
Napan ni Maria idiay simbaan. Maria went to church.
Ni Maria ti napan idiay. Maria is the one who went there.

Nouns in initial position are predicative and must take a determiner if they are personal nouns.
Simbaan. Church. It is a church.
Ni Maria. Maria. It is/ was Maria.

Plural of nouns

Nouns are usually pluralized simply by introducing them the appropriate plural form of the
article or demonstrative.
To emphasize plurality or distributiveness, nouns may be plural;ized by CVC (consonant-vowel-
consonant) reduplication of the initial sound sequence of the root,
e.g. sabsabong ‘flowers’ (each individual flower; several flowers; different varieties of flowers;
flowers here and there)
balbalay ‘houses’
 tugtugaw ‘chairs’
puspuso ‘hearts’
bakbakes ‘monkeys’

Nouns beginning with vowels are articulated with an initial glottal stop, since no Ilokano word
may begin phonetically with a vowel. These nouns are pluralized by reduplicating the initial
glottal stop, vowel, and following consonant of the root. Ilokano orthography does not represent
the initial glottal stop; it is represented word-internally with a hyphen.
aso ?a.so
as-aso ?as.?a.so

Nouns that begin with a CVV (consonant vowel-vowel) sequence form their plural by
reduplicating the initial consonant and vowel of the root. The plural form thus begins with an
open syllable with a long vowel.
nuang
nunuang nu.nuang

Many kin terms and proper nouns (nouns taking the article ni) form their plural simply by
reduplicating the initial CV (Consonant-vowel) of the root, resulting in an open initial syllable.

Table 1

baknang babaknang rich men

dakkel dadakkel parents

gayyem gagayyem friends

ikit iikit aunts

ipag iipag sisters-in-law

kaarruba neighbors

kabsat siblings

kailian townmates

kasinsin cousins

kayong brothers-in-law

komadre komadres

masirib wise men

uliteg uncles
siuman stepchildren

The following terms denoting human referents form their plural by simply geminating (doubling)
the first consonant of the second syllable of the root.

Table 2

adi addi younger siblings

ama amma fathers

anak children

apo grandparents; grand children; gentlemen

asawa spouses

babai girls

ina mothers

inga girlfriends

lalaki boys

ubing children

Finally, some common animate nouns have irregular plurals

baket babbaket old ladies
balasang babbalasang maidens (unmarried women)
balo babbalo widows; widowers
baro babbaro young men
lakay lallakay old men
tao tattao people

Plural particles or demonstratives preceding nouns also indicate plurality. They may be the sole
indicator of plurality in a clause.

Nagsangit dagiti lalaki/lallaki. The boys cried.

Immay dagiti uliteg/uulitegko. My uncles came.

Gender of Nouns
Ilokano has no grammatical gender. However, many Spanish loanwords have been introduced
into the language that typically end in -a to indicate feminine gender.
doktor male doctor
doktora female doctor

emperador emperor
emperatris empress

manong (Spanish hermano + -ng) older brother

manang (Spanish hermana + -ng) older sister

Gender in nouns is sometimes expressed in Ilokano by separate lexical items.

ama & ina father and mother

baket & lakay old woman and old man
baro & balasang bachelor (young man) and bachelorette (maiden)
bula & takong boar and sow
kawitan & upa rooster and hen
kayong & ipag brother -in-law and sister-in-law
lalaki & babai boy and girl
lolo & lola grandfather and grandmother
uliteg & ikit uncle and aunt
tatang & nanang father and mother

In order to differentiate gender, the appositives a lalki or a babai may be used to designate
masculinity or femininity respectively.
kabsat a lalaki brother
kabsat a babai sister

ading a lalaki younger brother

ading a babai younger sister

anak a lalaki son

anak a babai daughter
Morphological formation of nouns - nominal derivation

Ilokano has two ways of forming nominals. Any lexeme in a nominal position (i.i. after an article
or demonstrative) functions as a noun:
immay came
dagiti immay the ones who came
nasingpet well behaved; virtuous
dagiti nasingpet the well behaved person

Ilokano has very productive derivational affixes that may nominalize a root that is typically not
substantival. Most common and useful prefixes are shown in the next topics.

Abstract nouns
Abstract nouns may be formed with the prefix ka- (with roots expressing quantity or dimension)
or kina- (with stative roots). These substantives may be further elaborated with additional
morphology (morpheme boundaries shown with hyphens):

adu
ka-adu
kina-adu

dakes
kina-dakes

ngato
na-ngato
ka-ngato
kina-ngato

ayat
manag-ayat
kina-manag-ayat

Some abstract nouns are formed by the prefix ka- with initial CV reduplication of the root
morpheme:
table 3.

bagas rice kababagas meaning; essence

saad place position
tao man human nature
nakem mind; will idea; opinion

Locative Nouns
Location may be designated with the circumfix pag- -an (with the past form of nag- - an).

adal study
pagadalan school; place where one studies

langoy swim
paglangoyan swimming place; swimming pool

The circumfix ka- -an is used to indicate the place where the entity denoted by the root exists in
great quantities.
Table 4.

darat sand kadaratan sandy place

bayabay guava guava orchard
ubas grapes vineyard
mangga mango mango plantation

Comitative/ sharing nouns with ka-

The notion of comittance or shared participation/ possession is denoted by the prefix ka-. The
perfective form form kina-. The prefix ka- may co-occur with reduplication or the suffix -an:

table 5.

ama father kaama one having the same father

ili town townmate
adal study former classmate
balay house housemate
rupa face one with a similar face

payong umbrella one with whom an umbrella is shared

Reciprocity.
The notion of reciprocity or rivalry is indicated by the infix -inn- placed before the first vowel of
the root. These forms may also be nominalized with the suffix -an.

Table 6.

lemmeng hide linnemmengan hide and seek game

taray run racing with one another
pitak mud throwing mud at one another
sirib wise competition of wits

The prefix ag- with kin terms indicate mutual relationship.

Table 7.

ama father agama father and son

asawa spouse married couple
ina mother mother and child
siuman stepchild stepchild and stepparent
uliteg uncle uncle and nephew( or niece)

Resemblance
The prefixes sinan- and mara- are used to indicate the resemblance of the derived word to the
entity designated by the root morpheme. Most words with these prefixes are lexicalized:
Table 8.

tao man sinantao like a human being; humanoid

bilog outrigger toy outrigger boat
balitok gold fool’s gold; goldlike substance
balay house play house
pana arrow pointing arrow ( not a real arrow)
allawagi carpenter novice carpenter
dagum needle young cowpea ( like a needle)

Reduplication may also be employed to indicate resemblance, as shown by the following

lexicalized items:
table 9.

anak child an-annak doll (like a child)

bato stone shell
banga pot skull
dagum needle sting ( of a bee)
tukak frog wart

Ownership
Ownership is expressed in Ilokano by the prefixes akin- (akim-) or makin- (makim-).

Table 10.

kua thing akinkua owner

manok manok owner of the chicken
anak anak father/ mother of the child

balay balay owner of the house

Origin
Origin or nationality is expressed by the prefix taga-. A hyphen is used in Ilokano spelling
between the prefix and the root noun is capitalized. In some Ilokano localities, this prefix has a
regional variant i-.

amianan north tagaamianan person from the north

Ilokos Ilocos region taga-Ilokos person from the Ilocos region
Amerika America Taga-Amerika American
Espania Spain taga-Espania Spaniard, person from Spain

Kinship

The prefix kapi(n)- is used with numerical roots over one to indicate the exact degree of kindred.

table 11.

dua two kapidua second cousin

tallo three kapitlo third cousin
uppat four kapimpat fourth cousin
lima five kapinlima fifth cousin
sangapulo ten kapinsangapulo tenth cousin

Complex nominalization of nouns/ verbs

mode verbal affix gerund (manner) instrument locative/reason

neutral perfective

ag- panag- ag- pag- -an nag- -an

dynamic
 -um- iCV- - -um- -an -imm- -an

mang- panang- pang- pang- -an nang- -an

mangi- pannagi- pangi- pangi- -an nangi- -an

mangipa- panangipa- pangipa- pangpa- -an nangpa- -an

mangpa- panangpa- pangpa- pangpai- -an nangpai- -an

mangpai- pananagpai- pangpai- pangpag- -an nangpag- -an

mangpag- panangpag- pangpag- pangpag- -an nangpag- -an

potentive maka- pannaka- paka- paka- -an naka- -an

makai- pannakai- pakai- pakai- -an nakai- -an

makaipa- pannakaipa- pakaipa- pakaipa- -an nakaipa- -an

makapa- pannakapa- pakapa- pakapa- -an nakapa- -an

makapai- pannakapai- pakapai- pakapai- -an nakapai- -an

makapag- pannakapag- pakapag- pakapag- -an nakapag- -an

makapagi- pannakapagi- pakapagi- pakapagi- -an nakapagi- -an

social maki- pannaki- paki- paki- -an naki- -an

makipag- pannakipag- pakipag- pakipag- -an nakipag- -an

makipagi- pannakipagi- pakipagi- pakipagi- -an nakipagi- -an

agsurat
panagsurat
pagsurat
pagsuratan
nagsuratan
pannakisinnurat

sumangpet
isasangpet

makikuyog
pakikuyog
 pakikuyogan

maturog
pakaturogan
pagturogan

Unit 3. Articles and demonstratives

Articles
Articles in Ilokano encode number ( singular and plural), two cases ( core and oblique), and
differentiate personal nouns (names, covatives etc) from non-personal nouns as shown in the
following paradigm:

Non-personal articles core oblique

singular ti iti
plural dagiti kadagiti
personal articles core oblique
singular ni ken ni
plural da kada

The core and oblique distinction in Ilokano can be summarized in the following way.
Core nouns may be morphological argument of verbs. They may be replaced by an enclitic
pronoun of either the -ko or -ak series.
Oblique nouns, however, are not verbal arguments in that they can not be replaced by enclitic,
although they may play an essential role in the semantic frame of a verb.
Grammatically intransitive verbs in Ilokano may take one enclitic pronoun in the -ak series.
When this ap[rticular argument appears as a full noun phrase, it takes core cae marking:

nangan; nagsangit
nanganak.
nangan ti babai.
nagsangitda.

Intransitive verbs may take an independent notional patient or object in the oblique case.
 Nanganak iti dinardaraan.
Nangan ti babai iti paria.

Transitive verbs, on the other hand, take two core arguments. When encoding two arguments by
wnclitic pronouns, the actor of the action is encoded by the -ko series pronouns (egative case)
while the non-actor takes absolutive case )-ak series pronouns). All noun phrases in these cases
are given core case marking; all other nouns are peripheral and encoded in the oblique.

nakita saw (transitive)

Nakitanak. She saw me.
Nakitanank ni Maria. Maria saw me.
Nakita ti babai ti lalaki iti madiongan. The girl saw the boy
at the mahjong parlor.

ited give (transitive)

Intedko ti kuarta ken ni Juan. I gave the money to Juan.
Intedko kadakuada. I gave it to them.

kinnan ate (transitive)

Kinnan dagiti babbai ti baradibod. The girls ate the sweet potato porridge.

Demonstratives
Ilokano demonstratives, like the articles, also inflect for plurality and case. There are no special
forms, however, to differentiate personal nouns from non-personal ones. Ilokano demonstratives
are traditionally classified with regard to three degrees of space and time.

Spatial demonstratives
Ilokano demonstratives mark three degrees of spatial orientation: proximal, medial and distal.
1. Proximal demonstratives mark nouns near the speaker
2. Medial demonstratives mark nouns near the addressee or slightly far from both
3. Distal demonstratives are used to indicate the distance of the noun to the speech event.
The forms are given in the following paradigm:

proximal medial distal

core
singular daytoy dayta daydiay
plural dagitoy dagita dagidiay
oblique
singlar iti daytoy iti dayta iit daydiay

kadaytoy kadayta kadaydiay

plural kadagitoy kadagiota kadagidiay

The singular demonstratives daytoy, dayta ken daydiay have abbreviated forms: ‘toy, ‘ta and
‘diay, respectively, which are used in Ilokano discourse like the articles. the full demonstratives
may be connected to their nouns with the ligature ng(a), while the abbreviated articles may not:
Nagluto daydiay (a) lalaki. That boy cooked.
Nagluto -diay lalaki. The/That boy cooked.
Intedko ti balay kadagidiay lalllakay. I gave the house to those old men.
Nailet iti daydiay a balasang. It’s tight on that maiden.

Past (out of sight) demonstratives

Past demonstratives indicate nouns that are not visible at time of the speech event. These are
called recent past and remote past demonstratives and are detailed in the following chart:

Recent past Remote past

Core
singular daytay (‘tay) daydi (‘di)
plural dagitay dagidi
Oblique
singular kadaytay kadaydi
iti daytay Iti daydi
plural Kadagitay kadagidi

Recent past demonstratives are used with specific referents that are not immediately accessibl;e
or visib;le during the speech event
 Ania daytay naganna?
Ayan dagitay tulbekko?

Remote past demonstratives are often used with people who are deceased or things that no
longer exist:
Nalipatak ti nagan daydi gayyemko.
Nagparang daydi lolom.

Future marker
Ilokano has a marker used to form temporal expressions with future time reference. The marker
usually appears in one of the four forms: inton, intono, tono, ton.

malem afternoon intono malem in the afternoon

rabii night intono rabii tonight
bigat morning intono bigat tomorrow

Unit 4. Adjectives
Adjectives may be predictive or attributive. Many kano adjectives are formed with the prefix na-.
This form is identical to the perfective aspect of the stative ma- verb.
Table 12.

laing intelligence nalaing intelligent

alsem sourness; acidity naalsem sour
angin wind windy
pigsa strength strong
kayo tree with many trees
kalding goat with many goats
singpet virtue virtuous; well behaved
baknang wealth rich
asuk smoke smoky
Some Ilokano adjectives denoting an intrinsic quality begin with a fossilized ( no longer
productive) prefix a-:
ababa short
ababaw shallow
adalem deep
akaba broad
akikid narrow
atiddog long

Some adjectives are formed with the prefix ma-. Notice the meaning changes in the first three
when the same adjectives are used with the prefix na-:

maingel valiant
masakit sick
mauyong crazy; insane
mabileg strong; full grown, potent
manakem reasonable; logical; judicious
masirib wise; educated

naingel (strong (liquor; tobacco)

nasakit sore, aching
nauyong cruel, mean
nabileg
nanakem
nasirib

Finally, a few adjectives are simple roots. manya adjectives in this class refer to physical
attributes or defects

Basic adjectives
baro new
bassit small
daan old
dakkel big; large
puraw white

Physical or mental attributes

bulding blind in one eye
bulsek blind
bungi toothless
kusipet with almond eyes
kuskos bald
leppap flat nosed
pangkis cross eyed
 pawad with one arm or hand
putot without a tail
risay with ears torn
rukapi with coupled teeth
suriab with deformed upper lip
tabbed stupid
tammi with protruding chin
tuleng deaf
tuppol with missing teeth

Placement of adjectives
Adjectives may either precede or follow the nouns they attribute, separated by the ligature
(nga)a. Adjectives used to contrast nouns usually follow.
ti nasingpet nga ubing the well behaved child
ti ubing a nasingpet the well behaved child (as opposed to the naughty ones)
ti aso a nalaing the intelligent dog

Adjectives indivatong the composition or material of the qualified noun also follow:
ti tulbek a balitok the gold key
ti ruangan a bato the stone door
ti tugaw a landok the iron chair

Intensification and derivation of adjectives

The quality of an adjective may be intensified by adding the prefix nag- and the enclitic -(e)n to
the root. This form is usually used to express wonder or admiration.

adu much, a lot nagadun so many!

napintas beautiful nagpintasen how beautiful!
nalukmeg fat naglukmegen how fat!

Adjectives may also be intensified with the prefix nakaCVC- or with the adverb unay:

naangot smelly nakaang-angot; naangot unay stinking very much

nasakit sore nakasaksakit; very sore
 nasakit unay
katawa laughter nakakatkatawa funny

The affix panN- -e is used to moderate the degree of the adjective:

table 12.

nalukmeg fat panglukmegen rather stout

kulot curly panguloten curly; wavy
dakkel big panakkelen quite big; large
bassit small
kuttong thin
tayag long/ tall

The affix nain- -an derives abstract adjectives:

kappia peace nainkapppiaan peaceful

puso heart naimpusuan sincere

Comparatives and superlatives

The comparative degree

The comparative degree of the adjective is framed by reduplicating the first CVC sequence of the
root:
table 13.

dakes bad dakdakes worse

naimbag good naim-imbag better
nakuttong thin thinner
narugit dirty dirtier

puraw white
atiddog long
uyong angry

The disjunctive conjunction ngem ‘but’ links two nouns in a comparative construction.

Naluklukmegka ngem ni Sergio. You are after than Sergio.

Nabakbaknangak ngem sika. I am richer than you.

Ilokano has a conditional superlative formed with the prefix sumangka-.

No napudaw ni Maria, sumangkapudaw ni gloria.
If Maria is fair complexioned, Gloria is even more so.

No tabbed ni lakaymo, sumangkatabbed ti baketko.

If you husband is stupid, my wife is even stupider.

The superlative degree

The superlative degree is expressed with the circumfix ka- -an.

table 14.

nasadut lazy kasadutan laziest

naimbag good best
dakkel large, big largest, biggest
tarabitab gossiper
takrot coward
pintas beautiful

Isu ti kasadutan nga ubing. He is the laziest child.

Sika ti kaimbaganda amin. You are the best of them all.
Asino ti kasingpetan? Who is the most virtuous?
Unit 5. Adverbs and particles
Ilokano has many different ways of modifying predicates, from enclitics (varying in their
placement and bondedness) and invariant adverbial particles to derivable morphemes.
Agsangsangiten. He/she is already crying ( fusional enclitic)
Nabaknang kano. He/she is supposedly rich ( non-fusional, enclitic like particle.

Nangandan itay. They just ate just a while ago. (invariant particle)
Nagistayanda natay. They almost died. (derivable adverb)

The prefix siCV- specified manner.

Sipapardasda a nagtaray. They ran fast.
Silalagipka pay aleng kenkuana. You are still thinking about him.

As in many other languages, adjectives may also modify predicates.

Nagtarayda a napardas. They ran fast.

Aglutluto a nalaing. He cooks well.
Ibalunetmi a naimbag dagiti ridaw. We bar (lock with a bar) our doors well.

Temporal adverbials
Ilokano has temporal adverbs that mark three degrees of past time, a present time marker, and
one future time marker used with time expressions in the future.
These are itattay, for the immediate past,
itay for the recent past,
idi for the remote past,
itatta for the immediate present,
ita for the present time “now” or “today” and
intono + temporal noun for future time.

Immayda itay. They just came now.

Kasangsangpetna itay bigat. He just arrived earlier this morning.
Nagsangit idi. He cried then ( a while back).
Natayda idi kalman. They died yesterday.
Umay kano intono bigat. He says he’ll come tomorrow.
Agadalak diay intono umay a tawen. I’ll study there next year.

Some temporal nouns may take the infix -in- to express habituality.

aldaw day inaldaw every day

bigat morning binigat every morning
rabii night rinabii every night
tawen year tinawen every year

Umay ditoy iti binulan. He comes here every month.

Agbasbasada iti binigat. They read every morning.

Other common temporal adverbs:

agnanayon always
agpatnag all night long
apagbiit in a short while
apagdarikmat in an instant; in a short while
dandani almost, nearly
kanayon always
madamdama later
mamin-adu often
mamimpinsan once and for all
no dadduma sometimes
nagistayan almost, nearly
nganngani almost, nearly
pasaray sometimes, occasionally
patinayon all the time, always
sagpaminsan now and then, occasionally
masansan often

Adverbial particles
Ilokano has a separate closed class of adverbial particles that are commonly used to
elaborate clauses and/or specify certain clausal relationships. Many of these
particles function as second position enclitics to a predicate.

bassit polite particle, particle expressing brief duration.

biit for a short time
di negative particle, no, not
-(e)n already, perfective aspect; change of state particle; now,
contrastive enclitic
gayam expresses sudden realization, surprise, so
kadi interrogative particle, counters a claim
kano hearsay particle; it is said; they said, supposedly
kas (la) like; seemingly
kastoy, kasta, like this, like that (medial) like that ( distal)
kasdiay
ketdi anyway, on the other hand
koma optative particle, must, should, hopefully
la limitative particle only, just (laeng)
laeng limitative particle only, just
latta just
-n(to) expresses uncertainty or future time
uray even (if)
man please, marker of counterfactuality/ expectation
manen again
met also, emphatic particle
ngamin causal or emphatic particle; because, in that sense, in fact
ngarud resultative; then, indeed

ngata possibly, maybe; do you think?

ngay particle of elicitation (solicits information)
pay particle of addition; more, too, first
piman unfortunately; too bad

Immayda met laeng. They came anyway.

Ilukatmo man. Please open it.
Casino ngata ti nangabak? Who do you think won?
lalaki ngamin. It’s because he is a boy.
sika gayam! So it’s you! ( I was not expecting it to be you.)
wen ngarud. Yes indeed.
Mapanka koma. You should go.
Nagsangit laeng ni Blueberry. Blueberry just cried.
Nabaknangda kano. They are supposedly rich.
Isuna ngay? What about him?
Manganka pay. Eat first.
Mano pay ti kasapulam? How many more do you need?

The enclitic -n(sa) attaches to verb phrases to express uncertain on behalf of the speaker. It
attaches to the first constituent of the phrase and has two variants -sa after consonants and -nsa
after vowels.
Some Ilokano writers prefer to write sa as a separate word, although its variant -nsa is
phonologically conditioned.
Napandansa. I think they went,
Agtagtagainepkansa. I think you are dreaming.

The enclitic -e(n) has two variants: -en after consonants and -e after vowels. After the pronouns
siak -k, and -, the original form of the pronoun is retained with this enclitic, preserving the final o
(from *si-ako, *ko and *mo).
Nabsugen. He is already full.
Addadan. They are here already,
Siakon. It’s my turn; I”ll do it ( Me now)
Innalakon. I already took it.
Alaemon! Take it (already)!
Kanemon! Eat it (now)!

6. Verbs
An interesting feature about Ilokano ( and other Philippine languages) is that every root in the
language that can act as a noun can also be transformed into a verb by means of syntactic
placement or verbalizing morphology. Because the initial position is reserved for the predicate,
any noun in that position may take on a predicative function. Conversely, verbs may occur in
nominal functions )after articles of demonstratives). Ilok does not have a copular (to be) verb.
kayo tree. It is a tree.
Napan. He went.
ti napan the one who went

daytoy kayo this tree

Kayo daytoy. This is a tree.

lalaki boy
Lalaki. He is a boy.

There are numerous morphological affixes that combine with roots to give them verbal qualities
(i.e) aspect (tense), mode, volition transitivity. Words with these particular morphemes will be
considered verbs in this grammar sketch, farming a separate lexical class from nouns.

Categories of verbs
Focus ( verbal orientation) and transitivity
One notable distinction present in every affixed verb is the encoding of what has been termed as
focus in Philippine linguistics, referring to the formal marking that reflects the privileged
syntactical status of the absolute noun phrase.
Ilokano verbs assign focus to their absolutive nominal (-ak pronoun non personal), the nominal
in the most syntactically privileged position in terms of the semantic and grammatical
relationship the nominal has with the verb. Simple intransitive verbs such as ag-, -um- and mang-
verbs, for instance, atke at most one of the core nominal as argument whose semantic
relationship to the verb is usually ‘actor’ or single argument ‘experiencer’.
Nagsangit ti balasang.
Timmugawdd.
Nangankamin.
Agap-apada.
Ngimmisitda.

Certain affixes, however, such as -en, and -an, encode transitive frames that may assign two
nominals in core case, an agent (actor) encoded in the ergative case, and a non-actor (patient,
location, recipient, benefactor, reason otr theme, etc) encode in their absolutive case. Since the
absolutive argument in focus for these verbs is a non-agent/actor, they are called ‘goal focus
verbs.” Because these verbs take two nominals, they are grammatically transitive.
Nakitanakan. He already saw you.
Tinakawda ti nuang. They stole the water buffalo.
 Kaykayatdaka. They want you.
Ay-ayatennak? Do you love me?

Verbs are thus classified in semantic terms, by the semantic relation between the verb and the
role of the referent indicated by their absolutive argument. The following table illustrates these
classifications with a brief overview of their use.

Macro role semantic role transitivity focus affix

actor various, usually actor transitive ag-
-um-
detransitive mang-
goal (non-actor) patient transitive -en
directional -an
theme i-
benefactive i- -an
instrumental pag-
comitative ka-

A. Actor focus
Actor focus verbs take at most one core argument in the absolutive case whose relationship to the
verb is that of ‘actor’ (semantic agent or experiencer). Actor focus verbs mabe formed with the
prefixes ag- (durative) ma-/maka- (stative or potential) or the infix -um- (punctual or inchoative.
Transitive verbs may be detansitivized with mang- (distributive).

Naglutokami.
Nagluto dagiti ansisit.
Naglaylay ti sabong.
Ngimmisitkan!
Naglaylayda.
Nanganakon.
Nangan diay balasang.
Limmukmegdan!
Naturogak idiay siled ni Akong.
Many verbs denoting natural phenomena do not take formal arguments in Ilokano but they are
classified as actor focus verbs because they do not vary in form.
Nagtudo. It rained.
Nagkimat. Lightning flashed.
Nagbagyo. It stormed.
Nagarbis. It drizzled.
Naglayus. It flooded.

B. Goal focus distinctions

Goal focus verbs are classified by affix type on the basis of what semantic relationship the
argument in the absolutive case has with the verb.

1. Patient focus
Patient focus verbs take an argument in the absolutive case whose semantic role with respect to
the verb is that of a patient ) an affected entity or target of the action of the verb). The patient
focus sufix is -en (perfective -in-)/ The suffix -en typically forms transitive verbs in which the
absolutive argument is directly affected by the volitional actor.

Table 15.
root patient focus verb English gloss
surat write suraten to write something
kaan eat to eat something
kita see to see something
dait sew to sew something
basa read to read something

Sinipatna diay ubing. She spanked the child.

perfective form of sipaten
Sinuratko ti sarsuela. I wrote the opera.
perfective form of suraten
Ania’t kinnanmo? What did you eat?
perfective form of kanen.

2. Directional focus
The directional focus is formed with the suffix -an. It indicates that the absolutive argument is
locative of some kind of partially affected patient. The suffix -an may also be used with certain
verbs to indicate addition or removal. It is used with many roots to indicate a human patient in
the case frame, i.e. takawen ‘ to steal something’ versus takawan ‘ to rob someone’.
The morphological cover term directional focus is reserved for the -an verb class, not because of
the semantic properties shared by all the members of the class, but due to semantic change that
may indicate the direction or location of the action with a number of roots, i.e. sagaden ‘to
sweep’ (dirt) vs, sagadan ‘to sweep’ (the floor).

table 16.
root -an verb English gloss (verb)
adayo far adaywan to get away from
tulong help to help someone
aluad care to heed
sagad sweep to sweep (the floor)
basa read to read to someone
surat write to write to

Sinagadanna ti datar. He swept the floor.

Sinuratamon ni lolom? Did you write your grandfather already?

3. Theme focus
The prefix i- forms theme focus verbs,,putting the theme in absolutive position. The theme is the
entity whose location is at issue. Absolutive arguments of the theme focus verbs are typically
objects that are transferred, implemented or affected (physically or psychologically) by means
expressed in the root. Among the major verbs in the focus category are:
Table 17.

root theme focus verb English gloss

pan go ipan to bring
ruar outside iruar to put aside, take outside
awid ho home to take homre, bring home
ted give to give
kastoy like this to do like this
bolsa pocket to put in the pocket

Inyawidna ti suka ken buggoong. He brought home the vinegar and

fish paste.
Itedmo ti pansit ken ni kabsatmo. Give the noodles to your sibling.

4. Benefactive focus
The absolutive argument of benefactive verbs is usually the beneficiary of an action, but in some
cases, the person encoded in the absolutive case can be seen as having the action of the verb
done in his/her place rather than his/her benefit. It is formed with the circumfix i- -an ( past: in-
-an), morphologically a combination of a theme prefix and a directional suffix.
table 18.

root benefactive verb English gloss

dait sew idaitan to sew for someone
luto cook to cook for someone
aramid do, make to do, make for someone
ala get to get something for someone

Indaitak ni Maria iti bado. I sewed a dress for Mary.

No kayatmon ti mangan, ibagam ta idasarankan.
If you want to eat already, say so and I'll set the table for you.

5. Instrumental focus
The instrumental focus places the instrument or tool used to carry out the action in the absolutive
case. It is formed by the prefix pag- (past: pinag-). Because of the semantic and pragmatic nature
of this particular focus, derived pag- words usually appear in discourse as non-predicative nouns.

table 19.

root instrumental verb English gloss

tugaw chair, sit pagtugaw to use as chair, chair
surat write to use for writing; pen
dait sew to use for sewing; sewing materials
baut thrash to use for thrashing; whipping stick

Pinagdaitna ti dagum. He used the needle to sew.

Awan ti pagbadok. I have nothing to wear (use as clothes).

6. Comitative focus verbs

The comitative verbs place the party with whom the action is performed in the absolutive case. It
is formed by the prefix ka- ( past: kina-). Like verbs in instrumental focus, these ka- lexical items
behave more like prototypical nouns but may also appear predicatively and denote aspect.
table 20.

root comitative verb English gls

sao speak kasao speak with someone; talking partner
tugaw sit katugaw sit with someone; seatmate
ay-ayam play play with someone playmate
turog sleep sleep with someone; sleepmate
payong umbrella share an umbrella with
lugan ride share a ride with

Kinasaok ni Maria. I spoke with Maria

Ni Pedro ti kinatiugawko. I sat with Pedro.
Sino ti kinatungtongmo? With whom did you converse?
Kasaom iti Ilokano. Speak with him in Ilokano.

Potentive and stative mode

The prefix maka- (intransitive) are used to form potential verbs. Verbs in the potential mode can
designate a variety of distinctions: the ability or opportunity to perform an action, coincidental
activity, accidental activity and involuntary activity (activities performed without control or prior
intent).
Contrast the following verbs in potential mode (ma(ka-) with their dynamic (unmarked
counterparts (shown with the roots gatang ‘buy’ and dungpar ‘ crash/collide’).

gumatang to buy (intentionally)

aggatang to go shopping, buy
makagatang to be able to buy; to happen to buy; to purchase
accidentally
dungparen to crash into someone (on purpose)
madungpar to crash on someone ( on accident)

Inatalak ti billit. I ran over the bird )on purpose).

Naatalak isuna. I accidentally ran over him.
Inawatko ti kuarta. I got the money (with effort).
Naawatmo ti suratko? Did you receive my letter?
Naangotko ti I smelled her perfume.
pabanglona.
Inangotko ti I sniffed her perfume.
pabanglona.

The prefix ma- (perfective form na-) is also used to form involuntary or stative verbs and
adjectives) that ke only one core argument in the absolutive case.
maldaang ma+leddaang to be sad
malmes ma+ lemmes to drown
matnag ma+tinnag to fall

With the suffix -an, the prefix ma- indicates nonvolitional or abilitative agency. The resulting
verbs can be intransitive resultatives (in many cases where the agent is expressed in the root) or
transitive potentives, where the agent is expressed in the ergative case.

Intransitive verbs
marabiiyan to be overtaken by the night
mapudotan to be warmed up
maatalan to be run over
magasangan to be affected by spice

Naatalanak idi kalman. I was run over yesterday.

Nagasanganak. I was affected by the spice.
Transitive verbs
maatalan to be able to run over someone; accidentally run over
maawatan to (be able) to understand
masabidongan to be able to poison; happen to poison

Saanko a maawatan. I don’t understand it.

Sinak masabidongan. You can’t poison me.
Naatalak isuna. I accidentally ran over him.
Napuoranna ti balay. He accidentally burned down the house.

Detransitivising strategies for goal focus verbs

All goal focus (grammatically transitive) verbs in Ilokano can be changed into actor focus
(grammatically intransitive) verbs with detransivitizing affixes. This strategy is employed either
to form the antipassive, whereby an unindividuated patient (grammatical object) is put into the
oblique case and rendered indefinite, otr it is used when the verb must be detransitivized as
required by the syntax, as in relative clause formation. Note the differences between the
following sentences with transitive verbs and their detransitivized counterparts.

Kinnanko ti saba. I ate the bananas. (transitive, core patient)

Nanak iti saba. I ate bananas.(intransitive, oblique patient)
Ginatangna ti sida. He bought the fish. (transitive, core patient)
Gimmatang iti saba. He bought fish.(intransitive, oblique patient)

The following chart shows the particular affixes used to detransitivize a transitive verb.

Focus type transitive detransitivize/ *Intransitive

patient -en mang-
directional -an mang-
theme i- mang-
benefactive i- -an mangi-
instrumental pag- *ag-
comitative ka- (comitative) *agka- (mutual) *maki- (social)

Aspect
Ilokano verbs inflect for a number of aspectual distinctions:
Perfective (completive) aspect is used for actions that are initiated and completed;
The continuous aspect denotes continuous, repetitive or habitual actions; and the future aspect is
used for actions that have yet to be initiated. The unmarked infinitive form of the verb does not
specify whether an action has been initiated or completed.
The perfective aspect is formed with the prefix (or infix) as shown below. The continuous aspect
is formed by initial CVC reduplication of the stem, and the future is formed by the adverbial
clitic -to after consonants and -nto after vowels.

table 21.

infinitive (unmarked for aspect) perfective continuous future

Actor focus verbs
agsurat write nagsurat agsursurat agsuratto
gumatang buy gimmatang
mangtakaw steal mangtakawto
maturog sleep naturog
goal focus verbs
ikabil put ikabkabil ikabilto
suraten write sinurat sursuraten
punasan wipe pinunasan punasanto

Continuous verbs may be complete or in progress, depending on whether they are formed of the
perfective aspect (n-/-imm-/-inn-) form of the verb; e.g. agsursurat ‘is writing’; nagsursurat ‘was
writing’.
Ilokano verbs may also be derived for aspectual distinctions with CVCV or full reduplication to
express the iterative, durative, continual, distributional, intermittent, or intensive nature of the
action expressed by the root. Because this morphology is derivational, it is not equally
productive on all action verbs.

agbannikes arms akimbo

agbambanbannikes repeatedly (scold) with arms akimbo

agkabukab grit the teeth

agkabkabukab continuously and intensively griot teh teeth; gossip

agtilmon swallow
agtilmotilmon repeatedly or forceful;y swallop

silawan light up a place

silawsilawan light up various places

naisiglot to be tied in a knot

naisiglosiglot to be tied in knots

The recent past

Ilokano has a recent past construction to designated actions competed just prior to the speech
event. This construction is formed by the prefix ka- and CV redup[liaction of the initial syllable
of the root. The actor of verbs in the recent past appears in the ergative case.
kasasangpet just arrived ( from the root sangpet ‘arrive’
Kasasangpetko. I just arrived.

Words denoting a recently completed action or achieved state can also be designated by the
prefixes kapag- or kaCVC/ kaC-.
table 22
itlog egg kait-itlog freshly laid (egg); just laid
luto cook kal(ut)luto freshl;y cooked (food); just cooked
asawa spouse recent marriage; just married
agasawa marry newlywed couple; recently married
serrek enter newcomer; just entered
puros pick just picked
raep transplant just transplanted (rice)
tugaw chair just appointed
sibet depart just departed

Inchoativity
The concept of becoming’ a state or quality is expressed by the infiox -um-; the perfective aspect
counterpart is -imm- (historically *inum- >*-inm-> -imm-).
tayag tall
tumayag to grow tall
timmayag grew tall(er)

baknang wealth
bumaknang to become wealthy
bimmaknang became wealthy

guapo handsome
gumuapo to become handsome
gimmuapo became handsome

The verb agbalin ‘become’ may also be used for this purpose, usually for actions that are more
controllable by the actor or involve more energy exerted by the actor.
Nagbalinda a nabaknang. They became rich.
Nagbalin a nasinged kenkuana. He became close to her.

No kanayon a mayuperka iti taltalon, agbalin nga umamarilio dagiti sakam.

If you are always soaking in the fields, your feet will become yellow.

Frequentatives with -an-

Ilokano -an- frequentatives are formed from intransitive verbs in different ways for different verb
classes.
Unlike the more prototypical verbs examined earlier, the Ilokano frequentatives do not have
perfective forms; they can’t be transitivized; and they are readily used as nouns.
Unlike adjectives, they do not have comparative or superlative forms. They may, however, take
the reciprocal infix -inn-. They are shown in the table with their corresponding gerunds due to
their formal similarities.

mode verbal affix gerund (manner) frequentative

dynamic durative ag- panag- manag-
punctual -um- iCV- CumV-
mang- panang- manang-
distributive/
mangi- pannagi- manangi-
detransitive
mangipa- panangipa- manangipa-
mangpa- panangpa- manangpa-
mangpai- pananagpai- manangpai-
mangpag- panangpag- manangpag-
potentive maka- pannaka- mannaka-
nakai- pannakai- mannakai-
nakaipa- pannakaipa- mannakaipa-
makapa- pannakapa- mannakapa-
makapai- pannakapai- mannakapai-
makapag- pannakapag- mannakapag-
makapagi- pannakapagi- mannakapagi-
social maki- pannaki- mannaki-
makipag- pannakipag- mannakipag-
 makipagi- pannakipagi- mannakipagi-

managsangit always crying; frequently crying; crybaby

mannakidangadang frequently engaging in warfare; warrior
managtagipang-or always carrying club
Mannakisaludsodda. They are always asking questions.
Mannakiapa ti anakko. My child is always fighting.
Managtaul diay asoda. Their dog is always barking.
Manangtinnulongtulongda. They frequently help each other.
Managlualo ni baketko. My wife often prays.
Managinnapalda. They always envy each other.
Managunton ni Choring. Choring is very inquisitive (always asks questions).

Saankami a managnateng; ngem bin-ig a bulbulong pay laeng ti linutona.

We are not vegetarians (fond of vegetables), but she still only cooked pure leaves
anyway.

Habituals with sangka-

The prefix sangka- may be used to indicate habitual; events. The actor of these formatives is
encoded in the ergative case.
Sangkasaonaka. He is usually/ always talking about you.
Sangkadamagnak. She keeps on asking about me.

Immediacy with apag-

The prefix apag- is used to indicate immediate fulfillment of an action or state. When denoting
the English concept as soon as, the reactor is encoded in the ergative case. With stative moods, it
may indicate a state not fully attained.
table 23.

bangon get up apagbangon just up (from bed)

biit moment apagbiit in just a moment
sangpet arrive as soon as he arrives
bingngi open slightly ajar
lukat open
tappuak jump
Causation (indirect action) and direction: the prefix pa-
Ilokano verbs have corresponding causative (indirect) forms in which the action of the verb is
caused to be done, not directly done by the actor. The causative morpheme in Ilokano is pa- and
is used with the verbal affixes as exemplified in the following chart.

Verb form Causative/ indirect form

ag- agpa- (intransitive); pag- -en, pa- en (transitive)
agi- agipa-; agpai- (intransitive); pagi- -en (transitive)
mang- mangpa-
-en pa- -en
-an pa- -an
i- ipa-
pag- pagpa-
maka- makapa-
ma- mapa-
mai- maipa-

Nagpapukisak idi kalman. I had my hair cut yesterday.

Makapasalun-at ti saluyot. Saluyot leaves are healthy (cause
health).
Napasaplitmi ti padi. We managed to have the priest whipped.
Pinagimpipilaynak. He made me pretend to be lame.
Pastrekem ida. Let them come in.
Paturogam diay ubing. Put the child to sleep (make him sleep).

With locatrive roots, the prefix pa- also specifies the direction in which an object is transferred
for goal focus verbs or the direction in which the actor nominal moves for actor focus verbs.
Impaamiananmi. We sent it to the north.
Nagpa-Bauangkami. We went to bauang.
Impasulik dagiti alikamen. I put the furniture in the corner.
Agpaabagatandanto. They will go to the south.

Pretense
The prefix aginCV- perfective naginCV-, gerund panaginCV- indicates that the action expressed
by the root is feigned.
Aginsasangitda. They are pretending to cry.
Aginsisingpet ti lakayna. Her husband is pretending to be virtuous.
Nagimpapanglaw. S/he pretended to be poor.
Managimbabaknangda. They are always pretending to be rich.
Pinagimpipilaynak. He made me pretend to limp.
Nakapagintututleng. He managed to pretend to be deaf.

Smell
The prefix agaC- or agat- is used to designate smell. It has no perfective form.

table 24.

bawang garlic agabbawang smell of garlic

laya ginger agatlaya; agallaya smell of ginger
tsiko sapodilla agattsiko. smell of sapodilla
bugguong fish sauce
lasona onion

Agatdara ti al-alia. The ghost smells like blood.

Agatnatay a baoka. You smell like a dead rat.
Agat-arak ’ta sang-awmo. Your breath smells like wine.
Agatbaraniw ditoy. It smells like lemon grass here
(indicates a scandal).
Agattsiko ta sang-awmo. Your breath smells like sapodilla
(indicates intoxication).

Social verbs
The prefix maki- (transitive ka-) is used to form social verbs. Social verbs are used to indicate
shared participation of an action (actions performed in the company of other people) or verbs
used to ask permission to perform an action that is usually comitative.
Inkayo makiapit. Go participate in the harvest.
Intan makisala. Let’s go join the dance.
Makiinumak man? May I have a drink (with you?)
Makisindikami man? May we borrow some fire?
Mabalin ti makikatugaw? May I sit (with you?)
Nakitinnulagda idi kalman. They signed a mutual contract yesterday.
With kin verbs, the prefix maki- indicates the way the relative expressed by the root is treated,
and with food and commodities, maki- indicates a request.
Makiinatayo kenkuana. We treat her like our mother.
Inkayo makisida. Go ask for some food.

Reciprocals
reciprocity is expressed with the infix -inn- placed before the first vowel of the root. The prefix
ag- may also be used with verbs that are inherently reciprocal with plural actors.
Naglinnemmengkami. We hid from each other.
Ammok nga agiinniliwdanto. I know that they will miss each other.
Kanayonda nga agap-apa. They are always arguing (with each other).
Nagkitakami idiay kabayabasan. We saw each other in the guava grove.

Root verbs
Almost all ilokano verbs are formed by affixing verbalizing morphology to a root. However, a
few frequent verbs can be considered morphologically simple ( some of which can be
constructed to be bimorphemic historically):

table 25.

ammo know goal focus, no perfective form

in- go actor focus, no perfective form

ikkan give goal focus, perfective; inikkan inikkan

ited (* i- ted) give goal focus, perfective; inted inted

kayat (*ka- ayat) want goal focus, perfective;

kuna say goal focus, perfective;

madi (*ma- di) to be unwilling actor focus; perfective;

mayat (*ma- ayat) be willing actor focus; perfective;

yeg bring goal focus; perfective;

sida eat goal focus; perfective;

Kayatko a mapanka. I want you to go.

Kayatko ti mapan. I want to go.
Ania ti kinunam? What did you say?
Ikkannak man iti gundaway. Please give me a chance.
Ania’t sindayo? What did you eat?
Evaluation
Fill up all tables 1 to 25. Follow the pattern given.
Construct at least three sentences required in each table.