Cavallaro, Dani - Anime and The Art of Adaptation - Eight Famous Works From Page To screen-McFarland & Co., Publishers (2010)

Anime and the
Art of Adaptation
ALSO BY DANI CAVALLARO
AND FROM MCFARLAND
Anime and the Visual Novel: Narrative

Structure, Design and Play at the Crossroads
of Animation and Computer Games (2010)
Magic as Metaphor in Anime:
A Critical Study (2010)
The Mind of Italo Calvino: A Critical
Exploration of His Thought and Writings (2010)
Anime and Memory: Aesthetic, Cultural
and Thematic Perspectives (2009)
The Art of Studio Gainax: Experimentation, Style and
Innovation at the Leading Edge of Anime (2009)
Anime Intersections: Tradition and Innovation
in Theme and Technique (2007)
The Animé Art of Hayao Miyazaki (2006)
The Cinema of Mamoru Oshii: Fantasy,
Technolog y and Politics (2006)
Anime and the
Art of Adaptation
Eight Famous Works
from Page to Screen
DANI CAVALLARO
McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers

Jefferson, North Carolina, and London
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGUING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
Cavallaro, Dani.
Anime and the art of adaptation : eight famous works from
page to screen / Dani Cavallaro.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Includes filmography.
ISBN 978-0-7864-5860-8
softcover : 50# alkaline paper
1. Animated films — History and criticism. 2. Film

adaptations — History and criticism. I. Title.
NC1765.C38 2010
791.43' 34 — dc22 2010024301
British Library cataloguing data are available
©2010 Dani Cavallaro. All rights reserved
No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form

or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying
or recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publisher.
On the cover: Artwork from the 1988 animated film

Grave of the Fireflies (Studio Ghibli/The Kobal Collection)
Manufactured in the United States of America
McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers

Box 611, Jefferson, North Carolina 28640
www.mcfarlandpub.com
To Paddy,
with love and gratitude
... and to Betsy, too, in homage to her supervisory role
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Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1. The Frame of Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2. The Nightmare of History
Belladonna of Sadness, Grave of the Fireflies
and Like the Clouds, Like the Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3. Epic Adventure with a Sci-Fi Twist
Gankutsuou: The Count of Monte Cristo . . . . . . . . . . 38
4. The Fairy Tale Reimagined
The Snow Queen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5. Romance Meets Revolution
Romeo x Juliet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6. A Magical Murder Enigma
Umineko no Naku Koro ni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
7. A Tapestry of Courtly Life
The Tale of Genji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Filmography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
vii
Language is an archaeological vehicle ... the
language we speak is a whole palimpsest
of human effort and history.
— Russell Hoban
For the world to be interesting, you have
to be manipulating it all the time.
— Brian Eno
Preface
Keep on the lookout for novel ideas that others have used
successfully. Your idea has to be original only in its
adaptation to the problem you’re working on.
To invent, you need a good
imagination and a pile of junk.
— Thomas Alva Edison
This study explores a selection of anime offering adaptations of famous

works of both Eastern and Western provenance. It is not concerned with
assessing the so-called quality of adaptations in value judgmental terms but
with appreciating their significance and appeal as autonomous textual forma-
tions. Its basic premise is that by contrast with Western animation studios,
whose adaptations of illustrious originals turn exclusively to children’s books
and fairy tales for inspiration and always endeavor to edulcorate the sources’
messages, anime studios utilizing well-known dramatic, mythical or literary
antecedents are frequently drawn to stories with grave undertones or even to
the realms of tragedy and epic. When they do venture into the domain of
children’s fiction, they often bring out its more mature themes or else reimag-
ine the initial yarns by infusing their worlds with complex subtexts. This
divergence in preferences within the particular field of adaptation can be
related to a broader phenomenon: the attraction famously evinced by Eastern
audiences (and cultures generally) to materials of darker texture, not solely
in anime but also in other cogent facets of the performance, literary and visual
arts. In the specific case of Japanese culture, that proclivity can be seen as a
direct corollary of an essential facet of indigenous aesthetics tersely captured
by John Reeve as follows: “Serenity and turbulence, spirituality and slaughter
have often gone hand in hand in Japanese culture.... Japanese art, like Japanese
religion, can provide an assurance (or illusion) of calm while also honestly
reflecting the turbulence of life both outside and within” (Reeve, p. 22). This
entails that the very concepts of entertainment, amusement, pleasure and fun
1
2 Preface
can never be conclusively dissevered from the perception, albeit subliminal,

of unruly and chaotic energies coursing at all times through the fabric of
human existence. Japan’s fascination with the shadowy and the somber is also
beautifully documented by Junichirou Tanizaki, who enthusiastically cele-
brates his culture’s “propensity to seek beauty in darkness” (Tanizaki, p. 47),
maintaining that tenebrousness, frightening though it may be, is also instru-
mental in imbuing reality with “a quality of mystery and depth superior to
that of any wall painting or ornament” (p. 33).
Using the propositions delineated above as its theoretical underpinnings,
the book then moves onto its tripartite core interest: i. what anime contributes
to the sources it adapts in stylistic, aesthetic and psychological terms; ii. how
specific features of the medium impact alchemically on the original sources
to bring into being imaginative works of autonomous stature; iii. relatedly,
what renders an adaptation in anime form an artistic product sui generis. To
sum up, i. focuses on “tools”; ii. on “methods”; and iii. on “outcomes.” Histor-
ically, the book covers an extensive period spanning the late 1950s to the pres-
ent day. It accordingly addresses a broad spectrum of series and movies
drawing inspiration from varyingly eminent works in a variety of forms and
styles. So as to avoid the trap of diffuseness into which a study of such scope
could plausibly fall and provide instead a focused investigation, the book con-
centrates on specific case studies. These encompass three titles illustrating the
1970s, 1980s and 1990s, and five titles released over the first decade of the
twenty-first century. The titles used to exemplify the earlier decades here cov-
ered are deemed illustrative of those times in their expression of a recurrent
cultural preoccupation with the onerous legacy of history and attendant desire
to reimagine official historiography. They are accordingly discussed within a
single chapter as facets of one fundamental phenomenon. The rationale under-
pinning the decision to prioritize specifically contemporary trends in the pro-
cess of cross-media adaptation involving anime is twofold. First, anime
adaptations from earlier periods tend to consist of fairly loyal page-to-screen
transpositions of popular literary sources and are therefore less challenging
qua adaptations than later adaptive works in the same medium adopting a
more adventurous take on their source materials. Second, the earlier anime’s
relatively uncomplicated stance to mediatic relocation renders them less
amenable to investigation with reference to recent developments in the field
of adaptation studies, and hence less appropriate objects of study for a book
wishing to explore the theoretical implications and ramifications of the topic
under scrutiny.
Chapter 1 opens with an assessment of the general approach to the art
of adaptation evinced by anime with an emphasis on the concept of adaptation
as a fluid process and on the notion that the encoding of a source in a different
Preface 3
medium (and hence a different means of expression) generates an entirely dif-

ferent text of independent standing. The opening chapter then concentrates
sequentially on three theoretical perspectives of axial significance to the journey
from the page to the anime screen: developments in the domain of contem-
porary adaptation studies; philosophical debates on the concepts of originality,
reproduction and simulation stretching from Plato via Walter Benjamin to
Jean Baudrillard (and other relevant facets of poststructuralist thought); the
impact of anime-specific codes and conventions (graphic, dramatic, cine-
matographical) on the adaptation process (i.e., what makes an adaptation in
anime form a distinctive cultural product capable of instilling new meanings
into its sources). Chapter 2 addresses the three earlier anime with a focus on
the concept of history, while the ensuing chapters concentrate on later pro-
ductions evincing a bolder approach to the art of adaptation and, concomi-
tantly, greater openness to theoretical examination. The discussion highlights
those anime’s imaginative reinterpretation of a broad range of genres, including
the Romantic novel, the fairy tale, Shakespearean tragedy, the psychological
saga and the supernatural murder story, devoting special attention to the ani-
mational strategies, graphic tools, and rhetorical twists and tricks through
which they impart those established modes with novel connotations or indeed
subject them to generic metamorphosis. The case study addressed in the clos-
ing chapter holds a special place in the discussion and is therefore accorded
particularly extensive treatment. This prominence is due to three interde-
pendent reasons. First, the chapter brings together a number of both practical
and theoretical issues pertinent to the topic of adaptation at large and hence
throws into relief several of the fundamental concerns explored by the book
as a whole. Second, in exploring the anime adaptation of a Japanese work that
has proved immensely influential in both indigenous and global milieux over
several centuries, The Tale of Genji, it provides a unique opportunity to exam-
ine the adaptive collusion of diverse cultures, traditions and epochs. Third,
the history of the original narrative’s reception and adaptation over the cen-
turies eloquently demonstrates that the significance of a text does not solely
reside with its essence but also with the expressive vehicles and adaptive sit-
uations in which it is inscribed at any one point in time.
At the same time as they engage in detail with the pivotal titles, the case
studies supplied in this book make additional reference — with diverse degrees
of depth and breadth depending on contextual cogency — to a wider selection
of anime. The primary and secondary titles include both overt adaptations,
and movies or series drawing inspiration from well-known works but recon-
figuring them so radically as to render the adaptational component purely
implicit or latent. The close analyses supplied in the book attend to both the
anime themselves and their sources. At the same time, they examine a cross-
4 Preface
section of approaches to the theory and practice of adaptation and appropriate

critical perspectives on the phenomena of media synergy and intertextuality,
alongside pertinent philosophical debates surrounding the concepts of orig-
inality, repetition and difference. Finally, the book seeks to stretch the concept
of adaptation and allow it to encompass broader forms of media cross-polli-
nation. It therefore examines its main titles in relation not only to their written
sources but also to artbooks illustrating or complementing their stylistic and
dramatic traits with an emphasis on the specifically visual element.
Chapter 1
The Frame of Reference
No story comes from nowhere; new stories

are born of old.— Salman Rushdie
Stories, great flapping ribbons of shaped space-time,
have been blowing and uncoiling around the universe since
the beginning of time. And they have evolved. The weakest
have died and the strongest have survived and they have
grown fat on the retelling.— Terry Pratchett
Adaptations are ubiquitous in the history of anime and have accrued

novel connotations over time. Despite context-bound factors affecting the
nature of adaptations in different periods, one constant appears to have under-
pinned anime’s appropriation and manipulation of sources: a tendency to
underscore the status of adaptation not as a sealed product but as a process.
The argument pursued in this study is fueled by the conviction that it is actu-
ally far more exciting and thought-provoking for anime viewers to reflect on
the process through which an existing text has become what they see on the
screen — how, in other words, it has progressively come to be translated into
a work in its own right — than simply to consume the resulting show as a
sealed artifact. Anime makers are well aware that adaptations have been per-
sistently pigeonholed as coterminous with pejorative concepts such as infi-
delity, mindless mimicry or even downright blasphemy. In the face of this
bleak legacy, they have sought to counter its negative stance by eloquently
demonstrating that an adaptation does not consist of a simple binary exchange
between two discrete media based on a clear subordination of the borrower
to the lender but rather of a playfully promiscuous process involving forms
as diverse as novels of disparate genres and formats, stage plays and puppet
shows, folk and fairy tales, comics and videogames, as well as non-fiction texts
drawn from the fields of history, politics, sociology and anthropology — which,
cumulatively, straddle no less than a millennium.
Concurrently, the anime under scrutiny never attempt to ignore or efface
5
6 Anime and the Art of Adaptation
the existence of the works they draw upon as entities endowed with inde-
pendent reality and intrinsic weight. What they are eager to explore, in fact,
is the extent to which that reality and that weight might be transposable to
the domain of the animated image — either by reconfiguring them in accor-
dance with certain technical criteria indigenous to animation itself or by exter-
nalizing visually their unique essence without interfering with their primarily
verbal identity. Although the contingent outcomes of this exploration vary
from anime to anime, the overall message conveyed by anime adaptations
such as the ones here addressed is that no text can be transposed to a different
form without altering substantially, acquiring fresh meanings and inaugurating
novel perspectives. This is because the divergence of the expressive vehicle
used by the adaptation from that used by its source is inevitably conducive
to some difference in content and mood. That is to say, by encoding its source
in a different form, the adaptation comes to constitute not merely an alternate
way of saying the same thing but rather a different text— a radically separate
way of conveying messages other the ones inherent in the source by virtue of
its own formal distinctiveness. This does not automatically imply that the
adaptations studied in this context always depart drastically from their sources.
In fact, some of the anime echo the originals quite closely at the levels of both
content and mood. Rather, it is a matter of recognizing that the “pleasure”
yielded by an adaptation at its best, to cite Linda Hutcheon, entails “repetition”
with “variation” (Hutcheon, p. 4).
The status of adaptations as repetitions with a variation, Hutcheon pro-
poses, underscores their independent identity as “deliberate, announced, and
extended revisitations of prior works” (p. xiv) that ought not to be regarded,
therefore, as mere imitations or replications. Julie Sanders enthusiastically
corroborates this proposition: “Adaptation and appropriation,” she states, “are,
endlessly and wonderfully, about seeing things come back to us in as many
forms as possible” (Sanders, p. 160). Adaptation, according to Sanders, should
frequently be thought of as “appropriation” insofar as this term more aptly
describes a “decisive journey away from the informing source into a wholly
new cultural product and domain” (p. 26). A cognate position is advocated
by Linda Costanzo Cahir when she contends that there are significant instances
in which the term “translation” would be more fruitfully applicable than
“adaptation” since translation does not simply alter a form structurally to
enable it to operate in an alternative context but actually engenders “a fully
new text — a materially different entity”— through “a process of language”
(Costanzo Cahir, p. 14).
While assessing the nature of the adaptation as an autonomous text, it
is also important to appreciate that the collusion of different genres and for-
mats poses some tantalizing questions not only about the adaptation but also
1. The Frame of Reference 7
about the source, challenging us repeatedly to consider what happens to the

parent text when it is transposed to the screen. The anime central to this study
are all adapted from texts that deploy the written word as a key communica-
tional instrument, which renders them globally definable as literature, and
therefore invite us to ponder specifically whether, when a piece of literature
is transposed to the screen, it can still be called literature, should be seen to
have morphed into cinema and thus left all traces of its written status behind
or, more intriguingly, might be deemed to hold a dual identity as both liter-
ature and cinema. This third option entails the emancipation of the adaptation
from its subservience to a supposedly privileged original and hence reflects,
as Deborah Cartmell and Imelda Whelelan put it, the “desire to free our
notion of film adaptations from” their “dependency on literature so that adap-
tations are not derided as sycophantic, derivative, and therefore inferior to
their literary counterparts” (Cartmell and Whelelan, pp. 1–2). It is indeed
hard to deny, as Thomas Leitch stresses, that in the realm of adaptation studies,
literature has been insistently regarded as “an aesthetically sanctified field”
whose value is automatically accepted “by a jury whose verdict” regarding its
“film adaptations is still out” (Leitch, p. 64). In an effort to overcome this
logophiliac impasse, various critics have proposed particular classificatory
templates meant to differentiate specific types of adaptation.
Thus, John M. Desmond and Peter Hawkes divide adaptations into three
typologies, “close, loose, or intermediate” (Desmond and Hawkes, p. 3), while
Costanzo Cahir differentiates “literal, traditional, or radical” forms of adapta-
tion. The most appealing quality of the latter’s contribution to the debate,
for the purpose of the present study, lies with the emphasis placed on the rel-
ative autonomy of the cinematic adaptation from its source: “The film,”
Costanzo Cahir maintains, “must demonstrate an audacity to create a work
that stands as a world apart” so that even though it remains “related” to the
original aesthetically, it is nonetheless perceivable as “self-reliant” (Costanzo
Cahir, p. 263). Proposing an alternate taxonomy, Dudley Andrew has classified
adaptations in terms of “borrowing,” “intersecting” and “transforming”
modalities (Andrew 1984; 2000). Borrowing is based on the employment of
the “material, idea, or form” of a preexistent text and requires the reader or
viewer to “probe the source of power of the original by examining the use of
it made in adaptation.” Intersection respects the source’s uniqueness by leaving
it “intentionally unassimilated” (Andrew 2000, p. 30), while transformation
entails a more radical process of self-differentiation on the adaptation’s part.
In all cases, however, what matters is the adaptation’s fidelity to the “spirit”
of the parent text, not its mere “reproduction” of “something essential about
an original text” (p. 31)— which could be effected by exclusively mechanical
means. Literature and film, for Andrew, are fundamentally “separate,” yet
“equivalent,” ways of translating ideas into signs — verbal or audiovisual —

and must therefore be approached, in studying their adaptational dialogue,
as two specific media forms: mediatic specificities are hence posited as a critical
priority.
Kamilla Elliott, for her part, has identified six distinct categories: “psy-
chic,” “ventriloquist,” “genetic,” “merging,” “incarnational” and “trumping.”
The psychic echoes Andrew’s argument by underscoring the importance of
preserving the spirit of the source; the ventriloquist empties the source’s body
of its content and lends it a new voice; the genetic sees the source and its
adaptation as two versions of the same narrative deep structure; the merging
upholds the reunion of two spirits beyond the boundaries of individual textual
bodies; the incarnational regards a movie as the visible body toward which a
novel’s abstract language aspires; and the trumping, finally, views film as the
mechanism performing the equivalent of a sex-change operation based on the
premise that the book’s spirit inhabits the wrong body and film must restore
it to its appropriate shape (Elliott).
A few key issues that have tenaciously haunted the field of adaptation
studies, and specifically the sector thereof concerned with filmic adaptations
of literature, are here worthy of consideration for the sake of contextual accu-
racy. Numerous commentators are eager to ascertain whether a film is faithful
to its literary parent at the levels of content, style and figurative structure,
while others are more interested in establishing whether an adaptation simply
transcribes its source or rather interprets it by suggesting a particular way of
reading it or by engaging in speculations about issues it implicitly raises. All
of the anime examined in this book as focal cases favor the second approach,
capitalizing on their formal specificity to impart their originals with fresh
levels of significance. A widespread concern pertains specifically to adaptations
that appear to depart quite radically from their sources in which the breach
in loyalty can be explained — and warranted — on the basis of their situation
within altered sociohistorical milieux and related injunction to adhere to
muted audience expectations and representational conventions. Grave of the
Fireflies and Like the Clouds, Like the Wind are good examples of this trend.
If the importance of cultural circumstances and mores is acknowledged in
relation not only to the adaptation but also to the source, then it can be
argued that the latter is no less context-bound than the former — and that its
openness to metamorphosis and retelling is, in a sense, an ineluctable con-
comitant of that status. No text, in this perspective, could ever be firmly
emplaced as immune to the fluctuations and whims of time. As shown in the
case studies to follow, this crosscultural phenomenon makes itself manifest in
the titles under scrutiny with a stunning flair for generic suppleness.
Another interesting question is whether adaptations that blatantly defy
fidelity obliquely invite their viewers to revisit the sources in order to assess
what fresh meanings these might unleash in light of their alternate retellings.
It is quite feasible, for instance, that spectators already familiar with Shake-
speare, Dumas or Andersen (to cite but a few authors relevant to this book)
will wish to return to the originals to experience afresh their dramatic, nar-
rative or metaphorical strengths from new perspectives inaugurated by the
adaptations themselves. Several publications in the area have also focused on
whether movies have at their disposal any means of replicating or mirroring
their sources’ distinctively literary attributes (e.g., poetic, descriptive and
typographic elements) in cinematic and generally visual form. Anime’s han-
dling of graphic tools reminiscent of the written word — which is, in any case,
an extraordinarily multifaceted reality in the context of Japanese language —
is particularly deserving of inspection, in this respect. At the same time, this
ruse lends itself to self-reflexive gestures enabling particular shows to comment
obliquely on their status as adaptations.
A further issue of substantial relevance to the titles under scrutiny (given
their sheer breadth of scope) concerns the significance of adaptations issuing
from non-literary sources based either in popular culture or in academic writ-
ing. The use of the term non-literary requires elucidation in the present con-
text. As noted earlier, all of the anime here studied can be said to issue from
sources drawn from literature, as long as literature is broadly regarded as the
province of the written word, of the letter (litera). In speaking about non-lit-
erary sources, the term non-literary is predicated on a more refined meaning
of literary as the designation specifically applicable to a piece of narrative
prose (often wholly or mainly fictional), to a poem or to a dramatic work
governed by artistic rather than purely functional or utilitarian considerations.
Thus, Belladonna of Sadness and Umineko no Naku Koro ni can be said to
draw on literature insofar as both the cultural history text and the visual novel
they respectively adapt use the written word as a key expressive medium but
can also be said to utilize non-literary sources to the extent that neither of
those parent texts is literary in the narrow sense of the term as defined above.
This aspect of the debate contributes vitally to a salutary demotion of literary
fiction and drama from the status of unequivocally privileged points of ref-
erence to that of a mere component — sizeable as this may be — of the ocean
of texts from which adaptations can derive inspiration.
Likewise tantalizing are certain developing perspectives on the distinctive
qualities of the kind of adaptation which, while electing one source as its
principal matrix, concurrently draws from other ancillary texts or media of
both verbal and non-verbal constitution. In the context of the anime at hand,
for example, it is not uncommon for a series or movie based on a canonically
valued novelistic or dramatic source to hybridize the parent text through the
infusion of sci-fi or action-adventure motifs into its fabric —Gankutsuou: The

Count of Monte Cristo and Romeo x Juliet eloquently illustrate this idea. Accord-
ing to Christine Geraghty, it is worth noting, “adaptations that move furthest
from the original” are precisely the ones that “are often sustained by other
generic expectations” (Geraghty, p. 43). Alternately, even when the source is
loyally adhered to, stylistic trends typical of different epochs or cultures may
be simultaneously invoked to enrich the animational brew in adventurous
fashions —Belladonna of Sadness, Snow Queen, The Tale of Genji and Umineko
no Naku Koro ni exemplify this trend. These are typical cases of adaptations
that squarely transcend analysis by reference to the criterion of fidelity — or
lack of it — by widening the horizon of the textual web through complex pro-
cesses of aesthetic cross-pollination and referencing and through an intricate
mix of styles, genres and settings.
While, as indicated in the preceding pages, ongoing speculations in the
field of adaptation studies are directly relevant to the transformative process
explored in this book, a likewise cogent point of reference is supplied by
philosophical perspectives on the phenomena of reproduction and simulation.
The concept of the simulacrum is especially noteworthy, in this regard. This
features conspicuously in both the theory and the practice of the visual (and,
by extension, performance) arts since at least Plato (fifth century B.C.). Since
the early twentieth century, the concept has been steadily acquiring novel con-
notations and layers of speculative complexity as a result of various techno-
logical developments: first the flourishing of mechanical reproduction and
then the explosion of electronic means of generating whole virtual worlds. In
Plato’s philosophical system, the copy is quite incontrovertibly posited as infe-
rior to the Idea or Pure Form that is presumed to lie behind it. The Pure
Forms themselves are thought of as wholly abstract and eternal entities that
exist independently of any of their material manifestations, whereas the phe-
nomenal reality we quotidianly experience as mortal creatures is merely a sec-
ond-rate copy of that etherealized transcendental domain — an unreliable
carousel of illusory simulacra. Artistic representations of the material world,
for their part, are even further removed from the timeless reality of Pure
Forms, holding the specious status of third-rate copies, or copies of copies.
More recent thinkers have proposed that copies and simulacra should
not be unequivocally regarded as inferior to the reality which they are pre-
sumed to imitate or simulate. Gilles Deleuze, for example, has drawn an inter-
esting distinction between the copy and the simulacrum, maintaining that
although the copy has been conventionally branded as second-rate, it has
nonetheless been deemed worthy of some respect due to its intimate connec-
tion with an esteemed original, and hence held capable of providing insights
into the values hosted by the original itself. The simulacrum, conversely, does
not refer to a superior reality but only ever abides by its own reality, flouting
the authority of any original that may underpin its construction. “The sim-
ulacrum,” Deleuze argues, “is not a degraded copy. It harbors a positive power
which denies the original and the copy, the model and the reproduction. At least
two divergent series are internalized in the simulacrum — neither can be
assigned as the original, neither as the copy.... There is no longer any privileged
point of view except that of the object common to all points of view. There
is no possible hierarchy, no second, no third.... The same and the similar no
longer have an essence except as simulated, that is as expressing the functioning
of the simulacrum” (Deleuze 1990, p. 262).
Walter Benjamin’s groundbreaking essay “The Work of Art in the Age
of Mechanical Reproduction” has indubitably been the most influential con-
tribution to the debate surrounding originality and imitation since the dawn
of industrialization and concomitant mechanization of knowledge and culture
alike. Benjamin argues that mechanically reproduced copies (e.g., photographs
of artworks) challenge the original’s uniqueness, its “aura” (Benjamin, p. 221).
Thus, the original reaches people who are neither art experts nor even, nec-
essarily, aficionados, thereby gaining novel and unforeseen meanings. The
more conservative members of the public see the commercialization of art as
unpalatable confirmation for rampant commodity fetishism. More liberal con-
sumers, however, are willing to interpret the displacement of the original from
its privileged position as a salutary defiance of ossified mores. Yet, as John
Berger emphasizes, the dissemination of a famous work into a variety of sit-
uations and contexts rendered possible by mechanical reproduction does not
automatically represent an emancipatory move insofar as it can actually serve
to reinforce that work’s special meaning as the putatively unique model behind
a profusion of paltry copies, and hence inspire a sense of awe bound to make
it the object of a “bogus religiosity” (Berger, p. 23). The positions just outlined
are directly relevant to the topic under investigation in this study as alternate
ways of addressing the relationship between a parent text and its brood as a
complex phenomenon capable of both transgressing and perpetuating tradi-
tional value systems.
In the context of poststructuralist philosophy, a major contribution to
the debate consists of Jacques Derrida’s writings. Derrida maintains that in
the history of Western thought, the relationship between original and copy
has been conventionally perceived in purely binary oppositional terms, and
that the idea of the original, accordingly, has been unquestionably upheld as
the privileged value to which the copy is subordinated as a secondary derivative
supplement. This hierarchical position, Derrida intimates, is quite spurious
insofar as the concept of an original is unthinkable independently of the pos-
sibility of the original being copied. In other words, we can only speak of an
original if we admit, albeit tangentially, to its liability to imitation or repro-

duction. At the same time, Derrida is keen to emphasize the inevitable imbri-
cation of any act or process of repetition with some element of difference.
There is no such thing as pure repetition, for meaning is never stably self-
present but always, in fact, prone to slippage, forever in the process of shifting,
erring, taking detours and digressions, folding in and out of itself (Derrida
1978). Deleuze’s writings on the inextricability of repetition and difference
also deserve attention, in this context. Far from ensuring stability, Deleuze
maintains, repetition turns out to constitute “by nature transgression or excep-
tion, always revealing a singularity opposed to the particulars subsumed under
laws, a universal opposed to the generalities which give rise to laws” (Deleuze
1994, p. 5). Derrida’s and Deleuze’s arguments could be read as daring attacks
on conventional notions of authenticity and inauthenticity, fidelity and infi-
delity, insofar as, in suggesting that no seemingly repetitive act lacks an ele-
ment of difference (and hence potential creativity), they implicitly allude to
the possibility of something genuinely new emerging from the old — some-
thing that is rendered new by its ineradicable difference. The propositions
advanced earlier regarding an adaptation’s autonomous value as a corollary of
its formal and discursive difference — and hence the need to transcend the
tiresome preoccupation with the criterion of loyalty to the source endemic in
theories of adaptation —finds a direct correlative in Derrida’s and Deleuze’s
contentions.
Jean Baudrillard has further problematized the concept of originality by
arguing that in contemporary media-saturated cultures, the simulation of real-
ity has taken over reality itself. The postmodern age is hence marked by the
omnipresence of simulacra that have replaced any presumed originals alto-
gether, and therefore operate as ways not of masking reality but of hiding the
fact that no reality actually obtains behind the simulacra themselves. “The
simulacrum,” the philosopher tersely states, “is never that which conceals the
truth — it is the truth which conceals that there is none. The simulacrum is
true” (Baudrillard, p. 166). It is no longer possible, in this scenario, to peel
away the surfaces of representation to arrive at some original reality supposedly
underlying (and legitimizing) it because no such thing can be held to exist
any more. Addressed in relation to some of the arguments concerning adap-
tation pursued earlier, Baudrillard’s writings would seem to suggest that every-
thing is an adaptation of sorts for the simple reason that it could not possibly
be anything else in a culture where both origins and originality have lost their
traditional status and, ultimately, any meaning whatsoever.
One of the most intriguing issues posited by anime reliant on adaptation
concerns the aesthetic and semiotic specificity of the anime themselves as texts
encoded in a very distinctive visual language. In other words, we are enjoined
to ponder not simply the general significance of the adaptation process as a

journey from page to screen but also, more exactly, on the implications of the
specific transposition of written materials to animated graphics imbued with
unique codes and conventions. Thus, theoretical perspectives pertaining to
the broad area of cinematic adaptation, while relevant to this study, should
never be divorced from detailed consideration of more local perspectives with
anime as such at their center of vision. Whenever we engage with an anime
adaptation, we must ask ourselves what happens to the original when it enters
not just the screen in general but the anime screen as a discursive domain of
independent caliber. For instance, there would be little mileage in pursuing
an investigation of the anime version of Romeo and Juliet produced by Studio
Gonzo simply as a cinematic adaptation without reflecting on the particular
qualities which the drama acquires as a corollary of its transformation into
an anime rather than a live-action movie or an animation informed by different
criteria and corresponding cultural proclivities. The detailed analyses of the
anime here under scrutiny endeavor to address their distinctiveness as anime
in accordance with the foregoing observations, striving to elucidate the par-
ticular ways in which anime adaptations create their own meanings.
At this stage in the discussion, some general points of a formal and medi-
atic nature are nonetheless necessary. On the one hand, it is crucial to focus
on technical and symbolic codes affecting the screenplay, its narratorial stance
and point(s) of view, its pace and rhythm, its handling of the interaction of
words and other elements of the soundtrack, its use of repeated imagery and
its approach to dramatic irony. On the other hand, it is equally important to
attend to the social codes influencing a character’s appearance and body lan-
guage, alongside the ideological codes underpinning a production’s impact as
more or less conventional, adventurous or downright pioneering. The broad
categories just outlined are, in a sense, relevant to any adaptation with a filmic
outcome. Turning specifically to anime, more detailed observations are
required. It is first of all vital to evaluate the import of anime-specific concepts
in relation to broader preferences and trends in Japanese art and aesthetics as
a whole. The pivotal ideas here at stake concern the indigenous culture’s invet-
erate belief in the status of virtually any human practice as an art, and con-
comitant debunking of strict hierarchies subordinating putatively lowly
artisanal activities to the ranks of so-called high art. At the same time, the
intrinsic materiality of all arts is persistently upheld and this attitude tradi-
tionally results in a deeply reverential attitude toward one’s materials and
tools, regardless of whether one is painting an exquisitely delicate screen, say,
or preparing a bento (the indigenous lunchbox). A frank admission of artifice,
attested to by physical vestiges of the labor entailed by artistic productivity
in the product itself, is no less axial an aspect of Japanese culture. Pervading
these interconnected ideas is the passionate cultivation of an ethos, as hinted

at in the Preface, that audaciously celebrates the coexistence of calm and tur-
moil as inextricable polarities of human life and cosmic balance at large.
It is no less crucial, in this context, to pay close attention to the specific
incidence of anime-specific codes and conventions in four interrelated areas:
graphic, compositional, animational and cinematographical. A major factor
influencing anime in its handling of the adaptation process lies with the
medium’s distinctive approach to the task of characterization. Many viewers
with even the most superficial knowledge of anime will instantly associate its
character designs with somatic traits such as extended limbs, alongside heads,
feet, hands and hair of blatantly unrealistic, normally exaggerated, dimensions
and proportions. Such features make the characters amenable to the display
of high levels of dynamism. Certain recurrent vestimentary motifs are also
easily linked with anime (e.g., in the representation of ubiquitous school uni-
forms, and of futuristic, retrofuturistic or antiquarian costumes). The com-
mitment to realism in fashion design contrasts dialectically with the deliberate
avoidance of realism in the rendition of anatomical attributes. Where faces
are concerned, oversized glossy eyes, tiny mouths and noses, and preposter-
ously abundant (as well as typically unruly) manes of all imaginable hues are
likewise conspicuous among the medium’s most familiar traits. What should
not be ignored, in appreciating these formulaic representational strategies, is
first anime’s concomitant use of relatively realistic physiognomies and second
its knack of deploying facial characteristics very subtly to convey a wide range
of emotions by recourse to often minuscule adjustments to the most diminu-
tive of curves and through the diversified handling of alternately soft and
angular shadows.
Overtly stylized emotive icons can also be utilized to communicate eco-
nomically and wordlessly specific affective states — e.g., bulging veins to signify
effort or intensity, sweat drops to express anxiety or fear, and nose bleeds to
allude to erotic desire or even perverse thoughts. A similarly formulaic device
readily associated with anime as a graphic discourse is the use of “SD” (“Super
Deformed”) versions of the characters to signal their emotive shift from nor-
mal, generally serious, dispositions to infantile, cute or parodic distortions of
those basic personality types. Most crucially in the present context, charac-
terization plays a key role in drawing the audience into the anime’s adaptive
universe, disconcerting though this may initially appear to viewers acquainted
with the source materials, by delivering varied galleries of personae that are
cogently situated within a specific and well-defined social milieu. This applies
to all manner of anime actors independently of their diegetic status or promi-
nence within the overall yarn. Characterization, therefore, is held carefully
within the parameters of a particular production, helping the anime assert its
aesthetic autonomy from its source. Even when bizarrely elaborate parallel
universes display outlandish menageries of creatures, the anime will succeed
in accomplishing that task as long as it is capable of intimating that its char-
acters inhabit a fundamentally universal human drama.
In an anime’s translation of its source’s settings into a distinctive world
of its own, backgrounds are of cardinal significance. In virtually all animation,
and indeed cinema generally, backgrounds contribute crucially to establishing
and maintaining a particular ambience and a palpable genius loci. In anime,
however, they rise to the ranks of vibrantly animate actors in their own right
in the representation of both the natural habitat and architecture. Typically,
anime’s backgrounds are intricately detailed and most liberal in the adoption
of artistic — especially painterly — effects such as watercolor-style washes,
crayon-like marks, pigment swathes and gradients. At the same time, they do
not merely augment the lifelikeness of the drama’s characters by enfolding
their personalities and actions in distinctive atmospheres but also draw vigor
from them, acquiring novel connotations and traits at every turn in consonance
with the actors’ shifting emotions. A meticulous approach to product design
ensures that settings are consistently populated by correspondingly convincing
props and accessories. At the adaptational level, an original’s transposition to
the anime screen is often individualized precisely by the depiction of objects
intended to allude metonymically to entire cultures and lifestyles. Lighting
and coloration play a key part in enhancing a background’s richness, combin-
ing particular orchestrations of the play of light and shadow with appropriate
chromatic palettes, modulations and gradations intended to convey distinctive
moods and levels of pathos.
One of the most interesting challenges posed by the anime here examined
has to do with the responses they elicit from viewers who, if they are familiar
with the sources, will have already visualized certain characters and settings
through imaginative picturing — a process that is always, inexorably, partial,
subjective and influenced by specific cultural, historical and discursive cir-
cumstances. In seeing new versions of people we have previously visualized
inside our heads leaping, trundling and dancing across a screen in the basic
shapes of highly stylized figures set against gorgeously rendered scenery paint-
ings may be experienced by some not merely as an amusing surprise but as a
shock. In any case, notwithstanding the variable severity of individual reac-
tions to the anime adaptation at hand, it is undeniable that with each alter-
native visualization reaching the screen, our pictorial memory will be
challenged, jogged or stretched in innumerable and unexpected ways.
In the specifically cinematographical arena, it is from the repeated
employment of a range of classic camera operations that anime derives much
of its distinctiveness and its adaptations of disparate sources, relatedly, come
most memorably to life. Anime abounds, most notably, with strategies meant
to evoke the illusion of movement while economizing radically on the number
of frames necessary to effect this impression. These include “sliding,” where
a frame is made to slide across the field of vision; “fairing,” where frames are
placed and distanced from one another in such a way as to convey the illusion
of acceleration or deceleration at the beginning or end of a cut; and, quite
famously, “panning,” where the camera itself remains stationary but its focus
moves from left to right (or vice versa) to capture a series of frames across a
horizontal plane. In the “tilt,” an analogous procedure is adopted but the
focus moves vertically instead. The related operation known as “follow pan”
keeps the camera locked onto one single element and follows its motion
throughout the cut. With “tracking,” conversely, the camera moves with the
object being filmed in a side-to-side or forward-backward motion in order
to concentrate on minute parts of an image. To express dramatic intensity
without recourse to camera motion at all, the “fix” is also consistently utilized.
“Fade in/fade out,” the gradual appearance or disappearance of an image, the
“dissolve,” an editing technique in which one shot gently vanishes while
another shot materializes in its place, and the “wipe,” a procedure whereby
one image seems to force the preceding image off the screen, also feature con-
spicuously in anime. Kinetic vibrance can be tersely achieved by recourse to
the “zip pan,” a strategy that uses backgrounds consisting of lines rather than
of clear images so as to convey the illusion of motion. To preserve a sense of
continuity between scenes presented in this fashion and those surrounding
them, the basic palettes remain unaltered. In the case of the “image BG” tech-
nique, exuberant splashes of disparate colors are employed to evoke a char-
acter’s affective state or to suggest a shift to an alternate reality level. In this
case, overtly clashing palettes are deployed to induce a potent feeling of dis-
orientation. Concurrently, “backlighting” is routinely adopted to create flares,
blasts and flashing lights by means of “masks”: cells that are painted black
except for the areas to be lit, shot separately and then superimposed onto the
initial cut.
Anime also resorts persistently to audacious camera angles that depart
drastically from the habitual inclination to make the camera’s point of view
level with the human eye and display an even horizon, and play instead with
perplexing perspectives. These are typically engendered by means of extreme
“high-angle” and “low-angle” shots capturing actors and locations from above
or below respectively; “deep-focus” shots allowing all the planes of a setting
to remain in equally sharp focus; and “oblique-angle” shots tilting the camera
so as to make straight lines appear as diagonals. A wide variety of interesting
lenses abets anime’s cinematographical ploys. These include “wide-angle”
lenses able to capture wider areas than those afforded by ordinary lenses and
thus evoke the impression of exaggerated perspectives, and “zoom” lenses

enabling the passage from wide-angle shots to “telephoto” shots in which the
lens works like a telescope. “Depth-of-field” effects are especially useful in
communicating an overall sense of displacement by capitalizing on shifts of
focus between the foreground and background and thus highlighting the fea-
tures of contrasting portions of a scene. Finally, feelings of uncertainty, fear,
anxiety or grief can be effectively conveyed with the assistance of “freeze-
frame” shots, where a single frame is reiterated several times on the film strip
to give the illusion of motionlessness), while confusion is effectively generated
through “jump cuts,” brusque transitions from one shot to another.
Viewed as an ensemble, all of the anime adaptations here explored as
case studies highlight, with varying degrees of emphasis and intensity, two
complementary propositions. On the one hand, they advocate the desirability
of a survivalist ethos grounded on the premise that there comes a point when
certain forms reach an extreme of their life cycle and, in order to escape total
extinction, have no choice but to mutate into other forms, the shapes they
may thus assume eluding even the most refined faculties of anticipation or
prediction. On the other hand, they convey a message of organic adaptability
or adjustment predicated on the idea that no matter what stage in their evo-
lution certain forms have — or have not — reached, they are always in the
process of mutating for the simple reason that they can never presume to be
univocally and undilutedly themselves as sealed self-identical entities uncon-
taminated by external agencies. This is because any text (verbal, visual, mul-
timedia) implicitly depends for its existence on other— real or virtual — texts.
As Geraghty puts it, adaptation is essentially a “layering process” entailing
“an accretion of deposits over time, a recognition of ghostly presences, and a
shadowing or doubling of what is on the surface by what is glimpsed behind”
(Geraghty, p. 195). Gérard Genette communicates an analogous message in
emphasizing that the realm of literature is fundamentally “palimpsestuous”
since “Any text is a hypertext, grafting itself onto a hypotext, an earlier text
that it imitates or transforms” (Genette, p. ix). Therefore, a text ultimately is
by virtue of what it is not— in virtue of all the hypothetical texts it could have
been instead.
The anime under scrutiny thus remind us that any text we might expe-
rience as realized is simply a snapshot of a limitless textual web of crisscrossing
images and yarns — a semiotic fragment capturing no more than an ephemeral
impression of an otherwise unseizable flow of signs. In alluding to the sheer
contingency and transience of all textual formations that have more or less
haphazardly been extracted from that unquantifiable universe, the anime sug-
gest that strictly speaking no one text needs to be what it is. The art of adap-
tation corroborates this idea, not only by underscoring a text’s ability to
become something quite different but also, implicitly, by intimating that what
a text is and what it is not but might become are equally tenable ontological
realities. Simultaneously, in drawing our attention to the inseparability of a
text’s actual and realized form from the potential forms it could have acquired
or might adaptively acquire instead, the art of adaptation ultimately invites
us consider a challenging possibility, which Hutcheon formulates as a dis-
armingly simple question: “What is not an adaptation?” (Hutcheon, p. 170).
Chapter 2
The Nightmare of History

Belladonna of Sadness,
Grave of the Fireflies, and
Like the Clouds, Like the Wind
History is a nightmare from which I am trying to awake.

— James Joyce
According to Julie Sanders, “The processes of adaptation and appropri-

ation ... are in many respects a sub-section of the ... practice of intertextuality”
as an “interleaving of different texts and textual traditions” (Sanders, p. 17).
The theoretical study of adaptation brings into play “a wide vocabulary of
active terms: version, variation, interpretation, continuation, transformation,
imitation, pastiche, parody, forgery, travesty, transposition, revaluation, revi-
sion, rewriting, echo.” As an ensemble, these terms are all devoted not to the
programmatic celebration of “a text’s closure to alternatives”— the chief objec-
tive of all disciplines pursuing ideals of semiotic self-containedness in the
service of ideological stability — but rather to the assertion of the singular
text’s “ongoing interaction with other texts” (p. 18). There are many ways of
adapting a text by casting it in an alternative genre, medium or style, as well
as by redefining its boundaries through either capsulation or extension of its
basic contents. No less vitally, an adaptation may comment on its original in
more or less radical fashions — for instance, “by offering a revised point of
view,” by introducing an element of “hypothetical motivation” for actions
whose causes are left unexplained in the source or by giving a voice to “the
silent and marginalized” (p. 19). John Ellis has made an important contribution
to adaptation studies in highlighting the gratifying implications of transtextual
migration: “Adaptation into another medium becomes a means of prolonging
the pleasure of the original presentation, and repeating the production of a
19
memory” (Ellis, pp. 4–5). However, the critic is also keen to place the adap-
tation in a secondary, indeed parasitical, relation to the source, arguing that
its function is ultimately “to efface it with the presence of its own images” (p.
3). Sanders salubriously rectifies this hierarchical approach by stressing that
the pleasure of adaptation is actually an open process animated by an inveterate
“sense of play,” since “the adapting text does not necessarily seek to consume
or efface the informing source” but can in fact be instrumental in promoting
its “endurance and survival” and hence amenability to further “juxtaposed
readings” (Sanders, p. 25).

The sorceress, who in the end is able to dream Nature and therefore
conceive it, incarnates the reinscription of the traces of paganism that
triumphant Christianity repressed.... The feminine role, the role of sorceress ...
is ambiguous, antiestablishment, and conservative at the same time....
The sorceress heals, against the Church’s canon; she performs abortions, favors
nonconjugal love, converts the unlivable space of a stifling Christianity....
These roles are conservative because every sorceress ends up being
destroyed, and nothing is registered of her but mythical traces.
— Hélène Cixous and Catherine Clément
The film Belladonna of Sadness (dir. Eiichi Yamamoto, 1973) stands out
as a veritable paean to intertextuality through its integration of Jules Michelet’s
La Sorcière (1862)— itself a synthesis of cultural history and fiction inspired
by the story of Joan of Arc and medieval witchcraft lore — with a plethora of
artistic and aesthetic traditions, styles and trends. These include sources as
varied as Tarot cards, rowdy illustrations for old tomes on medieval lore,
Impressionism, Symbolism, the Pre-Raphaelites, Aubrey Beardsley, Edvard
Munch, Gustav Klimt, Edmund Dulac and Arthur Rackham. Beardsley,
Munch and Klimt are the film’s closest predecessors where the representation
of sexuality is specifically concerned. With Beardsley’s art, Belladonna of Sad-
ness shares a passion for undulating, curling and winding lines as ideal graphic
correlatives for the rhythms of passion and desire. Munch’s proclivity for
images wherein pleasure and torment are often inextricably interdependent
also reverberates throughout Yamamoto’s film. Concurrently, Belladonna of
Sadness partakes of Klimt’s unique flair for the couching of eros in densely
patterned, seemingly enameled and bejeweled surfaces of tactile luster.
No less importantly, the film proclaims its Oriental provenance, despite
its profuse allusions to — and adaptations of— Western art and aesthetics, as
a reflection of a stylistic sensibility which John Reeve has posited as quintes-
sentially Nipponic. This makes itself felt in “sometimes astonishingly frank”
portrayals of “the world of pleasure,” allied to an assiduous cultivation of
2. The Nightmare of History 21
“elegance of line,” the use of “strong, flat blocks of colour” and some daring
approaches to “perspective and composition” (Reeve, p. 8). In its handling of
chroma, Belladonna of Sadness specifically recalls the tendency evinced by
indigenous woodblock prints to employ hues that “are not necessarily meant
to reflect accurately” the palettes found in “the real world” but actually glory
in their own deliberately — even flamboyantly — artificial reality. The film,
moreover, harks back to that same medium’s proverbial preference for extrav-
agant ways of cropping and arranging its diverse visual components and for
“strong diagonals” of the kind also adapted in their works by innovative West-
ern painters of the nineteenth century such as Pierre-Auguste Renoir (p. 14).
At times, the predilection for stylized lines foregrounded throughout by Bel-
ladonna of Sadness additionally brings to mind the forms of Noh Theatre.
On the graphic plane, Belladonna of Sadness also echoes the works of
Junko Mizuno, a popular indigenous artist whose style typically blends juve-
nile innocence and charm with disturbing hints at horror and monstrosity —
hence, its frequent description as “noir kawaii” or “Gothic kawaii” (i.e., noir
or Gothic cute). Bright colors, curvaceous female forms, languorous eyes and
flowing manes of the kind also witnessed in Yamamoto’s movie abound across
Mizuno’s works. Moreover, the movie constitutes the sole extant anime adap-
tation in the pinku genre. This designates a cinematic mode pervaded by sex-
ual and occasionally pornographic motifs. Characteristically cultivated by
small independent studios, the genre burgeoned from the mid–1960s to the
mid–1980s, when pinku’s chances of survival were sorely tested by the advent
of Adult Video (AV). Yet, it never vanished altogether from the scene, being
channeled by some experimentative filmmakers into the visual and symbolic
exploration of the societal anomie and uncertainty bred by the reality of post-
bubble Japan. In addition, Belladonna of Sadness is indebted to numerous
musical modes, and particularly the soulful style of 1970s rock opera. This is
clearly evinced by the opening segment, where the action focuses on the pro-
tagonists’ wedding ceremony and the local baron’s rape of Jeanne as the pay-
ment he exacts when the groom admits to not owning the required marriage
tax.
Intensely, indeed viscerally, erotic throughout, Belladonna of Sadness does
not, however, in any sense deteriorate into unsavory sexploitation thanks not
only to its delicate handling of the human tragedy but also, even more cru-
cially, to its sophisticated and strikingly original visuals. The film’s refinement
unquestionably owes much to the elegant harmonization of illustrator Kuni
Fukai’s artwork and highly imaginative animation, which appears to emanate
from the images themselves, effected by Gisaburo Sugii, the movie’s art direc-
tor. Sugii, incidentally, has also directed the first anime adaptation of the
classic eleventh-century novel The Tale of Genji as the 1987 movie of that
title, where elements of the overall style brought to bear on Belladonna of

Sadness are still observable. This point will be revisited in Chapter 7.
Belladonna of Sadness is most loyal to classic anime aesthetics in its passion
for audacious adaptations of the metamorphosis topos — a motif that is never
very far from the hearts of indigenous directors and often finds venerable
precedents in the more traditional arts and crafts. The topos is most sensa-
tionally articulated with reference to the ubiquitous character of Yamamoto’s
devil: a protean phallic figure capable of morphing smoothly from a cartoonish
imp with a jocular penchant for canine body language, through a succubus
redolent of Gothic art at its most nightmarish (e.g., Johann Caspar Füssli),
to a full-fledged monster of titanic proportions of Goya-tinged resonance.
Morphing into a lowly handkerchief to mop up Jeanne’s copious tears is not
below him. Yet, as soon as soon as he has a chance of exploiting the oppor-
tunity of contact with the young woman’s body — innocent as this may at first
appear — as an excuse for erotic arousal, he will rapidly seize it with malicious
glee. The protagonist’s evolving instincts and emotions concurrently occasion
some spectacular transformations, which characteristically coincide with the
flooding of the screen by overwhelming expanses of color of predominantly
sanguine palettes to signify both agony and ecstasy, terror and jouissance.
Belladonna of Sadness also revels in visual juxtapositions, most pointedly by
counterbalancing realistic and childlike graphics and by setting complementary
hues against each other for dramatic emphasis — e.g., in the harrowing
sequence where the pathos of Jeanne’s flight from her persecutors starkly con-
trasts the green of her robe (supposedly symbolic of her witchy affiliations)
and the red of the background.
This chromatic contrast, while working impactfully on the dramatic
plane by communicating a vibrant sense of energy and unruly passion, also
carries emotive connotations as a sensuously unsettling event. It thus succeeds
in conveying with stunning economy the complex affects associated with the
character of Jeanne not solely as an individual personality but also as a per-
sonification of a primordial mythical archetype. This is a figure meticulously
described by Hayao Kawai in his study of the psychological undercurrents of
Japanese fairy tales as a recurring presence in indigenous lore, and designated
as a “woman who disappears.” According to the Jungian scholar, such a char-
acter is capable of opposing the cultural propensity to repress or ignore
women’s status so as to perpetuate time-honored institutions and an attendant
conception of order. She does so by deliberately fading away from the scene
and leaving in her wake an atmosphere of profound sorrow (aware) and bit-
terness or rancor (urami). Such lingering emotions enable her to abide in the
memories of the people she leaves behind and hence retain her abeyant power.
In the domain of traditional narrative, the disappearing woman “is thought
to symbolize the urge to bring something new to Japanese culture.” Most

importantly, in the context of Yamamoto’s movie, the woman who has dis-
appeared can be expected “to come back to this world again with a newly
gained strength.” Thus, “To pursue the woman who disappears from this
world sorrowfully and then comes back again” can be regarded as “a worth-
while and necessary task” (Kawai, p. 25). The disappearing woman’s redemp-
tive power is elegantly communicated by Yamamoto in the finale of Belladonna
of Sadness. First, all of the women in the crowd witnessing the putative witch’s
execution gradually acquire, one by one, Jeanne’s physiognomy, as though to
intimate the persecuted woman’s undying legacy. Second, the story leaps unex-
pectedly to the year 1789 and the Capture of the Bastille, rendered by recourse
to visuals redolent of Romantic painting, to comment on the momentous role
to be played by women in the future through a focus on a crucial upheaval
of unique charismatic resonance, the French Revolution. The closing frames,
most felicitously, represent Eugène Delacroix’s Liberty Leading the People (La
Liberté guidant le peuple)— a painting executed in order to commemorate the
subsequent July Revolution of 1830— and culminate with a close-up of the
titular figure of great potency.
The movie thus celebrates the principle of textual openness upheld by
Sanders along the lines traced by several of the transmutational options item-
ized by the critic. Especially relevant to Yamamoto’s treatment of his source
materials are the phenomena of continuation and transformation as inter-
complementary adaptive moves, enabling the director to both perpetuate the
legacy of those materials and subject them to radical reorientation. Belladonna
of Sadness also works as a pastiche in its amalgamation of disparate visual and
compositional motifs drawn from numerous cultures and periods, while verg-
ing on parody when it deliberately distorts its graphic antecedents for height-
ened dramatic impact. When allusions are so close to the inspirational matter
as to resemble them with uncanny accuracy (as is occasionally and intentionally
the case with pictorial reverberations from myriad artists), a discreet concession
to the spirit of forgery also comes into play. Most importantly, in its distinctive
approach to adaptation, Belladonna of Sadness relies on subtle echoing tech-
niques in preference to any other modality as a sustained leading thread. In
so doing, it reflects the predilection for allusiveness, in contrast with direct
statement, ingrained in Japanese aesthetics for time immemorial.
At the same time, Yamamoto’s film corroborates Sanders’ contention that
adaptation can draw on several strategies in order to reconfigure a given set
of source materials. Belladonna of Sadness both redefines the boundaries of
Michelet’s text by displacing its verbal discourse and weaving instead a narra-
tive tapestry in which graphics gain overt precedence over words and still
images are repeatedly allowed to replace dynamic action per se. In this fashion,
the movie proposes alternate and elliptical ways of engaging with the sorts of
philosophical and ideological speculations brought into relief by Michelet
that are firmly anchored in visual language as an autonomous universe. This
entails the adoption of a peculiar, adaptation-specific point of view. An ele-
ment of hypothetical motivation also contributes vitally to the approach to the
parent text evinced by Belladonna of Sadness. This is tastefully inserted into
the yarn in the primary guise of a desire for form, whereby the film could be
said to offer an adaptation not only of Michelet’s work but also of the creative
process through which anime comes into being. Some of the more poignant
sequences indeed consist of chains of fluid frames that incrementally record
the transition from single monochromatic lines or stylized vignettes — akin
to preliminary sketches or snippets of storyboards — to multidimensional and
polychromatic composites of palpable richness closer to the finished product.
The onscreen development of the graphics in the direction of frames of
increasing complexity obliquely emplaces in the role of unrivaled protagonist
an unnamed experimental animator — a conceptual agency abstractly synthe-
sizing the individual skills and visions of each member of the actual animation
team. Moreover, Yamamoto’s unscrolling visuals also function rhetorically as
graphic allegories for the gradual evolution of the protagonist’s own emotions
and drives as an accretional process of escalating complexity and intensity.
The shards of chroma, chopped lines and scrambled planes into which the
screen often erupts echo metaphorically the emergence of inchoate affects
which Jeanne can initially sense only in a haphazard and fragmentary fashion
and must slowly conjoin into a recognizable, though illicit, identity. The tat-
ters of color and mass assiduously foregrounded by Yamamoto’s visuals hence
come to symbolize the multifaceted and discordant nature of the heroine’s
intrinsic selfhood.
The adaptive ploys outlined above enable Belladonna of Sadness to
enthrone with unique enthusiasm the genius of adaptation as potentially inter-
minable play. The film, moreover, partakes of a “mode of appropriation that
uses as its raw material ... the ‘real’ matter of facts” in the shape of actual “his-
torical events and personalities” (Sanders, p. 139). Michelet’s own parent text
uses the history of witchcraft and the gruesome record of persecution embed-
ded therein not solely out of a genuine interest in those cultural issues in rela-
tion to their times and places but also to encourage in the reader’s imagination
a comparison with broader manifestations of political oppression in his or her
own era. Michelet outlines the authorial intentions underpinning his text as
follows: “The object of my book was purely to give, not a history of Sorcery,
but a simple and impressive formula of the Sorceress’s way of life, which my
learned predecessors darken by the very elaboration of their scientific methods
and the excess of detail. My strong point is to start, not from the devil, from
an empty conception, but from a living reality, the Sorceress, a warm, breath-
ing reality, rich in results and possibilities” (Michelet, p. 326). The aim of
this exploration is a frank and humane depiction of witchcraft as a popular
movement intent on opposing the twin tyranny of the feudal State and the
Church by means of a secret doctrine fueled by disparate elements of paganism
and fairy lore. Michelet endeavors to evoke a powerful sense of the Middle
Ages as an epoch of ferocious intolerance and persecution, yet also of darkly
ecstatic hedonism, haunted no less ominously by feudal lords than by warlocks,
demons and hobgoblins and capable of seamlessly combining unendurable
squalor and luxury, anchoritic asceticism and unbridled orgiastic pleasure.
Georges Bataille has devoted a section of his book La Litterature Et Le Mal
(Literature And Evil, 1957) to La Sorcière. A series of essays also featuring dis-
cussions of Emily Brontë, Charles Baudelaire, William Blake, the Marquis de
Sade, Marcel Proust, Franz Kafka and Jean Genet, the book proposes that
Michelet was so passionate in his peroration of the witch’s human rights and
artistry as to sometimes appear veritably possessed by the topic in hand.
As Valter comments, Bataille indeed “posits that, in writing the book,
Michelet was ‘guided by the ecstasy of Evil’” (Valter). This intriguing con-
tention elliptically reinforces the myth of witchcraft’s infectious effect — a
power associated with the broader concept of “Contagious Magic” as formu-
lated by James George Frazer: namely, the principle from which the magical
practitioner “infers that whatever he does to a material object will affect equally
the person with whom the object was once in contact, whether it formed part
of his body or not” (Frazer). This idea is concomitantly relevant to both sor-
cerous pursuits in general and the society portrayed by Michelet in particular
due to its association with sacrificial rituals — a practice notoriously linked
with medieval witches and obliquely dramatized by Yamamoto’s film in the
sequences focusing on Jeanne’s influence on the people seeking her counsel
and aid. Indeed, sacrifice also works in accordance with the belief system des-
ignated by Frazer as the “Law of Contact or Contagion” to the extent that it
brings separate entities intimately together by a radical dismantling of indi-
vidual boundaries. As Henri Hubert and Marcel Mauss emphasize, “This pro-
cedure consists in establishing a means of communication between the sacred
and the profane worlds through the mediation of a victim, that is, of a thing
that in the course of the ceremony is destroyed” (Hubert and Mauss, p. 97).
Yamamoto is heir to the ethical agenda pursued by Michelet and thus
endeavors to articulate a cinematic event of far-reaching significance, capable
of engaging in a metaphorical vein with serious reflections on contemporary
formations of power — not only political in the obvious sense of the term but
also political in the aesthetic sense as context-bound orchestrations of specific
regimes of visuality and signification. In cultivating this cross-historical dialec-
tics, both Michelet and Yamamoto seek to retrieve lost and occluded view-
points that have been persistently (and conveniently) relegated to the periphery
of history by imparting their promulgators with new, unsettling agencies.
However, neither Michelet nor Yamamoto situate their characters as self-
assertive presences explicitly parading their historical importance from the
center of the text. In fact, they are eager to remind us of those people’s still
marginal standing in officially sanctioned versions of facts by reimagining his-
tory enough to infuse it with fresh voices, yet also emphasizing that those
voices go on inhabiting interstitial or liminal pockets of the textual universe.
In Belladonna of Sadness, this idea is most tersely communicated through the
graphics themselves by means of allusions to the protagonist’s physical imbri-
cation with her natural surroundings and their protean energies. There are
indeed many bewitching moments in the film when the heroine and the crea-
tures and objects around her appear to merge in fluid mutual suffusion. It
should also be noted, on this point, that although Jeanne’s violation is horribly
traumatizing, it also carries epiphanic connotations insofar as it is instrumental
in the character’s awakening not only to her dormant carnal longings but also
to her true nature — thus far occluded by an enforced veneer of languid sub-
missiveness — as an imaginative, free-willing, rebelliously resourceful and
inquisitive soul.
Another anime adaptation with a venerable source at its root likewise
helmed by Yamamoto is the movie One Thousand and One Arabian Nights
(1969). Far more cartoonish than Belladonna of Sadness— and, at times, almost
self-indulgently bizarre — this film nonetheless shares with the later work a
passion for hedonistically sensuous construction. In the case of One Thousand
and One Arabian Nights, this preference is principally evoked by the synthesis
of sexual imagery of a modern stamp with time-honored forms such as Japa-
nese scroll painting and Persian rug design. The movie drastically reimagines
Scheherazade’s tale-spinning venture by chronicling a 1960s salary man’s escap-
ist journey through a fantasy world replete with more or less explicit and
accurate allusions to the Arabian Nights’ original universe. Technically, the
film abides in memory by virtue of its exuberantly experimental thrust, espe-
cially notable in the dexterous incorporation of live-action footage into the
animated sequences, psychedelic light and color effects and astoundingly diver-
sified morphs.

What is life? It is the flash of a firefly in the night. It is the breath
of a buffalo in the wintertime. It is the little shadow which runs
across the grass and loses itself in the sunset.
— Crowfoot.
Complementing Belladonna of Sadness in its integration of diverse source

materials, Isao Takahata’s epoch-making movie Grave of the Fireflies (1988)
offers further corroboration for Sanders’ argument regarding adaptation’s flair
for an intertextual appropriation of multiple — and, by and large, previously
neglected — voices in order to provide alternative perspectives on accepted
versions of history. It does so by means of a twofold reimagining of recorded
facts based on the adaptation of two very different source texts. One of these
is Nosaka Akiyuki’s semi-autobiographical wartime novel of the same title
(Hotaru no Haka in the original), published in 1967 and chronicling a tragic
ordeal which Takahata’s film follows with overall fidelity. This source allows
Takahata to focus on recent history with reference to a modern text and simul-
taneously pursue an educational agenda. It is worth mentioning, in passing,
that another anime with a supposedly educational slant, resorting to adapta-
tion to engage in reflection on historical and cultural realities, is Animated
Classics of Japanese Literature (dir. Fumio Kurokawa, 1986): a TV series con-
sisting of a collection of vignettes inspired with varying degrees of directness
by famous indigenous stories.
The other source invoked by Takahata alongside Akiyuki’s novel — which
the writer himself claims to have deliberately echoed in his narrative — is the
tradition of the double-suicide drama immortalized by Chikamatsu Monza-
emon (1653–1725) in the guise of bunraku performances (puppet plays)
revolving around the clash between societal duty (giri) and private sentiment
(ninjou). The classic behind Grave of the Fireflies is principally Monzaemon’s
The Love Suicides at Sonezaki (1703). By recourse to this second source, Taka-
hata is able to take a more extensive, even panoramic, approach to historical
vicissitudes. With its twin adaptive constitution, Grave of the Fireflies follows
its child protagonists, the teenage boy Seita and his younger sister Setsuko,
as they struggle for survival in a world torn apart by unspeakable horrors.
Deprived of both their mother and their home by a catastrophic air raid
inflicted on their native city of Kobe, and further abused by a rapacious aunt
entrusted with their care who is solely concerned with exploiting their services
and appropriating their few remaining possessions, the two kids make an
escapist attempt to find refuge in an abandoned hillside bomb shelter amid
deceptively idyllic rural bliss and firefly-lit nights, only to find that the hellish
reality of their times cannot be eluded and starvation is their ineluctable fate.
Seita and Setsuko are no more capable of defying the intractable horrors of
history than they are of fending for themselves in a world devoid of resources
even for the pluckiest of adults. Seita resists this reality through an almost
self-destructive cultivation of false consciousness — well-meant but ultimately
pointless as all forms of misrecognition mockingly turn out to be even at the
best of times, let alone in circumstances as inimical as those dramatized by
Takahata’s harrowing movie. This is borne out by the vanity of Seita’s effort
to protect Setsuko not only from physical deprivation but also, no less
poignantly, from the knowledge of their mother’s death: a knowledge he
believes to have safely kept from the little kid when she has, in fact, possessed
and stoically negotiated it in silence all along.
It is its quintessentially tragic aura of inevitability that eventually renders
even strong evaluative phrases like “graphically powerful” or “viscerally dis-
quieting” not inaccurate descriptors per se but, quite simply, risible under-
statements. Indeed, Grave of the Fireflies does not merely represent grief: it
consummately incarnates it as the sheer essence of Takahata’s adaptive world —
an undilutely brutal reality undisposed to translation into disembodied sig-
nifiers and eager instead to let matter speak for itself in all its troubling density.
The film pithily conveys this idea right from the start, refusing to give the
audience any hopeful grounds upon which the expectation of a happy ending
could plausibly be erected. The opening sequence indeed portrays Seita in a
state of subhuman misery, not only filthy and undernourished but also osten-
sibly devoid of the will to continue hanging onto the feeble thread to which
his survival has been attenuated.
By a darkly ironic twist of fate, it so happens that Japan has by now sur-
rendered. The boy’s slumped form as he dies on the floor of a train station
metonymically encapsulates the crushed identity of his whole nation. The
film implies throughout its diegesis the close interrelatedness of the personal
and the collective — so much so, according to reviewer Marc, that “this movie
could be seen as a metaphor for the entire country of Japan during the war:
fighting a losing battle, yet too stubbornly proud to admit defeat or accept
help” (Marc). Simultaneously, the film refrains from the communication of
simplistic, binary oppositional ideological messages. The Americans, for one
thing, are merely referred to as “the enemy.” The felicitous outcome of this
stance, as Jamie Gillies emphasizes, is that the anime’s “anti-war message is
not overstated. There is no real mention of the fire-bombings in a political
way, only in the grief experienced by the civilian Japanese people. Takahata
has created an anti-war epic without resorting to finger pointing, a remarkable
achievement. He accepts the consequences of the Second World War and is
only showing the forgotten souls of the war, the innocents who are caught in
the crossfire of destruction” (Gillies).
Seita and Setsuko are not lovers in a literal sense, in the way Monzaemon’s
protagonists typically are. Nor does Takahata in any way pander to gratu-
itously incestuous imagery or symbolism. Nevertheless, the two children’s
emotional proximity and the physical intimacy in which circumstances compel
them to live sometimes make their relationship akin to that of erotically
attached partners. The suicide topos, for its part, is brought into play by
Seita’s determination to take his and his sister’s fate solely into his hands —
thereby refusing to help his compatriots with the war effort — even though,
as hinted at earlier, it ought to be obvious that the only logical outcome of
this course of action is a painful death. This motif is symbolically reinforced
by the nature of the disused shelter which the protagonists elect as their fantasy
home. As Dennis H. Fukushima, Jr. notes, “The term used in the dialogue
to describe the hillside bomb shelters is yokoana, which means ‘cave’ ‘cavern,’
or ‘tunnel’ (literally, ‘side hole’). The term is also used, however, to describe
tombs which date back to ancient Japanese times.... Seita and Setsuko move
into a yokoana both beginning a new life together and heading further towards
their own death. The yokoana literally becomes a tomb, albeit temporary, for
both their mother’s ashes and for Setsuko herself ” (Fukushima). There are
clear indications that Takahata wished to impart an ethical lesson by drawing
attention to Seita’s immaturely hubristic attitude, even as he aimed to invite
sympathy with his and his sibling’s plight, by frankly exposing the somewhat
pig-headed obstinacy with which the boy insists on doing things his own way.
The boy’s arrogant pride was an aspect of the drama which Akiyuki himself
intended to expose in the original novel, partly to expurgate a personal sense
of guilt issuing from a troubling awareness of his marginal responsibility in
the death of his own sister as a result of blind arrogance.
According to Akiyuki, Grave of the Fireflies functions as “a double-suicide
[shinjuu] story” in a structural, if not in an overtly thematic, fashion insofar
as “the days leading up to their [the protagonists’] death are like the devel-
opment of a love story,” and the establishment of a sealed realm that exists
“just for the two of them” is intended to give rise to something of a private
“heaven.” Takahata has confirmed the idea that his source text carries the dis-
tinctive stamp of a double-suicide drama but has also emphasized that what
drew him most strongly to Akiyuki’s narrative was precisely the concept of
that evanescent “heaven,” and that this was the aspect of the parent work
which he strove to evoke most affectingly (“Interview with Nosaka Akiyuki
and Isao Takahata”). The children’s tragedy is compounded by the relative
lack of information they suffer due to their almost total social isolation. Thus,
they are not fully aware of the authentic gravity of the situation into which
their country has plummeted. Nor can they grasp, therefore, the meaning of
their neighbors’ uncooperativeness and unfriendliness over the issue of food
provision. By the time Seita has become better informed about the true dimen-
sions of the crisis, and learnt the full import not only of Japan’s but also of
his fighting father’s destiny, it is simply too late. All he can now do is to pro-
long ephemerally Setsuko’s doomed childhood by protecting her innocence
and by encouraging her lingering playfulness to the dire end.
What is most trenchantly unforgettable about Takahata’s adaptation of
two popular literary texts to the anime screen is his utilization of the source
materials as inspiration boldly to redefine his own medium. Indeed, Grave of
the Fireflies is by no stretch of the imagination a typical animated movie. Its
gritty atmosphere and agonizingly cutting drama often recall, in fact, live-
action Neo-Realist cinema — and particularly the works of Vittorio de Sica
and Roberto Rossellini. Roger Ebert highlights this proposition, concurrently
arguing that while one would not automatically “think of this as an anime
subject,” if Grave of the Fireflies had been a live-action movie, it would feasibly
have been “bogged down in realism” and the final product would not, there-
fore, have been as “pure” and “abstract” as it actually is. The “idea of a little
girl who’s starving” was the director’s chief preoccupation (Ebert): hence, the
use of a flesh-and-bone child performer would have grounded it in ways that
would have precluded the conceptual import of the image from shining
through as effulgently as it does. Stylization, it is here implied, is Takahata’s
guiding principle on both the aesthetic and the ethical planes, as well as a way
of eliciting powerful responses not by reflecting reality in a slavishly mimetic
manner but by refining and sublimating its brute matter. Furthermore, as
Gillies comments, the movie’s animated status enables it to capitalize on an
element of dramatic irony that could not have been derived from live-action
cinema: “Grave of the Fireflies is one of the most painful and affecting movies
you’re ever likely to see, animated or otherwise.In many cases, the fact that
it is animated gives simple actions and scenes a beauty and innocence that
would not have existed otherwise, creating all the more contrast with the
harsh and painful realities experienced by the characters” (Gillies).
The effectiveness of Takahata’s method in communicating his vision is
memorably attested to by the wordless montage of snapshot recollections of
Setsuko flashing through Seita’s brain after her departure. It is further cor-
roborated by the recurrent sequences in which the protagonists are depicted
as spectral presences beyond space and time, dexterously intercut with the
main story so as to disrupt linearity and create pauses for reflection. These
are emblematically singled out by the adoption of eerie lighting and coloration,
suggestive of an unearthly blend of destructive napalm-fed fire and incon-
gruously bucolic firefly glow.
An analogously unearthly mood is repeatedly conveyed by the scenes
focusing on the splendidly resilient powers of nature in the face of human
lunacy and destructiveness. This message is silently articulated through ever-
changing prismatic skies and majestically serene seas, pastorally tranquil mead-
ows and glistening ponds. These rival with blustering starkness the pictures
of maggot-infested corpses, mutilated survivors, ash-bloated air and black
rain, accompanying what have come to notoriety as some of the most devas-
tating military operations in history.

Dare to be naive.
— Richard Buckminster Fuller.
Like the Clouds, Like the Wind (movie; Hisayuki Toriyumi, 1990) is based
on a popular novel by Ken’ichi Sakemi published in 1989, originally titled
Koukyou Monogatari and commonly known in Anglophone circles as Inner
Palace Harem Story. Involving as a major creative agent the late Katsuya Kon-
dou of Studio Ghibli fame in the capacities of animation director and character
designer, Like the Clouds, Like the Wind often brings to mind both tonally
and stylistically that company’s distinctive cachet even though the film was
actually produced for television by Studio Pierrot. So strong is the Ghibli-
esque flavor of the animation as to have caused Like the Clouds, Like the Wind
often to be mistaken for a Hayao Miyazaki work. Kondou, it should be noted,
also collaborated with Sakemi on a two-volume manga retelling of the Joan
of Arc story, D’arc: Histoire de Jeanne D’arc (1995–1996), here particularly
worthy of citation because of the tangential connection with Belladonna of
Sadness.
Set in ancient China, the story opens with the death of the seventeenth
Sokan Emperor in the year 1607. As his son prepares to ascend the throne,
one of the chief tasks incumbent upon his retinue is to find appropriate can-
didates for prospective membership to the young ruler’s harem, in the knowl-
edge that the top candidate will become Empress and hence be second only
to the Emperor himself in the country’s intricate and densely stratified hier-
archy. Hordes of pretty girls flock to the Forbidden City in the hope of attain-
ing to that most enviable status and among them is the film’s heroine, Ginga.
A tough and disarmingly frank country girl drawn to the challenge solely by
the prospect of regular meals and leisure, Ginga embarks on her testing, train-
ing and schooling with no inkling of the tangle of political tensions tearing
the country apart (including a fierce peasant rebellion), of suspicions regarding
the actual causes of the late Emperor’s demise, of lurking dissatisfaction about
the heir’s abilities and intentions or of the Machiavellian machinations poi-
soning every nook and corner of the court — let alone of the momentous role
she will soon be playing in their detection and unraveling. While the protag-
onist’s quotidian routine as she adjusts to palace customs is increasingly upset
by politically motivated incidents and crimes, the crisis escalates and it rapidly
becomes obvious that it is up to Ginga to make the decisive move in the fatal
game of Chinese politics — a game as mind boggling and multi-layered as
Chinese boxes proverbially are. In this respect, Like the Clouds, Like the Wind
accurately captures the essence of actual Chinese history — and indeed history
at large — as a bundle of forever unfinished business and forever rescindable
outcomes. The finale pithily encapsulates this proposition by providing an

intentionally brusque and open-ended resolution to both Ginga’s personal
bildungsroman and the sprawling saga of political subterfuge and belliger-
ence.
One of the aspects of Sakemi’s novel to which Like the Clouds, Like the
Wind is most faithful — yet also imaginatively reconfigures to suit the require-
ments of its medium — consists of its characterization of the heroine. This
resolutely eschews facile concessions to the kawaii mode of the kind so often
seen in conventional shoujo anime, seeking instead to highlight Ginga’s psy-
chological and emotional ambiguity. Therefore, though unremittingly honest,
shrewd and unsentimental, the girl is also portrayed, on the less positive side,
as materialistic and indolent. Yet, it is Ginga’s unorthodox heroism that ulti-
mately guarantees not only the film’s engrossingly entertaining action but also
the gravity of the moral message discreetly delivered by its human drama.
The heroine often comes across, if evaluated with reference to local aristocratic
etiquette, as downright insolent, unfeminine or ill-mannered in both her
iconoclastically relaxed body language and her habit of puncturing ceremonial
silence with noisy ejaculations and impertinent remarks. It is incontrovertibly
indicated, however, that Ginga is not simply intent on the breaking of rules
as an end in itself— she is not, in other words, a stereotypically rebellious
teenager hell-bent on solipsistic insouciance. In fact, the girl quizzes the status
quo out of a genuine and mature mistrust of unexamined ideological assump-
tions and attendants codes of conduct. As a result, even though her behavior
is at first met with dismay or abhorrence by the establishment’s stuffily encul-
tured guardians, it gradually begins to function as a salutary eye-opener for
virtually everybody with whom Ginga comes into contact within the Forbid-
den City and its environs.
Little by little, many of the conventional people she meets recognize that
Ginga’s inquisitive attitude carries a unique power. At times, one can actually
hear, metaphorically speaking, the rusty cogs and wheels of independent rea-
soning returning to life in their regimented heads as those characters are
enjoined by the protagonist’s insistent questioning to ask themselves questions
that have been left unposed for far too long. Ginga’s initial interaction with
her dorm mates, other candidates in the imperial race, shows that she is only
regarded as an object of contempt or a trigger of frustrated aggravation. How-
ever, as the girls gradually realize that the heroine operates in accordance with
an ethical system of her own, conducive to selfless and ingenious action, they
have no choice but to respect and admire her unique courage and spunk —
and indeed jump into the fray to abet her efforts. It should also be noted, on
this point, that like Ginga herself, the supporting female actors transcend
established anime categories. Hence, even when they appear to conform to
one-dimensional types such as the vain belle, the blue-eyed dreamer, the mar-
tial artist (et al.), they are engagingly individualized and could easily be imag-
ined as fully rounded protagonists of autonomous narratives parallel to Ginga’s
own tale.
Like both Belladonna of Sadness and Grave of the Fireflies, Like the Clouds,
Like the Wind foregrounds the intertextual potentialities of adaptation as an
art sui generis by synthesizing disparate discursive matrices within its fabric.
As anticipated, these include historiography, action adventure and psycho-
logical drama as primary contributors to the cumulative process of semiosis.
At the same time, the film’s textual web relies to a considerable degree on
artistic flourishes of cross-mediatic and transtemporal significance. It is espe-
cially noteworthy, in this respect, that from a stylistic point of view, one of
the most distinctive attributes exhibited by Like the Clouds, Like the Wind lies
with the utilization of characters that look unequivocally Chinese. Relatedly,
if Like the Clouds, Like the Wind constitutes an imaginative adaptation of the
novel at its root, it also stands out — more captivatingly and with even greater
originality — as an inspired adaptation of a particular chapter in Chinese art
history chronologically coincident with the last part of the Ming Dynasty.
The lay-out of the imperial palace and its ceremonial, administrative and res-
idential quarters, in particular, faithfully reflects the design for the Forbidden
City conceived by the Ming Dynasty in the fifteenth century.
The anime’s imbrication with Chinese art history is attested to by numer-
ous facets of its representational repertoire. The handling of space, in partic-
ular, is typically Chinese in its ability to convey an illusion of great distance
and height in a limited format. This is borne out by the treatment of both
architecture — from ominous war-torn ruins to resplendent palaces graced by
enticing water fixtures and bustling city streets — and nature — especially its
huge expanses of sapphire skies, rocky mountains and paddy fields. The anime
also evinces a heightened sensitivity to the living qualities of all manner of
hues and textures — a tendency shared by Chinese and Japanese art over the
centuries — as well as profound deference to the evocative powers of disparate
media, such as ink and watercolor. At the same time, it capitalizes to unique
effect on the integration into its mise-en-scène of indigenous paintings and
screens, patterns and decorative details. Also profuse are the meticulously exe-
cuted elements of interior design, such as thrones, caskets, four-poster alcoves,
candle-stands, draperies, glazen earthenware, myriad vessels, jars and vases,
lacquer work and carved stone, and accessories such as jewels, fans and pipes.
No less pivotal to the anime’s aesthetic is the depiction of detailed costumes
of dramatically resonant historical accuracy. The adventure’s Chinese feel is
additionally enhanced by the use of a soundtrack that incorporates traditional
indigenous instruments, including clanging cymbals and mournful flutes.
Like the Clouds, Like the Wind is one of many anime adaptations with
prose fiction as their substratum. A sensationally successful instance of novel-
to-screen adaptation in recent anime history — not least due to the plethora
of ancillary merchandise and adaptive spin-offs accompanying the original
show — is The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya (TV series; dir. Tatsuya Ishi-
hara, 2006). Like Toriyumi’s movie, this anime enlists the art of adaptation
to the dramatization of a vibrant plot revolving around a spunky heroine
inhabiting a parallel universe that comes across as both outlandishly fantastic
and strangely akin to our own familiar reality. Whereas in the case of Like
the Clouds, Like the Wind this alternative dimension carries pointedly antiquar-
ian overtones, in that of The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya, it is informed
by a futuristic discourse woven from the development of ground-breaking
scientific theories in the actual disciplines of physics and cosmology. The
Haruhi Suzumiya series of Japanese light novels, the first of which was pub-
lished in 2003, is an ongoing venture enlisting the talents of author Nagaru
Tanigawa and illustrator Noizi Ito. The situation posited in The Melancholy
of Haruhi Suzumiya contrasts nicely with the premise whence Like the Clouds,
Like the Wind develops. Indeed, whereas Ginga initially desires nothing more
than a quiet life but soon finds herself embroiled in a web of deadly intrigue,
Haruhi, conversely, is defined primarily by a pathological longing for the
extraordinary.
An attractive and energetic teenager inveterately disgusted with normality
and hence determined to detect mysteries and anomalies in every chink and
crevice, Haruhi establishes a school club — the “SOS Brigade” (“Spreading
Excitement All Over the World with the Haruhi Suzumiya Brigade”)—
devoted to the espial of aliens, time travelers, espers and all sorts of related
paranormal activities, thereby throwing her companions into a flurry of ver-
tiginous exploits. The anime’s pointedly futuristic dimension is gradually dis-
closed (revelation being procrastinated and obscured by the show’s deliberate
airing in achronic sequence) as the protagonist turns out to be a unique life
force of cosmic proportions endowed with baleful potentialities, holding a
pivotal part in the fabric and equilibrium of the comsos as a sprawling ocean
of data. It is concurrently unveiled that the girl must be kept oblivious to her
true nature if she is to be prevented from unleashing her full power. Haruhi’s
supposed melancholy turns out to be the prime enemy in this potentially
deadly game: were the protagonist to descend into a state of depression or
tedium, her mood could easily be conducive to universal annihilation — or,
at least, radical transformation — by some random concatenation of energies
redolent of the “butterfly effect” proposed by chaos theory. As noted, the
heroine of Like the Clouds, Like the Wind incrementally evinces intellectual
and strategic abilities that far exceed those of ordinary people. Haruhi’s per-
sonality exhibits comparably exceptional connotations, here transposed to the

science fictional plane, to the extent that she is putatively capable of sum-
moning into existence any form or occurrence she might happen to fantasize
about.
Other anime adaptations with novelistic credentials here worthy of notice
are The Hakkenden (OVA series; dirs. Takashi Anno and Yuki Okamoto, 1990–
1991 [Part 1]; 1993–1995 [Part 2: Shinsho]) and The Dagger of Kamui (movie;
dir. Rintaro, 1985). These shows manifestly share the attraction to the virtually
inexhaustible potentialities of fictionalized historiography evinced by Tori-
yumi’s 1990 production. The two-part OVA series The Hakkenden is based
on the epic novel Nansou Satomi, penned by Kyokutei Bakin over almost three
decades and published between 1814 and 1842 in no less than 106 volumes.
The Hakkenden relies on its unique constitution as a technically adventurous
blend of disparate visual and animational styles to proclaim most exuberantly
its aesthetic autonomy despite its obviously adaptive standing. No less impor-
tantly, the OVA uses its distinctive medium to interrogate time-honored eth-
ical concepts which, though still firmly enshrined in Bakin’s society, might
mean precious little to a contemporary audience — e.g., principles of feudal
reverence, loyalty and group affiliation — while also imparting a modern twist
on ancient Confucian teachings. Thus, technical and tonal originality go hand
in hand in announcing the anime’s self-contained caliber as both an artwork
and an ideologically alert narrative. Its protagonists are eight warriors, known
as the “Eight Dogs” due to the canine nature of their possessed spiritual father,
who are brought together by a twin quest: finding one another and hence
joining forces to combat a formidable demonic power.
Based on a novel series by Tetsu Yano, the film The Dagger of Kamui
chronicles the life of a foundling named Jiro in the final years of the Tokugawa
Shogunate (a phase of Japanese history extending from 1603 to 1868). The
Dagger of Kamui parallels Like the Clouds, Like the Wind in depicting a world
riven by conspiracies and bloody feuds. In this instance, a key role in the
game is played by powerful ninja clans deploying their unique martial and
mystic arts to fulfill their own private ambitions. Jiro is taken in by one such
organization when his foster mother and her daughter are found murdered
and, unjustly accused of having perpetrated the horrid crime, he leaves his
village and ventures out into the big world in the sole company of the titular
weapon. Once Jiro discovers the clan’s true nature as a bunch of power-hungry
assassins eager to take over the country in its entirety, he does not hesitate to
flee once again into the unknown — now the object of the vengeful ninjas’
persecution and sustained only by the possession of his dagger and by a legend
surrounding the mountain of Kamui, with which his family history is sup-
posedly connected. Stylistically, Rintaro’s movie is graced throughout by fluid
animation, fetchingly stylized character designs, opulent backgrounds, elegant

handling of even the goriest martial sequences, intermingling of realistic action
and illusions endowed with a mesmerizingly magical flavor, and full-scale
epic momentum of veritable samurai gradeur. The anime also shares not only
with Like the Clouds, Like the Wind but also with The Hakkenden a penchant
for asserting its artistic autonomy despite its adaptive status by means of a
dispassionate ethical message. This maturely assesses both the interaction and
the conflict between personal aspirations, on the one hand, and national agen-
das on the other. In so doing, it reveals equal degrees of sensitivity to the
vagaries of individual emotions and to communal notions of respect and
honor.
A deliberate promotion of temporal ambiguity sustains all three of the

main titles discussed in this chapter while also playing an important part in
its ancillary illustrations. This is primarily borne out by the interpenetration
within their respective diegestic orchestrations of past and present, on the one
hand, and of the protagonists’ identities and their habitats on the other. His-
tory is thereby presented as a daring encounter of fact and fiction — the French
word histoire, in signifying at once “history” and “story,” succinctly encapsu-
lates this mission, as does the Italian “storia.” In drawing on a broad range of
visual sources, both implicitly and overtly, the three movies fully substantiate
Sanders’ proposition that appropriation manifestly stretches well beyond the
adoption of written texts thanks to its assimilation of “companion art forms”
(Sanders, p. 148). This strategy bears witness to a radical departure from “the
idea of authorial originality” in favor of “a more collaborative and societal
understanding of the production of art and the production of meaning” (p.
149). The perspective defined by Sanders is of immense relevance to the specific
nature of anime as an art form insofar as the production of anime at practically
all levels of the industry is distinguished by a marked preference for collab-
oration and teamwork over and above the promotion of individual talent.
This principle applies to even the wealthiest and seemingly most auteur-cen-
tered of studios. With Belladonna of Sadness, Grave of the Fireflies and Like
the Clouds, Like the Wind, it is impossible to dissever the anime’s uniqueness
from the cooperative effort channeled into them not solely by directors, illus-
trators, character designers and animation directors but also by the many more
marginal members of their production crews. In flaunting with stunning
experimental verve and inventiveness the status of adaptive anime as a cultural,
ideological and artistic agency in its own right, the three films emphasize that
no textual object is ever unequivocally monolithic. Rather, it is a matrix of
potentialities, which may come to fruition only through plural and multi-
branching textual permutations, interactions and interweavings. Extending
Jacques Derrida’s comments on “the desire to write” to the desire to create at

large, the three films here examined suggest that this amounts to a yearning
“to launch things that come back to you as much as possible in as many forms
as possible” (Derrida 1985, pp. 157–158). Belladonna of Sadness, Grave of the
Fireflies and Like the Clouds, Like the Wind are ultimately about the pleasure
of relentless launching.
Chapter 3
Epic Adventure
with a Sci-Fi Twist
Gankutsuou: The Count
of Monte Cristo
My solitude has ceased to be solitude.

I am surrounded by the goddesses of revenge.
The bitter fruits of betrayal must be plucked from the tree.
— Count of Monte Cristo, Gankutsuou: The Count of Monte Cristo
In its handling of the journey of a hugely popular nineteenth-century

novel to the TV screen, Mahiro Maeda’s series Gankutsuou: The Count of
Monte Cristo (2004–2005)— where “Gankutsuou” can translate as “King of
the Cavern”— promulgates the idea that in a satisfying adaptive process, the
source text and its offspring should illuminate each other. It accomplishes
this feat by showing persistently that a filmic adaptation can help us grasp a
book more comprehensively or from a greater number of alternate angles,
while the book, in turn, can help us assess more insightfully the adaptation’s
thematic and aesthetic import. Therefore, the two works benefit exponentially
from parallel exploration of their respective semiotic webs — a critical venture
that ultimately enhances not only our understanding of the two works as dis-
tinct entities but also of a third party: the hypothetical third text, as it were,
brought into being by their dynamic interplay. If one considers, in addition,
the long list of adaptations spawned over the years by the original novel, it
also becomes possible — indeed pertinent — to address the intertextual dialogue
between the nineteenth-century narrative and the anime with a focus on its
potential impact on other previous adaptations. In other words, Gankutsuou
could be said to redefine not only its parent text per se but also our perspective
on other adaptations of that work that have preceded Maeda’s own transmu-
38
3. Epic Adventure with a Sci-Fi Twist 39
tational acts. Being set in a speculative time zone with a peculiar connection
to the past, the anime concurrently encourages us to reflect on the historical
reality alluded to by the source novel and on its future interpretations by dis-
parate generations of both readers and adaptive agencies.
The anime draws on a major building block in the opus of one of the
most prolific and popular storytellers of all times, Alexandre Dumas père (full
name: Alexandre Dumas Davy de la Pailleterie): The Count of Monte Cristo
(1845–1846). Proverbially associated with acrobatic swordfights and gravity-
defying escapes, staged amid lavish settings and regaled with gorgeous cos-
tumes, Dumas’ books are partly reflections of the author’s own adventurous,
indeed often reckless, lifestyle and appetite for challenging experiences, unre-
lentingly fed by the lure of the outlandish and punctuated by self-dramatizing
flourishes so brazen as to verge on the suicidal. Drawn to revolutionary politics
and, in this respect as in many others, very much a man of his times, Dumas
had a firm grounding in historical circumstances of great momentum. Thus,
his characters’ exploits frequently revolve around actual historical events and
personages: The Three Musketeers (1844), for example, alludes to occurrences
involving King Louis XIII, Cardinal Richelieu and other famous names in
seventeenth-century France. The Count of Monte Cristo, for its part, strikes
its roots in the Napoleonic era, specifically in its dramatization of a story of
iniquitous punishment and ruthless vengeance. Yet, Dumas would never lose
sight of the immense potentialities inherent in fantasy and storytelling alone
to which no historical record, however partial or fictionalized, could presume
to aspire. In his concurrent espousal of down-to-earth political realities and
the timeless realm of the imagination, the author could be said to incarnate
the Romantic spirit at its boldest.
Dumas’ novel comments on an especially turbulent moment in French
history: namely, the immediate aftermath of the period known as the “Hun-
dred Days.” This phrase designates Napoleon’s brief return to power following
his escape from the island of Elba — where he had been sent into exile after
his abdication as Emperor and concurrent ascent to the throne of Louis
XVIII — and prior to the disastrous Battle of Waterloo ( June 1815), in the
wake of which Bonaparte was conclusively ostracized to St. Helena, there to
meet his end six years later. Dumas’ hero gets ensnared in the seditious atmos-
phere of that time, when anybody suspected of being a Bonapartist and hence
a threat to the royalist hegemony would incur the charge of treason. The early
part of the novel faithfully captures the spirit of that era of unrest, highlighting
the tension between royalists and Bonapartists. It is also useful, in order to
appreciate the full historical import of the original Count of Monte Cristo, to
take into consideration the wider backdrop of the period in which it is set,
since this abounds with instances of escalating political and civil turmoil
bound to have far-reaching repercussions for global history — and not only
the localized vicissitudes of Gallic power struggles. The epoch in question
reaches back to the Revolution of 1789, the establishment of the French
Republic (1792) and decapitation of Louis XVI (1793), Bonaparte’s ascent to
power (1799) and subsequent self-appointment as Emperor (1804)— a title he
would retain until his abdication in the wake of his insanely hubristic invasion
of Russia in 1812. With the so-called First Restoration, witnessing the Bourbon
dynasty’s return to the throne with Louis XVIII (please note that Louis XVII
had never ruled, having been imprisoned from 1792 to his death in 1795),
France found itself divided by the conflicting interests of the traditional aris-
tocracy and the people. While the former was only too keen to support the
restored monarchy in order to regain the lands and privileges it had lost in
the Revolution, the latter by and large felt they stood little to gain from the
new regime. This tension makes itself palpably evident in The Count of Monte
Cristo at many crucial junctures. Dumas’ hero does not seem to have embraced
any clear-cut ideological cause when we first meet him but this only makes
him all the more vulnerable to unscrupulous manipulation by his antagonists.
Dumas’ novel chronicles the adventures of a young sailor named Edmond
Dantès, from his unjust arrest for treason as a result of some jealous rivals’
machinations and attendant imprisonment in the Château d’If, where he
meets his mentor the Abbé Faria and learns from him about a legendary treas-
ure, to his escape, discovery of said treasure and adoption of a series of dis-
guises to wreak vengeance on his foes. The climactic persona adopted by
Dantès is that of “Count of Monte Cristo”— a title chosen in homage to the
isle harboring the fabulous riches that have enabled the hero to assert his
status in the world and pursue his project. Deprived by the nefarious plot of
both his position as Captain, to which he has recently been promoted, and
his betrothed Mercédès, Dantès endures carceral deprivation so dehumaniz-
ingly severe as to make him long for death. His life takes an utterly unexpected
turn when the Abbé, a fellow inmate endowed with tremendous artisanal
ingenuity and scholarly knowledge, turns up in the protagonist’s cell, having
managed to craft tools capable of digging into the Château’s formidable walls,
and gradually teaches the youth everything he knows.
Upon reentering the human world, having switched places with Faria’s
corpse at the time of the latter’s demise, Dantès quickly discovers the causes
of his misfortune, and as he implacably advances toward the final goal,
employs his wealth with remarkable generosity and charitableness to the
advantage of various people of disparate social standing, as long as such con-
duct implicitly advances his personal cause. His adventures take him to numer-
ous picturesque spots around Europe and the Mediterranean, with dramatically
pivotal moments in Rome and Paris. As Dantès, in the role of the eponymous
nobleman, accedes to a desirable social circle of professionals and public figures

captivated by his incomparable charm, he finds that his opponents have all
become powerful men whose status is erected upon all manner of crimes and
misdeeds, and that one of the men directly responsible for his tragedy, Fernand
Mondego, has also married Mercédès. The villains’ iniquities include
attempted infanticide, adultery, corruption, robbery, embezzlement, enslave-
ment and human trading and — of course — murder. One by one, Dantès’
persecutors are vanquished and many innocent creatures they have brought
down in their manic quest for power and prosperity are at last relieved of
their sorrow and poverty. Dantès finds love once more in the person of Haydée,
a girl he has rescued from the fate of slavery imposed upon her by one of his
most detested enemies: Fernand himself.
While The Count of Monte Cristo abounds with allusions to real historical
events, it also draws on an ample network of intertextually interconnected
images and motifs, including Classical and Biblical references, homages to
globally renowned artists and, most consistently and enthusiastically, to the
Oriental fairy-tale tradition and especially the One Thousand and One Nights.
These are explicitly mentioned on numerous occasions (e.g., Dumas, pp. 158,
291, 390, 400), while famous characters immortalized by those tales also crop
up with both regularity and symbolic poignance. These include Ali Baba
(e.g., pp. 192, 198, 390) and Sinbad the Sailor (e.g., pp. 256, 280).
On the thematic plane, The Count of Monte Cristo is above all an extended
meditation on the shortcomings of human laws. Thus, even though its
intensely dynamic, multi-adventure format prevents it from ever dwelling on
inactive reflection, it nonetheless lends itself to perusal as a philosophically
motivated text. Central to this aspect of the narrative is its protagonist’s obses-
sive pursuit of revenge, a task he embraces with fiery passion and calculating
coldness by turns. Equal doses of ruthlessness and patience are required to
feed his driving objective, and simultaneously ensure that the Count remains
true to his personal sense of equanimity by rewarding his erstwhile friends
no less than by bringing his enemies to irreparable ruin in both material and
psychological terms. Monte Cristo is driven by the conviction that he is one
of those “extraordinary beings” (p. 493) who operate on behalf of a transcen-
dental Providence. This belief is sustained by the notion that he enjoys special
insights into a deeper reality than the one pettily demarcated by human leg-
islation and social mores. Satan is the supernatural agent to whom the Count
subscribes as his chief source of inspiration, attributing degrees of beauty,
nobility and sublimeness to the diabolical being that far surpass those of any
conventional deity. Dumas’ hero is ultimately compelled to reassess the validity
of his self-appointed providential role as both his trust in the ancient law of
nemesis — axial to which is the idea that the sins of the father are visited upon
his progeny — and his private ethical system receive a severe blow. This coin-
cides with the realization that the lives of totally innocent creatures are at risk
of being arbitrarily sacrificed by a blind quest for revenge — providentially
warranted as one may claim this to be. Doubting the legitimacy of his agenda,
though still holding on to the sentiment that he has never acted solely out of
self-interest, the Count must eventually accept that he is in need of forgiveness
no less acutely than his oppressors are in need of punishment.
The themes of justice and revenge run in parallel to an ongoing preoc-
cupation with the tension between love and hatred. Upon embarking on his
pursuit of retribution, Monte Cristo deliberately cuts himself off from any
opportunity for emotional involvement with his fellow humans, bidding
farewell to gratitude and spontaneous kindness and thus remaining tenaciously
detached from even the most sentimentally engaging situation. Yet, it is clear
that his emotions have not been totally eliminated by experience and grief,
for he is still capable of acting compassionately in extremis. This is memorably
borne out by the scene where he grants Mercédès’ request to spare the life of
her son Albert in a duel. This moment also confirms the protagonist’s newly
discovered preparedness to question the tenability of his supposedly provi-
dential role, and accept that the younger generations may not deserve to be
treated as objects of revenge insofar as they do not automatically inherit their
ancestors’ sins — as patently demonstrated by Albert’s goodness despite his
being the son of the abominable Fernand, now self-renamed as the Count de
Morcerf.
Dumas’ aesthetic is replete with Romantic leanings that eclectically man-
ifest themselves in a variety of guises. Stylistically and structurally, The Count
of Monte Cristo explicitly proclaims its standing as a romance-imbued historical
novel and, as such, revels in the sustained interweaving of action, historical
adventure and matters of the heart. The text is faithful to the conventions of
the Romantic novel in utilizing a literally larger-than-life hero of unparalleled
courage, bravery, intelligence and robust (though not always unproblematically
admirable) moral mettle. Right from the start, Dumas’ protagonist is portrayed
as a man of great integrity and resolve, and his ethical credentials are thereby
firmly established. His adversaries are also invested with codified personality
traits — primarily, jealousy and deviousness — and do not alter much as the
story progresses. It is indeed in action, rather than in psychological develop-
ment, that the Romantic novel typically locates its center of interest.
From a thematic point of view, one of the original narrative’s most dis-
tinctively Romantic aspects consists of its emphasis on the Faustian myth of
the superior individual with diabolical affiliations. This finds expression in
numerous Romantic poets and, most strikingly or even sensationally, in their
enthusiastic responses to John Milton’s Satan. William Blake, for example,
celebrates the character as the very epitome of freedom and unrestrained desire
(The Marriage of Heaven and Hell, ca. 1790–1799). Percy Bysshe Shelley, for
his part, offers a portrayal of Milton’s Devil that brings to mind with uncanny
accuracy Dumas’ presentation of his hero in The Count of Monte Cristo when
he embarks on his revenge. In A Defense of Poetry (1821), Shelley indeed depicts
Satan as “one who perseveres in some purpose which he has conceived to be
excellent in spite of adversity and torture” and, most crucially, does so guided
by “Implacable hate, patient cunning, and a sleepless refinement of device to
inflict the extremest anguish on an enemy” (all citations from “Satan as Hero
in Paradise Lost”). Lord Byron, relatedly, sees Satan as a far more positive force
than God and regards his rebellion, accordingly, as both desirable and entirely
legitimate. This fascination with the Devil is also strong in French literature,
extending its influence past the Romantic age to find powerful formulation
in the poetry of Charles Baudelaire, where the figure is presented as the essence
of a notion of sublime beauty borne of both the power and the sadness of
danger.
In its account of Dantès’ abysmal “anguish,” his hopelessness and gradual
relinquishment of the very will to live during the time of his imprisonment
and prior to the miraculous encounter with the Abbé Faria, Dumas’ style
strikes distinctively Romantic chords of illustrative validity. Haunted by “his
sorrows” and “sufferings, with their train of gloomy spectres,” the hero recalls
his days as a seaman, when in the face of an impending storm, he would
entertain thoughts diametrically opposed to the ones recently fostered by his
bestializing captivity. “I felt that my vessel was a vain refuge,” he muses, “that
trembled and shook before the tempest. Soon the fury of the waves and the
spirit of the sharp rocks announced the approach of death, and death then
terrified me, and I used all my skill and intelligence as a man and a sailor to
escape.... But I did so because I was happy, because I had not courted death....
But now it is different. I have lost all that bound me to life; death smiles and
invites me to repose” (Dumas, p. 111).
No less pronouncedly Romantic in aesthetic orientation is The Count of
Monte Cristo’s appetite for the exotic. This element brings to mind Dumas’
own familial background as a man of multiracial parentage, his father being
the mulatto offspring of a French marquis and a Haitian slave. Dumas’ own
fascination with Mediterranean and Eastern cultures, traditions and physiog-
nomies is eloquently attested to by his portrayal of some key characters. Dantès
himself is depicted at the very start of the adventure as “a fine, slim young
fellow, with black eyes, and hair as dark as a raven’s wing” (p. 1), while Mer-
cédès is said to be a “young and beautiful girl, with hair as black as jet, her
eyes as velvety as the gazelle’s” and “arms bare to the elbow, embrowned” (p.
16). Moreover, as an integral part of his metamorphosis from the wretched
Edmond Dantès to the Count of Monte Cristo, the protagonist travels exten-
sively in the Orient, collecting all manner of conspicuously exotic items along
the way with passionate zeal. It is with Haydée that Dumas’ Orientalist tastes
assert themselves with arguably unprecedented lavishness. Her “arms” are
described as “exquisitely moulded” and aptly enfolded by the “rich odours of
the most delicious flowers” emanating from “the coral tube of a rich nargile,”
and her “feet” are said to be “so exquisitely formed and so delicately fair, that
they might well have been taken for Parian marble.” The girl’s costume flaunts
all the ornamental attributes one could feasibly expect of an Eastern beauty
of the Arabian Nights variety, from the “white satin trousers” and “fairy-like
slippers” to the “blue and white striped vest, with long open sleeves, trimmed
with silver loops and buttons of pearls” and the seductive “bodice” allowing
“the whole of the ivory throat and upper part of the bosom” to reveal them-
selves. However, the narrator is also eager to stress that Haydée’s “loveli-
ness”— with its “peculiarly and purely Grecian” quality proclaimed by “large
dark melting eyes” and a “finely formed nose,” as well as “coral lips” and
“pearly teeth”— simply “mocked the vain attempts of dress to augment it” (p.
500).
As documented in detail in the pages to follow, the anime adaptation
seems eager, in its often radical reconfiguration of Dumas’ novel, to replicate
its source text’s ability to synthesize the qualities of so-called historical romance
with historical fiction and even historiography, and thereby offer an alternate
perspective on officially documented facts. In this matter, the anime recalls
the pursuit also embraced by the films examined in the course of the previous
chapter. Gankutsuou: The Count of Monte Cristo does not, due to its eminently
futuristic relocation of the source narrative and reliance on the codes and con-
ventions of science fiction and fantasy, replicate Dumas’ historical reality in
any literal sense. It is, however, deeply concerned with precisely the sorts of
ideological, ethical and aesthetic issues that are thrown up by the source text
and its anatomy of class-based and wealth-based power relations — and, par-
ticularly, with the limitations of human justice, the legitimacy (or iniquity)
of revenge, and the eternal tug-of-war between love and hatred. Moreover,
Gankutsuou: The Count of Monte Cristo is faithful to the dominant style
adopted by the parent novel: if not in explicitly narrative, visual or rhetorical
terms, certainly in its overall tone.
The prologues for each installment augment the sense of cumulative
authenticity by being delivered in fluent French. On several occasions, Maeda’s
characters even use an overtly theatrical body language consonant with the
stage conventions of the period in which the original novel was executed and
in which Dumas himself enthusiastically engaged in dramatic writing. In
addition, the anime flawlessly captures the essence of Dumas’ France even as
it thrusts it into an almost unimaginably distant future, in the visible guise

of trappings, paraphernalia and status symbols typical of early nineteenth-
century French aristocracy. The vehicles, specifically, tend to display an angular
sci-fi construction but even this aspect of the decor feels peculiarly congruous
with the show’s period feel. By integrating these elements with its bizarre
landscape, Gankutsuou: The Count of Monte Cristo manages to make the coex-
istence of sumptuous spaceships, giant robots, a futuristically holographic
floating version of CNBC, majestic mansions, opera houses, horse-drawn car-
riages, public squares and boulevards seem quite credible by evoking an atmos-
phere of somewhat mythical timelessness. This mood is enhanced by the
alternation of meticulously detailed with abstractly symbolic backgrounds,
and of sequences in which motion is all-pervasive or even deliberately chaotic
with sequences where movements are simplified or attenuated to convey a
dramatic sense of solemnity or gravity.
Especially remarkable settings punctuate the show’s most emotionally
charged moments. A good example is the sequence in which the character of
Héloïse de Villefort begins to lose her mind as her murderous urges are exposed
by her husband, who is exclusively concerned with protecting his personal
reputation and would quite welcome her suicide as a liberation. At this stage,
the screen explodes into a profusion of kaleidoscopic patterns, assembling and
disassembling at a hypnotizing rate. Also worthy of notice, as an additional
illustration of Maeda’s staging proficiency, is the constellation of cyberspace
nested within the Ministry of Interior’s classified database — a multilayered
digital realm where each successive level becomes increasingly hazardous to
penetrate by adventurous hackers in proportion to the degree of secrecy of
the information it hosts. The last accessible layer is visualized as a fireball
threatening to fry up the very brain of anyone seeking to bypass it. The anime’s
aesthetic identity will be revisited at a later stage in this chapter in light of
the thematic dimension to which the discussion now turns.
Set in the year 5053, the anime opens on the Moon colony of Luna at
the time of the local Carnival, dramatizing the meeting of a young nobleman,
the Vicomte de Morcerf, and his friend Baron Franz d’Epinay with a charis-
matic self-made aristocrat — the Count of Monte Cristo. Both Albert and
Franz are drawn from Dumas’ novel, while a direct parallel also obtains
between Luna in Carnival season and the Roman setting in which the original
Count of Monte Cristo first meets the young de Morcerf and resolves to use
him as a means of immersing himself in the upper echelons of Paris. The exu-
berantly colorful tone of the setting in which the anime’s action finds inception
contrasts sharply with the darkness of the source text’s beginning. At the same
time, however, the series conveys the tenebrous sense of mystery bound to
become Monte Cristo’s defining trait by means of intriguing rumors concern-
ing the Count’s background and reputation even before Albert and Franz have
had a chance to meet him in person. In the novel, contrariwise, the hero is
explicitly made central to the action right from page one. Albert, for his part,
is depicted by Maeda as an immature, though endearing, youth unsatisfied
with a life of vapid and undeserved privilege and seeking new experiences
and meanings. Yet, his ingenuousness blinds him to other people’s flaws
despite his inherent goodness. While Albert becomes totally besotted with
the enigmatic nobleman’s refinement and mystique, Franz reveals a more sus-
picious disposition, warning his friend against their new acquaintance. Franz
is indeed very protective of Albert throughout, having treasured his friendship
since the day of their first childhood encounter at Franz’s father’s funeral.
Franz’s misgivings seem justified in the light of Monte Cristo’s disqui-
etingly otherworldly — and latently monstrous — aura. When the Count first
entertains Albert and Franz at the Rospoli Hotel over an exotic dinner of
which he does not consume even a single morsel, he comes across as painfully
human in recalling an old love consigned by events to the status of a vaporous
dream. Nevertheless, the actions that soon follow intimate his inhumanity as
he invites the young fellows to witness a public execution by guillotine from
his terrace, draws three cards supposedly bearing the initials of the men about
to be decapitated and asks Albert to pick one at random: the man thus chosen
will become the beneficiary of a letter of pardon from the Cardinal which the
Count claims to possess. Whereas Franz is utterly horrified by this soulless
game, Albert gives in to the temptation to play God — only to save, fortu-
itously, the unrepentant assassin Peppino, a key member of the gang of bandits
about to kidnap him. Considering how vital to Monte Cristo’s advancement
of his grand plan the abduction is destined to prove, one cannot help but
wonder whether all of the cards might actually have borne the same letters.
The fashion in which the incident is staged indeed suggests that the Count
wants the intersection of Albert’s fate with the band’s activities to appear a
product of chance when he has, in fact, arranged it no less than he has con-
trived to meet the young de Morcerf in the first place. Franz’s anxieties aug-
ment exponentially as he proceeds to investigate the mystery of Gankutsuou,
to which he is accidentally exposed in the course of a sinister soirée hosted
by the Count, and thus unearths some unpalatable truths regarding the past
history of the Morcerfs, the Danglars and the Villeforts. However, although
Franz’s reservations regarding the Count’s moral standing seem perfectly
justifiable, it is undeniable that Monte Cristo has a salutary effect on Albert.
It is indeed through the Count that the young nobleman first realizes that his
society is built and maintained by people he cannot trust to act according to
any principles other than self-interest and greed.
As in the novel, Albert is instrumental in introducing the Count into
high Parisian society and thus enabling him to retrace his enemies — i.e.,
Danglars, Villefort and Morcerf senior himself. The young aristocrat
alacritously agrees to Monte Cristo’s desire to accede to that prestigious circle
in order to repay the Count for rescuing him from Luigi Vampa’s gang of
thieves and kidnappers when they abduct him and demand an exorbitant ran-
som for his release. Vampa himself is drawn from the nineteenth-century
source. So are numerous other characters featuring in Gankutsuou: The Count
of Monte Cristo— indeed, the majority of its cast. These include Albert’s
parentally chosen fiancée Eugénie de Danglars, alongside her father Baron
Jullian de Danglars, France’s most powerful banker, her mother Victoria de
Danglars and the latter’s lover Lucien Debray, one of Albert’s friends. They
also include the Count’s attendants Bertuccio, Baptistin and Ali, Haydée,
who is said to have suffered grievously at the hands of Morcerf, and the dis-
armingly frank and courageous Maximilien Morrel, the son of Monte Cristo’s
former employer, who is portrayed as the Count’s spiritual son in the source
text. Other important personae derived more or less explicitly from Dumas’
novel are Albert’s devoted mother, and the Count’s former fiancée, Mercédès
de Morcerf (née Herrera), his cowardly and unethical father the Général Fer-
nand de Morcerf (a.k.a. Fernand Mondego), Franz’s fiancée Valentine de
Villefort, a timid and frail girl who will eventually find true love with Max-
imilien, her father Procureur-général Gérard de Villefort, the highest ranking
judge in Paris, and her toxicology-obsessed stepmother and ruthless social
climber Héloïse de Villefort, alongside Héloïse’s bratty son Edouard and the
illegitimate issue of an affair between Gérard de Villefort and Victoria de
Danglars, the crude scheming rogue Andrea Cavalcanti (a.k.a. Benedetto).
Several of these characters undergo varyingly substantial modifications
in the anime. An entertaining twist to the original cast is offered by Maeda’s
creation of Peppo, one of Vampa’s agents, as the winsome young woman said
by Franz to be a transvestite (possibly to avert Albert’s interest from her).
Peppo is responsible for the young de Morcerf ’s abduction but is later shown
to care for the youth’s safety and to feel sympathetic toward his emotional
weakness. Furthermore, various characters drawn from Dumas’ novel are sub-
tly redefined by the show through the incorporation of notes of ambiguity
that enhance to great effect their psychological complexity and dynamic sig-
nificance. Albert’s fiancée Eugénie, for example, is presented as acerbically
critical — at times even downright spiteful — toward her naive boyfriend; yet,
as the series progresses, she is seen to develop genuine feelings for Albert and
to realize, much to her own surprise, that she has indeed fallen in love with
him. Haydée is an even more intriguing illustration of Maeda’s penchant for
ironically nuanced characterization. When Albert and his mates first visit the
Count in his underground wonderland — a setting often surreal to Daliesque
extremes — Monte Cristo describes the exotic girl as a soulless doll pro-
grammed to satisfy his every wish. However, the Count would seem merely
to be making a tongue-in-cheek concession to a familiar SF formula at this
juncture since Haydée actually evinces a rich and deeply sensitive personality.
Her desire to prevent Monte Cristo from being utterly consumed, and hence
dehumanized, by his thirst for vengeance sorely clashes with her own longing
for retaliation against the man responsible for her father’s violent death and
her own condemnation to a life of slavery.
Whereas Dumas’ novel concentrates on the Count, Maeda’s show accords
greater narrative significance to the characters of Albert and his friends. More-
over, while the source text adopts a chronologically linear structure in recount-
ing its events, the anime opens with a series of incidents that take place several
hundreds of pages into the novel (where, as mentioned, they are set in Rome)
and the back story is reconstructed gradually through flashbacks and hindsight
as the show progresses. On this point, it is interesting to note that Dumas
had initially intended, as Richard Church states, “to start his tale with the
arrival in Rome of a mysterious stranger, Edmond Dantès, disguised as The
Count of Monte Cristo. Happily, Dumas was persuaded by his faithful drudge,
Maquet [the scholarly author with a knack of spotting appropriate materials
for narrative adaptation in obscure pockets of history], to go back earlier in
the life of his hero.... There followed the most famous part of the book” (in
Dumas, p. xvii). In spite of its shift of perspective, however, Gankutsuou: The
Count of Monte Cristo stays faithful to the original to a remarkable extent,
especially in the rendition of its darker messages, mysteries and intrigues.
Concurrently, as Theron Martin points out, the anime’s use of Albert as “a
framing device” makes it possible for “the viewer’s perspective” to be “limited
to only a little more than what Albert himself knows about the causes for the
Count’s motivations, which certainly helps maintain the level of suspense for
anyone who hasn’t read the novel. (And for those who have, the suspense is
in seeing how Gonzo’s going to handle various story threads)” (Martin). In
addition, Gankutsuou: The Count of Monte Cristo leaves out quite a few digres-
sive side plots woven by Dumas’ original, supplies several of the parent char-
acters with new destinies and elaborates quite a different dénouement. The
manga, drawn by Maeda himself in the wake of the anime, focuses on the
figure of Monte Cristo more closely and opts for an altogether more somber
and occasionally even gruesome sensibility.
Gankutsuou: The Count of Monte Cristo deals with the themes of justice
and revenge — and with interrelated tensions between the forces of compassion
and greed — in its own distinctive fashion, in consonance with the broad adap-
tive reconceptualization of the source materials outlined above. Prominent
throughout the action’s most pathos-laden moments is the tendency to max-
imize the central adventure’s apparently ancillary ramifications as intimately

intertwined strands of a coherent narrative core. This enables Maeda to elab-
orate a tapestry of unique fecundity, inventiveness and vigor that will not fail
to satisfy the palate of even the most devout Dumas aficionados. Like the
original novel, the anime repeatedly indicates that the Count of Monte Cristo
derives considerable pleasure from the arrangement of events and the creation
of opportunities for encounters bound to prove axial to the adventure as this
develops while making them seem quite accidental. This strategy is instru-
mental in allowing the self-made aristocrat to set in motion the various ele-
gantly choreographed techniques by which his enemies will be progressively
trapped and brought to grief. The surreptitious smirk wreathing the Count’s
mien when Franz desperately seeks his help — despite the boy’s reservations
regarding Monte Cristo’s probity — neatly discloses to the viewer the premed-
itated nature of the character’s actions from the start.
Thus, it is again suggested that Monte Cristo has planned his meeting
with Albert, the youth’s kidnapping by the bandits and his own seemingly
miraculous rescue of the victim just as he faces death. After all, it is precisely
by planning such events with the utmost care that Monte Cristo is able to
make Albert feel so profoundly indebted to him as to agree unhesitantly to
usher him into prominent Parisian society and hence pave the way, albeit
unwittingly, to the older man’s revenge scheme. The anime also echoes Dumas’
text in emphasizing the Count’s determination to avenge himself as slowly
and deliberately as possible. His long years of brutal incarceration have taught
Monte Cristo not only science, history and languages (courtesy of the Abbé
Faria) but also patience and the exquisite sophistication of the art of waiting.
A speedy revenge, the Count believes, would not truly do justice to the pain
he himself has had to endure. In the anime, as in the source, the slow pace
at which the hero’s scheme unfolds also serves to consolidate his providential
image, recalling the old adage that god works in mysterious ways.
As noted, the relationship between Monte Cristo and Albert is of pivotal
diegetic significance to Maeda’s anime. Even though the Count finds the youth
charming and guileless, he is disinclined to allow himself to get too close to
Albert since, governed by the conviction that the sins of the father shall be
inherited by their children, Monte Cristo can never forget that Albert is the
son of one of his most abominable foes. At this stage, the Count is still firm
in embracing a providential role and often hints, in conversation, at what it
must be like to feel that one has godlike powers. Eventually, as Monte Cristo’s
ethical perspective alters in accordance with occurrences that blatantly point
to its perilous limitations, he comes to recognize Albert’s nobility of spirit
despite his detestable paternity. Like Dumas’ hero, however, Maeda’s Count
is implacable in his quest for vengeance and tirelessly spins its thread from
the very moment he engineers the encounter with the young de Morcerf to
the end. Some of his subtlest machinations bring into play various of his
foes — or their immediate associates — in precise patterns, as if to suggest that
Monte Cristo is not content simply to punish them but actually seeks to treat
his methodical scheming as a carefully contrived work of art. As Martin com-
ments, once the series has established the groundwork of Monte Cristo’s ambi-
tious plot, one increasingly gets the “sense of an intricate machine gradually
cranking its way towards destruction and doom as the Count makes his sly
first plays against the hearts and minds of his enemies.” In this regard, “the
writing has done a great job of capturing the spirit and character of the original
novel by Alexandre Dumas.... The more you know about the original story,
the more the cleverness of this writing effort shines through” (Martin). Seeing
Monte Cristo’s serpentinely traced plans gradually reach fruition is exhilarating
and terrifying in equal measures. One of his most daring maneuvers comes
with the dinner party held at a gloomy country estate once owned by the
Villefort family where he cunningly deploys an ostensibly innocent game to
advance his lethal plan. This is designed to lead Gérard de Villefort and Vic-
toria de Danglars back to the scene of Andrea’s adulterous conception with
devastating effects for both.
Two schemata of equally calculated proportions can be seen to inform
the Count’s revenge. One of these is governed by the principle of symme-
try — and a fearful one indeed, to echo William Blake’s famously haunting
phrase. This is articulated as a pattern boldly summarizable as the Danglars-
Villefort-Morcerf-Danglars-Villefort trajectory, whereby Monte Cristo’s two
successive sets of moves against the banker and the judge frame the plan cen-
tered on Morcerf, the Count’s most hated adversary. In this schema, we witness
Monte Cristo’s involvement of Danglars’ bank in his own finances with
unprecedented (and potentially extortionist) contractual implications, rapidly
followed by the exposure of Héloïse de Villefort as a murderer and her hus-
band’s attendant demotion, and then by Morcerf ’s own public disgrace as
Haydée discloses his past as a felon and slave-trader to the very assembly sup-
posed to celebrate his ascent to absolute power, while the speciousness of his
title is also revealed. The acme of Danglars’ ruin is then spectacularly chore-
ographed as the insane investments into which he has been roped by Andrea
Cavalcanti — also revenge-thirsty for his own good reasons — boomerang and
the Baron’s entire intergalactically sprawling investment portfolio disintegrates.
Danglars reacts by fleeing into space to no avail: nothing and nobody, it is
ominously suggested through these scenes, can ultimately dodge the reach of
Monte Cristo’s vindictive hand. Villefort is also finally and conclusively dis-
graced and — through a sinister twist of dramatic irony when one considers
his second wife’s toxicomany — driven mad by poison, as Andrea exposes his
horrid history of crimes, infanticide included, in the very court where the
Prosecutor was wont to run his judicial tyranny unchallenged in the not-too-
distant past.
The other schema includes the final and climactic assault on the already
disgraced Morcerf, and may therefore be summed up as the Danglars-Ville-
fort-Morcerf-Danglars-Villefort-Morcerf trajectory. This pattern is ruled by
the principle of repetition: a trope notoriously associated, in psychoanalytical
terms, with the concept of compulsion and hence eminently applicable, in
that frame of reference, to Monte Cristo’s compelling purpose. In the repe-
tition-driven schema of vengeance, the sequence of events mapped out above
is complemented by the dramatization of Morcerf ’s final retribution. While
Albert and Haydée strive to nourish the Count’s rapidly attenuating humanity
to ensure he will not be utterly sapped by his addiction, Morcerf plays his
last card by attempting a coup d’état in Paris. This part of the series is pivotal
to Maeda’s consolidation of the original story’s political and historical signifi-
cance in spite of its fantasy-imbued nature. These events are wholly indigenous
to the anime and arguably mark its most dramatic departure from Dumas’
novel. Another important divergence surrounds Monte Cristo’s so-called con-
version. In the novel, as noted, this coincides with the point at which the
Count agrees to spare Albert’s life in response to Mercédès’ entreaties.
It would not have been logical for the anime to replicate this move since
the Count’s utter immunity to human emotions is posited as a major com-
ponent of its adaptive fabric. Hence, in his mecha-aided duel with the younger
opponent, the hero shows no restraint whatsoever. Stylistically, it must be
stressed, the sequence is rendered markedly disquieting by a deliberate tonal
incongruity between the retrofuturistically designed giant robots, with their
synthesis of sci-fi and chivalric traits and astounding martial elegance, and
the undiluted brutality of Monte Cristo’s blows. This ploy serves to reinforce
the Count’s ruthlessness in his pursuit of revenge at any price. However, it
may well be the case that Monte Cristo is aware, at this juncture, that his rival
is not actually Albert — whose place Franz has self-sacrificially assumed unbe-
knownst to his friend — as he alludes to the young de Morcerf having “run
away” from the challenge. In this reading, it could be argued that the Count
is not truly turning a deaf ear to his erstwhile lover’s prayers.
In his handling of the themes of legality and retribution, Gankutsuou:
The Count of Monte Cristo repeatedly — though elliptically — calls attention
to the concept of revenge as the most primitive expression of humankind’s
consciousness of justice, predicated upon the assumption that a wronged man
has not only a right but also a duty to avenge himself. The anime also exhibits
a mature awareness of the limitations inherent in this world picture by inti-
mating that justifiable as it may at times seem to be, private blood revenge is
essentially incompatible with the dictates of systematized legislation as a pre-

rogative of the state and hence of superpersonal agencies. Thus, the series
insightfully exposes the conflict between an ethical discourse that warrants
revenge as a deeply ingrained tradition and a sacred rite, and a contrasting
approach to justice based on modern codifications — and polarizations — of
acceptable and criminal behavior.
When Maeda’s Count comes close to surrendering his humanity in the
service of revenge, it is also intimated that even when that goal appears most
desirable and accomplishable, albeit by tortuous means, there will always be
a danger of its bringing down the avenger alongside his victims. Church has
vividly captured this proposition, arguing that Dumas’ yarn “shows how a
man, given sufficient motive through the imposition of unjust treatment, can
rise to a pitch of indignation that shall make him the equal of the gods.
Edmond Dantès was thrust into hell, through no fault of his own, and no
sin. He refused to abandon hope. After fourteen years, during which the world
had forgotten him, and love and career had withered away, he emerged having
wrested a secret from that misery, which should give him unlimited wealth,
and a store of wisdom, scientific and moral ascendancy, all of which he could
use in his monomaniac purpose.... The major part of the novel, its backbone,
is the working out of that purpose through an intricate delta of circumstances
and events ... a delta which in no way delays the fury of the flood which it is
to carry onward to the final serenity of justice done, and overdone. For that
is the last revelation: Dantès finding himself the victim of his own intensity,
and resigning at last to an authority larger than his own, or any other human
agency” (in Dumas, pp. xvii-xviii).
In Gankutsuou: The Count of Monte Cristo, the Romantic spirit manifests
itself in a distinctive manner, congruous with the anime’s overall recontextu-
alization of the inceptive The Count of Monte Cristo. Loyal to the governing
aesthetic of the Romantic adventure story, Maeda works with deliberately
one-dimensional personae a lot of the time, making it possible for the spectator
to single them out immediately as objects of either admiration or repulsion.
The anime is thus in a position to maximize the adventure’s exciting poten-
tialities as a piece of entertainment, without lingering excessively on character
evolution per se. This is not to say, however, that in clearly aligning the forces
of good against the forces of evil, Maeda precludes all opportunities for psy-
chological development. In fact, his actors do call for attentive inspection as
even the most virtuous of souls is sooner or later revealed to be haunted by
both personal and collective ghosts that threaten to erode his or her rectitude.
Hence, much as the adventure’s noblest creatures may at first appear immune
to perversion, corruption or even temptation, this is not automatically the
case: it is only by undergoing arduous trials and surviving them, the series
proposes, that these people can convincingly prove their true caliber. Albert
is a resplendent case in point: his generosity and purity are seemingly beyond
doubt, and yet his naivety is such as to cause both the youth and his associates
severe distress in extremis. Monte Cristo himself is depicted as an ambiguous
figure capable of experiencing with equal intensity feelings of hope and pride,
on the one hand, and dark apprehensions of doubt, despondent ire and despair
on the other. Fortitude and creativity, concurrently, are often seen to coexist
with cynical disillusionment.
Gankutsuou: The Count of Monte Cristo also echoes its source text’s
Romantic passion for the exotic. This is attested to by myriad references to
outlandish customs and cuisine, by the professionally executed outfits includ-
ing fashion designs by Anna Sui, and by the memorable portrayals of Haydée
as an enigmatic beauty from “Eastern Space” and of the Count’s valet Bertuc-
cio as a person of obviously African descent. However, it is not so much with
its outlandish reveries as with its handling of the supernatural that the anime
most vibrantly communicates a distinctively Romantic sensibility tinged with
elements of the Gothic tradition, as well as traits of the Jacobean Revenge
Tragedy (and particularly the figure of the Malcontent). The Count himself
epitomizes this spirit as a being who, in order to pursue his vengeful scheme,
allows the demon Gankutsuou to possess him, thereby rendering his body
transparently crystalline. Insofar as the entity’s origins are connected with the
Château d’If and the demon is accordingly able to abet Edmond Dantès’
escape from his prison, he could be said to play a role analogous to the one
taken up by Faria in Dumas’ novel. Yet, while the Abbé endeavors to teach
the younger man all sorts of positive and constructive lessons, the demon
seems governed by entirely malevolent motives. Toward the close of the anime,
it manifests itself most balefully as a triple set of eyes running down the
Count’s mien. Monte Cristo’s supernatural constitution is thrown into relief
in the episode where Albert’s journalist friend Beauchamp attempts to pho-
tograph and record the Count, only later to discover that nothing has been
captured. The elliptical equation of the Count’s physical state to a disease of
intergalactic proportions contributes vitally to the suggestion that the char-
acter’s vindictiveness is akin to a pathological aberration inflicted upon him
by external forces over which he has no control — although, of course, there
is every sign that he entered his association with Gankutsuou no less willingly
than Faust embraced his own pact with Mephistopheles.
The use of locations such as the surreal city of gold stretching — seem-
ingly endlessly — in the depths of Monte Cristo’s mansion on the Champs-
Élysées, alongside the adventure pivoting on a room emanating an evil aura,
potently sustain the supernatural dimension of Maeda’s anime with conces-
sions to the Romantic aesthetic associated with authors such as Samuel Taylor
Coleridge. In its cumulative take on the supernatural, Gankutsuou: The Count

of Monte Cristo captures the Romantic spirit at two interrelated levels. First,
it assiduously aims to present the supernatural as quite real, in spite of its
inscrutability and apparent preposterousness, through graphic depictions of
uncompromising clarity, directness and precision. Nowhere is this proclivity
more perturbingly evident than in the scenes where Gankutsuou abruptly
surfaces to flood Monte Cristo’s visage. Second, it celebrates the supernatural
as the dimension in which the artist’s imagination may proclaim itself most
effusively, unfettered by the petty restraints of external referents that ineluct-
ably shape the representation of ordinary reality.
The most original aspect of Maeda’s adaptation, from an aesthetic point
of view, indubitably resides with the anime’s experimental artistry. In an imag-
inative handling of digital layering, compositing and rendering, occasionally
so audacious as to feel almost disorientating or require some sensory adjust-
ment, the show delivers a unique sense of kinetic tension. Pivotal to this effect
is the use of static textured backgrounds over which the basic outlines of the
characters’ hair and clothes, as well as several other facets of the anime’s vis-
ual repertoire, move normally — as if parts of the images were no less trans-
parent than the Count’s preternatural body. Hence, many of the digitally
edited layers are often kept deliberately stationary even during motion. The
effectiveness of this technique is gloriously borne out by the robe donned by
Haydée to visit the Opera House, which can indeed be regarded as an awe-
inspiring work of art unto itself. Eugénie’s inwrought grand piano, in turn,
stands out as that garment’s equivalent in the area of interior design. The
fabrics employed for the main characters’ clothes range in style from the effu-
sively Baroque design used for Franz to the contemporary, geometrically pat-
terned casual design use for Albert, with numerous concessions to Eastern
vogues peppered across the entire cast’s costumes and accessories. Hair often
provides the most tantalizing opportunities for experimentation: the Count’s,
for example, appears to be superimposed on a crepuscular sky flecked with
fraying cloud banks or the muted glimmer of distant nebulae, whereas the
silhouette of Haydée’s luxuriant mane moves over a pattern replete with styl-
ized and sensuously sinuous floral ornamentation. Stylistically, the anime also
hints at the Jazz Age as conceived of by Francis Scott Fitzgerald — for instance,
in the episode where Albert and his friends go for a ride in the countryside
in their flashy automobiles. The girls’ hairdos are especially consonant with
the fashions prevalent in that era. The indoor scenes focusing on Albert and
his male mates conversing relaxedly over vintage beverages, conversely, bring
to mind the older atmosphere of fin-de-siècle decadence as dramatized by
Oscar Wilde.
The palette is cumulatively bold, bright and oversaturated, frequently
reveling in psychedelic effects. Opulent and intricately detailed patterns are

ubiquitous: the edifices themselves are generally embossed with ornately pat-
terned gold and silver designs regardless of whether the overall setting displays
a luxurious, sparsely furnished or dreary quality. Even when they are not pat-
terned in a literal sense of the term, the anime’s surfaces are frequently marbled
with shadows and drifting clouds, and bejeweled by specks of light peeping
through foliage, filtering through segmented window panes or descending,
as though in a gentle rain, from overhanging chandeliers. The show’s interiors
are almost achingly beautiful in their hues, decorative refinement and sheer
tactility. They abound throughout with meticulously textured and rendered
wallpaper, upholstery, draperies, carpets, rugs, soft furnishings in velvet, bro-
cade, silk and satin, ceiling and vault frescoes, variegated marble and granite
balustrades, gilded frames, cornices and plasterwork, majestic oil paintings
epitomizing various characters’ differing tastes and dispositions, and a profu-
sion of exquisitely decorated tableware.
The CG work is by and large utilized in a fashion ideally suited to the
maximization of the anime’s sci-fi atmosphere, as is the show’s highly dynamic
lighting. That generic mood is also heightened by the characterization of a
few major actors, including the Count himself and Haydée, as captivatingly
alien — or at least futuristic. In Monte Cristo’s case, there are even intimations
that he might be a vampire. Dumas’ own hero, it should be noted, also attracts
such suspicions, though far less pronouncedly than Maeda’s. The overall effect
of Maeda’s adventurous visuals is an impression of full perceptual immersion
based on the engagement of the spectator’s entire sensorium. The gorgeously
compiled soundtrack abets these ruses with admirable cogency, setting off the
distinctive tenor of each and every sequence. The opening theme is a gentle
piano ballad meshing harmoniously with the images’ nostalgic mood. The
closing theme, for its part, is a sprightlier guitar piece reflecting on the Count’s
current schemes. The anime’s soundtrack features numerous renowned pieces
of classical music, including movements from Tchaikovsky’s Manfred Sym-
phony (1885), Donizetti’s opera Lucia di Lammermoor (1835), Rachmaninoff ’s
Piano Concerto No. 2, Schumann’s Kinderszenen (1838), Meyerbeer’s Robert le
diable (1831) and Debussy’s Preludes deuxieme livre (1912–1913).
Most importantly, Maeda — as a brilliant artist with a solid background
in fine art — alludes to disparate European vogues spanning the period in
which the source story itself is set to Art Nouveau. Gustav Klimt is clearly a
major influence behind Gankutsuou: The Count of Monte Cristo— so much so
that aspects of the artwork could be realistically described as an animated
adaptation of the Austrian painter’s output. A tension between naturalism
and stylization, both bridged and enhanced by turns through intricately pat-
terned multiform surfaces, contrasts of bold color and gold, silver, coral and
gems, and a pervasive aura of dreamy eroticism emanating from twining or

spiraling lines and waves juxtaposed with stark squares and rectangles, are
among the salient aspects of Klimt’s opus to which Maeda’s artistry assiduously
adheres. Costume and decoration are often rendered by Klimt in a style that
brings to mind the image of a ghostly mosaic — an uncanny blend of minutely
detailed and texturized concreteness, on the one hand, and impalpable trans-
parence or translucence on the other. This element of the artist’s work is repli-
cated not only by the anime’s approach to line and mass but also by its unique
utilization of layers, as described above. It should also be noted, in this context,
that Klimt himself consistently drew on Japanese visual sources, blending
them in utterly unexpected ways with Byzantine, Mycenaean and Egyptian
influences. Like Klimt’s art, Gankutsuou: The Count of Monte Cristo frequently
exudes an atmosphere of ubiquitous sensuality, communicating an aesthetic
vision that regards images — be they paintings, hand-drawn cels or digitally
generated graphics — as intensely material objects in themselves. Thus, while
the anime’s shimmering layers of ornamental sumptuousness might occasion-
ally evoke an impression of almost insubstantial two-dimensionality, that
vision simultaneously helps Maeda to reinforce the medium’s tenacious cor-
poreality.
The visual companion Gankutsuou: The Count of Monte Cristo Complete
works marvels in documenting the sheer temerity of the anime’s emplacement
of color and pattern in the role of protagonists from start to finish. This dis-
tinctive feature of Maeda’s series is immediately thrown into relief by the
book’s cover design. The inner cover displays elegantly patterned monochrome
drawings that encapsulate in symbolic form the story’s overarching preoccu-
pation with the notion of justice and with the mutual inextricability of love
and death. The passion for deep palettes, concomitantly, is luxuriously com-
municated by the dust jacket, with its striking portraits of Albert, Franz and
Eugénie on one side and of the Count with Gankutsuou’s physical form gleam-
ing through his constitution on the other, and subtle handling of holographic
effects to enhance the adventure’s otherworldliness and its fascination with
sophisticated textures. The anime’s appetite for patterns is even more exuber-
antly conveyed by the three-page foldouts displaying collages of various mem-
bers of the cast bearing typical facial expressions and postures, where each
character is associated with a different pattern and hence with specific formal,
chromatic and symbolic connotations. The predilection for Art-Nouveau lin-
ear virtuosity is reflected throughout the volume, and particularly the larger
plates depicting intricate character interactions and tensions. Most memorable,
in this respect, is the illustration portraying Monte Cristo and Albert, joined
in an embrace intensely redolent of Klimt’s art in both its composition and
its lavish employment of flexuous lines, abstract ornamentation and gold.
Other notable pictures emphasize the show’s symbolism. These include a

number of images devoted to Monte Cristo’s secret city and its surrealist pen-
chant for single eyes and clockwork imagery, sculpted clouds, arabesques
and — in a uniquely inspired synthesis of Art Nouveau, Surrealism, Symbolism
and Romantic aesthetics — a profusion of exotic details.
Costumes, the book emphasizes, are deployed as an emblematic means
of individualizing the various actors, with the Count’s brooding garments
pointing to his darkly vindictive intent and Mercédès’ sculpted robes alluding
to a slightly over-the-top approach to her acquired aristocratic status. Victoria
de Danglars’ attire is as tarty as her amorous conduct, while Héloïse de Ville-
fort’s hints at a botanical passion traversed by murky desires. Valentine’s clothes
are as ethereally unobtrusive as her personality, whereas Eugénie’s preference
for exuberantly colored prints mirrors her outgoing and adventurous dispo-
sition. Her father’s garments are crudely ostentatious and instantly connotative
of conspicuous consumption, which is quite in keeping with his financial and
professional status. Général de Morcerf ’s preference for white hints at a false
sense of moral purity, while Gérard de Villefort’s robes echo at all times his
supreme judicial role. Given the anime’s fascination with fashion design, the
list of examples could feasibly stretch on for several pages. In addition, the
companion volume draws attention to the show’s use of vehicles — by and
large of a passionately retrofuturistic ilk — as character identifiers of great
potency.
Over the decades, The Count of Monte Cristo has spawned countless
adaptations in various media, and especially in cinematic form. As docu-
mented by the Wikipedia entry for “The Count of Monte Cristo (film),” the
most notable examples include the following:
• The Count of Monte Cristo (1908 film), silent film
• The Count of Monte Cristo (1913 film), starring James O’Neill
• The Count of Monte Cristo (1918 series), starring Leon Mathot
• The Count of Monte Cristo (1929 film), directed by Henri Fescourt
• The Count of Monte Cristo (1934 film), starring Robert Donat
• The Count of Monte Cristo (1943 film), featuring Pierre Richard-Willm
• The Count of Monte Cristo (1955 film), with Jean Marais and Lia
Amanda
• The Count of Monte Cristo (TV series), 1956 ITC Entertainment TV
series
• The Count of Monte Cristo (1961 film), starring Louis Jourdan
• The Count of Monte Cristo (1964 series), BBC TV series featuring Alan
Badel and Natasha Parry
• The Count of Monte Cristo (1968 film), with Paul Barge, Claude Jade,
and Pierre Brasseur
• The Count of Monte Cristo (1975 film), starring Richard Chamberlain,
Kate Nelligan and Tony Curtis
• The Count of Monte Cristo (1980 miniseries), TV miniseries with
Jacques Weber, Carla Romanelli
• Veta (film), a Telugu film released in 1986, starring Chiranjeevi and
Jayaprada in the lead roles, dubbed into Hindi as Faraar Qaidi.
• Uznik zamka If (English titles: The Count of Monte Cristo or The Pris-
oner of If Castle) (1988)
• The Count of Monte Cristo (1998 miniseries), TV miniseries starring
Gérard Depardieu and Ornella Muti
• The Count of Monte Cristo (2002 film), featuring James Caviezel, Dag-
mara Dominczyk, and Guy Pearce. (“The Count of Monte Cristo
[film]”).
However, it is primarily with a literary adaptation in a different form,

that of the short story with speculative leanings, that the original novel — and
indeed its anime spawn — share some of the most enlightening points of con-
tact: Italo Calvino’s “The Count of Monte Cristo” (in The Complete Cosmi-
comics). This narrative suggests that a threatening outside may be kept at bay
by transforming the inside into a dimension so intimately akin to an outside
as to be able to oppose the actual outside. Calvino’s Abbé Faria is condemned
by his characteristic modus operandi to move forever from one surface to
another surface, since any depth he may chance upon turns out to be yet one
more superficial veneer covering up infinite layers of inscrutability. Calvino’s
Dantès, by contrast, relies on a reflective procedure centered not on the effort
to dispel complexity but rather on the ongoing formulation of hypotheses
regarding its amplification. Hence, the Abbé, in his desperate endeavor to flee
the Château d’If, relentlessly digs only to discover every time that he has
simply managed to access “a cell that is even deeper in the fortress” (Calvino,
p. 281). In the process, “his itineraries continue to wind around themselves
like a ball of yarn” (p. 283). In this vertiginous accretion of perplexities, Faria
finds that each cell is separated from the outside by yet another cell. Dantès,
by contrast, adopts a survivalist ethos grounded in a creative acceptance of
the concept of the cosmos in its entirety as a baffling maze. Survival, according
to Calvino’s Dantès, does not depend on the elimination of the many obstacles
blocking the way to freedom but rather on a commodious grasp of their
intractable impenetrability and omnipresence. Accordingly, while Faria chases
incontrovertible truths merely to unearth mysteries, Dantès chooses to multi-
ply the riddles and insolubles around him, conjecturing ever-increasing obsta-
cles. Paradoxically, he ends up feeling far more at “ease” (p. 282) than his
companion in misfortune. Calvino’s hero works on the assumption that if the
speculative system he constructs in his own head is as inevasible as the material
fortress is, he will at least be able to give up trying to escape and find some
peace in defeat. If, however, the system he is able to imagine is even more
inescapable than the Château d’If, he will then have a chance of breaking out
of the real prison by surpassing its inherent intricacy in his own suppositions.
Calvino’s adaptation of Dantès exhibits the characteristic traits of the
kind of vibrantly speculative mind attributed by Dumas to his own hero when
the yearning for death is displaced — as he perceives a sound that might denote
another inmate’s attempt to escape — by the urge to “think and strengthen
his thoughts by reasoning.” He therefore reflects: “If it is a workman, I need
but knock against the wall, and he will cease to work in order to find out who
is knocking, and why he does so; but as his occupation is sanctioned by the
governor, he will soon resume it. If, on the contrary, it is a prisoner, the noise
I will make will alarm him, he will cease, and not recommence until he thinks
every one is asleep’” (Dumas, pp. 113–114). Faria’s digging, for its part, is typ-
ically described thus by the character of the Abbé himself: “I was four years
making the tools I possess; and have been two years scraping and digging out
earth, hard as granite itself ... then to conceal the mass of earth and rubbish
I dug up, I was compelled to break through a staircase, and throw the fruits
of my labour into the hollow part of it; but the well is now so completely
choked up, that I scarcely think it would be possible to add another handful
of dust without leading to a discovery ... just at the moment when I reckoned
upon success, my hopes are forever dashed from me” (pp. 125–126). Dumas’
Abbé, like Calvino’s, is quite simply defied by the indomitable proliferation
of matter, operating as a potent metaphor for the entire world’s stubborn
complexity.
An especially felicitous facet of Calvino’s tale is its figurative equation
of Faria and Dantès to authors, and of their respective quests to manuscripts.
Calvino’s Faria is obsessed with conclusive and monolithic outcomes: he has
set his heart on “one page among the many.” Standing at the opposite end of
the philosophical spectrum, his Dantès alternately seeks to record “the accu-
mulation of rejected sheets” and “the solutions which need not to be taken
into account.” The proliferation of possibilities contemplated by Calvino’s
Dantès mirrors the status of the art of adaptation itself as a field of potentially
limitless transformational and relocating strategies. In the short story, this
perspective is hinted at by the hypothetical ideation of “the supernovel Monte
Cristo with its variants and combinations of variants in the nature of billions
of billions” (Calvino, p. 292).
As noted in Chapter 1, adaptations have traditionally been regarded as

inferior art forms parasitically indebted to a privileged source. Gerald Peary
and Roger Shatzkin have communicated this proposition with uncompromis-
ing finality, stating that “all the directorial Schererazades of the world cannot
add up to Dostoevsky” (Peary and Shatzkin, p. 2). However, as Linda Hutch-
eon maintains, such a negative response is inadequate insofar as it does not
take into account the operations through which different adaptations give
ideas concrete shape (through images, music, motion) in such a way as to act
imaginatively upon the texts they seek to adapt and thus generate not simply
edited reflections thereof but rather independent entities: “they make simpli-
fying selections, but also amplify and extrapolate; they make analogies; they
critique or show their respect” (Hutcheon, p. 3). The galaxy of adaptations
with The Count of Monte Cristo at their basis sonorously validates this argu-
ment by showing that the transposition of a text to a different code or medium
is a creative process — not only as well as a derivative gesture but over and
above such a gesture. If none of those adaptations is logically conceivable with
total disregard for Dumas’ parent novel, nor is it defined by that etiological
affiliation as much as it is individuated by its own thoughtful interpretation
of that text’s themes, symbols and narrative momentum as a means of reaching
out into an alternative world. An adaptation as inspired as Maeda’s Gankut-
suou: The Count of Monte Cristo professes its individuality primarily as a work
of autonomous value and only in addition — importantly but not restric-
tively — as the vivacious brood of a venerable ancestor. When adaptations of
Dumas’ novel seek, each of them in its distinctive way, to be faithful to the
root narrative, they do so with regard to the author’s imagination and creative
vision as they perceive them, not to a fixed substratum they could reliably call
his one and only reality.
A vibrant symphony of dynamism, dramatic sophistication, narration,
dialogue, music and — last but not least — some of the most stunningly original
visuals yielded by anime throughout its history, Maeda’s Gankutsuou: The
Count of Monte Cristo proficiently demonstrates Robert Stam’s thesis that cin-
ema transforms the uniform reality of the printed page into a multidiscursive
reality, as the “linguistic energy of literary writing turns into the audio-visual-
kinetic-performative energy of the adaptation” (Stam, p. 46). At the same
time, in inviting us to examine the anime’s latent connections with a variety
of other interpretations of Dumas’ novel, Maeda’s show intimates that familiar
yarns and allusions fluidly and even fleetingly fold into one another, as settings
and characters in one interpretation of a story can be perceived through other
settings and characters ideated by parallel interpretations, and as events in
any one version are shaped or haunted by those unfolding in other coexisting
versions of the same basic narrative. Thus, Gankutsuou: The Count of Monte
Cristo validates another important hypothesis advanced by Stam: the idea that
screen adaptations relate to several parallel works simultaneously, for they are
always “caught up in a whirl of intertextual reference and transformation, of
texts generating other texts in an endless process of recycling, transformation
and transmutation, with no clear point of origin” (p. 66). James Naremore
supports this view by proposing a shift from the concept of adaptation as
“reflection” to that of adaptation as “refraction” (Naremore, p. 23)— from a
notion of the adaptive text as an inert (and, by implication, unproductive)
mirror to an understanding not only of the individual adaptation but also of
the proliferating clan of related adaptations and interpretations wherein it is
situated as a kaleidoscopic game of deflexure.
What is arguably most impressive about Gankutsuou: The Count of Monte
Cristo is not only its ability to raise the bar for what anime can deliver at the
levels of artistic quality and innovation but also its flair for embodying the
very pinnacle of the diverse genres it encompasses, from action adventure to
romance, from the SF saga to the revenge epic. In so doing, the show yields
as engrossing philosophical meditation on some of the most powerful emotions
coursing the human condition in both its noblest and its most insalubrious
manifestations. Darkly melodramatic and nostalgically lyrical by turns, the
series consistently succeeds in weaving its disparate strands together by main-
taining throughout a fine tension between the capriciousness of fate and a
world picture in which nothing seems merely an offshoot of chance and an
intricate pattern of causality in fact reigns supreme.
As a reconceptualization of a well-known nineteenth-century text of
Western parentage through the lenses of science fiction, Gankutsuou: The Count
of Monte Cristo finds a precedent in Osamu Dezaki’s Hakugei: The Legend of
Moby Dick (TV series, 1997–1999), an anime that likewise engineers a tantaliz-
ing encounter between the epic-saga modality and a retrofuturistic sensibility.
Even a cursory look at the show’s storyline rapidly corroborates this conten-
tion. Set in the year 4699 in the aftermath of humanity’s colonization — and
concomitant pollution — of the galaxies, Hakugei: The Legend of Moby Dick
chronicles young Lucky Luck’s search for the legendary Captain Ahab in the
desire to gain membership to his band of “whale hunters.” In this context,
whales are not marine mammals but abandoned spaceships and whale hunters,
accordingly, are not daring fishermen but salvage teams intent on their retrieval
and pillage. Captain Ahab, meanwhile, pursues a quest of his own, deriving
from the injunction to lend assistance to the citizens of “Planet Moad” in
their revolt against the “Federation” and its formidable whale-shaped white
ship, the Moby Dick — a vessel with which Captain Ahab has entertained a
traumatic relationship in the past. Enhancing the adventure’s distant-future
feel, Dezaki also makes the actor of the android Dew pivotal to the recon-
figured narrative and to the gradual unfurling of its dark secrets, while con-
currently introducing a mechanical parrot as Ahab’s pirate-worthy pet.
Hakugei: The Legend of Moby Dick thus anticipates Gankutsuou: The Count
of Monte Cristo in generic terms. Yet, it could hardly differ more substantially
from the later anime in its specific approach to the art of adaptation. Indeed,
whereas Gankutsuou: The Count of Monte Cristo remains loyal, albeit ellipti-
cally, to Dumas’ novel, Dezaki’s show only retains from Melville’s novel some
character names and a man’s monomaniacal obsession with whaling — and
even when it comes to whaling, as noted, the concept is radically adapted to
the requirements of the new text. Most importantly, from a stylistic point of
view, Dezaki’s anime often displaces Melville’s gravely philosophical specula-
tion with a bouncy and exuberant ride, replete with martial set pieces allowing
the reconfigured and much more cheerful Ahab to indulge his hearty appetite
for action. Even though, as the story develops, opportunities for serious reflec-
tion become more frequent, the overall mood evinced by Hakugei: The Legend
of Moby Dick is substantially sunnier than the original novel’s own tenor.
In the domain of adaptations of nineteenth-century classics, a unique
case is offered by The Stingiest Man in Town (special, Katsuhisa Yamada,
1978)— a U.S./Japan co-production involving one hundred and fifty people
and employing an impressive total of 72,000 frames adapted from Paul Coker,
Jr.’s original designs. The Japanese version was broadcast as a Christmas Spe-
cial on Christmas Eve 1978. Based on Charles Dickens’ classic A Christmas
Carol, first published in 1843, The Stingiest Man in Town was created by Arthur
Rankin, Jr. and Jules Bass and is essentially a remake of another popular adap-
tation, the live-action musical released in 1956 and starring Basil Rathbone
of Sherlock-Holmes fame as part of the series The Alcoa Hour (TV series,
dirs. Kirk Browning, Herbert Hirschman et al., 1955–1957). In the 1978 ani-
mation, Scrooge’s story is recounted from the perspective of B. A. H. Humbug,
a narrator named after the Dickensian miser’s famous catch phrase. Scrooge’s
voice actor is Walter Matthau and his physical appearance is accordingly mod-
eled on that of the actual performer in an inspired integration of reality and
fantasy of the kind which only the medium of animation is ultimately at
liberty to accomplish with unmatched verve.
The show is faithful to the source text in highlighting Scrooge’s brutally
tenacious aversion to charitable conduct and objection to anything merry —
let alone Christmas itself. The character’s avarice and general callousness run
so deeply as to even make him disinclined to share a festive repast with his
kind-hearted nephew Fred. The adaptation also follows Dickens in presenting
the character of Jacob Marley, Scrooge’s late associate and a proverbial miser
in his own right, as instrumental in the quest to reform Scrooge and as the
harbinger of successive — and increasingly troubling — spectral visitations.
Exposed to the immensity of the pain caused by his possessive rapacity, the
animated incarnation of Dickens’ Scrooge ends up, like his literary antecedent,
embracing a novel lifestyle blessed by generosity, conviviality and cheerfulness.
The show is especially effective in conveying the idea that the ghosts haunting
the protagonist are not merely fantastical presences of the kind so dear to a
Victorian Yuletide mentality but also, indeed more importantly, unwholesome
emanations issuing from his own poisoned psyche. The animation tends to
soften the original ghosts’ more doomful connotations on a purely visual plane,
partly not to alienate or disturb the younger members of its Western audience.
Yet, it evokes an atmosphere of pervasive darkness right through to the end
by recourse to the most unsettling rhetorical tool of all: irony. Thus, even the
less somber, or indeed partially comical, moments exude a lingering sense of
foreboding. These serve to remind us of the ubiquitousness of the shadow
closing in on humans at all times even as they strive to lick away at its edges
with fire.
This is obviously not the right context in which to embark on a detailed
evaluation of adaptations of Dickens’ famous novella — given, as Fred Guida
has punctiliously documented, that these are tremendously copious and diverse
in both format and mood, ranging from stage and radio plays to films for
both cinema and TV, parodic opera retellings, modernized versions and
sequels. One exemplary instance is nonetheless worthy of note due to its tonal
affinity with Yamada’s adaptation: namely, Christian Birmingham’s illustra-
tions for the Kingfisher edition of the tale. (Birmingham is an artist who has
also played a special role in the vast domain of adaptations of Hans Christian
Andersen’s opus and will accordingly be returned to in next chapter.) The
most salient similarity between the animated adaptation and Birmingham’s
take on the novella resides with their shared employment of irony. In Birm-
ingham, as in the show, portentous intimations of evil traverse even the jolliest
scenes, thus alerting us to the unabated incidence of dark and unpredictable
forces. This is especially evident in the plates devoted to the Cratchits’ imag-
inary Christmas dinner and to Fred’s party, where the unlit portions of the
colorfully convivial tableaux appear to be impregnated with a silent aura of
menace, and the inanimate objects on the dusky periphery of the rooms come
across as disquietingly alive. Birmingham is also responsible for creating some
of the most original interpretations ever witnessed in the realm of illustrations
of Dickens’ specters. On this count, too, the artist parallels the animated ver-
sion under investigation, though with blatant stylistic divergences. The “Ghost
of Christmas Past” is particularly memorable in capturing Dickens’ own por-
trayal of the preternatural figure through its amalgamation of juvenile and
hoary attributes. The character’s glittering eyes, moreover, anticipate Birm-
ingham’s depiction of the Snow Queen.
Chapter 4
The Fairy Tale Reimagined

The Snow Queen
Only those who truly love and who are truly strong can sustain
their lives as a dream. You dwell in your own enchantment.
Life throws stones at you, but your love and your dream change
those stones into the flowers of discovery.... People like you enrich
the dreams of the worlds, and it is dreams that create history.
People like you are unknowing transformers of things,
protected by your own fairy tale, by love.— Ben Okri
An apposite point of entry to the assessment of Osamu Dezaki’s rework-

ing of a time-honored fairy tale in his anime version of The Snow Queen (TV
series, 2005–2006) is supplied by Julie Sanders’ observations regarding the
relationship between the art of adaptation and the realm of fairy tale and
folklore. The critic proposes that these supply a set of “archetypal stories avail-
able for re-use and recycling by different ages and cultures.... One of the rea-
sons fairy tale and folklore serve as cultural treasuries to which we endlessly
return is that their stories and characters seem to transgress established social,
cultural, geographical, and temporal boundaries. They are eminently adaptable
into new circumstances and contexts” (Sanders, pp. 82–83). Dezaki would
no doubt have felt pointedly drawn, in consonance with both the general pre-
dilections of indigenous culture and his own personal vision, to the more
somber subtexts of Hans Christian Andersen’s familiar tale — to the dormant
underworld of spectral, inchoate, monstrous and rapacious forces seething
beneath the narrative’s crystalline purity, just as they are wont to do in the
oneiric domain beyond the conscious mind’s control.
A primary reason for the enduring appeal of a text like The Snow Queen
to an anime director like Dezaki, given its standing as a fantasy construct
amenable to adventurous adaptation and relocation, is evidently its coming-
of-age dimension. This is an aspect of fairy tales at large deemed by Bruno
64
4. The Fairy Tale Reimagined 65
Bettelheim to be pivotal to their psychological and ideological significance:

“fairy tales,” the author maintains in his seminal book The Uses of Enchant-
ment, “depict in imaginary and symbolic form the essential steps in growing
up and achieving an independent existence” (Bettelheim, p.73). In revisioning
The Snow Queen, Dezaki has been especially keen to question the authority
of the happy-ending formula so often associated with the fairy tale tradi-
tion — especially in the wake of its Disney adaptations. In so doing, the direc-
tor tersely advocates that stability is not a desirable objective for an individual
tale any more than it can be reliably presumed to govern the lives of texts
across disparate epochs and cultures. Quizzing the story’s closure, Dezaki thus
implicitly alludes also to the inevitable openness of the universe of textuality
as a whole — which is indeed the prerequisite of the eclectic art of adaptation.
Dezaki’s anime, in this respect, faithfully reflects Jack Zipes’ contention that
revisionist renditions of fairy tales at their most dispassionate constitute “not
recuperation but differentiation, not the establishment of a new norm but the
questioning of all norms” (Zipes, pp. 157–158). Concomitantly, Dezaki’s stance
brings to mind Angela Carter’s playfully irreverent evaluation of the fairy tale
as a form: “The chances are, the story was put together in the form we have
it, more or less out of all sorts of bits of other stories long ago and far away,
and has been tinkered with, had bits added to it, lost other bits, got mixed
up with other stories, until our informant herself has tailored the story per-
sonally to suit an audience ... or, simply, to suit herself ” (Carter, p. x). Carter
is here elliptically hinting at the very etymology of the verb “to adapt,” the
Latin adaptare: i.e., “to make fit” or “to make appropriate.”
Although The Snow Queen constitutes an unprecedented accomplishment
in the universe of adaptations of fairy tales to anime, it must nonetheless be
noted that Andersen’s tales were previously utilized as source materials by the
series Andersen Stories (dir. Masami Hata, 1971). A highly imaginative inter-
pretation of Andersen’s world in the recent history of anime consists of Hayao
Miyazaki’s movie Ponyo on the Cliff by the Sea (2008), a loose adaptation of
The Little Mermaid treated with vertiginously exuberant visual verve from
beginning to end. As Ponyo lures us into its colorful filmic ride by recourse
to electrifying graphics keen on foregrounding their emphatically hand-drawn
status, its overall atmosphere emanates an aura of infantile candor which
might at first induce the viewer to categorize it univocally as a children’s
movie. Although it is true that Ponyo is one of Miyazaki’s most pointedly
child-oriented productions to date, it must also be noted, however, that the
work strikes grave and thought-provoking chords in its reconceptualization
of the venerable tale in terms of a disquieting environmentalist message of
tremendous political significance and corresponding animational pathos.
Miyazaki’s fascination with Western fantasy literature well predates Ponyo,
as attested to by his adaptations of Three Thousand Miles in Search of Mother

(TV series, 1975) and Howl’s Moving Castle (movie, 2004), as well as his devo-
tion to the study of children’s stories from an early age and involvement in
the Children’s Literature Research Society while studying politics and eco-
nomics at Gakushuin University. Miyazaki’s adaptations tend to take consid-
erable liberties with their sources, leading to free-standing narratives of
globally acclaimed stature. Miyazaki has also experimented with the adaptation
of Japanese children’s fiction with Kiki’s Delivery Service (movie, 1989), in this
case incurring the ire of the creator of the original story (1985), Eiko Kadono,
due to his adventurous departure from the parent text. Miyazaki is not alone
in treasuring fantasy literature of Western provenance intended primarily for
kids as a copious wellhead of inspiration. Other notable adaptations in the
genres of the fairy tale and the folk tale include Puss in Boots (movie, dir.
Kimio Yabuki, 1969), Aesop’s Fables (TV series, dir. Eiji Okabe, 1983) and
Cinderella (TV series, dir. Hiroshi Sasagawa, 1996).
In the areas of child-oriented action adventure and the bildungsroman,
some of the most remarkable accomplishments encompass Heidi, Girl of the
Alps (TV series; dir. Isao Takahata, 1974), A Dog of Flanders (TV series; dir.
Yoshio Kuroda, 1975), Rascal the Raccoon (TV series; dirs. Hiroshi Saitou,
Seiji Endou, Shigeo Koshi, 1977), Anne of Green Gables (TV series; dirs. Isao
Takahata and Shigeo Koshi, 1979), The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (TV series;
dir. Hiroyoshi Saitou, 1980), Swiss Family Robinson (TV series; dir. Yoshio
Kuroda, 1981), The Story of Pollyanna (TV series; dir. Kouzou Kuzuha, 1986)
and Tales from Earthsea (movie; dir. Goro Miyazaki, 2006). Most of the titles
in the second category — alongside the aforementioned Andersen Stories and
Three Thousand Miles in Search of Mother, as well as several other less well-
known productions — belong to the long-running Japanese series World
Masterpiece Theater: a veritable galaxy of adaptations of famous stories of prin-
cipally Western origin. Gulliver’s Space Travels: Beyond the Moon (movie; dir.
Yoshio Kuroda, 1965) and Animal Treasure Island (movie; dir. Hiroshi Ikeda;
1971), for their part, offer generic repositionings of classic narratives by Jona-
than Swift and Robert Louis Stevenson, respectively.
Returning to Andersen, there are arguably several reasons for which his
oeuvre might appeal specifically to a Japanese sensibility. One of these is that
his stories never demur from exposing the dark side of fairy tale, the real-life
sorrow and fear metaphorically encapsulated in their classic tropes — and most
typically, as Naomi Lewis phrases it, in their “terrible trials, forests of thorns,
unscalable glass mountains.” Hence, Andersen’s world view would be quickly
grasped by a Japanese spirit eager to acknowledge the coexistence of calm and
turmoil throughout the universe. No less vitally, the Danish author’s unflinch-
ing belief in the sentience of all things is quite congruous with the lessons of
Shinto. According to Lewis, it was Andersen’s father that “gave his child the
thought that every non-human creature or thing— a leaf, a beetle, a darning
needle — has a character of its own.” (The example of the needle is especially
apposite to the suggestion of a latent analogy between Andersen’s stance and
the Shintoist approach to life insofar as a widespread custom in traditional
Japanese culture is precisely the habit of extending one’s gratitude to needles
for their services when they are no longer effective and must therefore be dis-
carded.) While many of Andersen’s contemporaries, suspicious of his humble
origins as the son of a pious washerwoman and an iconoclastically rebellious
cobbler, dismissed his tendency to endow inanimate entities with speech as
absurd, the writer never lost faith in the immense narrative potentialities
inherent in every being and object — in the lesson, also inculcated by his
unconventional dad, that “stories lay all around — in an old trunk, a toy, a
bundle of matches” (in Andersen 2004, “Introduction”). This idea is para-
digmatically conveyed by The Flying Trunk, where the humblest kitchen acces-
sories rise to the status of competent storytellers, from the “bundle of matches”
upset about their demotion from the aristocratic ranks to which they belonged
as long as they were part of “an ancient pine tree” by the woodcutter’s axe —
what they call “the Great Revolution”— to the “iron pot” that likes nothing
better than “a sensible chat with friends” once “the business of dinner is over”;
from the ladylike “earthenware pot” with highly refined narratorial talent to
the “big tea urn” that is not “in good voice” unless she is “on the boil”; from
the “kettle,” the “kitchen’s chief vocalist,” to the “shopping basket” responsible
for bringing in “news” about the outside world (Andersen 2004, pp. 117–119).
One of the most tantalizing things about Dezaki’s The Snow Queen is
that at the same time as it audaciously reconceptualizes Andersen’s tale of this
title, it also alludes to other stories by the same author — in tone, if not in
content, and especially in its handling of humor. The wit exuded by several
of Dezaki’s scenes is of the kind one senses in a narrative like The Princess and
the Pea, for example, where the prince traveling far and wide to find a real
princess worthy of his name repeatedly discovers that although “Princesses
were there in plenty, yet he could never be sure that they were the genuine
article” (p. 14). Likewise memorable, in this regard, is the titular protagonist
of The Steadfast Tin Soldier, who refrains from crying out “Here I am!” when
he accidentally falls out of the window and gets stuck in the paving stones
below because he does not “think it proper behaviour to cry out when in uni-
form” (p. 88). Andersen’s own narrating voice indulges in ironically facetious
asides, as exemplified by The Goblin at the Grocer’s: “There was once a student,
a proper student; he lived in an attic and owned nothing at all” (p. 202).
Throughout Dezaki’s anime, one also perceives echoes of Andersen’s
irreverent take on conventional ethics, as a result of which his tales have often
been seen to lack a moral in the classic sense of the term. In Dezaki’s world,
as in Andersen’s The Tinder Box, heroes are not stereotypically noble and tend
to retain, regardless of their actual age, a refreshingly childlike disposition —
a proclivity that is paradigmatically conveyed, in that same tale, by the pro-
tagonist’s standing as a seasoned soldier who nevertheless cherishes “sugar
pigs, tin soldiers, whipping tops and rocking horses” (p. 22). Moreover, kids
frequently provide the only honest voices, as borne out by The Emperor’s New
Clothes, where an innocent child is indirectly responsible for exposing the
gross lie by which both the ruler and his courtiers live as a result of their
unquestioning acceptance and valorization of dogmas that have speciously
managed to acquire a patina of truth.
Dezaki’s passion for the tiniest visual details often recalls Andersen’s own
flair for regaling the fairy tale world with pulsating life by recourse to delicate
and minutely depicted descriptive items — the walnut-shell bed in which
Thumbelina sleeps, the soup-bowl pond where she rows a tulip-petal boat
using “white horsehairs as oars” (p. 33) and the “hammock” she weaves “out
of blades of grass” (p. 36) are resplendent cases in point. Andersen’s meticulous
recording of seasonal change — in Thumbelina and in The Ugly Duckling with
particular prominence — likewise resonates throughout Dezaki’s The Snow
Queen thanks to the director’s unique sensitivity to the mutating landscape
and ability to capture its metamorphosis as the seasons roll by through incisive
graphic motifs. Architecture is no less lovingly and punctiliously portrayed —
as demonstrated, for instance, by the description of “the mer-king’s Palace”
in The Little Mermaid: “Its walls are of coral, and the long pointed windows
are the clearest amber, while the roof is made of cockleshells, which open and
close with the waves. That’s a splendid sight, for each holds a shining pearl;
any single one would be the pride of a queen’s crown” (p. 58). A delicious
architectural touch of lyrically refined purity is the image used by the pro-
tagonist of The Flying Trunk to woo the princess, as he claims that while her
“forehead” is comparable to “a snowy mountain,” within it are “wonderful
rooms and galleries, with the loveliest pictures on the walls” (p. 115).
Animals, in both Andersen and Dezaki, are a source of infinite visual
delight, as well as rhetorically sophisticated personae, regardless of whether
they use human words or body language. Their somatic and sartorial attributes
serve to individualize them to great effect: no matter whether the detail is as
hyperbolic as the dogs’ preposterously oversized eyes in The Tinder Box or as
subtle as the pompously wealthy mole’s “black velvet coat” in Thumbelina (p.
37). Animal behavior is also a prominent topos — as evinced by the portrayal
of the three dogs sitting at the table alongside the wedding-feast guests and
rolling their formidable eyes at them in The Tinder Box. Likewise delightful,
in an analogous vein, is the following vignette from The Steadfast Tin Soldier:
“Now the toys began to have games of their own [as humans have retired for
the night] ... there was such a din that the canary woke up and joined in the
talk — what is more, he did it in verse” (p. 87).
Many traces of Andersen’s more disturbing tales can also be sensed in
Dezaki’s show. Some of these veer toward the horror lurking at the heart of
the bloody hunting scenes in The Ugly Duckling, of the finale of The Nightin-
gale in which Death comes to fetch the Emperor of China but is held in check
by the loyal bird and, more pointedly and pervasively, of the entire fabric of
The Little Mermaid: a horror “deeper than any anchor has ever sunk” (p. 58)
and punctuated by violent death, mutilation and bloodshed, endless trials
and the malicious whims of chance. Other disquieting moments in the anime
gravitate toward a more sedate, even stoical, contemplation of the inextrica-
bility of good and evil in both the human and the supernatural dimensions.
The Snow Queen, hailed by countless readers and critics as Andersen’s mas-
terpiece, unquestionably marks the apotheosis of the second typology. This
story, like The Little Mermaid before it, is concurrently pervaded by the sense
of mystery inherent in human beings’ encounter with intractable alterity —
with an Other so inscrutable as to exude equal, and equally enormous, meas-
ures of fascination and dread.
In The Little Mermaid, this sensation is most economically, yet disori-
entingly, conveyed by the revelation that “a mermaid has no tears” and that
this is exactly what “makes her feel more grief than if she had” (p. 63), as well
as the notion that when a mermaid dies, all that is left of this supposedly
soulless creature is “foam on the water” (p. 68). This tale is also worthy of
consideration, in the present context, insofar as in epitomizing Andersen’s
penchant for ambiguous bittersweet endings, it also mirrors anime’s preference
for the same dramatic strategy — an aspect of the form which Dezaki himself
champions with arguably unparalleled gusto. Indeed, while the Little Mer-
maid’s torments are rewarded with her assumption to the ranks of spirits of
the air that may ascend to an eternal realm once their three-hundred-year
trial is over, there is no clear endpoint to her waiting for the final reward:
with every good human child she gazes upon, her odyssey will be shortened,
but with every naughty child whose misdeeds she witnesses from high above,
it will be ineluctably lengthened. In addition, the idea that the creature’s
redemption depends not on her own but on other people’s goodness further
curtails her free will. A comparably double-edged conclusion crowns the ordeal
of the titular hero in The Steadfast Tin Soldier, while the ending of The Little
Match Girl, though wrenchingly tragic at one level, ushers in a decidedly mys-
tical sense of hope that allows for a more optimistic reading.
In tonal and stylistic terms, The Snow Queen finds especially close pred-
ecessors in the tales of The Flying Trunk, The Ugly Duckling and The Wild
Swans. A few of these stories’ most salient themes, images and narrative devices
therefore deserve attention at this stage. The Flying Trunk foreshadows The
Snow Queen in its acute sensitivity to the realities of irretrievable loss, sepa-
ration and neglect — feelings that pervade the earlier story’s finale, despite its
predominantly vivacious tenor, once the protagonist realizes that he will never
be able to return to his bride and all he can do — somewhat like Andersen
himself— is to go “wandering round the world, on foot, telling fairy tales” (p.
121). In The Snow Queen, it is with the character of the reindeer Bae that those
affects find the most striking formulation. The Ugly Duckling also anticipates
The Snow Queen in its own fashion through its heartrending portrayal of
extreme loneliness and isolation (exacerbated by temporary amnesia in the
case of The Snow Queen), counterpointed by no less intense expressions of
generosity and forgiveness. Andersen’s textual power to evoke delicate pictorial
strokes is most patent in the tale of the stranded cygnet and this is undoubtedly
an aspect of the Danish author’s art to which Dezaki would have felt instinc-
tively drawn when planning his adaptation of the later fairy tale.
It is in The Wild Swans that The Snow Queen finds its closest narrative
relation. Sensitivity to minute visual details, bound to reach its stunning cul-
mination in The Snow Queen, already makes itself palpably evident in The
Wild Swans with some highly unusual visual touches. A case in point is the
scene where Princess Elisa, sent off to live in poverty with a peasant family
by her heartless stepmother, plays with “a green leaf— the only toy she had.
She pricked a hole in it and peeped through at the sunlight. The brightness
made her think of the bright eyes of her brothers” (p. 97). At the same time,
The Wild Swans preludes The Snow Queen in its passion for bold metamorphic
flourishes — especially in the depiction of “the cloud Palace of the fairy Mor-
gana” where “Sea, air and sky are ever in motion” and “no vision ever comes
to the watcher twice” (p. 103). These are framed by harrowing dramatic com-
plications exuding a tenebrous halo of almost intolerable foreboding and by
the diegetically pivotal obligation to embark on a perilous voyage with no
unequivocally foreseeable outcome or destination.
The Snow Queen likewise glories in variations on the transformation
topos, varying their magnitude from the glamorous to the minimalistic. The
former typology is ushered in right at the beginning with the image of the
devilish mirror that makes all hideous things seem beautiful and all comely
and virtuous things, conversely, appear repulsive. Shattered into countless
fragments that cause any being that comes into contact with even the tiniest
of shards to become calculating and cold-hearted, the mirror provides the
point of departure for the saga of woe, endurance and love with Gerda and
Kay as its protagonists. Although the mirror’s impact is momentous, it is from
elegantly restrained descriptive notes that Andersen exposes most memorably
the effect which one of the stray splinters has on Kay’s personality, thus con-
firming the author’s dexterity in the handling of subtle particulars. Hence,
the boy’s deterioration from a gentle, sensitive and nature-loving soul into a
callous creature is neatly summed up by the observation that when terror
seizes him upon his abduction by the Snow Queen, “all he could remember
was multiplication tables” (p. 162). Another nice touch bearing full witness
to Andersen’s knack of evoking whole scenes through single lines of narrative
comes later with the description of the Finmark woman, poring “so intently”
over parchment covered with cryptic marks that “sweat ran from her brow
like rain” (p. 185).
Going back to the metamorphosis topos, a striking example of its use in
a deliberately nonsensational vein is the scene where Gerda’s tears fall onto
the very spot where a rose tree has been swallowed by the earth, causing the
plant to spring up again in glorious bloom. The most dazzling instance of
transformation occurs when Gerda at last manages to enter the Snow Queen’s
garden and snowflakes in charge of guarding the domain morph into creatures
endowed with the most preposterous of forms: “Some were huge wild hedge-
hogs; others were like knotted bunches of snakes writhing their heads in all
directions; others again were like fat little bears with icicles for hair.” Gerda,
with characteristic resourcefulness, succeeds unwittingly in vanquishing the
formidable guards as the cloud of “her own breath” takes the shape of “bright
angels” capable of dispelling “the dreadful snow-things” (p. 187).
Climactic and seasonal effects, already central to The Wild Swans, play
an even more conspicuous role in The Snow Queen. A tangible sense of the
passing seasons is conveyed from an early stage in the narrative, as the pro-
tagonists’ relationship is framed precisely by reference to the different activities
in which they engage according to seasonal shifts. In the summer, they sit
together for hours in the miniature rose-cocooned garden placed at the meet-
ing point of their attics’ sloping roofs, chatting and playing in the fragrant
warmth of the brief spell of clement weather blessing the northern region. In
the winter, they interact by warming up coins and pressing them on the frosty
window panes so as to create peepholes through which their eyes may gaze
out into the snow-clasped world. A touching example of Andersen’s descriptive
genius in the chronicling of the changing seasons is provided by the scene in
which Gerda, still in the relatively early stages of her quest, suddenly realizes,
to her utter dismay, that “summer” is “over.” Although she has witnessed “no
signs of changing time” in the “enchanted garden” where she has resided prac-
tically since her departure from her hometown in search of Kay, time has in
fact moved on at an alarming rate: “The long willow leaves had turned quite
yellow and wet with mist; they dropped off one by one.... Oh, how mournful
and bleak it was in the wide world” (p. 171).
A scintillating instance of Andersen’s power to make the weather a ver-

itable stage hero is offered by the sequence in which the Snow Queen takes
Kay to her northern Palace. The sequence’s frantically accelerating momentum
is harmonized with the correspondingly rampant severity of the elements as
the Snow Queen’s sledge rises over the stormy clouds and the wind heaves
and roars, reminding Kay of “ballads of olden times” (p. 163). Every single
aspect of the environment responds at once to the raging weather and to the
Snow Queen’s passage over lakes, lands and woods as though to evoke the
seamless collusion of the animal, vegetable and mineral kingdoms in a universe
where protean flux reigns supreme. It is in The Snow Queen’s climax, however,
that Andersen’s passion for atmospheric drama reaches an apex of sublimity,
as the protagonists emerge from the Queen’s icy and eerily resounding Palace
and the cutting winds suddenly die out while the sun breaks through as if to
welcome them both and, most importantly, reward Gerda’s stoical resilience.
The topos of the voyage, already seen to play a prominent role in The Wild
Swans, is so cardinal to The Snow Queen as to be realistically definable as its
narrative lynchpin. The theme is enthroned as a major player early on with
Kay’s abduction by the titular character, which could readily be described as
the most tantalizing passage in Andersen’s whole oeuvre.
Like many (indeed most) of Andersen’s other narratives, The Snow Queen
also evinces a refreshing sense of humor. Therefore, even if instances of pain,
deprivation and even violent death pepper the tale, the author’s playful side
never relinquishes the scene altogether. The character of the Raven and his
sweetheart/wife-to-be are responsible for a substantial proportion of the tale’s
humor. This is clearly demonstrated by the scene in which the Raven, having
complained that his mastery of Gerda’s language is inadequate and he will
therefore have to keep his tale down to the bare bones, then launches into an
extraordinarily detailed and ornamented piece of rhetoric. Even more overtly
amusing is the scene in which the Raven and his partner, having been asked
by the Princess who wishes to reward their generosity whether they would
prefer freedom or a permanent appointment as Court Ravens accompanied
by limitless access to leftovers from the royal kitchens, cautiously espouse the
latter option because they feel they must “think of their old age” (p. 178). The
erection of the birds to the status of comic figures does not, however, exempt
them totally from the darker realities of Andersen’s vision and in the dénoue-
ment, we indeed learn that the male has died since Gerda made his acquain-
tance, leaving behind a plaintive widow. Another fine touch of humor is
provided by the portrait of the hounds kept by the robbers — brutes that look
as though they could easily devour a human with no effort but refrain from
barking for the simple reason that it “was forbidden” (p. 180).
As elsewhere in Andersen, architectural descriptors are no less lovingly
handled than natural ones. In The Snow Queen, a paradigmatic illustration is

supplied by the castle where, at one point, Gerda believes she may have located
Kay at last: each hall through which the girl passes is described as more majes-
tic than the previous one and the ceiling of the royal bedchamber is said to
be shaped “like the crown of a palm tree, with leaves of rarest crystal” (p.
177). One of the entire tale’s most imaginative sequences is the one in which
Gerda moves from flower to flower in the bewitched garden to glean infor-
mation regarding Kay’s whereabouts but only hears each flower’s personal
story, vision, song or dream. These ultimately amount to potential fairy tales
in their own right, which renders the sequence as a whole a capsulated version
of Andersen’s distinctive universe in a nutshell. The oneiric element, already
axial to this portion of the narrative, asserts itself with mesmerizingly haunting
beauty in a later passage which many readers of all ages have not hesitated to
single out as their most abiding memory of the whole tale. This is the one
where Gerda perceives “a flight of shadows on the wall” of the staircase leading
surreptitiously to the royal bedroom — namely, the silhouettes of “horses with
thin legs and flowing manes, huntsmen, lords and ladies on horseback”— and
the Raven informs her that they “are only dreams” that “come and take the
gentry’s thoughts on midnight rides” (p. 176).
As noted earlier, and specifically with reference to The Emperor’s New
Clothes, Andersen frequently presents children as people endowed with a sen-
sitivity, wisdom and resourcefulness unknown to adults. The Snow Queen cel-
ebrates this proposition by declaring that no additional force which the heroine
might aspire to gain, magical or otherwise, could ever be greater than the one
which she already possesses: that is to say, the strength that issues from her
very heart and, as the Finmark woman puts it, from being an “innocent child”
(p. 186). Furthermore, The Snow Queen’s truly happy ending, one senses, does
not simply reside with the protagonists’ reunion or their safe return to their
hometown but rather with the revelation that although by the time the story
reaches its conclusion Gerda and Kay are no longer “young children,” they
are nonetheless “the same children still at heart” (p. 193). As foreshadowed,
The Snow Queen elliptically points to the inseparability of good and evil, thus
ushering in an atmosphere of potent ethical ambiguity. This is most tersely
(in a literal, as well as figurative, sense) communicated by the eponymous
character. The Snow Queen is neither good nor evil: she forcibly takes Kay
under her wing and keeps him bound to her Palace by means of an unaccom-
plishable task, yet cannot be blamed for the misfortune that has befallen the
boy in the first place. In fact, it could even be opined that the glacial lady
simply takes advantage of the situation, recognizing in the ice-hearted kid a
kindred spirit and securing his company out of sheer loneliness. Most crucially,
the Queen’s motives are never explicitly stated in the tale and this is undoubt-
edly one of its greatest strengths. It is also, no less vitally in this context, what
Dezaki seeks to bring to the fore in his own version of the classic narrative.
The anime asserts its atmospheric distinctiveness by deliberately displac-
ing the marked sense of enclosedness characterizing the opening segment of
Andersen’s story by means of an expansive landscape. This is foregrounded
from the start through panoramic views of the protagonists’ hometown. More-
over, the kids themselves are first introduced in the context of a rural late-
summer excursion, as Gerda leads Kay to the meadow flooded with white and
red roses which she has recently discovered. A remarkable example of Dezaki’s
broadening of the original tale’s spatial scope is the deep forest, unique to the
anime, reputed to harbor an ancient church whence the sound of the bell to
which Gerda feels mysteriously drawn seems to issue. It is when Gerda and
Kay enter the menacing woods against the adults’ desires (and the girl at one
point even tumbles down a Carrollian hole symbolic of a transition to some
alternate realm) that the protagonists first come into contact with a magical
dimension presaging the Snow Queen’s advent in their lives.
Another aspect of Dezaki’s anime evident from the show’s inceptive
moments consists of its painstaking attention to the representation of inani-
mate objects. This is most sensationally attested to by the Snow Queen’s horse-
drawn carriage: an entity that literally materializes out of nothing and comes
to life whenever the lady requires transportation. The accompanying sound
and lighting effects — a crystalline jingle of invisible bells, effervescent trails
of ice dust, shades redolent of the Aurora Borealis — majestically abet the vehi-
cle’s depiction. In this respect, the adaptation professes utter fidelity to its
antecedent insofar as Andersen’s universe itself is proverbially defined by an
unsurpassed ability to make the everyday reality of seemingly lifeless things
proclaim its aliveness with both energy and charm. According to Jackie Wull-
schlager, this quality is a natural corollary of Andersen’s personality, which
accommodated throughout his life a “child’s instinctive empathy with objects
and people, and an unbridled infant egoism which enabled him to see his
own story in all things.” Whether or not explicit correspondences obtain
between Andersen’s imagination and Dezaki’s, there can be little doubt that
the two artists share a passionate devotion to attentively individualized actors,
vivid settings and a flair for integrating the portrayal of fantastical items with
a piquant take on the ludic. A major source of jocularity is supplied, in the
anime, by the red and blue trolls employed in the capacity of attendants at
the Snow Queen’s Palace. Paradoxically, despite their role as dispensers of
boisterous comic relief, these characters are also responsible for shattering the
mirror from which the saga’s core drama derives. In addition, Dezaki is faithful
to Andersen in the studious recording of the passage of the seasons, and related
attention to ritualized activities connected with both seasonal and diurnal
cycles, from the autumn “gleaning” that takes place in the aftermath of the
summer harvest, to the kneading of dough, weaving at the loom or carving
of wooden clogs.
It should also be noted that Dezaki draws some discreet parallels between
the story of The Snow Queen itself and Andersen’s life, presenting Gerda as a
washerwoman, like Andersen’s mum, while Kay’s dad is cast as a cobbler with
a knack of creating wonderful wooden toys: Andersen is said to have learned
from his father the art of constructing toy theaters. The Danish author himself
finds an apposite alter ego in the persona of the itinerant minstrel Ragi, who
travels from land to land in the company of a lone she-wolf and a wee monkey
and is employed by Dezaki as the character charged with the task of chron-
icling the saga for our benefit. Increasingly, Ragi ascends to the status of a
major character, accompanying Gerda in many of her most challenging adven-
tures and incrementally revealing an intricate personality and history of his
own beneath a seemingly hard surface of imponderable self-composure. It
should also be noted, in this regard, that Dezaki’s introduction of a narrator
providing a substantial (yet not overbearing ) voiceover in the guise of a
weighty and somber commentary on Gerda’s ordeal serves to evoke the impres-
sion that the anime is not merely replicating a story that has already been
written and told but actually creating and divulging a narrative as we watch
its unfolding. This engaging sense of immediacy and performative presence
enables the show to speak to the feelings, anxieties and desires of a contem-
porary audience without seeking refuge in antiquarian fidelity as its top pri-
ority. The character of Hans Alexander Holmes parallels Ragi as a further
intradiegetic Andersen avatar, being an actor, a street entertainer and, above
all, an ardent bricoleur and inventor. Andersen himself indeed harbored a
legendary passion for engineering and mechanics.
Furthermore, as Wolfgang Lederer points out, the very idea of the rooftop
garden — as significant in the anime as it is in the source narrative — mirrors
Andersen’s own childhood experience since “He had just such an arrangement
of flower boxes when he was a little boy (though he always played there alone)”
(Lederer, p. 9). Dezaki’s use of aspects of the writer’s life is quite pertinent if
one accepts, at least partially, Lederer’s contention that Andersen, like Kay,
was trapped and inhibited by his very personality and gradually developed
the conviction that for a boy to transcend adolescent self-alienation and reach
manhood, he needs “redemption through the love of a woman” (p. 182). This
psychological evolution, argues Lederer, is something which Andersen longed
for but was powerless to achieve: “Andersen started as an ugly duckling and
became the resplendent swan of the salon and the house party; but, contrary
to the ugly duckling of his famous story, he never truly believed that he was
being accepted by the other swans.” In the circumstances, however, he found
marvelous ways of giving life to his dreams of acceptance and human warmth
through his art: “it was from his very failures,” Lederer touchingly comments,
that “Andersen — poor, lonely oyster that he was — created the pearls he has
left us” (p. 179).
Some figurative motifs that are of cardinal importance to the tale and its
animated version alike require some consideration at this stage in the discus-
sion. The image of the magical mirror is prominent in fairy tales and fantasy
literature generally as a gateway to other worlds, as documented by narratives
as diverse as Snow White, Beauty and the Beast and Through the Looking-Glass,
and What Alice Found There. The Snow Queen lends the motif an original
twist, on which the anime depends to great effect and with some truly inspired
reorientations, by intimating that such a portal can compel people to recognize
the world’s ugliness and evil for what they truly are and, by implication, to
see the unpalatable facets of their own individual natures which they strive
to ignore or repress. According to Moira Li-Lynn Ong, the image of the “shat-
tered mirror” can also be read as a “metaphor for depression” insofar as its
penetration, as a mere shard, of a person’s heart can be conducive to precisely
the kind of “irritability,” “negative thoughts” and “numbness” one encounters
in depression. Moreover, just as depression ruptures an individual’s emotional
equilibrium, the accursed fragment’s hold on Kay’s heart leads to the fracture
of the composite soul which his own self and Gerda’s self appear to constitute
at the start of the tale into two separate entities, disjoined by more than just
space in a purely physical or geographical sense of the term. (In Dezaki’s adap-
tation, the complementarity of the two protagonists’ souls is symbolically
encapsulated by the likewise interdependent values upheld by the image of
the red rose associated with Gerda and that of the white rose associated with
Kay.) The schism caused by the diabolical mirror’s impact on the characters’
lives inevitably means that both the overt victim of the curse and his com-
plementary soul mate are equally deprived of their initial state of harmony —
hence, Gerda’s urge to embark on a perilous journey to restore not only her
friend’s but also her own natural integrity.
Furthermore, there is an obvious similarity between Kay’s residence at
the Snow Queen’s Palace and Gerda’s sojourn in the Enchanted Cottage, for
both experiences constitute rites of passage in which subjectivity is held in
abeyance and inactivity functions as a means of giving the mind and the emo-
tions room to evolve: a Dark Night of the Soul without which no further
motion would be possible. “When depression strikes,” Ong comments, “we
often become increasingly bitter and self-hating, growing so alienated that
we seem lost from ourselves and others.” This condition is mirrored by Kay’s
predicament as he becomes estranged from Gerda and his familiar environment
until he is literally “whisked away by the Snow Queen.” Gerda’s journey, in
this scenario, constitutes a metaphor for the “healing” process as a quest “into
the most frightening limits” of the psyche (Ong). Mary C. Legg highlights
the sheer magnitude of Gerda’s task as a voyager by contrasting the girl’s atti-
tude to the world with the path chosen by the Old Woman who shelters
Gerda in her magical cottage shortly after the beginning of the long journey.
“Andersen insists that the woman is not a bad witch,” Legg notes “but still a
witch who can order the arrangement of her garden to suit her needs, manip-
ulating the memory of Gerda. The one is childless from old age-and also pos-
sibly selfishness.... In comparison, Gerda began her journey by casting away
her new red shoes. Although the gesture is foolish, the reader sympathises
with someone so selfless as to endure discomfort in hopes of recovering a lost
love.... The selflessness of Gerda is further contrasted with the stories of the
flowers who are filled up with self-admiration. Each is absorbed in its own
small story” (Legg 2004).
Lederer proposes an alternate psychoanalytical reading of the tale, focus-
ing on Kay’s metamorphosis as an allegory of male psychosexual development.
In growing “intolerant of sentimentality and ‘childish’ stories” and deeply
resenting “idealizing romanticism and piety” (Lederer, p. 26) in favor of
“mathematical skill” and “more knowledge of the scientific kind,” while also
preferring outdoor boyish activities to female companionship, Kay “behaves,
in short, like the typical adolescent” (p. 27). According to Anna Freud, this
type of coldly rationalizing attitude is a defense mechanism of vital significance
to adolescents (Freud, pp. 172–180). Dezaki amplifies Kay’s unsentimentally
technological disposition by presenting the boy as a skillful puzzle-maker
from an early stage in the anime, developing this character trait over Kay’s
residence at the Snow Queen’s Palace, where he is shown to carve and assemble
effortlessly an exquisite ice castle replete with mechanisms of great refinement,
as well as skates, skateboards and a flute on which he ritually performs a
melody of his own conception. Lederer also suggests that the Snow Queen’s
kisses consign Kay to a state of “defensive-protective hibernation of the emo-
tions during adolescence” (Lederer, p. 30). The icy lady consciously refrains
from dispensing too many tokens of her attachment to the boy so as not to
endanger his survival in the unfamiliar otherworld: when, on the way to the
Palace, she tells Kay that were she to give him any further kisses, he would
die, her aim is feasibly to ensure the boy’s transition to a liminal developmental
state whence he may emerge more mature and resilient.
Dezaki throws the tale’s psychological dimension into relief while con-
currently corroborating Legg’s proposition that one of The Snow Queen’s prin-
cipal assets lies with its ability to draw us into a world which, though
outlandish, uncannily comes across as somehow familiar. This effect is enabled
by Andersen’s descriptive flair: “he begins the narration of The Snow Queen,”
as Legg notes, by associating the pernicious glass fragment with the homely
image of “an eyelash or hair caught in an eye,” and thus “creates the credibility
of the story” insofar as practically anybody is likely to be acquainted with
“the sharp pain” caused by “particles grating against the tender surface of the
eye.” This paves the way to further recognition of the suffering endured by
the protagonists since, at a basic psychological level, many of us are also likely
to have experienced an affliction comparable to “the tingle of numb hands
and the screaming pain of swollen frozen fingers” (Legg 2003).
At the same time as he brings into play images tapping into both psy-
chology and physiology to engage the audience in his adaptation, Dezaki also
alerts us to the symbolic tension between two well-known fairy tale types:
the Princess and the Queen. The figure of the Princess is traditionally asso-
ciated with the concept of regal dignity and with femininity as embodied by
a character that stands symbolically for the hopes and aspirations of the inner
infantile self in all of us and thus alludes to a sense of promise and to prospects
of future fulfillment. The figure of the Queen, conversely, represents a mature
incarnation of power connotative of self-realization — though not in unequiv-
ocally positive terms given that fairy tale Queens may be cast not simply as
nurturing and tender protectors but also as malicious, envious and dominant
presences. On the whole, whereas the Princess type tends to emblematize the
innocent delight of springtime, the Queen signifies the reliability and vigor
of summer climes. The figures of the Princess and the Queen are not neces-
sarily to be understood as mutually exclusive binary opposites for a Queen
does not have to surrender her Princess self altogether but may, in fact, retain
it while also incorporating an additional role into her overall personality.
What Andersen enjoins us to ponder, in the light of these reflections, is the
significance of a Queen figure that stands not for summer warmth but for the
deepest and most intractably forbidding winter one could ever ideate — so
much so that The Snow Queen has come to represent virtually all over the
world the very spirit of dazzling iciness and many readers will readily claim
that the story has to be read when it is cold and dark outside. The Snow Queen,
in other words, has come to be considered the quintessentially wintry tale —
even more so than the “sad tale” of “sprites and goblins” which Shakespeare’s
Mamilius deems “best for winter” (The Winter’s Tale, Act II, Scene I).
It could be argued that Andersen’s story actually redefines the fairy tale
idea of Queenness by positing the titular character as a pre–Princess figure
that has not yet attained to the innocence and joy of spring, on the one hand,
and as a post–Queen being that has already exhausted the strength and confi-
dence of summer on the other. If this interpretation were espoused, it could
further be maintained that Andersen’s Snow Queen is both immature and
hoary, both childlike and ancient beyond imagining and that in this composite
personality, multiple and discordant roles are able to coexist. The character’s
treatment of Kay substantiates this reading insofar as she is never overtly por-
trayed as either a surrogate sibling or a protective bride (roles that would be
consonant with the Princess modality) or as a mother or stepmother (roles
pertinent to the Queen type) but rather as a weird amalgamation of these and
other possible roles in ways that defy human understanding and strict clas-
sification. Dezaki revels in this ambiguity, invoking it to create an intensely
relativistic universe consonant with the proclivities intrinsic in both his own
distinctive world view and the ethics of anime at large.
It should also be noted, on this point, that the figure of the Snow Queen
is an important member of a larger and widely revered clan of Winter and
Christmas Fairies originating in Pagan lore and then varyingly appropriated,
distorted, demonized — or, quite simply, adapted— by Christianity. As Louise
Heyden explains, “One of the major faerie queens, the Snow Queen is both
faerie and sky goddess. At Winter Solstice she rides through the snowy skies,
making the snow fall by shaking the pillows on her icy chariot. Her company,
known as the Wild Hunt, ride through the skies until Twelfth Night, creating
snowstorms in their wake” (Heyden). Japanese lore has its own memorable
version of such a creature in the mythical persona of Yuki-onna (literally,
“Snow-woman”). As the Wikipedia entry devoted to this figure points out,
“Yuki-onna appears on snowy nights as a tall, beautiful woman with long
black hair and red lips. Her inhumanly pale or even transparent skin makes
her blend into the snowy landscape.... She sometimes wears a white kimono,
but other legends describe her as nude, with only her face and hair standing
out against the snow.... She floats across the snow, leaving no footprints (in
fact, some tales say she has no feet, a feature of many Japanese ghosts), and
she can transform into a cloud of mist or snow if threatened” (“Yuki-onna”).
Yuki-onna closely parallels Andersen’s portrayal of the Snow Queen in
her moral ambivalence, having indeed been depicted as preternaturally evil
in some legends and as vulnerably human in others, as a vampiric soul-sucker,
succubus or child-snatcher in her maleficent incarnations and as a magnani-
mous, gentle or vaporously spectral force in her unharmful manifestations.
Yuki-Onna also echoes Andersen’s Snow Queen on the iconographic plane
insofar as she often appears in the form of a glacial wave traversing the envi-
ronment with tempestuous intensity in the deceptively soft embrace of a frosty
mantle. This imagery pervades Dezaki’s rendition of the Snow Queen’s recur-
rent forays into the human world to regale it with winter, control storms or
visit its inhabitants through fleeting apparitions. In his adaptation of the
famous tale, and particularly in sequences such as those, Dezaki assiduously
reminds us that it is possible to relate intimately to fantastic adventures as
reflections of the hidden landscapes of human personality and hence as form-
ative myths capable of sustaining individual journeys of maturation and self-

understanding. Accepting the metaphorical veracity and psychological rele-
vance of a fairy tale even as one recognizes its empirical otherworldliness is
akin, ultimately, to accepting one’s own unfolding life story as a web of end-
lessly intricate motivations, expectations, choices and dreams coated with rich
layers of seemingly unfathomable symbolism.
Even the most devoted or fastidious Andersen fan would plausibly be
willing to concede that Dezaki’s show does the original story full credit. This
does not only apply to those aspects of the anime that follow the source text
most faithfully. In fact, it is also true — ironically, even truer at times — of
those facets of the adaptation that emanate entirely from the director’s own
imagination and could therefore be regarded as its unofficial components.
These include both episode-long digressions, shorter sequences and even mere
vignettes, some of which are tangentially inspired by other fairy tales issuing
from Andersen’s pen. At times, we encounter obvious references to iconic
Andersen props — e.g., the magical flying trunk. At others, Dezaki offers sub-
stantially original adaptations of narrative and symbolic motifs immortalized
by the Danish author. In the process, several Andersen tales are revisited.
These include The Ugly Duckling, The Pea Blossom, The Traveling Companion,
She Was Good for Nothing, The Red Shoes, The Little Match Girl and The Little
Mermaid.
Dezaki’s adaptation of The Little Mermaid within the wider tapestry of
his anime is worthy of consideration as an illustrative instance. The episode
in question thrives on the interleaving of Andersen’s original story, narrated
by Hans as a miniature puppet show with the assistance of a toy theater of
just the kind the Danish author would have loved, with gorgeously painted
still plates and regular animated sequences recording Gerda’s exploration of
a mermaid-themed coastal town of picturesque charm. The place is so icono-
graphically obsessed with the hybrid figure that mermaids of all shapes and
sizes feature ubiquitously as shop signs, fountains, decorative motifs for table-
ware and biscuits (among several other available configurations). The Gerda-
based strand of the adventure chronicles the heroine’s interaction with a
latter-day mermaid that has also, like Andersen’s doomed protagonist, gained
access to the human world and acquired a pair of legs. Although the climax
of this installment is by no means as harrowing as the finale of Andersen’s
tale, it nonetheless carries a markedly bittersweet and ambiguous message
consonant with the ethos cultivated by the art of anime at large and Dezaki’s
opus in particular. Thus, while Dezaki’s mermaid has her longing for human
friendship briefly fulfilled, she must ineluctably return to the aqueous domain
where people like Gerda and wonderful adventures like Gerda’s quest are
intractably alien.
Returning to Dezaki’s The Snow Queen, it should be noted that one novel
element proposed by the anime that deserves special attention consists of the
narrative change that makes the obnoxious glass fragments issue from the
Snow Queen’s very Palace, where the shattering of the magical mirror is said
to have occurred. When the red and blue trolls in the Snow Queen’s service
are temporarily possessed by the mirror’s demonic maker, they are instantly
seized by an irresistible urge to drop the artifact. This serves to lend the Snow
Queen’s decision to snatch Kay away from his familiar world fresh levels of
meaning. For one thing, it suggests that the knowledge of a direct connection
between the shard that has pierced the boy’s eye and heart and the Snow
Queen’s own domain is what draws the preternatural creature to Kay as a
human whose destiny is viscerally bound to her being. Additionally, if the icy
lady could be credited with the possession of ethical standards of a kind a
human can grasp, it could be surmised that what has led her to rehome Kay
in her world is a sense of responsibility for his misfortune. She indeed promises
Kay that as long as he is a “guest” at her Palace, where “eternal beauty” and
“silence” that “transcends time” reign supreme, his damaged heart “will feel
no pain.” What he will have to surrender “in exchange” is his “past.” This
reading seems to be validated by the Snow Queen’s efforts to make Kay happy
in her realm — much to the confusion of the trolls hosted therein, who do not
appear to have witnessed this kind of conduct on their mistress’ part before.
In addition, it is important to recognize that the Snow Queen likewise
plays a benevolent role in several later scenes. At one point, her sheer presence
within the landscape appears responsible for the materialization, against the
logic of the bitter season, of the “liverwort” shoots needed to cure Gerda’s
grandmother when her raging fever endangers her very life. There also inti-
mations of the Snow Queen’s kindness in the adventure where her appear-
ance — riding a snowy steed and accompanied by the Aurora — over a
treacherous sea route seems indirectly instrumental in the redemption of a
corrupt Captain. Nevertheless, these hypothetical attributions of morality
should not induce us to forget that for Dezaki, as for Andersen, the Snow
Queen is ultimately an amoral being — an entity beyond morality as one might
conceive of that concept in ordinary terms and as remote as the land “beyond
the giant glaciers of the North” where, according to the words spoken by
Gerda’s grandmother in the screenplay, her Palace stands. As Nicky Raven
points out in his introduction to the Templar edition of Andersen’s narrative,
“The character of the Snow Queen sits beautifully on the edge of the story;
not good, but not pure evil either. Unlike the villains of most conventional
stories, she doesn’t need to be defeated for Gerda and Kay to triumph” (in
Andersen 2005, p. 12). Dezaki knows how to depict full-fledged villains when
he is so inclined and it is no coincidence that in a show that abounds with
such types, he should have chosen to suspend judgment on the titular persona
herself.
A genuinely inspired adaptive move on Dezaki’s part is the dramatic rev-
elation that even once the mirror seems to have been healed and the fiend to
have been consigned for good to an unfathomable chasm by the heroes’ con-
certed efforts, the villain remains capable of resurging as long as the shard
lodged in Kay’s eye is still missing from the mirror. It is up to the long-
suffering Gerda, at this point, to call on Kay’s dormant emotions in order to
trigger the boy’s tears and thus the expulsion of the last hateful fragment.
Another interesting mirror-related variation on the original theme dramatized
by Dezaki’s anime consists of the Snow Queen’s desire to see the magical look-
ing-glass reassembled. The trolls she employs are at one point enjoined to
undertake the Herculean task of collecting all of the numberless specks into
which the portentous surface is held to have dispersed and piece them together
again. However, the niveous lady seems to harbor little faith in the ostensibly
inane creatures’ willingness, let alone ability, to accomplish such a feat.
Accordingly, while in Andersen’s story Kay is instructed by his patron to
arrange a set of ice shards so that they will spell the word “Eternity” (the
choice of this particular word is left unexplained), in Dezaki’s anime, Kay’s
task is to work on a puzzle whose completion is the key to the restoration of
the shattered mirror, and hence to the conclusive banishment from the Snow
Queen’s realm of the mirror’s diabolical artificer. As long as the puzzle is
incomplete, the demon will be able to avail himself of even the tiniest fissure
in the texture of the icy looking-glass to reenter the Palace and go on threat-
ening the entire cosmos with portentous waves of volcanic fire.
Another interesting departure from the original is the introduction of a
mythical figure of Dezaki’s own ideation as the demonic archenemy’s double:
a character endowed with powers comparable in magnitude, if not in intent,
to those of the titular persona — the “Father of the Wind.” The Snow Queen
clearly mistrusts this character (who, in turn, endeavors to befriend Kay and
ensure his visits to the Palace remain a secret) because she is well aware that
the snow she dispenses upon the land, while not hazardous in itself, is bound
to be a cause of intense suffering for all creatures if it is combined with unruly
squalls and noxious heat currents. This would seem to confirm the existence
of kindly streaks in the Snow Queen’s personality as conceptualized in the
show, while also subtly alluding to environmental issues of great topical rel-
evance. Dezaki’s portrayal of the Snow Queen as a potentially — or liminally —
benevolent individual is confirmed by his preparedness to engage with dark
themes when their need or dramatic appropriateness arise. This is testified by
the fact that he does not demur from a frank confrontation of strife, sorrow,
violence and death, even through the overt employment of stark martial con-
tents and imagery. Such a proclivity emerges in the flashbacks to Ragi’s exploits
as a wartime commander, the Snow Queen’s duels with her demonic antagonist
(where she dons stupendous armor in genuinely chivalric style), and the install-
ment where Gerda and Ragi visit a barren land haunted by the phantoms of
ancient warriors slaughtered in horrible battles.
Dezaki’s handling of the four key adventures forming Andersen’s original
tale deserves some attention at this stage. In his treatment of Part 3, which
pivots on the Enchanted Cottage in Andersen, Dezaki is quite loyal to the
source text in dramatizing Gerda’s forceful adoption by the Old Woman, tem-
porary amnesia and eventual reawakening to the reality of her situation. How-
ever, the anime turns the captor into a more customary fairy tale witch and
accordingly imparts the character’s portrayal with far more overtly ominous
connotations. The heroine’s retrieval of her memories and resultant resolve to
break free, relatedly, lead to intense dynamism appropriate to Dezaki’s
medium, with Gerda’s rescue of the roses trapped by the enchantress in a
dungeon-like cave marking the culmen of the girl’s heroic stamina. With the
adaptation of the adventure developed in Part 4, revolving around the Prince
and Princess of a marvelous realm in the context of the original text, the
anime adheres to the spirit of the original in the depiction of the stupendously
loquacious Raven, of the magnanimity of the royal couple and of the sump-
tuousness of its Palace. Once again, Dezaki relies on his medium’s unique
strengths: in this instance, not so much in favor of ebullient action as in the
service of lavishly painted natural and architectural locales. The golden car-
riage and luxurious clothing with which Gerda is presented by her benefactors
stand out as veritable anime gems.
Part 5, centered by Andersen on the Robber Girl, offers a radically novel
take on the robbers, now portrayed as a semi-demonic tribal society governed
by a complex hierarchy, set of customs and rules of conduct, simultaneously
expanding the scope of the adventure and underscoring the Robber Girl’s
bravery in her efforts to abet Gerda’s quest and generosity in the flashback to
her rescue of the reindeer Bae, destined soon to become a major actor in the
story. With the adaptation of Part 6, where the source narrative concentrates
on the personae of the Lapland Woman and the Finmark Woman, Dezaki
indulges in some flamboyant revisioning moves, depicting the two characters
as elderly ladies endowed with outlandish sartorial tastes, a prodigious palate
for theatrical make-up and quite unexpected acrobatic skills. At the same
time, the show is faithful to Andersen’s text in the treatment of narrative
details — e.g., the Lapland Woman’s use of dried fish inscribed with esoteric
letters to communicate with the Finmark Woman, the depiction of the large
bush with red berries marking the critical spot upon which Bae must put
Gerda down to ensure she will proceed alone in her quest and the tearful
farewell occurring at that juncture. Like Andersen’s Finmark Woman, Dezaki’s

does not initially seem too willing to support Gerda’s mission but gives in
when she recognizes the girl’s strength as the sole weapon through which the
Snow Queen’s power may be challenged: in other words, the pure determi-
nation of an honest and resilient child.
In the anime’s climax, Dezaki conclusively imparts his show with remark-
able artistic autonomy through formal and stylistic shifts no less than con-
tent-oriented changes. The cinematic icon of the Snow Queen’s Palace,
mantled in crystal gleams and emerging epiphanically from the impenetrable
darkness around it, is felicitously deployed by Dezaki as the point of entry to
the anime’s final installments. The first of the formal shifts here worthy of
note is Dezaki’s interpretation of Gerda’s battle against the Snow Queen’s
guards, which are rendered with a hearty appetite for multifarious monstrosity
and abetted by an obstacle course of astounding aesthetic refinement: for
instance, in the representation of the grid bearing snow-crystal patterns over
which Gerda leaps like a seasoned Olympic hurdler. An arresting structural
reorientation following these scenes consists of the involuted set of circum-
stances in which the Snow Queen decides to allow the girl into her domain.
This move ushers in opportunities for two interrelated chains of dramatic
ramifications. On one level, we see the heroine interact with the trolls who,
in the process, retain their carnivalesque function but also rise to the status
of mindful and self-determining agents with credible feelings. On the other,
we are encouraged — or rather, challenged — to speculate about the Snow
Queen’s modus operandi and attendant ethics. While it is not preposterous
to surmise that the Snow Queen, in keeping Gerda locked up in a sparsely
furnished and inevitably chilly chamber and barring her access to Kay, is effec-
tively holding the girl captive and hence behaving like a standard evil sorceress,
it is also tempting to speculate that the mythical figure is actually protecting
Gerda from the pain and sadness she knows the girl is bound to feel upon
realizing that her playmate has no idea who she is.
The climax escalates with Kay’s possession by the Snow Queen’s arch-
enemy — who has by now relinquished altogether the suave semblance of
Father of the Wind and taken on the appearance of a full-fledged colossal
fiend that graphically amplifies the tenor of Andersen’s own description of the
mirror’s manufacturer as “the Devil himself ” (Andersen 2004, p. 154). Sur-
rounding this baleful event are the no less spectacular arrival of the lone wolf
Olga at the Palace bearing Ragi’s hat and the Snow Queen’s decision to rescue
the hapless minstrel from his glacial tomb. The glistening lady’s encounter
with Ragi at this stage in the adventure mirrors a prior meeting between the
two characters — hinted at by earlier flashbacks — in which matters of snow-
triggered death, survival and redemption were likewise central. Whereas at
the time of the first rendezvous Ragi appeared to long for death as the only
possible reprieve from a destiny of guilt-laden survival and the Snow Queen
unwilling to comply with his desire, Ragi is now given a chance, having sam-
pled the reality of death, to appreciate the true magnitude of the Snow Queen’s
implied message — namely, the idea that life should never, however unpalatable
the alternative may seem, be casually thrown away.
The relationship between Ragi and the Snow Queen is very complex and
woven from a special but largely inscrutable bond that appears to defy time
and space, concurrently obfuscating the boundary between the story’s here-
and-now and an ancestral era steeped in myth. Dezaki’s articulation of that
relationship eloquently demonstrates the director’s flair for sophisticated psy-
chological analysis. At the same time, the two characters’ alliance — staunchly
abetted by Olga — in the final battle against the Devil could be seen as an
epic adaptation of the profoundly collaborative spirit underpinning the art of
anime in its entirety. With the battle, Dezaki also enjoys unprecedented scope
for sensational action sequences that deploy to great effect stark chromatic
contrasts (especially between icy and fiery palettes) and for the representation
of martial gear of medieval and classical resonance, matched by winged steeds
(akin to the ones found in Romeo x Juliet, here studied in Chapter 5). As
anticipated, it is with the postponement of the heroes’ victory, occasioned by
the stubborn attachment of the very last mirror fragment to Kay’s person,
that the anime adaptation proclaims most sonorously its autonomous standing
vis-à-vis its source. The visual parallel established by Dezaki between the tiny
fissure in the mirror through which the villain may easily vanquish humanity
in one fell swoop and the physical torment endured by Kay as the sole remain-
ing victim of the curse encapsulates both the raw human drama and the cosmic
dimension of the story with remarkable cinematic conciseness.
Dezaki’s anime is intensely loyal to its European source — even as it pro-
claims its independent caliber and often departs from it with radical audac-
ity — through the painstaking adoption of a narrative form and storytelling
stance that remain true throughout to the quintessential spirit of old fairy
tales. This is most pointedly the case with the numerous episodes in which
Dezaki digresses from the parent text to weave quite independent substories
alongside the substories already drawn from Andersen himself. The fairy tale’s
distinctive spirit is never ignored or obfuscated but is actually emplaced as
the adventure’s implicit hero by the use of a visual style vividly redolent of
Scandinavian lore. In other words, the anime does not merely pay lip service
to an ancient tradition to which an Eastern audience would feel attracted just
because of its exotic alterity: in fact, it genuinely and consummately embodies
it at the most intimate aesthetic level. It is also noteworthy that the introduc-
tion of additional stories enables Dezaki to communicate a key facet of fairy
tales at large: the crucial importance of trials as inevitable vicissitudes to be

endured and overcome by a heroine or a hero even if they are not explicitly
linked to her or his main quest. Trials are ultimately what makes characters
what they are, what invests them with recognizable identities, and are hence
instrumental in helping them prove the validity of those identities holistically
rather than simply on the basis of some contingent achievement. Gerda,
specifically, is made what she is by each and every adventure she experiences
along the way — not solely by her rescue of the boy she treasures out of love,
generosity and perseverance, admirable though these qualities indubitably
are.
Andersen’s chosen form and medium compel him to individuate the dif-
ferent locations in which The Snow Queen’s seven parts are staged by recourse
to carefully selected descriptive details capable of evoking multiple impressions
in the most economical fashion imaginable. The anime mold allows Dezaki
to experiment with a wide array of meticulously diversified settings. These
range from balmy seaside towns to terrifying glaciers and stormy oceans, from
homely village yards to magical forests, from idyllic flower-strewn meadows
and sleepily winding rivers to portentous waterfalls and impervious mountain
ranges. Concurrently, the series dwells by turns on palpably material edifices
and evanescently refined conceptual realms, romantic vistas wherein a wil-
derness of shaggy trees and weather-beaten rocks seamlessly coexists with
green valleys and graceful nostalgic visions, pastel-hued turrets and castles of
the first water. The pictorial strategies used to portray these richly varied sce-
narios are numerous and, by and large, technically sophisticated. Visual effects
redolent of forms as diverse as watercolor and oil painting, crayon and chalk
sketches, woodcut illustrations, engravings and stained glass (among others)
persistently communicate a passionate desire to grasp the beauties of both
nature and architecture on the basis of patient contemplation and visionary
interpretation. Mimetic imperatives are never allowed to constrain or dilute
fantasy’s striving for alternate worlds that may capture elemental emotions
and states of mind most faithfully by following the mysteries of the world
rather than endeavoring to domesticate them through slavish imitation. Har-
mony and balance, ironically, may be suggested through deliberate distortion
while turmoil, conversely, may be evoked by means of emphatically ordered
forms rendered unsettling by an excess of equilibrium. A number of scenes
from Gerda’s onerous voyage exemplify the former approach, whereas some
of the more disquieting moments occurring in the Snow Queen’s Palace at
the end illustrate the latter.
Throughout the anime, it is evident that for Dezaki and his team, the
force of an image — regardless of its dramatic amplitude — depends mainly
on its colors: on chroma per se as well as on the trails of light and shadow left
by various shapes as they are reflected and refracted by their surroundings.

Swathed in shrouds of radiant light or somber shadow one moment and emit-
ting multi-tinged haloes the next, such shapes are able to convey with arresting
succinctness both serenity and violence, swirling unrest and majestic stillness.
When gay hues are brought into play, their warmth and mellowness are some-
thing one does not easily forget even after the show is over, and when the
shadows thicken, their incumbence feels so menacing as to be likely to impress
the most seasoned of anime viewers. In marrying his dedication to color with
a contemporary take on the fairy tale form, Dezaki’s The Snow Queen would
appear to validate Debbie Olson’s contention that “Color is the language of
modern fairy-tales.” This, the critic maintains, is largely a corollary of the
inscription of such stories, especially in the guise of “animated films,” in “cap-
italist consumer culture,” where color is accorded pivotal significance as “the
language of advertising” and the films themselves constitute primarily a set
of commodities to be publicized through the stimulation of consumer desires.
In other words, color can be regarded as the common code which contempo-
rary fairy tales and advertising share as an expressive medium, and this com-
monality is sustained by the status of the film as a product amenable to
commercial promotion alongside a plethora of ancillary merchandise. Crucial
to this strategy is the promotion of “product identification” through the asso-
ciation of childhood with specific palettes (Olson, p. 32) promulgating the
nostalgic notion of childhood as an age of innocence and purity. Children’s
attraction to palettes which they associate with a film they cherish will induce
them to desire analogously colored objects (e.g., toys, clothing, stationery)
“that allow them to revisit the utopia of the film world.” An adult, concur-
rently, will plausibly respond to commodities “packaged and advertised in the
same color palette as the film” as an opportunity to reaccess an “idealized
childhood” (p. 33).
Ironically, Dezaki corroborates Olson’s argument in reverse gear insofar
as The Snow Queen, though connected with commercial spinoffs, does not
seek to foster stereotypical idealizations of childhood through product iden-
tification meant to perpetuate ideological expectations. This is demonstrated
by Dezaki’s refusal to associate childhood monolithically with a single palette.
Thus, depending on the action’s circumstances, mood and tempo, children
may come to be associated by Dezaki with both cool and warm hues, gentle
pastels and bold primaries, as well as colors traditionally deemed incompatible
with juvenile fantasy: e.g., black, the hue typically connected with sepulchral
gravity but in fact attached by the anime to the immensely positive character
of the Raven so pivotal to Gerda’s adventures, and gold, the hue deemed to
emblematize a strictly adult notion of authority, yet used by Dezaki as a sym-
bolic connector between Gerda and the youthful royal couple.
The artbooks documenting the series’ most salient moments by means

of strings of imaginatively edited stills and original character designs bring
out all of the major stylistic, symbolic and thematic preoccupations evinced
by the anime with commendable formal economy but no dearth of visual
opulence and dramatic pathos. Dezaki’s sensitive approach to lighting effects
is repeatedly brought to the fore. This is borne out, for example, by the early
still depicting the protagonists as they run excitedly through the late-summer
rural settings, where the shafts of light touching grass and rocks with subtly
graded variations communicate a potent sense of spatial expansiveness, dynam-
ically enhanced by the horizon’s curvature. It is with the forbidding winter
light pervading the scenes dedicated to Kay’s funeral in absentia, and throwing
into relief Gerda’s and Kay’s dad’s inconsolable grief in the guise of sharp
shadows and chiseled expression lines, that the atmosphere most starkly gives
in to darkness. With the image recording Gerda and Ragi’s first encounter,
by contrast, the light exudes an uplifting sense of numinous solemnity that
anticipates symbolically the importance to be acquired by the two characters’
relationship in the course of future events.
With the glacier sequence, the power of the elements at their most omi-
nous is uncompromisingly, even brutally, exposed as the eye is invited to travel
from the protagonists’ overawed contemplation of the ice barrier before them
to the increasingly arduous climbs and inclement nights which they have to
endure in their pilgrimage and, beyond that critical point, to the catastrophe
of Ragi’s fall into a seemingly bottomless ravine. Throughout the sequence,
emphasis is laid on the contrast between the human actors’ puniness and
nature’s titanic magnitude. Another good example of Dezaki’s passion for
contrasts is the sequence focusing on the mirror’s destruction by the possessed
trolls. In this instance, we witness the frame-by-frame deterioration of the
two creatures’ conduct from playful banter, through heated exuberance
(marked by their fire-flooded eyes), to downright malevolence, dynamically
enriched by the contrast between the glowing lights and hues expressing the
trolls’ disturbance and the Palace’s crystalline ambience. Marginal frames
devoted to the gargoyles, unicorns and other sculptural hybrids adorning the
many turrets, intent on commenting caustically on the trolls’ actions, further
enhance the sequence’s distinctive tenor.
Simultaneously, pronounced emotive disparities emanate from the art-
books’ juxtaposition of images of Gerda and the Snow Queen — both explic-
itly, as in the facing frames of the girl lying in the snow amid a portentous
blizzard in a state of utter helplessness and of the titular figure’s austerely
immaculate mien, and overtly, as shown in the later still portraying Gerda’s
confrontation of the mighty ruler and highlighting the opposition between
the girl’s pugnacious fervor and the Queen’s impassivity. Gentler instances of
Dezaki’s fascination with expressive diversity come with the montage of photos
focusing on the disparate responses to Kay’s portrait exhibited by various kids
Gerda meets along the way — ranging from disaffected skepticism in the case
of the match-selling urchins, through chary curiosity in that of the young
mermaid, to puzzlement in that of the magical-pear-tree crew. The Raven,
patently not a human child, is the only character to exhibit frank interest in
Gerda’s search and to appear willing to take the drawing as a useful investigate
lead. This is quite consistent with Dezaki’s sensibility: as noted, the director
is loyal to Andersen in the characterization of animal actors as pivotal pres-
ences. The artwork confirms this idea with great accuracy, especially with the
frames foregrounding the protective attitude toward the heroine evinced by
both the miniature monkey Amor and the lone wolf Olga during her illness
and those devoted to Bae from his first appearance in the robbers’ lair, through
his part in the embedded adventure pivoting on the Robber Girl, to his vital
contribution to the advancement of Gerda’s quest in its climactic stages.
Linda Hutcheon argues that an adaptation should not be examined in
hierarchical terms, which inevitably leads to the valorization of the source
text as somewhat superior to the adaptation itself, insofar as “Multiple versions
exist laterally, not vertically” (Hutcheon, p. xiii). At the same time, it is crucial
to recognize that “the different media and genres that stories are transcoded
to and from in the adapting process are not just formal entities.” In fact, “they
also represent various ways of engaging audiences” (p. ix). In moving across
different contexts and traditions, moreover, adaptations pick up novel mean-
ings through a process of “transculturation or indigenization” (p. xvi). Dezaki’s
Snow Queen, with its fairy tale source and diverse renditions and pictorial
interpretations thereof, eloquently corroborates the three interrelated propo-
sitions outlined above. Andersen’s story, Dezaki’s anime and the numerous
illustrated editions of the original tale accompanying different translations
and retellings constitute parallel realities, not a hierarchical system, for each
has a distinctive way of eliciting the reader’s or viewer’s participation in the
narrativizing act and each brings into play different meanings as a result of
its impact on a particular cultural milieu. It is worth noting, in commenting
on a text issuing from the imagination of a widely translated author, that
translation itself can be seen as a form of adaptation influenced by local cultural
priorities or even prejudices. Lewis amusingly throws this idea into relief with
reference to the tale of The Princess and the Pea: “The first English translators
could not understand Andersen’s humour or his subtlety. One pea? That was
absurd. Three might be more credible. The museum is ignored. [This is the
place where the legendary legume is held to have been housed following the
events recounted in the tale.] Sadly, some of these early versions are still in
use. Look out for those rogue peas” (in Andersen 2004, p. 13).
In looking at the matter of audience involvement and the effect exerted

upon it by a particular form or medium, it could be argued that the original
story engages us primarily through narration; the anime, through perform-
ance; and different illustrated versions of the relevant Andersen text (in iso-
lation or in conjunction with other associated stories), through interaction.
Indeed, these invite us to play with the text by mediating, both sensuously
and intellectually, between its written narrative and its visual import. For the
purpose of this discussion, a selection of radically different artistic styles used
in illustrating the story of The Snow Queen are examined as a means of reflect-
ing on how parallel versions of a text may involve their audiences in substan-
tially diverse fashions. Thus, the tale’s universe can be seen to unleash a
plethora of laterally coexisting texts capable of magnetizing their receivers in
ways that alter according to their cultural situation and perception.
Joel Stewart’s illustrations for the 2004 edition of a selection of Andersen
stories thrives on the principle of defamiliarization, radically debunking the
romanticized conception of the fairy tale form that so often leads to soporifi-
cally saccharine drawings. Stewart’s style is gritty and utterly unsentimental,
and his characters are often intentionally represented as ungainly, stocky, even
downright ugly. Yet, they ooze with vitality and personality, largely thanks
to the artist’s ability to convey a whole nexus of feelings and character traits
simply through the way in which a figure’s eyes are slanted or its jaw is set,
through a tiny facet of body language or a hint at dynamism and drama. For
instance, a few subtle adjustments to the witch’s expression in the illustrations
for The Tinder Box are sufficient to evoke a potent aura of fake innocence,
modesty and charitableness, especially with the transition from a noncom-
mittal look to an unmistakably shifty glance. In addition, characters described
as exquisitely beautiful — such as the eponymous heroines in Thumbelina and
The Little Mermaid and the female lead in The Wild Swans— are often por-
trayed as plain, homely, caricatural or cartoonishly stylized. Kings and queens,
for their part, are unceremoniously depicted in full consonance with Ander-
sen’s unorthodox attitude to authority as down-to-earth people who do not
hesitate to go and open the doors of their castles in the middle of s stormy
night and take it upon themselves to arrange their guests’ bed linen (The
Princess and the Pea) or else busy themselves with humble chores such as chas-
ing around the capital in search of their daughter’s clandestine suitor (The
Tinder Box). Just as The Snow Queen constitutes the apex of the Danish
author’s sustained engagement with thorny ethical issues, so Stewart’s pictures
for that story could be realistically posited as the culmination of the artist’s
vision as communicated by the aforementioned selection of Andersen tales.
In his portrayal of the titular character and her domain, Stewart explicitly
emphasizes the concept of glacial impenetrability, succinctly encapsulating
the idea in the Snow Queen’s crown as a set of four prongs, extending straight
out of the skull with no obvious demarcation between the physical body and
the royal endowment, that brings to mind both inverted icicles (stalagmites
of sorts) and the candid fangs of some wild polar creature. To heighten the
sense of forbidding impregnability associated with the character, Stewart
resorts to an almost entirely monochromatic palette, barely punctuated by
the gentlest touches of purple and green shading. The Snow Queen, notably,
is both one of the most stylized figures in Stewart’s entire Andersen gallery
and one of the most (possibly the most) stylized depictions of that character
in the history of The Snow Queen at large. In Stewart, the character does not
come across as overtly intimidating but rather as unapproachable. Stylization
renders her pointedly non-human, so that even though she is by no means
unattractive, she is not sensuously desirable either insofar as she is bled of any
possible vestige of corporeal warmth. In this respect, Stewart’s graphics loyally
capture Andersen’s own description of the Snow Queen as “wonderfully del-
icate and grand” but made of “ice all through, dazzling, glittering ice” and
endowed with “eyes” that “blazed out like two bright stars” but harbored “no
peace or rest” (Andersen 2004, p. 158). To label Stewart’s depiction of the
Snow Queen simply effective would be to do it an unpardonable injustice for
sublime is arguably a far more apposite term.
With Christian Birmingham’s illustrations for the single edition of The
Snow Queen (Andersen 2007), we enter a completely different pictorial dis-
course in which the dreamworld atmosphere one could readily associate with
the domain of fairy tales is predominant. Yet, Birmingham has his own dis-
tinctive way of fostering defamiliarization — in this case, through the graceful
establishment of a stylistic tension between the ethereal and visionary feel of
the settings, palettes and lines, on the one hand, and the unsettlingly photore-
alistic credibility of the characters’ physiques, and faces in particular, on the
other hand. The aesthetic conflict between dreaminess and photorealistic
accuracy implicitly asks us to ponder the reality of the fairy tale world we
have accessed, obfuscating the barrier between realism and fantasy and situat-
ing the tale in a liminal realm where neither its fictionality (as a piece of enter-
tainment) nor its veracity (as a metaphysical speculation) can be taken for
granted. Furthermore, the sense of remoteness conveyed by the green, slightly
glazed eyes of Birmingham’s Snow Queen renders even her tender smile inef-
fably intimidating. The character’s body language, in this visual version of
the tale, is made particularly intriguing by suggestions that she is peeking into
the human world from an alien realm. These are chiefly communicated by
images in which the Snow Queen appears to be parting the icy cloak that
inexorably accompanies her excursions into the human realm in an effort to
gain access to it. The tentativeness of the gesture intimates that Birmingham’s
Snow Queen does not regard her infiltrations of our reality as an automatic
prerogative or right but rather as adventures to be embarked upon with grace-
ful restraint, modesty and even a modicum of surreptitiousness.
P. J. Lynch’s Snow Queen (Andersen 2009), by contrast, comes across as
the kind of femme fatale one would expect to encounter in Pre-Raphaelite
and Victorian art, at one point overtly bringing to mind J. W. Waterhouse’s
Circe Invidiosa. What lends Lynch’s figure pictorial uniqueness is the replace-
ment of the sultry and exotic connotations often carried by those antecedents
with total, immaculate and impenetrable whiteness, punctuated by waves of
evanescence or translucence. These traits of Lynch’s Snow Queen are notable
in all the plates featuring this character — from her general portrait, through
the depiction of her first visit to Kay’s home and subsequent abduction of the
boy, to her climactic presentation in the midst of the lake at the heart of her
Palace as Kay vainly labors to assemble pieces of ice so that they will spell the
word “Eternity.” Edmund Dulac’s rendition of the Snow Queen (Andersen
1911) anticipates Lynch’s in the image devoted to the character’s first visit,
where her body is so ethereal as to appear to merge with the astoundingly
atmospheric turret-crested background. In Dulac’s general portrait of the
mythical figure, however, other features of the artist’s unique signature come
more explicitly to the fore. These include a passion for subdued but softly
gleaming hues, as well as figures gently outlined in black but not so dependent
on neat ink boundaries to define shapes and hold them together as on the
colors themselves. The keenness on texture and pattern, as well as on minute
details, that is notable across Dulac’s illustrations for The Snow Queen bears
witness to the influence on his style of Persian art, the Pre-Raphaelites and,
most vitally in this context, Japanese prints.
A Japanese feel is also evident in Kay Nielsen’s illustrations for the tale
(Andersen 1924a)— most prominently, in the plate portraying the protagonists’
escape from the northern castle into the warm glow of a regenerated world
where stylization, the evocation of dynamism through vibrant undulating
lines and the symbolic use of vegetation play pivotal roles. An intriguing vari-
ation on the theme of the Snow Queen’s first visit is offered by Adrienne Segur
(Andersen 2001), who depicts the character as a diminutive angelic being, as
though to evoke her fundamentally benign or even celestial nature. In this
image, Segur employs a monochromatic bluescale palette, favoring an intimate
and subdued mood of diamond purity. The same style is adopted in the ren-
dition of the scene in which Gerda enters the royal abode at night in the com-
pany of the Raven — in this case, a forceful sense of the heroine’s vulnerability
in an utterly unfamiliar environment is symbolically conveyed by her portrayal
as a minute doll-like figure amid majestic architectural structures and decor.
A monochromatic palette is also utilized in the portrayal of the protagonists’
return to their hometown where the architecture is rendered, conversely, as a

comfortable stage set. Elsewhere, Segur’s illustrations for The Snow Queen
exhibit the artist’s customary preference for a rich and jewel-toned style oozing
an exquisite Rococo feel. Opulence is unquestionably the dominant trait in
the depiction of Kay in thrall to his captor. Just as Segur departs most unex-
pectedly from the vogue prevalent among illustrators in her depiction of the
Snow Queen’s initial appearance outside Kay’s window, so Anne Anderson
invests the scene chronicling the Snow Queen’s ride through the skies with
the boy in a strikingly original fashion (Andersen 1924b). The image comes
across as simultaneously homely and sublime, familiar and menacingly alien.
Thus, while the white birds are ideated as rather prosaic farmhouse chickens,
and the howling wolves resemble a pack of reasonably well-trained German
Shepherds, the racing cloud banks and tempestuous waters emanate unbridled
fury. This impression is reinforced by the anthropomorphic presentation of
the raging wind as a bleak Angel of Death and of the Snow Queen’s sledge-
prow as a skull-like structure worthy of Hans Holbein’s anamorphic experi-
ments.
If Birmingham and Lynch highlight the tale’s most resonantly other-
worldly dimension through an emphasis on the oneiric and the timeless respec-
tively, with T. Pym (the pseudonym adopted by the late Victorian illustrator
Clara Creed), we enter quite a different adaptive domain (Andersen 2002).
Pym’s images bring to mind the medieval art of illumination in their knack
of encapsulating a densely layered world in a single picture rendered in brilliant
hues and subtle textures. At the same time, they exude a nostalgic mood in
the evocation of an old-style world on the brink of collapse, alongside a sen-
timentalist strain in the idealization of childhood. With Bernadette Watts, it
is a preference for primitivist and folk styles that reigns supreme in the rep-
resentation of Andersen’s world (Andersen 1997). The artist’s dedication to
the loving depiction of flowers and animals is often redolent of Marc Chagall’s
oeuvre, as attested to by the plates portraying the abduction, the magic garden
and the encounter with the reindeer. A tangible sense of the balmy breeze
pervading the more idyllic moments and of the glacial stillness accompanying
the more pathos-laden ones are terse definers of Watts’ aesthetic cachet. One
of the most cherished editions of recent years is undoubtedly the one retold
by fiction author Nicky Raven and illustrated by Vladislav Yerko (Andersen
2005). The almost addictive dedication to details exhibited by the artist’s pic-
tures makes several of his plates so magnetizing as to suggest a feeling of dis-
orientation, drawing the eye into an optical machine of hallucinogenic power.
Yerko’s art reveals the influence of disparate sources and invariably demon-
strates unique adaptive capabilities in their handling. These include late
Gothic and Renaissance Flemish art, with its keen sense of observation, atten-
tion to minutiae, bright colors and debt to the tradition of manuscript illu-
mination; Pieter Bruegel the Elder’s unsentimental depiction of village life
(especially in the abduction scene); late medieval and early Renaissance Italian
art influenced by International Gothic, particularly Simone Martini and
Benozzo Gozzoli; and, last but not least, Ukrainian jewelry art as a form that
has assiduously shaped Yerko’s original culture since prehistoric times.
It is vital, at this point, to examine what aspects of the various illustrators’
styles and moods are most strikingly paralleled by Dezaki’s own adaptation.
What deserves attention is not merely the repertoire of broadly visual corre-
spondences or discrepancies involved at the basic iconographic level but rather
the symphony of echoes reverberating across the distinctive art forms culti-
vated by those illustrators and by Dezaki himself that somehow convey com-
parable visions. Thus, in exploring Dezaki’s work, it is important to assess
how affinities and divergences between the anime and the illustrations are
captured specifically in cinema and, even more specifically, in anime. In devel-
oping an individual artistic code over the years, Dezaki upholds the specificity
of his medium insofar as his use of techniques characteristic not just of anime
but also of cinema generally in tandem with visual and animational tropes
distinctive of anime as such reminds us consistently that what he accomplishes
through anime could not be achieved in the same fashion or to the same
degree in any other medium. In this respect, Dezaki’s style corroborates the
view, put forward by André Gaudreault and Philippe Marion, that “Each
medium, according to the ways in which it exploits, combines and multiplies
the ‘familiar’ materials of expression”— i.e., “rhythm, movement, gesture,
music, speech, image, writing” can be seen to harbor “its own communica-
tional energies” (Gaudreault and Marion, p. 65).
Dezaki’s cinematography is principally distinguished by a visual style
reliant on arresting effects and makes regular use of the split-screen technique:
the partition of the screen into two or more simultaneous images with or
without explicit boundaries. This strategy contributes to the radical disruption
of mimetic realism by shattering the illusion fostered by that ethos, according
to which the screen is supposed to provide something of a transparent window
on reality. This defamiliarizing ruse on Dezaki’s part finds an apt equivalent
in the likewise estranging pictorial ploys utilized by Stewart and Birmingham.
The director is also famously keen on the use of stark lighting as a means of
evoking unsettling dramatic effects capable of jarring the audience out of any
possible temptation to indulge passively in a comfortable consumption of the
action and visual. At the same time, Dezaki resorts assiduously to crayon
freeze frames, which he has evocatively described as “Postcard Memories” in
the audio commentary accompanying the OVA Black Jack (2006), helmed by
Dezaki himself and Fumihiro Yoshimura. Typically, a freeze-frame shot con-
sists of a shot in which a single frame is repeated several times to evoke the
semblance of a still photograph. Dezaki lends this technique a distinctive
twist by concurrently employing the freeze-frame shot as a means of chron-
icling en abyme the key moments of the anime-making process, causing a
detailed and relatively realistic frame capturing characters and settings as they
do in the finished artwork to fade regressively to a frame akin to a painting,
drawing or even rough sketch encapsulating the anime’s early stages of pro-
duction in an eminently allusive, even cryptic, fashion. This particular ploy
echoes Birmingham’s synthesis of photorealism and dreamlike fantasy in his
art.
One of the most effective instances of Dezaki’s utilization of freeze-frame
shots of the type described above is offered by the key sequence in which the
baleful splinter penetrates Kay’s eye. The same technique is later deployed to
capture the emotional repercussions of the ocular violation, culminating with
the moment when the boy maliciously destroys the flower pots containing the
red and white roses he and Gerda have been lovingly tending thus far. The
scene’s symbolic poignance remains memorable even after one has watched
subsequent episodes dramatizing more pointedly spectacular incidents. There
are also some memorable occasions in which Dezaki makes artistic production
integral to the action in depicting artists in the process of sketching, drawing
or painting. A good example is supplied by the sequence in which Ragi exe-
cutes a stunningly accurate portrait of Kay at Gerda’s behest. Another instance
is the episode featuring Orinette, the hapless lover of a magnanimous monarch
who turns abruptly into a belligerent monster as a result of wearing a pair of
spectacles made out of shards of the malefic broken mirror. Both the king
and Orinette are said to be competent painters and to have spent many happy
hours together at their art prior to the man’s degeneration into a brute. Ori-
nette’s room is still replete with testaments to her and her lover’s talent, dis-
playing numerous paintings created in a style reminiscent of the one employed
in several of Dezaki’s most remarkable freeze-frame shots.
While Dezaki parallels both Stewart and Birmingham in his handling of
defamiliarization, and Birmingham specifically in the integration of contrast-
ing visual moods, his style concomitantly recalls Stewart’s passion for styliza-
tion and stark solemnity and Lynch’s dispassionate, yet dramatic, naturalism,
with occasional forays into the realm of nostalgic antiquarianism of the kind
one encounters in T. Pym. At the same time, Dezaki shares with Watts a pro-
found attraction to natural details, allied to a tendency to foreground their
vitality through overtly hand-drawn graphics. This is most palpably evident
in several of the director’s distinctive freeze-frame shots. Yerko’s surreal dimen-
sion, finally, finds an animational correspondence in the sequences of Dezaki’s
anime where curiously magnified details are accorded dramatic prominence
at the expense of more realistic aspects of the settings. A brilliant example is

the installment set in a prosperous town hosting an annual festival where local
shopkeepers advertise their business by means of gigantic floats that portray
iconic artisanal trademarks. The clocks, shoes and fish (among countless other
items) parading through the streets are so alive as to dwarf the elegant real-
life architecture around them to the status of a secondary stage set.
Adaptations of Andersen’s The Snow Queen to all manner of media have
been so numerous and diverse that presuming to supply a comprehensive list
of them in the present context would be entirely inappropriate. A few examples
seem, however, worthy of mention for contextual reference (and, possibly,
further exploration by the keen reader). In the realm of animation, The Snow
Queen has given origin to the Soviet film Snezhnaya Koroleva (dir. Lev Atama-
nov, 1957), the American short The Snow Queen (dirs. Marek Buchwald and
Vladlen Barbe, 1992), the British productions The Snow Queen (movie; dir.
Martin Gates, 1995) and The Snow Queen’s Revenge (movie; dir. Martin Gates,
1996), the BBC television film The Snow Queen (dir. Julian Gibbs, 2005)—
in turn adapted from an operatic concert held in London at the Barbican Arts
Centre in 2003. Live-action adaptations have also abounded, particularly
notable instances being the Soviet film Snezhnaya Koroleva (dir. Gennadi
Kazansky, 1966), the BBC production The Snow Queen helmed by Andrew
Gosling (1976), which integrates live-action footage with animation, the Dan-
ish film Snedronningen (dirs. Jacob Jørgensen and Kristof Kuncewicz, 2000)
and the Hallmark TV film Snow Queen (2002) directed by David Wu. In the
videogaming world, the tale has inspired a side story to the Japanese game,
developed by Playstation, titled Revelations: Persona (1996). Ballet adaptations
of special prominence staged in recent years include Erin Holt’s The Snow
Queen — ballet redefined... (1998), produced by the California Theatrical Youth
Ballet (subsequently renamed to California Contemporary Ballet) and featur-
ing original music composed and performed by Randall Michael Tobin, and
the English National Ballet’s production The Snow Queen with music taken
from Prokofiev (2007). Furthermore, the tale has triggered various plays and
musicals, while also infiltrating novels, short stories and comic books either
as an overt source text or as material for oblique intertextual allusion.
In the region of anime adaptations of fairy tales, the previously cited
film Puss in Boots directed by Yabuki (1969) enjoys special standing on home
turf as a work of enduring popularity with a cross-generational fan base anal-
ogous to the one evinced in the West by Disney’s Snow White and the Seven
Dwarfs (movie; dirs. David Hand, William Cottrell, Wilfred Jackson, Larry
Morey, Perce Pearce and Ben Sharpsteen, 1937) and The Jungle Book (movie;
dir. Wolfgang Reitherman, 1967). Anime’s penchant for audacious reconfigu-
rations of its sources is manifest in the use of an original plot, triggered by
the protagonist’s perpetration of the most heinous crime in the feline world:
the rescue of mice. While elements of the parent text are retained — e.g., the
hero’s posing as the Marquis of Carabas and general presentation as an endear-
ing rogue on a madcap ride — other facets of the anime reflect an eminently
indigenous sensibility. Thus, the protagonist, jocularly named Perrault, must
confront a trio of ninja cats as his enemies, as well as a demon named Lucifer
who possesses metamorphic powers of the kind one encounters recurrently as
one of anime’s most inveterate aesthetic preferences over time. Most impor-
tantly, the film bears witness to the experimental verve inherent in adaptive
anime at its most accomplished — as well as a flair for eroding conventional
barriers between child- and adult-oriented cinema generally — through its
technical makeup. It indeed combines zestful characters and playful personality
quirks familiar in Western animations targeted at kids with cinematograph-
ically sophisticated jump cuts, smooth morphs, bouncy editing and subliminal
frames capable of placing the adventure on a daringly conceptual level of
avant-gardish resonance.
Where anime adapted from children’s books with a bildungsroman bent
are concerned, a close parallel to Dezaki’s The Snow Queen consists of Taka-
hata’s aforementioned TV series Heidi, Girl of the Alps (1974). In this show,
as in Dezaki’s, the representation of mountainous vistas, observed from a vari-
ety of angles and in contrasting seasonal and atmospheric circumstances, plays
a critical aesthetic part. So does the loving depiction of both wild and domestic
animals. The integration of cute juvenile physiognomies and adult looks rang-
ing from the wisely benevolent to the arch and austere is likewise notable. As
a young girl faced with challenges that repeatedly compel her to reassess not
only her status in the world but also her own intrinsic identity, Heidi bears
striking affinities with Gerda. Like Dezaki’s The Snow Queen, Takahata’s Heidi,
Girl of the Alps works wonders in focusing on its protagonist’s point of view
as vital to the determination of the overall adventure’s rhythm and mood.
Both Heidi’s and Gerda’s realities appear filled with magic by virtue not so
much of their inherent attributes as of how they are perceived by their respec-
tive heroines — i.e., through the eyes of guileless, adaptable and optimistic
souls. It is in this framework that even the most prosaic details of the natural
realm and city life alike acquire effervescent energy. By observing disparate
situations through Heidi’s and Gerda’s unclouded eyes, adult viewers can
enjoy these shows as experiences that far transcend the plane of infantile enter-
tainment — as long, that is, as they are willing to enter their alternate dimen-
sions with a commodious disposition and to look at them without the taint
of generational prejudice. A further similarity between the two anime lies
with their tendency to concentrate on stories that come across as disarmingly
simple, without ever overexplaining them in a patronizing fashion.
A further adapted narrative redolent of Gerda’s odyssey consists of

another TV series briefly referred to earlier in this chapter and helmed by
Takahata and Koshi: Anne of Green Gables (1979). Chronicling the coming-
of age journey of a young orphan, the show focuses on its protagonist’s impact
on her community in a style that elliptically anticipates Dezaki’s rendition of
Gerda’s invariably salutary influence on the people and places she encounters
along the way. Like The Snow Queen, moreover, Anne of Green Gables makes
the very most of a markedly episodic format by presenting each and every
segment of the anime as an engrossing chapter unto itself, regardless of its
situation within the cumulative diegesis. The Snow Queen’s fascination with
animal actors, finally, finds an apt animated relative in Kuroda’s TV series A
Dog of Flanders (1975), also touched upon in the early stages of this discussion.
In recounting the vicissitudes of a young boy named Nello and his dog
Patrasche, this anime foreshadows Dezaki’s powerful dramatization of the
bonds tying Gerda to Amor, Olga and Bae as formative experiences which
no-one who has ever experienced the peculiar bliss of living with a non-
human animal could fail to recognize and treasure.
Chapter 5
Romance Meets Revolution

Romeo x Juliet
It is nearly always the most improbable things that

really come to pass.— E. T. A. Hoffmann
The anime series Romeo x Juliet (dir. Fumitoshi Oizaki, 2007) eloquently
confirms Julie Sanders’ assertion that “movement into a different generic mode
can encourage a reading of Shakespeare from a new or revised point of view”
(Sanders, p. 48). Oizaki’s manipulation of Shakespearean personae simulta-
neously echoes Gérard Genette’s assessment of the part of the adaptive process
that pertains specifically to the “revaluation of character.” This, the critic
maintains, entails “investing him or her — by way of pragmatic or psycholog-
ical transformation — with a more significant and/or more ‘attractive’ role in
the value system of the hypertext [adaptive text] than was the case in the
hypotext [source text]” (Genette, p. 343). At the same time as it boldly reimag-
ines its source text through the infusion of epic and supernatural motifs into
the archetypal drama of undying love, Oizaki’s anime elliptically invites reflec-
tion on the broader phenomenon of cross-media adaptation of the Shake-
spearean canon. Some appropriations of the Bard’s corpus have sought to
honor it as the fountainhead of unsurpassed genius and others have endeavored
instead to quiz its authority by exposing its ideological subtexts as instrumental
in the perpetuation of conservative patriarchal values. Oizaki neither upholds
nor refutes his source text’s power in a clear-cut fashion. In fact, he is far
more interested in pursuing the narrative ramifications — embedded, hypo-
thetical or imaginable — of the original play as materials latent in its weave
and as yet unvoiced by its previous adaptations. What concerns the director
is the possibility of taking Romeo and Juliet as the point of departure for an
exploratory journey leading out of the work’s core toward alternate horizons,
toward uncharted territories where it may encounter other versions of itself
99
as its doubles, alter egos, specular images or shadows. The anime thus par-
ticipates in the process of Shakespearean relocation described as follows by
Daniel Fischlin and Mark Fortier: “if adaptations of Shakespeare somehow
reinforce Shakespeare’s position in the canon ... it is a different Shakespeare
that is at work” (Fischlin and Fortier, p. 6). In this process, the Bard’s oeuvre
is never assumed as a stable and immutable point of reference but rather
approached as the raw material for potentially endless textual metamorphoses.
The anime, on this plane, mirrors the type of adaptational strategy in which,
as Sanders puts it, the adaptive text uses the original as “a creative springboard
for another, ... wholly different, text “ so that even though its “relationship
to the original remains present and relevant,” its structure suggests that a
“grafting has taken place of a segment ... of the original text.” As this portion
of the parent work is connected with an alternate “textual form,” an entirely
novel product comes into being (Sanders, p. 55).
As argued in depth in the ensuing pages, Oizaki’s adaptation takes some
daring liberties in its reconception of Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet (1594–
1596). Nevertheless, it is incontrovertibly loyal to the source text in positing
the conflict between love and duty as pivotal to the drama. In the original
play, this tension is articulated in eminently personal terms, even though the
social dimension of the ordeal is alluded to, through the presentation of the
heroine as a girl who has hardly grown past childhood but is already expected
by the mores of her culture to make a happy wife and mother. Oizaki’s adap-
tation heightens the public implications of Juliet’s predicament, as the duty
she is enjoined to embrace transcends by far the remit of the domestic milieu
by expecting her, in fact, to operate as the prime agent in a revolutionary pro-
gram with momentous repercussions for a whole state and, ultimately, the
human planet as a whole. In both the Shakespearean source and its anime
relocation, however, duty comes starkly into conflict with love when Juliet
meets Romeo — a boy whom she is, quite simply, forbidden to cherish due to
the sinister family name he bears.
Shakespeare himself drew inspiration from several preexisting texts, which
makes his Romeo and Juliet an adaptation in its own right. As Roma Gill
explains, the core of the romantic tragedy as we know it “has been traced as
far back as the third century A.D. [and specifically, according to a footnote,
to the Ephesiaca of Xenophon of Ephesus], and it became popular in Europe
in the fifteenth century when Italian writers began to give it details which we
can now recognize in Shakespeare’s play. They claim that the story was con-
temporary and factual — so successfully that even today tourists in Verona can
be shown the balcony and tomb of Giulietta.” The Bard’s immediate source
was the version of the story penned by Arthur Brooke in the form of a “nar-
rative poem, The Tragicall History of Romeus and Juliet” (Gill, p. v). However,
5. Romance Meets Revolution 101
while Brooke delivers a cautionary moral by condemning the unfortunate

lovers’ behavior as lustful and selfish, Shakespeare lives up to his reputation
as one of the most insightful and probing dramatists of all times by resolutely
steering clear of monolithic ethical messages, choosing instead an approach
that is “often amused but always sympathetic,” underpinned by a unique sense
of “vitality” and “precise information” about both pivotal and supporting
characters (p. vi), and a flair for exhibiting the nuances of psychological devel-
opment “as it is happenin g” (p. vii). The anime adaptation is heir to these
gifts, invariably regaling the viewer’s mind and senses with balanced and pen-
etrating studies of human psychology at its most tormented and most elastic
at once.
What is instantly notable about Oizaki’s take on his source text is the
anime’s eagerness to enhance the original play’s supernatural dimension in
order to articulate its own independent narrative. This is not to say, however,
that the series seeks to disengage itself from the grave sociopolitical issues
touched upon by Shakespeare’s tragedy. In fact, as the title of this chapter
suggests, these are also amplified by Oizaki in the elaboration of what ulti-
mately stands out as an ideological — no less than a romantic — drama. The
maximization of the supernatural element, accordingly, asks to be understood
as a means of bringing into fresh focus through defamiliarization some very
pressing and very real historical vicissitudes. Thus, fantasy is emplaced as the
vehicle through which the here-and-now may be not conveniently dodged
but actually confronted from alternative perspectives. This idea is pithily con-
veyed by the character of William (or “Willy”), the Bard’s intradiegetic avatar
in Oizaki’s adaptation: “Reality often transcends fiction. And yet, people need
stories and romance and heroism to navigate reality.”
Romeo x Juliet’s director has helpfully explained his reasons for investing
his adaptation with otherworldly overtones in an interview released at the
time of the show’s release. While Oizaki intended to honor the source text’s
underpinning “structure,” thus preserving “the straightforward love story,” he
also sensed that “if all you’re doing is a love story, it’s definitely more compell-
ing as a live-action drama than as an anime.” This proposition, as documented
in depth later in this chapter, is eloquently substantiated by the welter of live-
action adaptations to which the Shakespearean tragedy has proved amenable
over the decades. Therefore, the director and his crew were eager to draw on
the distinctive properties of their chosen medium in order to infuse their
adaptation with a dramatic and graphic power unaccomplishable by live-
action cinema itself. It was precisely to pursue this aesthetic agenda that Oizaki
resolved to make the “fantasy element” axial to his reconceptualization of the
play, in the conviction that this is “the part that you can do only in anime.”
Such a belief results from an acute awareness, firmly grounded in plentiful
hands-on experience, that in anime, “it’s easy to do things that humans

couldn’t actually do in real life” (Oizaki). Therefore, the adaptation unfailingly
capitalizes on the unique potentialities of its medium instead of slavishly striv-
ing to emulate live-action cinema by pandering to its codes and conven-
tions — which would feasibly have been conducive to a far less satisfying
adaptive experience for both the anime’s creators and its viewers.
The show’s fantastic atmosphere owes much to its main setting, the aerial
city of Neo-Verona. This is distinguished by an architectural mélange of
medieval and Renaissance motifs which includes a bewitching web of bridge-
crested waterways and cobbled streets, elegant stonework and picturesque
ruins, sumptuous palaces and humble plebeian dwellings, spectral cemeterial
grounds and a fairytalish expanse of irises perched atop a vertiginously tall
edifice, idyllic rural cottages and baleful caves housing a mysterious magical
technology. The show’s architectural spread is crowned by its larger-than-life
skies traversed by sublime ryuuba (“dragonsteeds”). Central to Romeo x Juliet’s
supernatural fabric is the “Great Tree Escalus”— the only survivor out of the
twin trees upon which the floating land’s very existence has thus far depended.
As a preternatural agency that will foster human prosperity with its nourishing
fluids and golden pomes as long as it is surrounded by benevolent energies,
Escalus is doomed to “perish for want of love” under Prince Montague’s per-
nicious influence, and eventually cause Neo-Verona to crash with devastating
global consequences. The environmentalist message here entailed is discreetly
yet uncompromisingly conveyed by the character of Ophelia as the action
accumulates momentum. (In the source play, the similarly named Escales is
the Prince of Verona and is portrayed as a character who endeavors to remain
impartial in the feud between Montagues and Capulets, yet cannot be indif-
ferent to its impact given he has relatives of his own in both factions.)
If the fantasy element is a major marker of Oizaki’s imaginative take on
the original, no less important, as anticipated, is Romeo x Juliet’s amplification
of the source text’s political import, whereby the anime’s romantic portrayal
of the bittersweet joys of first love never loses sight of the adventure’s macro-
cosmic implications. Oizaki indeed makes the themes of despotism, revolu-
tion, anarchy and clandestine resistance axial to the story, redefining the
balance of power posited by the play, where the Capulets and the Montagues
are said to be “Two households, both alike in dignity,” through a stark polar-
ization of the oppressor and the victim. This topos is overtly accorded unprece-
dented centrality right from the start with the epic sequences, redolent of
Akira Kurosawa’s opus, dramatizing the truculent overthrow of the Capulets
by the Montague usurper fourteen years prior to the main events chronicled
in the series. Thus, Romeo x Juliet equips the inceptive yarn with a clearly
defined villain of the piece. The magnitude of the Machiavellian usurper’s
evil and greed is potently conveyed not only by the retrospective dramatization
of the Capulets’ extermination but also by the relatively early sequences por-
traying the harassment of an innocent girl accused of being a descendant of
the deposed dynasty and threatened with immediate execution, and the abduc-
tion of commoner maidens whose parents cannot afford to meet Prince Mon-
tague’s exorbitant fiscal requirements to be traded to lecherous aristocrats.
Averse to monolithic characterization, Oizaki takes care to paint the tyrant’s
personal background in a realistically detailed manner, presenting him as a
victim of social iniquity: an illegitimate issue of the Capulet line reared in
utter poverty by a lowly prostitute, Prince Montague is veritably persecuted
by his hatred for those he deems responsible for his unprivileged childhood
and for his mother’s premature death. This information does not quite make
the despot’s crimes excusable but it does help us comprehend in a satisfyingly
full-rounded fashion the likely causes of his ferocious detestation of Juliet’s
house and attendant thirst for revenge. In addition, the self-appointed autocrat
has literally rewritten history by promulgating the image of the charitable
Capulets as unscrupulous oppressors.
The bloody mutiny’s only survivor is the overthrown ruler’s daughter,
Juliet Fiammata de Capulet, who is rescued by the Captain of the Capulet
guards, Conrad, and brought up by a handful of loyal Capulet retainers in
humble obscurity and under the protective shield of a male disguise, utterly
oblivious to her real origins. It is not until Juliet reaches her sixteenth birthday
that Conrad — determined to make her the leader of the extant Capulet hench-
men in a glorious revolt against the illegitimate Prince Montague —finally
discloses to the girl the truth about her noble lineage and about the coup
responsible for her whole dynasty’s brutal elimination. Set in a decrepit grave-
yard exuding a characteristic sense of the Romantic Sublime amid baleful
shadows and thunderous skies, the revelation scene unquestionably stands out
as one of the entire show’s most poignant moments. Juliet is so traumatized
by the revelation, which is capped by her presentation with her father’s mighty
sword and by her sudden recollection of the massacre, that she loses con-
sciousness and descends into a feverish state. While an account of this scene
in isolation might suggest that Juliet is just a vulnerable maiden, powerless
in the face of a destiny too portentous for her to handle, nothing could be
further from the truth. By the time the story reaches the graveyard sequence,
the audience has already been regaled with ample evidence for Juliet’s resource-
fulness, courage and genuinely heroic valor.
The girl’s independence of spirit is conveyed early on in the series by
intimations that she resents her disguise as the boy Odin and relishes the rare
opportunities she can grasp to relinquish her pseudo-self and both dress and
behave like the adolescent woman she really is. This is patently borne out by
the episode in which she accidentally gets to attend the “Rose Ball” hosted
by Prince Montague — on which occasion she also experiences an as yet inex-
plicable flashback to her childhood at the Castle. Juliet is shown to derive the
purest of pleasures from the feeling of a gown over her body in shots that
memorably attest to her lovable personality. More crucially for the adventure
as a whole, Juliet has intelligently taken advantage of her status as a cross-
dresser by taking on the role of a champion of justice known as the “Red
Whirlwind” (“Turbine Rosso” in Neo-Verona’s Italian) reminiscent of Robin
Hood and the Scarlet Pimpernel, and thus endeavoring to assist her people
in defiance of Prince Montague’s authority. Endowed with spectacular martial
talent, balletic agility and a refreshingly sharp sense of humor, the Red Whirl-
wind lends the show some of its most tantalizing moments. It is in this role
that Juliet first encounters Romeo Candore de Montague, is rescued by the
kindly youth from her pursuers and curtly neglects to thank him due to his
aristocratic status. The fleeting contact they make at this juncture as their
hands touch appears to have a viscerally lasting effect on the two characters’
senses, succinctly presaging things to come.
Oizaki clearly departs from Shakespeare in portraying his version of Juliet
as a strong and imaginative individual, whereas the original Juliet is by an
large submissive and meek. With this bold shift from his source text, Oizaki
tersely draws attention to the status of gender as axial to issues of identity,
power and cultural interaction, emphasizing the significance of that contro-
versial concept as a product not so much of a person’s biological sex as of the
web of ideological messages projected onto it by particular cultures at specific
points in history. An equally intriguing redefinition of the source text consists
of the characterization of the male protagonist, who tends to come across as
generally more meditative and passive that his Shakespearean precursor. This
is not to say, however, that Oizaki’s Romeo is not capable of valiant exploits
in his own right. In fact, the boy is indomitable in his efforts to resist his
father’s manic determination to shape him into an ideal heir to his blood-
soaked name, and audaciously flaunts his commitment to Juliet even when
this leads to his imprisonment in the Gradisca mines and exposure to the
subhuman brutality of their inmates’ conditions. It is from these experiences,
moreover, that Romeo gains unprecedented strength and the altruistic courage
that enables him to transcend for good the legacy of a pampered aristocratic
upbringing in the name of adult responsibility. This evolution reaches a mem-
orable acme with the young Montague’s assumption of the role of leader of
the community of former hard laborers encountered at Gradisca, whom he
helps establish a new and more hopeful life in an abandoned village after a
momentous earthquake has enabled them to leave the accursed caves. While
infusing both of his protagonists with highly original traits, Oizaki does not
fail, however, to remain loyal to his source’s reputation as a story practically

synonymous with amorous vicissitudes. For one thing, one would have to be
emotionally defunct to be left entirely cold by Oizaki’s rendition of the scene
that wordlessly conveys the mystery of love at first sight. The later sequence
in which Romeo’s ryuuba, Cielo, encounters a companion in the ancestral
forest whence dragonsteeds originate, and Romeo makes the painful decision
to relieve the animal of his royal accoutrements and set him free, succinctly
consolidates the anime’s heartfelt romantic sensibility.
Although Juliet stoically embraces her public role despite its dire incom-
patibility with her personal happiness, she remains warmly and convincingly
human even as she ascends to the peak of heroic fame. The girl’s innocence
and vulnerability are most touchingly evoked by the installment where the
Capulet rebels are ensnared by the shifty Camillo and Juliet is rescued by
Tybalt, who unchivalrically states that he has only come to her assistance out
of loyalty to her associate Francisco, as he personally sees her as a spoilt and
useless kid. Hurt by Tybalt’s words and tormented by guilt at the thought
that she might have directly caused her comrades’ misfortune by rushing into
action with scarce forethought, Juliet wanders aimlessly around the red-light
district where Tybalt has hidden her, faints in the inhospitable streets prey to
exhaustion and grief and is — almost miraculously — found by Romeo’s
estranged mother, Lady Portia, who then proceeds to shelter the heroine in
the convent where she herself has obtained refuge upon leaving the despicable
Montague court. Thus, Juliet’s development is portrayed as a gradual and tor-
tuous evolution, fraught with uncertainties and fears which no degree of juve-
nile exuberance or romantic passion could realistically alleviate without
causing the drama to degenerate into vaporous escapism.
In intensifying the story’s political significance, Oizaki concurrently tends
to prioritize the public dimension of Romeo and Juliet’s ordeal to the purely
personal drama. This is most sensationally communicated by the climax,
where the anime departs to a considerable degree from the Shakespearean
antecedent. In the original play, the finale emphasizes the “star-crossed” lovers’
private suffering by dispassionately exposing the capricious wastefulness of
fate. Romeo and Juliet’s deaths do serve a public purpose insofar as they are
posited as the exorbitantly steep price which the rival households must pay
to achieve reconciliation. However, this conversion is deliberately made to
look so unrealistic and hurried, largely through the use of flagrantly accidental
mistiming, as to call its consolatory import seriously into question. The
anime’s ending, by contrast, unequivocally highlights the political significance
of Romeo and Juliet’s sacrifice by presenting it as instrumental not solely in
the restoration of a just regime after over a decade of atrocious prevarication,
abuse and persecution at Prince Montague’s hands but also in the redemption
of a blighted habitat, and hence in the salvation of the entire planet’s ecosys-
tem. Selflessly honoring the ancient bond between her dynasty and the Great
Tree Escalus, and so allowing the plant’s magical essence to live on within her
very body, Juliet marginalizes her private dreams in the service of a purging
act of self-immolation. Romeo initially tries to oppose Juliet’s chosen course
of action by means of both his rhetoric and his blade. These complications
impart the climax with a suspensefully vibrant tempo, which Oizaki’s camera
flawlessly maintains until it becomes obvious that the heroine’s fate is unavoid-
able — and indeed encrypted in the adaptation as the prerequisite of its dra-
matic coherence. As Romeo himself joins his beloved in the pursuit of
communal redemption, Shakespeare’s “death-marked” passion is gloriously
elevated well beyond the level of personal tragedy as a harbinger of cosmic
catharsis and regeneration.
In the dénouement, the supernatural and political dimensions join forces
on an epic scale to proclaim their shared standing as the adaptation’s most
salient facets in its adventurous pursuit of originality. In so doing, they demon-
strate that the source play, despite its stability as a landmark in the literary
canon, is not a finished and self-contained product but rather a mobile, ever-
evolving process capable of altering over the centuries in response to the aes-
thetic and ideological requirements of disparate contexts, artists and audiences
in different parts of the world. The anime thus corroborates Linda Hutcheon’s
contention that an adaptation is above all an intertextual galaxy asking to be
approached as “its own palimpsestic thing” (Hutcheon, p. 9). Instead of urging
us to focus exclusively or even primarily on the extent to which Romeo x Juliet
is loyal to its Shakespearean antecedent (or not), Oizaki encourages us to con-
ceive of the adaptation and its source text alike as networks of discursive rela-
tionships in which both of these works and innumerable other reimaginings
of the Elizabethan play fluidly participate. Moreover, in amplifying the specifi-
cally political dimension of the original drama, Oizaki augments the story’s
topical relevance, inviting reflection on its metaphorical connection with real
contemporary events and — more broadly — with political phenomena unfold-
ing all over the world and at all times, on both a transhistorical and a con-
tingently situated scale. In this regard, the anime adaptation would appear to
validate the proposition, advanced by Margaret Jane Kidnie in Shakespeare
and the Problem of Adaptation, that “past histories” are not “foundational,”
and hence unchanging, realities insofar as “efforts to recover ‘what happened’
can only be pursued alongside efforts to shape ‘what is happening’ in terms
of work recognition and the ever-shifting boundaries that separate work from
adaptation” (Kidnie, p. 164). This approach entails that in evaluating an enact-
ment of a dramatic work, one should focus not so much on “how performance
departs from or otherwise adapts text” as on “the shifting criteria by which
both texts and performances are recognized — or not — as instances of a certain

work” (p. 10). Relatedly, by tackling even a corpus as canonical as Shakespeare’s
not as “impervious to subsequent generations of creative and interpretative
enquiry” but rather as “entangled in the present,” one could fruitfully effect
a move away “from what one knows now” toward “what one might be able
to recognize in the future as Shakespeare’s works” (p. 102).
In both Shakespeare and Oizaki, the finale could be read as a dramati-
zation of the double-suicide formula: a motif, as argued in Chapter 2 in rela-
tion to Grave of the Fireflies and its sources, of considerable significance in
traditional Japanese culture. As R. S. White indicates, this topos has a long
and artistically respectable history, being pivotal to the depiction of youthful
desire not only in Romeo and Juliet but also in other esteemed works in various
media, including “Tristan and Isolde and Verdi’s La Traviata.” These (and
many other) classics posit “double death as the inevitable and only destination
guaranteeing immortality to the state of twin narcissism” (White, p. 13). In
a psychoanalytical perspective, it is possible to “‘pathologise’ the young pro-
tagonists and suggest that the story’s tragic ending is a direct corollary of their
desire and hence an outcome they choose, albeit unconsciously. In the purview
of cultural materialism, by contrast, Romeo and Juliet are not seen to “seek
death” but to harbor, in fact, a perfectly wholesome passion that only becomes
deathly as a result of “external circumstances” that negate “the possibility of
sustaining their love in life” (p. 14). In Oizaki’s anime, the lovers unquestion-
ably act of heir own free will in their climactic espousal of a fate that denies
the hope of earthly fulfillment — more consciously and resignedly, it should
be noted, in Juliet’s case than in Romeo’s. However, the show also cultivates
a tantalizing mood of metaphysical ambiguity in concurrently proposing that
in a pragmatic sense, Romeo and Juliet have no choice. When Ophelia first
reveals to her that she alone has the power to restore Escalus’ depleted vigor
by acting as a “sacrificial lamb,” while Neo-Verona crumbles and burns, Juliet
wonders whether all of the events in her life up to this point were indeed
“predestined” to build up to this grand tragic climax — from her rescue by
Conrad at the time of the mutiny, through her assumption of the Red Whirl-
wind role, to her subsequent efforts to help her city and its oppressed citizens
at any price. What makes the protagonists’ climactic actions exquisitely dou-
ble-edged, and hence defiant of any univocal interpretation, is that Oizaki is
able to present them as a matter of choice and necessity at once.
This adaptive outlook is abetted by Oizaki’s unflinching commitment
to the harmonization of individual psychology and communal action, and
attendant effort to reconcile humanity’s atavistic (and supposedly universal)
yearning for pleasure with the uncompromising forces of repression, perversion
and sublimation to which human society is so often subjugated. Hence, the
anime manages to maintain throughout a delicate balance between the emo-

tional and the societal dimensions of Romeo and Juliet’s ordeal, taking full
cognizance of the vagaries of singular mentalities, yet intelligently assessing
their claims with reference to the needs and requirements of the broader com-
munity. From an ideological point of view, this stance is fully consonant with
the inveterate reverence for the values of group affiliation, guidance and loyalty
that has been deeply embedded in Japanese culture for time immemorial. In
engineering this nimble collusion of individual psychology and material cul-
ture, Oizaki depicts the protagonists’ mutual feelings as a unique expression
of a very special kind of love. This is a feeling capable of conflating the three
main affects associated with that state by the anthropologist Helen Fisher in
her insightful evaluation of the peculiarities of eros: that is to say, sexual desire,
infatuation and steady attachment (cited in Belsey 1994, pp. 38–39).
The pictorial style deployed in the anime, with its distinctive approach
to both color and light, deserves close attention insofar as it is central to the
evocation of the show’s magic — and hence to the consolidation of its markedly
autonomous, albeit adaptive, status. Oizaki’s visual register consistently echoes
Renaissance Venetian painting, which is utterly consonant with the anime’s
location in a fictionalized version of the city of Verona, situated in the Veneto
region of Northeast Italy. This aesthetic choice indicates that despite his devo-
tion to the capture of an essentially otherworldly setting, the director none-
theless retains a firm grounding in historical circumstances, harnessing the
supernatural dimension to the figurative reinforcement of the series’ connec-
tion with reality and not to the fuzzy demands of escapist fancy. As the
esteemed art historian E. H. Gombrich explains in his epoch-making The
Story of Art, “Venice, whose trade linked it closely with the East, had been
slower than other Italian cities in accepting the style of the Renaissance....
But when it did, the style there acquired a new gaiety, splendour and warmth
which evoke, perhaps more closely than any other buildings in modern times,
the grandeur of the great merchant cities of the Hellenistic period, of Alex-
andria or Antioch.” There are few visuals produced in a post–Renaissance
medium that can honestly be said to evoke more faithfully than Romeo x Juliet,
with its cinematic adaptation of Venetian painting and architecture of the
Renaissance age, the ambience described by Gombrich. This approach owes
much to its director’s sensitive grasp of the attitude to light and color typically
evinced by Renaissance artists of a Venetian ilk. According to Gombrich, that
stance emanates from an imaginative responsiveness to the physical features
of the Venetian environment, and while Romeo x Juliet is not set in Venice
but in Verona’s retrofuturistic alter ego, the anime’s lavish use of water as a
key aspect of its mise-en-scène makes Gombrich’s observations no less apposite
to its setting than to Renaissance Venice itself. “The atmosphere of the
lagoons,” the art critic comments, which seems to blur the sharp outlines of
objects and to blur their colours in a radiant light, may have taught the painters
of this city to use colour in a more deliberate and observant way than any
other painters in Italy had done so far” (Gombrich, p. 325).
To throw further into relief the distinctiveness of Venetian style, Gom-
brich contrasts it with its Florentine counterpart: “The great reformers of
Florence,” he states, “were less interested in colour than in drawing.... The
Venetian painters, it seems, did not think of colour as an additional adornment
for the picture after it had been drawn on the panel” (p. 326). In Oizaki’s
anime, this lesson reverberates persistently across sensational and mundane
scenes alike, exuding a sense of chromatic subtlety and mellowness that reach
not only the eye but the entire sensorium even before one has begun to inspect
closely what the images actually represent. Oizaki’s colors are not, by and
large, especially bright or glossy: even the hues adopted throughout the series
to symbolize the tension between the Montagues and the Capulets, blue and
red, are elegantly modulated, with a preference for the cyan, periwinkle and
monestial nuances, on the one hand, and the magenta, terracotta and straw-
berry tinges on the other. Images are often blended into a whole by the airiness
and luminosity that characteristically permeate the action in both its indoor
and en-plein-air sequences. The eerie light of a storm flooding the landscape,
the melancholy lunar radiance penetrating a bedchamber through wrought-
iron grilles, and the glorious radiance of sunlight illuminating a happy visage
are among some of the effects that most resonantly attest to the adaptation’s
highly creative approach to light and color.
In addition, the anime’s sustained efforts to harmonize its visual mood
with its impressive musical accompaniment brings to mind another important
facet of Venetian painting in the Renaissance era, succinctly documented as
follows by John Gage’s Colour and Culture: “In Venice, the home of colore
[i.e., color as an artistic value independent of drawing], the virtuoso perform-
ances of painters were often compared to the skills of performing musicians”
(Gage, p. 226). We are thus here reminded of the existence of intimate con-
nections between the language of color and that of music, with words like
tone, timbre, harmony, scale, rhythm and pitch (among others) featuring fre-
quently in both discourses. Hitoshi Sakimoto’s soundtrack bewitchingly com-
plements the visuals’ energy of line and chroma from start to finish, eloquently
testifying to the critical importance of music in bringing out a show’s dramatic
essence. Oizaki himself has enthusiastically commented on the contribution
made by Sakimoto’s soundtrack to his own understanding of “Just how pow-
erful music can be” in rounding off an anime’s aesthetic import. “I don’t
think,” the director has frankly noted, “I’ve ever felt that so keenly as on this
project” (Oizaki). The soundtrack was performed in Sydney by a full orchestra,
selected in the knowledge that its youthful membership would entail famil-
iarity among the players with the medium of anime and its distinctive adap-
tational needs.
Oizaki’s anime is most loyal to its source in the adoption of a style and
register that genuinely capture the essence of Shakespearean discourse without
having to resort to apish imitation. This effect is accomplished by recourse
to sustained citations of actual lines from both Romeo and Juliet itself and
other Shakespeare plays (e.g., Othello, Richard III, A Midsummer Night’s
Dream, Julius Caesar and Hamlet), interspersed with more elliptical hints at
dramatic situations and complications associated with the Bard’s oeuvre. In
the English-language dub released by FUNimation, the dialogue’s Shake-
spearean feel is heightened by the incorporation of a wider range of lines and
images derived more or less explicitly from the playwright. A brilliant example
of the anime’s confident handling of a Shakespearean register, specifically in
the Anglophone version, resides with the monologue delivered by William in
the centrally positioned prologue to the fourteenth installment — a speech
that openly declares its rhetorical and artistic caliber by channeling the con-
ventions of pastiche into the expression of a grave message, all the while main-
taining the sense of irony for which the Bard’s opus is so justly renowned.
Delivering a capsulated allegory of Juliet’s predicament that yokes the source
text and the anime together with prestidigitatorial dexterity, the passage is
couched in the form of a full sonnet, created expressly for Oizaki’s adaptation.
This is a form with which Shakespeare is famously associated both within
and outside the dramatic sphere, and with which Romeo and Juliet, in partic-
ular, bears an intimate connection due to the play’s highly stylized deployment
of the rhetorical conventions of amorous poetry.
In its adoption of a Shakespearean style with carefully considered regu-
larity, the anime reminds us that an adaptation based on a play is related at
once to a performance text and to a written text. Oizaki’s show is not content
with merely focusing on the performance dimension of the source play and
hence with reworking its plot components as though they had been designed
exclusively for enactment. In fact, it is also seriously concerned with its status
as a written text available for reading and for motionless page-bound presen-
tation and reception — for its significance, in other words, as a piece of non-
dramatic discourse. It is at this level of the adaptive process that questions of
language, tone and register acquire paramount weight. In paying attention to
the Shakespearean parent as both a performance text and a written text,
Oizaki’s anime obliquely proposes that a dramatic work can never be conclu-
sively regarded as a solid entity — a substratum in relation to which successive
staged enactments and printed editions can be measured as more or less faithful
or innovative derivations. It is actually a concept that only comes to fruition
as a result of its translation into either a particular enactment or a particular

edition: prior to that point, it only holds a composite potential status as either,
both and neither of the two colluding parties. This move toward the hybrid
recalls the quintessentially Japanese aesthetic proclivity for daring amalgama-
tions of opposites — e.g., stability and unrest — as highlighted in the preface
to this study.
A prime indicator of the adaptation’s imaginative treatment of the parent
materials resides with its utilization of characters named after Shakespearean
personae featuring in either Romeo and Juliet or other plays from disparate
phases of the dramatist’s career. The latter are drawn from all of the categories
into which Shakespeare’s corpus is conventionally subdivided. At times, the
anime’s characters echo quite blatantly their literary namesakes in their roles
and mentalities, while at others they share no more than their appellations
with the Shakespearean precursors. The Great Tree’s guardian, Ophelia, exem-
plifies the latter typology insofar as this character does not obviously partake
of any of the traits famously associated with the hapless maiden from Ham-
let— except, arguably, a penchant for allusively dreamy language punctuated
by phrases from Hamlet: e.g., “perchance to dream” and “all the rest is silence.”
Conrad falls into the same category, his namesake being a villain from Much
Ado About Nothing. So do Juliet’s closest comrades and mentors: Francisco,
feasibly designated after ancillary personae from Hamlet and The Tempest, and
Curio, who shares his denomination with one of Duke Orsino’s attendants
in Twelfth Night. We also meet a Petruchio (in Shakespeare, the male protag-
onist in The Taming of the Shrew) in the person of the unfortunate boy
befriended by Romeo in the abysmal underworld of the Gradisca mines, and
a Titus (the eponymous hero in Shakespeare’s Titus Andronicus) in the person
of Mercutio’s father, a debauched but peculiarly shrewd and insightful member
of the Montague court. Antonio, Conrad’s grandson, shares his denomination
with various Shakespearean characters, including the male lead from The Mer-
chant of Venice. In some especially tantalizing cases, Oizaki’s personae do not
fulfill functions that can be regarded as literally faithful to the ones served by
their co-designated ancestors but rather evince latent or even cryptic affinities
with the Bard’s own cast which it is up to the viewer to detect and interpret.
Romeo’s mother, Lady Portia, derives her name from the heroine of The Mer-
chant of Venice, with whom she also shares an unwavering dedication to justice,
and from the icon of virtuous womanly strength immortalized in Julius Caesar.
The Neo-Verona Tyrant’s given name, Leontes, is most felicitously chosen
when one recalls the hubristic folly of his Shakespearean namesake from The
Winter’s Tale. This same play supplies Oizaki with the name of Hermione,
Romeo’s enforced betrothed, that of Camillo, Conrad’s devious friend, and
that of Emilia, cast by the anime as an actress enamored of Odin. (Please note
that Oizaki is intentionally flouting the convention, pivotal to Elizabethan

drama, that barred women access to the stage and required boys to play female
roles instead.)
The name of Ariel — the charismatic leader of the Farnese family in the
anime — is drawn from The Tempest: the Shakespearean sprite’s magical powers
are indeed echoed by Oizaki’s Ariel in her providential role as something of
an arch fairy godmother when it comes to the protection of Juliet and her
beleaguered followers. Another oblique correspondence worthy of consider-
ation can be found in the character of Cordelia, Juliet’s confidant, maid and
elder-sister surrogate in the adaptation, who shares with King Lear’s youngest
daughter an affectionate and unfailingly loyal disposition. King Lear also pro-
vides the designation of Regan for the endearingly tomboyish granddaughter
of Ariel’s majordomo, Balthazar, whose own name is derived from that of a
manservant in Romeo and Juliet itself. A few more personae with direct coun-
terparts in the original play deserve notice in the present context. One of
them is Mercutio, a character cast by Shakespeare in the role of an incandescent
youth renowned for his sharp tongue and unforgivingly caustic sense of humor
whom Oizaki reconfigures as a comparably irreverent and astute free spirit
with an additional dark twist: a burning desire to usurp Romeo’s place as
Prince Montague’s heir. Another one is Tybalt, Juliet’s maternal cousin in the
original play and Romeo’s half-brother (i.e., Prince Montague’s illegitimate
son) in the anime.
There is a sense in which Tybalt can be thought of as the tyrant’s alter
ego insofar as he is an illegitimate outcome of the Montague line’s selfish lech-
erousness in much the same way as Prince Montague is a product of a Capulet
nobleman’s exploitation of a vulnerable female. Tybalt and the despot thus
stand as specular images of each other, united by a blistering and vindictive
hatred for anyone and anything connected with the house which each of them
deems responsible for his misfortune. This direct correspondence between
the two characters is vividly conveyed by the installment in which Tybalt
reveals to Juliet the truth about his own and Prince Montague’s parentage.
His speech is here vibrantly intercut with a sequence where Prince Montague
engages in a fierce duel with Titus, whom he resents for being intimately
acquainted with his murky past even though the older man has assiduously
covered up the impostor’s crimes. The duel, in turn, is punctuated by flash-
backs to Prince Montague’s deprived upbringing and burgeoning hatred for
the Capulets. Another notable figure still is Benvolio, a character cast by
Shakespeare as Romeo’s cousin and recast by Oizaki as the male lead’s best
friend. In both instances, the character functions as the voice of reason in
seeking to temper Romeo’s more impetuous disposition. One of the most
unforgettable characters of Oizaki’s own conception is that of Lancelot, the
doctor who selflessly strives to alleviate the suffering of the indigent and the
abused with the help of supplies provided by the Red Whirlwind, whom he
patches up after each fight to the best of his competence. Lancelot immolates
himself by posing as the outlaw to save the lives of many innocent citizens
accused of being the notorious figure who face execution. While the scene in
which the physician heroically embraces the fire bound to consign him to the
most agonizing of deaths stands out as one of the entire anime’s most pathos-
fraught moments, equally memorable — albeit far less spectacular — is the scene
in which Lancelot’s surviving spouse bids Juliet farewell before leaving Neo-
Verona with her two little daughters. Alluding to her knowledge of the hero-
ine’s secret, the lady unreservedly exonerates Juliet from any sense of
responsibility she might harbor for her husband’s horrific end. It is in moments
such as this that Oizaki’s flair for imbuing his adaptation with autonomous
energy gloriously asserts itself.
A further character of Oizaki’s ideation here deserving of notice is Ben-
volio’s father Vittorio, Neo-Verona’s mayor and the leader of the House of
Frescobaldi. Seeking to counteract Prince Montague’s totalitarian policies by
preaching moderation and a humane approach to law-enforcement, Vittorio
is stripped of his title and possessions, sent into exile and threatened with
assassination, and eventually sheltered in secret plebeian quarters by his old
friend Conrad. The character is very effective in helping Oizaki engage with
the story’s political dimension in ways that transcend the hero-versus-villain
formula and allow, in fact, for mature reflection on the forever unresolved
tension between justice and order. An honest politician like Vittorio tirelessly
advocates the need to reconcile the two in the service of what he envisions as
the only authentically equanimous society one could ever aspire to achieve.
Although the blind forces engulfing Neo-Verona at an ever increasing pace
in the main body of the adventure mock those hopes as vapidly utopian, the
finale does promise the prospect of a world in which even aspirations as seem-
ingly idealistic as Vittorio’s might one day reach fruition. Oizaki’s handling
of the personalities and names inspired by disparate portions of Shakespeare’s
corpus — and not, univocally, by Romeo and Juliet alone — exposes the limi-
tations of theoretical models based on the premise that the distinction between
a source and its reconceptualization is an unproblematic given. In fact, that
strategy serves to show that an adaptation does not have to draw upon a single
recognizable precedent but is in fact capable of bringing into play multiple
sources and thus intimating that if an adaptation is somehow dependent on
a prior work, that work is, in turn, also dynamically implicated with other
works with which it may come into collusion at the adaptation’s own behest.
One of Oizaki’s most brilliantly inspired adaptive flourishes lies with the
incorporation of the Bard himself into the cast as the character of William —
or rather “Willy,” as several of his closest friends tend to address him, Juliet
included when she dons the Odin mask. The family name “Shakespeare” is
not explicitly used by Oizaki but William at one point boasts his ability to
protect Juliet and her companions from the Montague guards on the grounds
that no soldier would ever dare “shake his spear” at him. (The sexual innuendo
is precisely of the kind Elizabethan and Jacobean audiences would have rel-
ished.) Alternately evincing zany extravagance and meditative gravity, melo-
dramatic self-indulgence and pure genius, Oizaki’s William engineers an
alchemical fusion of reality and fantasy throughout, unobtrusively imparting
the adventure with a cohesive force. He accomplishes this dramatic feat by
suggesting direct intertextual correlations between his own plots and Juliet’s
life, often interspersing his own everyday colloquial register with lines from
the actual Shakespeare (assuming such a creature ever existed outside the
canonical imagination). As You Like It, for example, offers a perfect analogy
with the status of Oizaki’s heroine as a crossdresser. William also acts as a vis-
ible bridge between fantasy and reality by occupying the dwelling where Juliet
and her associates find shelter from Montague’s implacable persecution: an
edifice owned by his own powerful mother Ariel. This, it should be noted,
functions as an ideal shield for the Capulet insurgents due to its superficial
appearance as a popular playhouse which any self-righteous member of the
upper classes would unproblematically shun. While for William himself the
house is a nest wherein his imagination can be given free rein and all manner
of fantasy worlds can materialize, for the Capulets it operates, in its illusory
safety, as a constant reminder of their vulnerability in the outside world as a
sinister political reality.
In unleashing the full powers of fantasy, yet persistently commenting in
an elliptical vein on the rebels’ real predicament, William provides a poignant
narrative link between the two dimensions. Whenever William hints at the
existence of a parallel between his yarns and Juliet’s actual experiences, he
articulates those correspondences with such ironical panache that it not always
incontrovertibly clear whether William’s plays are supposed to stand as reflec-
tions of or rather templates for the girl’s actions. A paradigmatic illustration
is supplied by the sequence in which William admits to having been aware
for a long time of Juliet’s real identity and studied her ordeal in search of a
plot bound to achieve immortality. His “quill” has thus been “graced” at last
with “the love story that has so long eluded” him. William encourages Juliet
to “surrender” to her emotions so that he “may cut” her story “into little stars
and adorn the heavens for time eternal.” In a sense, this is precisely what the
historical Shakespeare can be said to have accomplished with his Romeo and
Juliet— as borne out not only by the tragedy’s enduring hold as a work in its
own right but also by the countless adaptations it has so eclectically spawned.
Oizaki’s Juliet, however, retains on this occasion the independence of mind

that has distinguished her from the start from her Elizabethan precedent and
simply refuses to embrace the passive status of a dramatic stereotype: “Forgive
me, Willy,” she tersely announces. “I cannot play your hero.” The subtlety
and humor with which Oizaki ideates the dramatist’s persona throughout the
show find commendable confirmation in the anime’s apocalyptic climax: with
Neo-Verona rapidly disintegrating around him, William laments that if the
world were to come to an end, there would no longer be any need for sto-
ries — the prospect he fears is clearly not the extinction of humanity but rather
the demise of narrative creativity.
Most importantly, through the character of William, Oizaki is in a posi-
tion to enthrone language itself as a major character throughout the anime.
This topos reaches an exhilarating apotheosis with the episode in which Juliet
and her companions rehearse and perform a play written by William — and
crowned by an entirely unforeseeable extempore climax by Juliet herself in
her Red Whirlwind persona — in order to mobilize public support in Mantua
and thence help it spread to Neo-Verona. William simply glories in this atmos-
phere of fervent creativeness, in which even the surly Curio is willing to draw
fliers and posters to advertise the play and the athletic Casanova Francisco is
quite prepared to lend a hand at costume-making, while Antonio discovers
unsuspected acting talent in performance with his new friend Regan. At one
point, proudly riding a stick horse while stentorianly offering his “kingdom”
in exchange for a “horse,” William avers that his genius benefits considerably
from the country air.
Language’s privileged status is persuasively corroborated by the vital sig-
nificance attached to names and their connection with both personal and col-
lective identities. This theme is particularly prominent in Oizaki’s rendition
of his source’s most famous portion, the balcony scene. Romeo x Juliet repo-
sitions this moment radically but retains the original’s emphasis on the uneasy
relationship between individual desires and the overarching system of language
by which those are framed, limited and indeed spoken. Jacques Derrida’s dis-
cussion of the play deserves attention, in this matter. As Derek Attridge points
out, in the analysis of the balcony scene conducted therein, Derrida emphasizes
“the force of contretemps [countertime] both in the play and the institutional
and intellectual context in which, and by means of which, we experience it”
(in Derrida 1992, p. 414). The focus is on issues of names and naming: “The
names of Romeo and Juliet, Montague and Capulet, produce both the desire
that drives the events of the play and the tragic mischances that thwart it.
[Please note that contretemps also translates as ‘mishap.’] ... Love and hate are
to be understood neither as arbitrary individual emotions nor as determined
cultural products, but as powerful effects of chance built into the network of
names and dates that make relationships possible and impossible” (p. 415).
Derrida himself ponders the tragic kernel of the play in terms of the stubborn
inextricability of names from their bearers, on the one hand, and in those of
a no less insistent disjuncture between the sanctioned meaning of a name and
the individual’s fruitless yearning to oppose it on the other. “Romeo and
Juliet,” the deconstructive philosopher contends, “love each other across their
name, despite their name, they die on account of their name, they live on in
their name ... Romeo and Juliet bear these names. They bear them, support
them even if they do not wish to assume them. From this name which separates
them but which will at the same time have heightened their desire with all
its aphoristic force, they would like to separate themselves. But the most
vibrant declaration of their love still calls for the name that it denounces”
(Derrida 1992, p. 423).
The most uncompromising indictment of the tyranny of names — and,
by implication, of language at large — lies with Juliet’s address of her illicit
nocturnal suitor, which Derrida provocatively rephrases as follows: “Not only
does this name say nothing about you as a totality but it doesn’t say anything,
it doesn’t even name a part of you, neither your hand, nor your foot, neither
your arm, nor your face, nothing that is human!... A proper name does not
mean anything which is human, which belongs to a human body, a human
spirit, an essence of man” (p. 430). Oizaki’s adaptation of the relevant scene
poignantly brings out the lacerating drama of language, reminding us in a
terse and unsentimental fashion (i.e., aphoristically indeed) that words are
never tied to meanings in unbiased, univocal or even logical ways. Language,
therefore, cannot be used objectively — let alone, as Romeo and Juliet’s tragedy
emphasizes, disinterestedly. Words are intrinsically flawed, precariously situ-
ated over the chasm of incomprehension and, in the direst scenarios, corrupted
by ideological constraints or — as the lovers’ ordeal shows — even perverted so
iniquitously as to amount to death sentences. If words can never be unprob-
lematically presumed to mean what they say or say what they mean, they can
nevertheless be adopted, plausibly by virtue of their intrinsic emptiness, to
carry burdensome messages of life-shattering magnitude.
The issue of naming in Romeo x Juliet will shortly be returned to. It is
first worth noting, on a more jocular note, that the balcony scene has also
enjoyed a brief yet memorable adaptation in Tsuyokiss — CoolxSweet (TV series,
dir. Shinichiro Kimura, 2006), an anime that often indulges in self-reflexive
gestures commenting on dramatic and cinematic artistry with a focus on the
process of production as an eminently material reality. In its take on the
famous scene, Kimura’s show confirms anime’s attraction not only to the gen-
eral import of the quintessential romantic tragedy of all times but also, more
specifically, to its arguably most iconic and globally renowned segment. In
the scene in question, the heroine, Sunao, strives to prove her thespian caliber
to the annoyingly supercilious president of her school’s student council so as
to obtain permission to form a drama club. In enacting the famous piece,
Sunao plays the roles of both Juliet and Romeo by nimbly switching places
across the stage and hence seeming to influence the mood and style of the
setting itself with each shift of position. A concisely impactful change of cos-
tume, achieved by simply wearing a dark cape-like curtain over Juliet’s frilly
accoutrements works marvels in imparting the scene with a distinctive atmos-
phere — and thus in imbuing Kimura’s adaptive flourish with both drama and
charm. In addition, the explicit and deliberate foregrounding of theatrical
artificiality inherent in the scene emanates a genuinely Brechtian feel while
also conveying an authentic sense of enthusiasm about the joys and hazards
of performance.
Returning to the issue of language in Romeo x Juliet, Catherine Belsey’s
remarks concerning the relationship between love and language are especially
deserving of attention. The critic maintains that if love is to be understood
not as an entirely personal and isolated experience but rather as a communal
reality, then it is far more likely to be an offshoot of an officially sanctioned
and recognized discourse than of psychological and affective agencies. Belsey
develops Derrida’s argument regarding the instability of language and the
related fallacy inherent in the assumption that words and their users can ade-
quately express their meanings, by emphasizing that desire always exceeds and
surpasses the language deployed to voice it. In defying the power of words,
desire ostensibly challenges the distinction between mind and body, abstract
symbols and material reality. Yet, it can do no more than challenge it: it can-
not actually bypass or defeat it for good. In longing to divest themselves of
the names that culturally define them, the lovers seek to give free rein to their
“desiring bodies as pure sensation ... separable from the word that names it.”
Nevertheless, such “unnamed bodies ... are only imaginary. The human body
is already inscribed: it has no existence as pure organism, independent of the
symbolic order” of language, its signs, its codes and, ultimately, its love-stifling
laws (Belsey 2001, p. 52).
References to the arbitrariness and injustice of naming feature at various
points in the anime prior to the balcony scene. Juliet unceremoniously pro-
fesses her resentment against her name in the scene where Conrad rebukes
her for donning the Red Whirlwind costume and acting rashly to rescue
Lancelot from the Montague dungeons when, the old man avers, she should
be placing her title and the political duty that goes with it above all else.
What fuels the heroine’s chagrin, at this juncture, is the fact that she has only
just found out that her beloved is Prince Montague’s son — an unpalatable
truth accidentally disclosed by the doctor at the close of the salvage mission
in which Romeo has come to Juliet and Lancelot’s assistance with spectacular
results. A touching allusion to the tyrannical authority of names comes later
with the scene in which Cordelia advises Juliet to try her hand at the myste-
rious art of needlework not by attempting to sew a whole shirt, as the girl
wishes to do to replace the garment she has inadvertently caused Romeo to
lose in fire, but rather by embroidering a handkerchief, adding that Juliet can
put the cherished one’s “name” on it. When the girl instinctively inquires
“His full name?” her confidant, oblivious to the complexity of her predica-
ment, innocently remarks: “I would hope you’d know that much about him
now.” What Cordelia cannot fathom, alas, is the dire extent to which Juliet
herself would like not to partake of that knowledge.
A supple adaptation of a famous line from the source play features in
the scene where Juliet, in her Odin mask, pays a visit to her parents’ violated
tomb at night and, picking up the flower that ironically binds her to both the
Capulet line and Romeo throughout the anime, muses: “An iris by any other
name would smell as sweet.” The apotheosis of the series’ engagement with
the thorny issue of naming occurs in the sequence where Romeo and Odin
are cruising the Neo-Verona skies aboard the loyal Cielo. When the boy intro-
duces himself as “Romeo,” his companion asks: “Romeo, what?” and elicits
the following response: “I’d rather not have any other name. Let me just be
Romeo, at least for a while.” The genuinely heart-wrenching moment, in this
exchange, is the aside recording Juliet’s inner thoughts that immediately pre-
cedes Romeo’s reply: “You fool,” she chides herself. “Why bother asking? Do
you expect him to claim some other family as his own?” The dialogue reaches
its culmination with a succinct encapsulation of Romeo and Juliet’s semiotic
tragedy:
ODIN/JULIET: Are you saying that you refuse your name?
ROMEO: If I could ...
Even when the relationship between names and identities is couched in loving
terms, it is hard not to sense its underlying arbitrariness. This is demonstrated
by Romeo’s early allusion to the concept of the name as a personal posses-
sion — a bizarre assumption indeed. Thus, when Juliet asks him why he wishes
to know her name, he ripostes: “Simply because it is yours.”
Any genuine Romeo x Juliet aficionados will undoubtedly rejoice in the
invaluable pictorial companion to the anime, the art volume Romeo x Juliet
Destiny of Love Visual Fan Book. In this text, the concurrently warm and robust
nature of the show’s artwork comes gloriously to the fore. In allowing us to
focus closely on multifarious facets of the aesthetic vision sustaining the
anime’s characterization, dramatic composition and worldbuilding mission,
the book also encourages us to reflect on some key aspects of its thematic take
on the Shakespearean original. The deployment of color palettes that serve to

individuate both single actors and whole factions and social groupings in an
emblematic vein contributes to the richness of the images throughout without
pandering to blatantly formulaic chromatic coding. In fact, color is used as
a stylistic leading thread capable of imparting the volume in its entirety with
admirable artistic coherence as an artifact of independent value. The com-
panion is most helpful in highlighting the sheer magic of character designer
and chief animation director Daiki Harada’s inceptive visuals, their ability to
capture the actors’ personalities with a deft balance of naturalism and styl-
ization, and their attention to subtle emotional tinges that render Oizaki’s
whole cast so prismatically diversified. The graphics indeed endeavor to fore-
ground the main personae’s multifacetedness, contrasting divergent aspects of
their mentalities and roles at different stages in the action, thereby implying
that human identities are always context-bound and hence predicated upon
contingent social, familial and even metaphysical imperatives. Identity, it is
thus obliquely proposed, can never be approached as a universal or transhis-
torical reality either at the level of the psychic apparatus or at that of materially
encoded selfhood. Just as love, in the logic of both the source text and its
anime adaptation, is inexorably performed within cultural boundaries, so the
various characters’ identities inevitably take shape vis-à-vis complex networks
of intersubjectivity.
The character sheets devoted to Juliet are a prime example of Harada’s
penchant for multiplicity in the rendition of both physiognomy and psychol-
ogy, studiously conveying the heroine’s transitions across the roles of Odin,
the Red Whirlwind and the adolescent girl as well as, within the Juliet persona
as such, the oscillation between the bashful maiden in the throes of a forbidden
passion and the duty-bound Capulet heir. The pages dedicated to Curio and
Francisco are notable in their portrayal of the former’s proverbial toughness
and of the latter’s suave manners while caring to draw attention to Curio’s
underlying gentleness and to Francisco’s cold-blooded resolve. Analogously,
Hermione’s docility is highlighted without, however, obfuscating her lingering
frustration and occasional concession to undiluted ire. The coexistence of
selfless loyalty and pure good humor at the core of Cordelia’s personality is
simultaneously conveyed, as are Mercutio’s duplicity and Tybalt’s nightmar-
ishly contorted psyche in the face of seemingly irreconcilable obligations. As
for Oizaki’s commitment to meticulous worldbuilding, the images isolating
the most diminutive aspects of each actor’s distinctive garments and accessories
are no less telling, though obviously less theatrical, than those devoted to dif-
ferent types of dragonsteeds (and their respective accoutrements) or those
focusing on both recurrent and sporadic settings in the format of miniaturized
tableaux. Thus, even a single page of frames depicting the anime’s natural
and architectural locations is sufficient to regale the eye with a powerful

impression of the series’ environmental diversity and to enable imaginative
juxtapositions in the viewer’s mind. Therefore, the artbook fully substantiates
Oizaki’s enlisting of Harada and his associates as instrumental in the evocation
of an alternate universe which, ironically, gains concreteness and credibility
from its speculative nature and wholly hypothetical underpinnings more than
from any degree of realism imparted upon its forms. Commenting specifically
on Harada’s accomplishment, Oizaki has drawn attention to the artist’s
unmatched flair for communicating the story’s “human drama” thanks to an
apparently innate ability to “breathe life into his drawings,” make the char-
acters palpably alive by conjuring up “the warmth of their skin” and hence
enable them to “seem ready to leap off the page” (Oizaki).
Romeo and Juliet is one of the Bard’s works to have been most frequently
adapted all over the globe to cinematic form. The earliest — and vastly pop-
ular — adaptations can be witnessed in the province of silent film, which might
seem ironical considering that many of us have been trained to associate Shake-
speare’s genius principally with rhetorical and dialogical powers. What is most
intriguing about silent versions of Romeo and Juliet is that, as White points
out, on numerous occasions they did not handle the tragedy deferentially but
rather “as a burlesque apparently unworthy of the seriousness accorded to the
other tragedies” (White, p. 20). The first widely acclaimed adaptation of
Romeo and Juliet for the screen was helmed by George Cukor in 1936 and cast
in the key roles Trevor Howard and Norma Shearer. Being already in their
late thirties at the time, these actors might seem an odd choice as the cham-
pions of youthful love but their immense popularity would no doubt have
secured positive responses from older audiences familiar with their talent.
Producer Irving Thalberg was especially keen to convey the authenticity of
the film’s cultural context, tirelessly instructing the artists and researchers in
the crew to derive aesthetic inspiration from the city of Verona itself and from
the works of painters such as Giovanni Bellini, Sandro Botticelli, Benozzo
Gozzoli and Vittore Carpaccio. In this regard, the film bears affinities with
Oizaki’s own relocation of the Shakespearean drama as a likewise impeccably
documented visual text.
A highly imaginative intervention in this adaptive history consists of
Renato Castellani’s 1954 film, which was shot entirely on location in Italy and
features costumes designed by Leonor Fini inspired directly by the works of
illustrious Italian painters of the Renaissance. According to Solimano, the
most notable examples are Piero della Francesca’s fresco representing King
Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, to which the film’s portrayal of Juliet is
explicitly indebted, Andrea Mantegna’s series of frescoes for the Gonzaga Wed-
ding Chamber, particularly in the representation of the Court of Mantua,
and Vittore Carpaccio’s Vision of St. Augustine for the representation of Friar
Lawrence’s monastic cell. Castellani’s movie, moreover, echoes the oeuvre of
Domenico Ghirlandaio in its approach to perspective and framing (Soliman).
Castellani’s adaptation sets an immediate precedent for Franco Zeffirelli’s own
screen version of Romeo and Juliet (1968). This makes sustained reference to
several of the most pressing issues thrown into relief by the period in which
it was released, making the action pivot on the interpenetration of dynastic
conflicts with generational tensions marring all relationships between the
young and their often corrupt elders. One of the most thought-provoking
adaptations of recent decades is indubitably Baz Luhrmann’s 1996 film. In
this version, according to White, the preoccupation with social issues pro-
gressively evinced by some of the more inspired adaptations of Romeo and
Juliet since the 1960s takes a new turn in order to highlight the “nihilism of
the senses” bred by “profiteering multinational corporations, ... seedy urban
decay ... and the frustrations of a neglected generation” victimized by “the
insatiable greed of the news moguls who exploit ‘human interest’ stories such
as suicide — their narrative is framed in a typically disposable television news
story” (White, p. 23). According to Gill, Luhrmann’s production can also be
regarded as an innovative moment in the field of Shakespeare adaptations
insofar as it “illuminated some tired metaphors with daring visual puns, and
demonstrated that there is nothing sacred about the iambic pentameter when
it is spoken quite naturally in ‘Verona Beach’ (California), where the fighting
is with ‘Sword 9mm’ guns, Captain Prince patrols his territory in a helicopter,
and Romeo courts Juliet while swimming in her father’s pool” (Gill, p. viii).
In looking at previous adaptations of Romeo and Juliet, a primary instance
of imaginative reconceptualization is supplied by the film West Side Story (dirs.
Jerome Robbins and Robert Wise, 1961), itself an adaptation of a 1957 Broad-
way musical with music by Leonard Bernstein and lyrics by Stephen Sond-
heim. The theme of dynastic rivalry is radically relocated and recontextualized
as a feud involving two gangs in a 1950s New York plagued by racial conflict.
The Capulets, accordingly, are recast as a Puerto Rican group dubbed the
“Sharks,” whereas the Montagues are white Americans of Anglo-Saxon prove-
nance known as the “Jets.” The themes of youth anarchy, urban warfare and
parental failure gain great prominence in this adaptation. Racial conflict is
also central to Charles Kanganis’ hip-hop imbued film Rome and Jewel (2006),
where the Veronese couple is reimagined as consisting of the African-American
son of a Compton minister and the Caucasian daughter of the mayor of Los
Angeles. Shakespeare in Love (movie; dir. John Madden, 1998) is also notable
in this context due to its insertion of Shakespeare’s own (fictionalized) life
into the cinematic dimension. Madden’s dramatization of the playwright Will
Shakespeare’s relationship with his top actor Thomas Kent disguised as Viola
de Lesseps parallels Oizaki’s use of the persona of Willy in Romeo x Juliet.

Among some of the more radical adaptations rank Peter Ustinoff ’s Cold-War
take on the play, retitled Romanoff and Juliet (1961), and the martial-arts
appropriation Romeo Must Die (movie; dir. Andrzej Bartkowiak, 2000). In
the specific domain of animated cinema, notable instances are Romie-0 and
Julie-8 (1996), a made-for-TV movie helmed by Clive A. Smith in which the
protagonists are portrayed as robots, and Phil Nibbelink’s Romeo and Juliet:
Sealed with a Kiss (2006), where the lovers are cute seals rewarded with a
child-friendly happy ending. Additionally, filmic adaptations of Romeo and
Juliet include pornographic versions of the basic story, such as the Swedish
movie The Sex Lives of Romeo and Juliet (dir. Peter Perry, Jr., 1969), and the
“trash” or “grunge” appropriation Tromeo and Juliet (movie; dir. Loyd Kauf-
man, 1996).
Regardless of the extent to which individual adaptations of Shakespeare’s
tragedy, Oizaki’s included, depart from the source, they all point to the creative
powers of the art of adaptation per se by varyingly demonstrating that directors
and actors collaborate actively with the original play. Relatedly, in taking cog-
nizance of the vast differences in outlook and style exhibited by separate adap-
tations, viewers might fruitfully take greater critical ownership of the source
text while also learning to be more questioning of the media through which
its adaptations are divulged. Oizaki’s own anime participates in these inter-
rogative processes with arguably unparalleled fervor, thus bearing full witness
to Pierre Macherey’s description of the imaginative potentialities inherent in
the adaptive mode: “Man can create only in continuity, by making the poten-
tial actual; he is excluded, by his nature, from originality and innovation. But
this difference is an adaptation” (Macherey, p. 230).
If cinematic adaptations of Romeo and Juliet are so numerous as to defy
comprehensive documentation in the present context, it must also be noted
that the original play has served as the source of inspiration for countless
paintings over the centuries. Oizaki’s Romeo x Juliet does not overtly, let alone
univocally, adopt the style prevalent in any one isolatable work of art. Yet, it
does exhibit some intriguing points of contact with diverse pictorial relocations
of the Shakespearean tragedy. A relatively early pictorial adaptation of Romeo
and Juliet here worthy of consideration is Henry William Bunbury’s Romeo
and Juliet with Friar Lawrence (1792–1796), a narrative painting that empha-
sizes Juliet’s virginal reticence and hence her reluctance to give in to the call
of desire. Although, as observed, Oizaki’s heroine is a far more active persona
than Shakespeare’s own Juliet, she does evince a similar stance in the anime’s
climax when she resists Romeo’s entreaties in the knowledge that her personal
yearnings and her public duty are hopelessly irreconcilable. An intriguing
affinity can also be detected between the moonlit scene set by Oizaki in Juliet’s
humble bedchamber, portraying her disconsolateness in the wake of the dis-

covery of Romeo’s family name and Philip H. Calderon’s Juliet (1888), where
almost identical color and lighting effects are deployed to convey a germane
atmosphere. With Ford Madox Brown’s Romeo and Juliet (1870), Oizaki’s
anime shares a passion for Mediterranean settings (especially at the architec-
tural level), as well as for warm palettes of the kind associated by the series
with Juliet and the Capulet line throughout its unfolding. Concomitantly,
the show echoes Sir Francis Dicksee’s Romeo and Juliet (1884) in its more
fairy talish moments of innocent romance.
The adaptive potentialities entailed by the finale of the original play,
emphasized by numerous visual adaptations and obviously significant to
Oizaki’s own enterprise, are dramatically captured in Frederic Lord Leighton’s
The Reconciliation of the Montagues and Capulets Over the Dead Bodies of Romeo
and Juliet (1853–1855). The sense of aerial suspension so pivotal to the Neo-
Veronese ambience portrayed by Oizaki’s anime is also the most salient fea-
ture of Marc Chagall’s Romeo and Juliet (1964), where the lovers — in a style
instantly redolent of the artist’s cachet —float through space in a deceptively
tranquil and ethereal environment, in fact coursed by violence and discord.
In the realm of contemporary art, Romeo x Juliet finds a close correlative in
Dorina Costras’ Romeo and Juliet, a painting that echoes the anime in its
emphasis on the centrality of masks to the construction and maintenance of
public identities. Another notable instance is Todd Peterson’s Romeo and Juliet,
where prominence is given — as is repeatedly the case in Oizaki’s series — to
an oneiric dimension in which even the sweetest of dreams is capable of degen-
erating into a baleful nightmare. Finally, Oizaki’s heroine recalls quite viv -
idly — though, one assumes, fortuitously — John William Waterhouse’s Juliet
(1898), another persona likewise marked by a stance so reserved as to verge
on timidity blended dynamically with a sense of inquisitive intelligence and
independence of mind.
Romeo and Juliet’s standing as one of the most often adapted of Shake-
speare’s works may seem somewhat ironical when set against the tendency,
pervasive among mainstream critics and commentators of the Bard’s corpus,
to regard the play as the Cinderella of the tragedies. This proclivity has insis-
tently led to Romeo and Juliet’s relative marginalization in favor of the so-
called mature tragedies (especially Hamlet, Macbeth, Othello and King Lear)
as dramatizations of the fall of a noble soul in Shakespeare’s distinctly modern
adaptation of the classical template mapped on concepts of hamartia, hubris
and nemesis. The play itself has fomented such critical attitudes due to Shake-
speare’s own parodic employment of its tragic core in “Pyramus and Thisbe,”
the play-within-a-play grotesquely performed by the “rude mechanicals” in
A Midsummer Night’s Dream. It is worth noting, on this point, that Lindsay
Kemp’s 1979 adaptation of A Midsummer Night’s Dream in pantomime form

actually replaces “Pyramus and Thisbe” with snippets of Romeo and Juliet,
featuring a farcical version of the famous balcony scene, sardonically debunked
through the use of actors perched on stilts and squeaky voices. However,
Romeo and Juliet undeniably carries serious ideological and psychological
implications, as the foregoing pages have sought to show with specific reference
to Oizaki’s extrapolation and intensification of the original play’s macrocosmic
import in his anime.
The source text’s richness may well be conveyed more effectively by its
adaptational reconceptualizations than by tiresome attempts to stage and
restage ad infinitum some putatively authentic Shakespearean text unsullied
by history and circumstances, which ultimately only serve to deliver unin-
spiring spectacle — in other words, something inauthentic if measured by the
standards of Shakespeare’s proverbial vitality and zestful discourse. Indeed,
by reimagining the source text in relation to variable and tangible cultural
contexts rather than to some dusty archeological vestige safely snuggled in the
concept of literary tradition, adaptive performances show us that no work is
genuinely alive unless it is amenable to pluralizing rewriting by different gen-
erations and for different reasons and purposes. Oizaki’s series validates this
hypothesis not solely by radically reconfiguring Romeo and Juliet but also —
indeed, more significantly — by yielding a convincing portrait of the original
play’s more poignant subtexts. It does so most memorably, paradoxical though
this may sound, when it departs most starkly from the parent yarn. This is
because its leading goal does not consist of seizing the essence of Romeo and
Juliet per se (whatever this might be) but rather the play’s transhistorical rel-
evance and this relevance, ironically, can only be credibly demonstrated by
giving it contingent historical (or mock-historical) grounding. Thus, Neo-
Verona and the dynastic lore revolving around the Great Tree could be viewed
primarily as tropes through which Oizaki anchors a floating fantasy to a spec-
ulative reality, and thus alludes to the original text’s ability to speak to the
specific audiences of disparate epochs.
Oizaki’s adaptation concomitantly redefines, in light of both the specific
capacities of his medium and his fresh take on the plot, an important eros-
related aspect of the original play which Lloyd Davis has pithily described as
the “notion of desire as lost presence” (Davis, p. 38). Whereas Shakespeare’s
tragedy conclusively consigns desires to this melancholy state, Oizaki’s adap-
tation, as suggested, offers an ambiguous finale in which desire might reach
at least partial fulfillment. However, the anime is faithful to its source text’s
depiction of love as a state which no individual can unequivocally appropriate
as a personal possession or prerogative insofar as it is always bound “to slip
back into constraining and distorting social forms.” This is foreshadowed, in
both the original play and the anime, by the context of Romeo and Juliet’s
first encounter: “an elaborate ritual of masks and misrecognition” (p. 38). In
its dramatization of Romeo and Juliet’s passion, Oizaki’s series also replicates
the inceptive tragedy in its structural penchant for repetitive patterning. In
the Bard’s own text, this preference is borne out by the orchestration of the
love yarn in relation, as Davis notes, to “Four meetings and kisses shared by
Romeo and Juliet ... in counterpoint to four violent or potentially violent
eruptions” (p. 41). Oizaki’s anime likewise alternates between amorous lyricism
and martial turbulence by employing seven key events, pivoting throughout
on the protagonists’ romance as its diegetic backbone. These correspond to
Romeo and Juliet’s first meeting while the heroine is disguised as the Red
Whirlwind and Montague’s son rescues her from the pursuing guards, their
epiphanic experience of love at first sight at the Rose Ball, the rescue of Lance-
lot from the dungeon where Juliet is again donning her outlaw mask and
Romeo gets her and the doctor out of trouble, the sequence where the couple
shelters from the rain in a lakeside cottage and Romeo discovers that Odin
and Juliet are one and the same person, the exchange of vows in the abandoned
country church, the reunion in the derelict village which Romeo is seeking
to resuscitate with the freed Gradisca prisoners, and the lovers’ climactic
encounter at the time of Romeo’s return to Neo-Verona just as the Capulet
insurgents are gaining control of the capital.
With its own treatment of repetition as a structural mainstay, the show
pays homage to Shakespeare’s own rendition of the unresolved conflict between
a fantasy of transcendence and a reality of time-bound obligations. Much as
the lovers may strive for a dream that could surpass both temporal and spatial
boundaries, their destiny brutally decrees, according to Davis, that the connec-
tions between “past and present, social and personal, cannot be transcended.”
Oizaki’s intensification of his source’s political dimension foregrounds this
perspective with undeniable poignancy, simultaneously reinforcing the original
text’s rhythmic oscillation between moments of “passion, when time seems
to stand still” and dream-shattering “returns to the ongoing rush of events”
(p. 32). If Romeo and Juliet’s love defies the constraints of clocktime in favor
of a timeless flow of affects and projections, the strictures of social calendars,
historical landmarks and pressing dates haul them back to a rigidly defined
pattern of temporality and attendant responsibilities. The insistent references,
peppered throughout the anime, to the events held to have taken place four-
teen years prior to the present-day adventure powerfully serve to index public
time against the lovers’ yearning for suspension or dissolution in a somehow
atemporal forever. The repetitive scheme is strengthened by the show’s alter-
nation between hyperkinesis and reflective stasis, marked by a tendency to
intersperse and juxtapose the more dynamic sequences with pauses for med-
itation and reassessment. Thus, the dramatic revelation of the heroine’s real
identity in the graveyard scene is followed by the moment of petrified paralysis
in which she faces the immensity of the task ahead. Later, her resolve to take
up the legacy borne by her father’s sword is superseded by a likewise stalling
reluctance to act due to her knowledge of Romeo’s parentage. The intense
sequence in which the Capulet rebels are besieged and attacked by the Mon-
tague guards as a result of Camillo’s betrayal is then counterpointed by Juliet’s
disabling shock as she confronts at first hand the reality of bloodshed. The
lovers’ brief rural idyll later nests itself precariously between episodes of frantic
action, as does the temporary retreat by the heroine and her companions to
the haven of Lady Farnese’s Mantua estate. This pattern serves to highlight,
to cite Davis’ comments on the original play, how “The lovers create new
images of individuality and of togetherness.... Yet their efforts remain circum-
scribed by social forces” (p. 37).
The Shakespeare play’s seemingly infinite amenability to adaptation is,
according to Davis, a possibility which Romeo and Juliet’s own finale overtly
decrees. According to the critic, “The play affirms precedents and conditions
for its own reproduction as if anticipating future responses. Before ending, it
even shows these possibilities being realised. The grieving fathers decide to
build statues of the lovers, and the prince’s final lines look forward to ‘more
talk of these sad things’” (p. 40). According to Dympna Callaghan, moreover,
at the same time as it “perpetuates an already well-known tale,” Romeo and
Juliet also delivers an open-ended resolution that entails “the possibility of
almost endless retellings of the story — displacing the lovers’ desire into a per-
petual narrative of love” (Callaghan, p. 61). The interpretation of Romeo and
Juliet as a play whose closure alludes to options for textual regeneration and
relocation is also implied by Julia Kristeva’s psychoanalytical reading of its
treatment of the love-death dyad, particularly in the finale. “Even though the
death of the Verona lovers is beyond remedy,” Kristeva maintains, “one has
the feeling that it is only sleep.... The sleep of lovers ... refills a stock of imag-
inative energy that is ready, at the wakening, for new expenditures, new
caresses, under the sway of the senses.” Thus, the situation captured at the
close of Romeo and Juliet can be said to “provide us with a certain amorous,
imaginary stock for our erotic and social dramas” (Kristeva, p. 82). In Kris-
teva’s assessment, Romeo and Juliet would appear to have entered a temporary
condition of dormancy and to be awaiting resuscitation, metaphorically speak-
ing. No force could more dependably undertake such a task than textual-
ity — a sphere of human activity that is famed to lack any clear origin and
any obvious destination and therefore to be, by implication, limitless. The
ending of Oizaki’s adaptation is also amenable to Kristeva’s reading of the
original play’s finale, at the same time as it lends the source an inspired twist
by plausibly taking Romeo and Juliet into a parallel dimension. Thus, the
anime does not merely revive the Shakespearean lovers: it actually engineers
their transposition to profoundly Other imaginary worlds —first, that of Neo-
Verona and then that of the realm they are ushered into by their redemptive
actions: alternate realities whence yet more textual journeys might conceivably
ensue. In these conjectural experiments, one glimpses the possibility of a love
founded on respect, mutuality and equality that may elude exile to a tragic
neverland, achieve fulfillment and, more importantly still, go on operating as
a source of inspiration from a world that is beyond our own world and yet
dialectically conjoined with it.
Chapter 6
A Magical Murder Enigma

Umineko no Naku Koro ni
The only words that ever satisfied me as describing Nature

are the terms used in fairy books, charm, spell, enchantment.
They express the arbitrariness of the fact and its mystery.
— Gilbert Keith Chesterton
Umineko no Naku Koro ni (“When Seagulls Cry”) first came into existence
in 2007 as a visual novel created by the doujin group 07th Expansion. The
initial game has since spawned an entire series comprising six story arcs: Legend
of the Golden Witch (2007), Turn of the Golden Witch (2007), Banquet of the
Golden Witch (2008), Alliance of the Golden Witch (2008), End of the Golden
Witch (2009) and Dawn of the Golden Witch (2009). In order to appreciate
Umineko no Naku Koro ni’s textual constitution, it is vital to consider the
principal features of its medium as both a ludic and a narrative construct.
The phrase visual novel typically designates a videogaming package of an
emphatically interactive and immersive character, which shuns the notion of
authorial mastery and enlists instead the player’s own creativity as instrumental
in the production of the narrative weave. The player is indeed responsible for
narrativizing the game insofar as the game itself does not yield a story as such
but rather the raw materials (dramatis personae, situations and settings) from
which a narrative might be concocted, and a purely virtual reality might
thereby achieve contingent realization. Visual novels capitalize on parallel,
multiperspectival, crisscrossing and intertwining story arcs, and their conclu-
sions alter according to the specific choices made by players at critical “decision
points.” Players may gradually sample all of a game’s potential outcomes by
exploring alternative possibilities through multiple replay. Structurally, visual
novels rely on extensive textual passages capturing the characters’ dialogues
and internal monologues, accompanied by frames featuring character sprites
meant to connote the sources of particular utterances and by intensely atmos-
128
6 . A Magical Murder Enigma 129
pheric backgrounds. Characterization is indubitably one of the game’s key

priorities, bearing witness to psychological complexity, a serious concern with
contemporary cultural anxieties and a hearty appetite for convoluted rela-
tionships. Umineko no Naku Koro ni constitutes a particular kind of visual
novel normally described as “sound novel,” in keeping with 07th Expansion’s
distinctive aesthetic proclivities. In this kind of game, sound operates as a
pivotal expressive vehicle and considerable prominence is accordingly attrib-
uted to acoustic effects, dialogue and music. Umineko no Naku Koro ni’s
graphic style, relatedly, is terse and carefully stripped of redundant ornamen-
tation, in favor of dramatic color contrasts and line patterns capable of evoking
chromatic and geometric harmonies that aptly replicate the game’s aural lean-
ings.
At base, the series chronicles the adventures of a group of eighteen char-
acters trapped by a typhoon on a remote island, Rokkenjima, over two days
(i.e., 4 and 5 October 1986) as they become embroiled in a chain of bizarre
murders. The aim of the game is to ascertain whether the crimes emanate
from human or supernatural agencies while striving to ideate an outcome
guaranteeing all of the main personae’s survival. The first four Umineko no
Naku Koro ni games serve to familiarize players with the story’s setting and
bizarre circumstances, while the last two games, known as Umineko no Naku
Koro ni Chiru (“When Seagulls Cry Breakdown”) dig into the nub of the axial
conundrum, supplying fractional solutions to the questions raised in the pre-
vious games but also moving the action into fresh territory. The cast includes
the ailing head of the affluent Ushiromiya family, Kinzo, three of his family
members stationed on the island alongside his personal doctor and five of his
servants, and eight additional family members visiting Rokkenjima to discuss
the distribution of Kinzo’s inheritance after his forthcoming demise. Pivotal
to the game’s progression are the exploits revolving around the character of
Battler Ushiromiya, a hitherto estranged member of the prosperous dynasty,
and his investigation into the legend claiming that as a young man, Kinzo
received a handsome amount of gold from the Golden Witch Beatrice, whose
charismatic portrait hangs in the hall of the island mansion. (The edifice itself,
incidentally, offers a faithful adaptation of the palace in the Kyuu Furukawa
Gardens in Kita, Tokyo.)
The cryptic epitaph inscribed on a stone block beneath the painting inti-
mates that unless its meaning is disclosed, more and more people will come
to nefarious ends until Beatrice herself is eventually resurrected. Battler and
Beatrice are caught together in their own bizarre game as they inspect the
events taking place on the island from the bird’s-eye perspective provided by
their teleportation to the alternate universe of “Purgatorio” (courtesy, puta-
tively, of Beatrice’s preternatural skills). The relationship between the two
characters gains tremendous dialectical tension from their conflicting world

views: while the Golden Witch seems only too keen on demonstrating the
ascendancy of magical factors in the lethal charade they are witnessing, Battler
has no time for anything other than hard-nosed factuality. The player is
assisted by “Tips,” systematically updated as the story progresses, providing
additional information about the actors and plot which may or may not be
helpful in unraveling the mystery. Further clues are supplied, at different
stages, by features tagged “red truth” (a statement claiming to be true and
challenging the player to formulate hypotheses regarding the culprit or cul-
prits), “blue truth” (a statement presenting theories that might become true
unless they are contradicted by the red truth), and “gold truth” (a statement
that is only available to the Game Master — or Game Manager [GM]— that
may or may not override the red truth). The levels of truth attendant upon
each turn of the game and related efforts to unravel the central puzzle are
therefore not only multifarious but also, at least potentially, incompatible and
often rescindable. This ruse works very effectively in encouraging players to
bring to fruition the game’s speculative narrative by recourse to their own
hermeneutic capabilities.
Moving on to consider the original visual novel’s anime adaptation
Umineko no Naku Koro ni, a TV series encompassing the first four arcs of the
game and helmed by Chiaki Kon (2009), an important difference must first
of all be noted. The source game can afford to leave its multiforking threads
pretty much open, on the assumption that it is ultimately up to the player to
actualize their otherwise purely potential and hypothetical status as narrative
leads. Due to its fundamentally episodic and finite format, the anime has no
choice but to braid its plot strands more firmly together — albeit by no means
with unequivocal finality — and hence provide at least partial resolutions. The
show’s dramatic constellation does, however, bear witness to Kon’s endeavor
to produce an animational equivalent of 07th Expansion’s ramifying ludic
structure. To allow this aspect of the series incrementally to manifest itself,
it is necessary not to examine it exclusively in terms of either its overall parable
(in search for content-oriented answers to its riddles) or its individual install-
ments (in the interests of formalist analysis). In fact, it is both more apposite
and more rewarding to approach it on the basis of clusters of episodes wherein
plural narrative possibilities converge, collide or collude, and finally deliver
provisional resolutions to the characters’ and the audience’s quest for meaning
and shape in the face of a seemingly inchoate tangle of murky enigmas. Visual
novels, as argued, do not constitute autonomous narratives in themselves, yet
host all the basic elements of an imaginable or plausible story. These materials
rise to the status of actual narratives as the game enlists its players’ story-mak-
ing proclivities, encouraging them to constellate the available materials into
a cohesive semiotic ensemble. Emulating the task undertaken by the visual

novel’s players, Kon’s anime seeks to muster its source game’s disparate com-
ponents into a harmonious cinematic event. This analogy situates the series’
director and designers on the plane of imaginatively involved players unto
themselves. Viewers of the anime adaptation further contribute to the story-
making process as they distil the yarn proffered by the show in consonance
with their aesthetic preferences and interpretative skills.
Approaching Kon’s Umineko no Naku Koro ni in terms of its episode
clusters rather than in those of discrete dramatic units can help us engage in
the narrativizing act with sharpened sensitivity to the anime’s overarching
structural orchestration and, by extension, abet our understanding of its adap-
tive intervention as a narrativizing act in its own right. The anime pays fre-
quent homage to its parent genre by commenting self-reflexively on its events
and formal attributes. Thus, the characters themselves reflect on the crimes
of which they have been either the witnesses or the victims as though those
lurid occurrences had resulted purely from the decisions performed by the
player (or players) of a visual novel. Beatrice herself, moreover, is described
as the “host” of the “game,” while her rival witch Bernkastel emphasizes the
nature of the Golden Witch’s magic game as “endless,” thus elliptically point-
ing to the infinite replayability of the game whence the show derives its central
plot and personae. Bernkastel also involves the audience directly into the
adventure, alluding to our status as potential players of both the source game
and the game of cat-and-mouse initiated by Beatrice, by stating that just as
she expects her competitor to pull off an interesting performance so as to avert
her boredom, she also expects us to contribute actively to her entertainment.
Umineko no Naku Koro ni sets out as a dramatic chronicle of the fears,
obsessions and disputes plaguing a quintessentially dysfunctional family, gar-
nished with elements of the macabre and the occult. This mix allows for con-
siderable generic flexibility: a trait of the anime which the director seeks to
maintain throughout his adaptation. However, in order to grasp the nature
and amplitude of Kon’s reconceptualization of 07th Expansion’s parent mate-
rials, it is desirable to assess specifically the drama’s connections with the
broader traditions of mystery, detective and crime fiction. As G. J. Demko
maintains, “The mystery genre has been, and is, enormously popular in
Japan.... Crime stories had a rather early start in Japan as evidenced by the
publication of a collection of criminal cases by Saikaku Ihara in 1689.” How-
ever, Umineko no Naku Koro ni does not simply confirm the popularity of the
genre on home turf in generalized terms by underscoring its imaginative infil-
tration of the videogaming industry. In fact, it also reflects a distinctive aes-
thetic preference in the Japanese handling of fictive mystery. This, Demko
explains, consists of a somewhat “old fashioned tendency to emphasize the
puzzle-solving dimension of the genre. Given the absence of guns, murders

are often rather messy and/or very imaginatively performed — methods may
vary from axes to sound.” Yet, Umineko no Naku Koro ni boldly challenges
another cultural dominant: the tendency to couch most mystery plots as
“police procedurals,” with a resulting “dearth of flashy and flamboyant private
eyes” (Demko). Kon’s anime does feature what could be loosely described as
private eyes in the characters of Beatrice and Battler as they observe the events
taking place on Rokkenjima and strive to decipher their origins and meaning.
Yet, the drama’s overall emphasis is laid on the programmatic, step-by-step
methods through which Beatrice seeks to persuade Battler to accept the tran-
scendental authority of the otherworldly and Battler, conversely, endeavors
to relegate all things magical, witchly and esoteric to the province of old
wives’ tales. Concurrently, the series evinces a sustained tendency to interweave
several of the classic elements typical of the mystery, detective and crime
genres with diverse facets of other prolific traditions veering toward the super-
natural and the Gothic.
According to Maurizio Ascari, in the early stages of its evolution, detec-
tive fiction sought to supersede existing forms thriving on irrational and inex-
plicable phenomena by means of “riddles and enigmas which respectably set
the mind to work with crystal-clear lucidity. Death and crime ... were exor-
cised by the focus on the enquiry, an incontrovertible proof of the enlightened
human potential for good” (Ascari, p. 1). Umineko no Naku Koro ni adopts a
tongue-in-cheek stance toward this critical outlook, positing its intradiegetic
detectives, Battler and Beatrice, as fairly rational observers of events, physically
detached for a significant portion of the action from the crime scene itself as
though to underscore their transcendental omniscience. Yet, the anime’s
dialectical structure assiduously emphasizes the nature of Battler and Beatrice’s
interaction as a strenuous struggle of wills precluding any chance of their har-
boring the kind of logical and level-headed objectivity expected of the detec-
tive type portrayed by Ascari. Each of the anime’s potential detectives, in
other words, has far too much of an axe to grind to be capable of genuinely
dispassionate detection. In the process, the anime’s in-text investigators guide
the spectator’s own perceptions and cumulative hermeneutic project in much
the same way as directors can be expected to do, echoing Paul Auster’s hypoth-
esis that detectives and authors carry out analogous tasks: “The detective is
the one who looks, who listens, who moves through this morass of objects
and events in search of the thought, the idea that will pull all of these things
together and make sense of them. In effect, the writer and the detective are
interchangeable. The reader sees the world through the detective’s eyes, expe-
riencing the proliferation of its details as if for the first time” (Auster, p. 15).
Equally apposite, however, is the equation of readers themselves to detec-
tives — an idea adumbrated by Sherlock Holmes when he implicitly compares

his activity to that of Watson’s audience by stating: “for I hold in this hand
several threads of one of the strangest cases which ever perplexed a man’s
brain, and yet lack the one or two which are needful to complete my theory”
(Doyle, pp. 139–140).
Moreover, the show repeatedly points to the inextricability of the detec-
tive mode from the irrational, the supernatural and the magical. In the process,
it deploys the art of adaptation to celebrate generic fluidity and implicitly
propose that the ultimate appeal of both investigation and revelation lies in
the interstices between genres rather than in any one clearly defined form.
This epistemological tension is ushered in by Kon’s series right from the start
of its first arc with an incident revolving around the character of Maria, who
claims to have been presented with an umbrella by the mysterious Beatrice.
While Battler, ever faithful to his resolutely pragmatic world view, disputes
Beatrice’s very existence, it soon becomes clear that none of the original eight-
een residents has given Maria the umbrella and this seriously poses the pos-
sibility of an unknown nineteenth presence among them. The coexistence of
contrasting generic allegiances at the heart of the anime is later confirmed as
six characters (namely, Krauss, Rudolf, Rosa, Kyrie, Shannon and Gohda) are
found ferociously murdered inside an outdoor storehouse in a style consonant
with the type of plot one would expect to encounter in a classic of the Golden
Age of detective fiction, such as an Agatha Christie story. However, the pri-
macy of this generic mold is challenged by the incorporation of dramatic ele-
ments typical of the supernatural thriller and the sensation yarn. This is most
explicitly borne out by the prominence accorded by the drama to a cryptic
emblem drawn on the shed, alluding to the brutal crime’s preternatural con-
notations. Reminiscent of a magician’s circle of the type associated with
Satanic rituals, the symbol is later revealed by Maria — whose expertise in eso-
teric matters, underpinned by vast textual erudition, far surpasses her age
group’s average competences — to be “the seventh magical circle of the Sun.”
(Later in the series, Maria will also elucidate the origins of other peculiar
symbols with reference to astrology and the Psalms.) A classic detection game
is subsequently supplied by the sequences in which Battler and his relatives
formulate the hypothesis that one of the eighteen residents is pretending to
be Beatrice in an effort to lay his or her greedy paws on Kinzo’s assets, and
set their eyes on various suspects by turns.
An ominous legacy darkens their speculations: the contract binding Kinzo
and Beatrice, and responsible for the old man’s acquisition of fabulous wealth,
stipulates that the moment the head of the Ushiromiya family calls off the
deal, the witch will be automatically entitled not only to reappropriate the
original gold itself but also to seize all of the assets accrued by the clan over
the years of Kinzo’s prosperity. Since the family members know full well that
they, too, are just the breathing components of the old man’s investment port-
folio, so to speak, they are also aware that in principle, Beatrice can claim
their lives as part of the property she feels entitled to unless they unravel the
epitaph and discover the location of her treasure. The shadows thicken around
the cast’s hazy suspicions as Kinzo is later said to have practiced black magic
in a desperate attempt to revive his beloved Beatrice after her demise as a
human and to have used innocent children as experimental subjects in the
course of diabolical rituals. Kon also inserts into his adaptive tapestry as an
inspired luxury thread the suspicion that the so-called real world harbors no
magic per se but Beatrice, as long as she can shift reality’s parameters and
replace the everyday world with a virtual realm of her own conception, is
capable not only of appearing to be real in a palpably embodied sense but
also of wielding uniquely powerful magic. All this depends on other people’s
acknowledgment and eventual acceptance of her existence as a supernatural
agent. Such a portentous ruse makes the Golden Witch a very skilled illu-
sionist. According to local lore, her abilities are indeed of a kind not to be
trifled with — as attested to by the time-honored legend maintaining that
Rokkenjima was once notorious for its knack of attracting evil spirits, puta-
tively summoned by Beatrice herself and held to have occasioned many a dire
shipwreck. Once again, the anime’s generic affiliations to the rational side of
the detective mode are thus partially undermined by the infusion into the
action of both discrete allusions to otherworldly phenomena and blatant man-
ifestations of the workings of potentially pernicious superhuman energies.
The use as a graphic refrain of a gleaming golden butterfly, held to represent
the visible avatar of the otherwise bodiless Beatrice and mirroring her title as
Golden Witch, economically enriches the show’s magical mood.
These unsettling signals balefully escalate as two more residents, Eva and
Hideyoshi, meet a dismal end, the character of Kanon is lethally wounded in
the course of his investigation of the boiler room, and Kinzo’s own body is
discovered in a partly incinerated state. Following the receipt of an enigmatic
missive from Beatrice (one of many items of epistolary evidence of the Golden
Witch’s existence in the series), the three characters singled out as plausibly
responsible for its planting — Genji, Nanjo, and Kumasawa — are also found
murdered. The person responsible for their accusation, Kinzo’s daughter-in-
law Haruhi, takes great pride in her position as the standing head of the now
decimated Ushiromiya family but does not stand a chance to bask in her glory
for too long: only moments after the previous victims have met their dismal
end, Haruhi herself commits an inexplicable suicide while attempting to shoot
one of Beatrice’s glowing incarnations. As many of the guests are killed, the
epiphanic appearance of swarms of golden butterflies counterpoints the grue-
some events, operating as potent reminders of the ubiquitous incidence of

Beatrice’s preternatural agency. The central, yet subtly modulated, role played
by powers operating in defiance of both reason and logic up to this point is
blatantly brought to the fore as the survivors — or ostensible survivors, as the
case may be —find themselves in an alternate space in the company of erstwhile
victims restored to a perfectly healthy state and facetious mood. Everyone
believes that the villain of the piece is a witch except Battler, who adamantly
avers that all of the events they have experienced could have been engineered
by human agents. At this point, Beatrice herself defies Battler to demonstrate
conclusively that the crimes were not triggered by magic. These examples,
drawn from the anime’s first arc, bear witness to the series’ consistent amal-
gamation of tropes typical of detective fiction in various familiar expressions
of the form, commonly found in both Japan and the West, with motifs ema-
nating from traditions in which the priorities of cold-headed analysis and
deduction hold no unproblematic sway.
In the show’s second arc, the multi-murder format is again proposed as
the Ushiromiya clan is once more seen to congregate for their annual confer-
ence and many of the situations dramatized in the previous arc repropose
themselves with more or less significant variations, while a chain of grim kill-
ings methodically traverses the screen amid assorted family debates, squabbles
and disputes of alternately rational or capricious import. The anime thus con-
tinues, at one level, to pay homage to established generic models. Yet, the
supernatural component is enthroned, at another level, as an even more dom-
inant actor in this segment as Beatrice manifests herself in human form from
an early stage in the action. The supernatural’s ascendancy is even more tren-
chantly proclaimed with the relocation of Beatrice and Battler to a parallel
dimension, where their magic-versus logic game is staged. In the anime, this
is simply, yet effectively, rendered by arresting the dynamic flow of certain
key scenes displaying the Rokkenjima characters, as they actually live through
their hideous ordeals and reason out their meaning, locked in frozen black-
and-white screen shots, with Battler and Beatrice in full color and with regular
powers of motion acting around them or in their midst. In this alternate
dimension, the anime also plays with its own version of the red and blue
truths described earlier through captions spiraling, curling, uncoiling or scroll-
ing horizontally, vertically and diagonally through the screen.
Umineko no Naku Koro ni’s appetite for irrational and inscrutable forces
is further consolidated in the following arc, where additional magic pres-
ences — veritably formidable on both the dynamic and the graphic planes —
come into play, including the Seven Sisters of Purgatory, Lucifer, Leviathan
and Belphegor. Supernatural battles, seemingly miraculous occurrences and
bizarre resurrections garnish this gourmet platter with no dearth of zesty
ingredients. With the fourth segment, Kon’s series provides additional evi-
dence of its genre-straddling proclivities while engaging its audience more
intimately with a poignant transgenerational drama. This far exceeds, in both
its dramatic pathos and its stylistic sophistication, the formulaic strictures of
the bickering family plot whence so many classic detective stories derive their
narrative premises. The familiar formulae of mystery, detective and crime
fiction continue playing a part in this segment: most prominent among them
is the “closed room” motif seen to hold privileged dramatic weight throughout
the show. At one point, the anime also invokes the topos of the spatial dop-
pelganger, inserting into its heady mix the suggestion that Rokkenjima accom-
modates the spectral reality of a second harbor and a second mansion, known
only to a few residents, alongside those commonly recognized. The mansion,
named “Kuwadorian,” is said to have been occupied by the Golden Witch
among “miscellaneous gods” until her presumed departure in the year 1968.
Thus, Umineko no Naku Koro ni remains loyally devoted to its parent genres
right through to the end with the deployment of established tropes. However,
the codes and conventions of classic murder-laced storytelling recede to the
periphery toward the end of the show to allow the magical strand to gain
unprecedented metaphysical poignancy. The game in which Battler and Beat-
rice have been locked from a relatively early stage in the diegesis accordingly
acquires fresh resonance as an emotional tug of war in which the key actors
are ultimately enjoined to defend not merely some dogmatic matter of prin-
ciple but both their own and each other’s spiritual and ethical integrity and
commitment to the truth — whatever this may be, regardless of how unsavory
it may prove and, of course, assuming it truly exists.
The written word is accorded a special position over the anime’s four
arcs, as attested to by the pivotal epitaph accompanying Beatrice’s portrait
and other cryptic messages sprinkled throughout the adventure — e.g., the
aforementioned storehouse emblem, as well as various bloody patterns traced
on the mansion’s internal doors, diagrams in books and inscriptions on charms
inspired by Biblical lore and the Zodiac, and numerous letters ostensibly
penned by Beatrice herself and evincing a knack of appearing out of the blue
in the characters’ midst without any trace of their deliverer or delivery method.
As Patricia Merivale and Susan Elizabeth Sweeney point out, “In many meta-
physical detective stories, letters, words, and documents no longer reliably
denote the objects that they are meant to represent; instead, these texts become
impenetrable objects in their own right. Such a world, made up of such name-
less, interchangeable ‘things,’ cries out for the ordered interpretation that it
simultaneously declares to be impossible” (Merivale and Sweeney, pp. 9–10).
It could indeed be argued that in Umineko no Naku Koro ni, the hermetic text
stands out as a character of autonomous standing endowed with palpable
presence and resolutely unwilling to bow to the conventional assumption that

a text should function as a visible bridge to an objective meaning. In so doing,
it makes both characters and viewers long all the more ardently for conclusive
answers even as it tenaciously reminds them that such a reward is incompatible
with the series’ entire world and raison d’être. This situation recalls the semi-
otic drama staged by Edgar Allan Poe in “the Purloined Letter,” where the
titular missive carries momentous significance for all of the pivotal personae
without its contents ever being disclosed — or unproblematically shown even
to exist for that matter. In severing meaning from content, both the anime’s
elusive texts and Poe’s letter urge us to ponder the nature of the linguistic sign
as an arbitrary pseudo-reality at liberty to mean much without actually saying
anything (or, conversely, seeming to utter much without holding any genuine
meaning). It is here also noteworthy that Kon’s anime also shares with Poe’s
fiction the proposition that puzzles are best solved by identifying with the
criminal party’s mentality and thus extrapolating his or her modus operandi.
The investigative strategy promoted by Poe, and mirrored by his own struc-
tural preferences, is therefore based on the doubling of one’s antagonists’
thought processes to turn their methods against them and thus catch them
in their own nets. Battler adopts an analogous approach, which he has learnt
from his mother, with the art of “flipping the chessboard” as a means of plac-
ing himself in the “opponent’s shoes” to unravel enigmas of all kinds — from
the most prosaic to the most momentous.
Most of the illustrative examples supplied in the preceding paragraphs
have been intentionally drawn from the series’ inceptive segment so as to pro-
vide a cogent impression of the plot’s murder enigma skeleton. In addition,
all references to specific events have been deliberately kept to the bare bones
due to Umineko no Naku Koro ni’s distinctive thematics and formal handling
of its puzzle-posing and puzzle-solving components. In anticipating the
eponymous hero’s successful accomplishment of his intricate revenge scheme
in Gankutsuou: The Count of Monte Cristo, presaging Gerda and Kay’s eventual
reunion in The Snow Queen, making explicit reference to the lovers’ heroic
sacrifice in Romeo x Juliet or dwelling on salient details of the protagonist’s
vicissitudes in The Tale of Genji, one does not risk dispensing undesirable
spoilers. Indeed, the series in which those occurrences are located do not
appear to treasure secrecy as one of their major assets and are, in fact, often
quite profligate in the provision of anticipatory and revelatory clues. Matters
are radically different when it comes to Kon’s anime, a densely layered accretion
of hermetic strata imbued with frequent concessions to the whodunit mode.
Although the series here examined, as noted, encompasses only the first four
arcs of the parent game series and its mysteries hence remain somewhat
unveiled at the end, much is disclosed along the way and the prodigal inclusion
of detailed illustrations in this text would inevitably impair the prospective

viewer’s chances of pristine enjoyment. In this instance, the discussion there-
fore requires judicious avoidance of specific plot developments, in favor of a
relatively content-free analysis of the conceptual features — and related theo-
retical implications — of Kon’s adaptive enterprise.
Returning to the anime’s generic alliances, it would not be preposterous
to suggest that Umineko no Naku Koro ni encapsulates the very essence of the
Gothic as “a cultural discourse that utilizes images of disorder, obsession, psy-
chological disarray and physical distortion for the purposes of both entertain-
ment and ideological speculation,” typically evincing an almost obsessive
fascination with “tropes of mental, bodily and ethical disintegration” (Cav-
allaro, p. vii). The anime’s connection with the Gothic tradition is explicitly
announced by Kon’s deployment of its most distinctive themes, and especially
the passion for spooky mansions and villainous families cursed by rapacious-
ness and a manic thirst for revenge. Any agency capable of resolving the
conflicts to which those depraved instincts ineluctably give rise is perceived
as a source not of benevolent justice but of awe-inspiring terror of sublime
proportions — a dread so deep and amorphous as to often drag its victims
into the abyss of delusional self-persecution, self-destructiveness and, ulti-
mately, even downright lunacy. The affective disturbances and ghastly psy-
chosomatic repercussions which these predicaments spawn at several key
junctures in Kon’s series point precisely to its embroilment in a Gothic world
of ontological uncertainty wherein discovery may only be attained by inscrut-
able forces or the random peregrinations of blind chance. Therefore, while
several possible answers to the story’s enigmas are provided, none of them
carries the conclusiveness, let alone the judicial authority, of the type of res-
olution crowning a narrative guided by a luminous trust in the secular power
of rationality.
Umineko no Naku Koro ni’s simultaneous entanglement with disparate
discourses connotes to an experimentative drive that refrains Kon from deriv-
ing self-congratulatory satisfaction from the cheap pleasure of straightforward
conclusions. The frisson yielded by the playful blend of diverse ingredients
far exceeds in value the reward of neat answers. In this respect, the series
would seem to validate Julian Symons’ proposition regarding the essence of
detective fiction: “The detective story pure and complex, the book that has
no interest whatever except the solution of a puzzle, does not exist, and if it
did exist would be unreadable. The truth is that the detective story, along
with the police story, the spy story and the thriller ... makes up part of the
hybrid creature we call sensational literature” (Symons, p. 15). In other words,
it partakes of a form eager to put to maximum advantage the dramatic
strengths not only of supernatural phenomena but also of grisly crimes, socially
transgressive behavior and perverse passions with a general preference for

flamboyantly melodramatic gestures — a propensity which Umineko no Naku
Koro ni incrementally emplaces as one of its governing aesthetic dictates.
While the generic factors delineated above undoubtedly play an impor-
tant part in the shaping of the anime’s autonomous identity as an adaptive,
yet imaginative, work, more vital still is its guiding dramatic principle. This
could be boldly defined as the quintessential quest spirit — an atavistic story-
telling device embedded in human history for time immemorial which mys-
tery, detective and crime fiction evidently share with several both related and
quite independent genres and media. What is most distinctive about the
show’s handling of the quest spirit is a tripartite organization whereby that
motif acquires both momentum and complexity as the action progresses. Thus,
we are initially presented with a quest situation revolving around singular
individuals and their personal perceptions and thoughts in what could be
described as an inherently monological structure. With the transition to the
episodes in which Battler and Beatrice strive to prove to each other the supe-
riority of either the pragmatic or the magical perspective, we enter a dramatic
situation redolent of Anatol Rapoport’s concept of the “two-person” game
and hence an eminently dialogical structure. As the action sequences grow
increasingly acrimonious and brutal, and larger casts of human — or seemingly
human — opponents come into play, while overtly otherworldly agents join
their ranks, the quest spirit becomes framed into something of a tournament
format ushering in a polylogical structure. With the final shift of focus back
to Battler and Beatrice’s contest, the earlier modalities are revisited and
adapted, as the drama regains a dialogical emphasis, yet also draws attention
to the monological dimension by underscoring the intractable inevitability of
human isolation and loneliness.
Battler and Beatrice’s teleportation to an alternate reality does not simply
constitute a tantalizing dramatic strategy per se: in fact, it also abets the
anime’s genre-crossing tendencies by juxtaposing and gradually integrating
the realms of mystery and detective narrative as defined by Carl D. Malmgren.
“Mystery fiction,” the critic maintains, “presupposes a centered world; detec-
tive fiction, a decentered world. By ‘centered’ we mean a world which has a
center, an anchor, a ground; ... In mystery fiction, there is usually one signi-
ficant scene of the crime (estate, village, railway car); the investigator examines
this scene, trying to link its signs (clues) to their root causes. In detective
fiction, the investigator invariably traverses a decentered world comprising a
variety of physical spaces; he interviews clients, tails suspects, stakes out res-
idences, and so on” (Malmgren, p. 13). Malmgren is clearly using the concept
of mystery fiction as the equivalent of what Ascari designates as detective
fiction to describe a safe and knowable world, using the idea of detective
fiction itself to designate a contrastive destabilizing discourse. This termino-

logical divergence bears witness, in nuce, to the general lack of agreement
among theorists and commentators regarding the exact constitution of the
various categories gravitating, like flustered satellites, around the composite
planet of mystery, detective and crime fiction. In one available — and quite
popular — perspective, it is possible to view crime fiction as the broad genre
of which detective fiction, the whodunit, the thriller, hardboiled fiction and
courtroom drama (among others) represent the subgeneric offspring. Mystery
fiction, in this purview, is commonly held to represent the branch of detective
fiction in which an investigator deals with a crime and, ideally, solves it. This
type of story is supposed to emphasize the puzzle component with partial or
total disregard for contingent social and historical circumstances, in contrast
with the hardboiled typology, where a preference for action and dispassionate
realism is held to dominate the scene. It is, however, also plausible to approach
mystery, detective and crime fiction as relatively autonomous genres, margin-
ally overlapping but nonetheless retaining certain distinctive markers of their
own as cultural products sui generis. A hybrid construct like Umineko no
Naku Koro ni makes such a prospect seem not merely appropriate but almost
inevitable since it is hard to see how one could even begin to do justice to
the drama’s multiforking constellation without devoting equal and unbiased
attention to all of its plural generic sources.
With the introduction of a parallel world into the story, Umineko no
Naku Koro ni disrupts the potential centeredness of the mystery plot woven
around the mansion on Rokkenjima by subjecting it to the dramatic demands
of the detective plot spun by Beatrice and Battler in their transmundane set-
ting, and thus exploding an initially unitary locale into a virtually boundless
spatial sprawl. The sense of order, stability and immutability associated with
the mystery setting — and the intersubjective relationships unfolding within
it — is characteristically reinforced by a foundational trust in the possibility
of “a rational world grounded in laws of cause and effect, where people behave
in certain ways in order to achieve certain ends” and where the detective is
in a position to assume a clear sense of “planning and intentionality” (p. 14).
George Grella corroborates this proposition by arguing that the mystery nar-
rative is sustained by a belief in a “benevolent and knowable universe” (Grella,
p. 101). Umineko no Naku Koro ni subverts the mystery yarn’s atmosphere of
permanence and balance by intertwining it with a detective yarn that is, by
contrast, unstable, disorderly, aleatory and at all times prey to the vagaries of
contingency and fortuity — a world in which the methodical orchestration of
Battler and Beatrice’s philosophical debate is powerless to either preempt or
control the onslaughts of violence and chaos.
According to Tzvetan Todorov, the mystery narrative typically evinces a
double-narrative structure based on the coexistence of two parallel strands:

“the story of the crime,” which narrates “‘what really happened,’” and the
“the story of the investigation,” which elucidates “‘how the reader (or the nar-
rator) has come to know about it.’” In Russian Formalist parlance, the first
strand corresponds to “the fable (story)” as a record of what happens “in life”
and the second to “the subject (plot)” as “the way the author presents it to us”
(Todorov, p. 45). As the story of the investigation seeks to piece together
incrementally over a more or less protracted period of time disparate facets
of the story of the crime, an important corollary of Todorov’s argument is the
idea that the mystery story is oriented toward the past as a defining aspect of
its generic identity, not just a convenient temporal and spatial setting for its
investigative drama. This is indubitably an aspect of the mystery modality to
which Kon’s show adheres with overall fidelity. Yet, Umineko no Naku Koro
ni’s preoccupation with the past is drastically unorthodox in comparison with
standard generic expectations associated with the mystery story insofar as it
is not transparently conducive to the reestablishment of a temporarily dis-
turbed atmosphere of order and harmony. In fact, as each successive layer of
each character’s convoluted past is explained, its penetration does not give
access to a solid substratum of truth beyond which no further delving is fea-
sible but a proliferation of additional tiers of unforeseeable toughness and
thickness. Much as the actors might endeavor to emulate Todorov’s formalist
model, a seemingly unpluggable gap goes on separating the drama of what
actually came to pass and the drama of how they have become (dimly and
haphazardly) acquainted with it. Neither the underlying facts nor the char-
acters’ knowledge thereof has a chance of remaining uniform and dependable
without further discovery threatening to dislodge the entire edifice of both
their certainties and their speculations.
Despite Umineko no Naku Koro ni’s tendency to undermine some of the
ideological mainstays of mystery fiction, it is vital also to appreciate the exis-
tence of potent parallels between Kon’s series and that tradition. Especially
prominent, in this regard, is the idea that the universe is governed by inherently
unfathomable laws which may or may not emanate from a conscious agency
and which, even if it could somehow be demonstrated that they were, would
not automatically prove anything other than inimical to the advancement of
human happiness. In many mystery narratives, this notion is mollified by an
ingenuous trust in the existence of a providential “Superorder” (Malmgren,
p. 35) capable of guaranteeing the endurance of justice and truth in the face
of the direst criminal violations of the status quo. Umineko no Naku Koro ni
does not offer any such obviously comforting route for the putatively provi-
dential forces which appear to play a part in its tortuous trajectory do not
promise absolution except in exchange for hideous “sacrifices.” In engineering
the sustained interplay of the mystery element and the decentered thrust of
detective fiction, Umineko no Naku Koro ni offers an imaginative reconfigu-
ration of the murder mystery yarn that tersely transcends the boundaries of
adaptation as no more than a derivative venture. Its multibranching structure
and penchant for the recapitulation of analogous chains of events in variable
dramatic constellations and from changing perspectives maximize to undeni-
able effect the principle of decenteredness.
In this respect, an ideal description of Kon’s anime is offered, elliptically,
by Dennis Porter’s assessment of the “hardboiled detective novel” as a genre
informed by “the metaphor of the spreading stain” since the “initial crime
often turns out to be a relatively superficial symptom of an evil whose mag-
nitude and ubiquity are only progressively disclosed during the course of the
investigation” (Porter, p. 40). As Malmgren comments, “the contagion of
crime eventually affects most of the characters, including the detective. Indeed,
at times the detective is the catalyst who precipitates the violent chain of
events” (Malmgren, p. 73). Umineko no Naku Koro ni dramatizes a comparable
state of affairs not only by capitalizing on the sheer diffusion of criminal activ-
ity over its fabric but also by using the structural principle of multiperspectival
reiteration to intimate that any one crime holds a self-reproductive power
that enables it to repropose itself time and again with subtle variations. At
the same time, it portrays Battler and Beatrice themselves, in their capacity
as figurative detectives, as intimately implicated in the crimes they strive to
investigate and ultimately responsible for initiating and accelerating — in an
ostensibly aberrant logic reminiscent of the lessons of chaos theory — many
of the action’s increasingly mind-bending and brutal complications. By lit-
erally separating Battler and Beatrice from the crime scene through its idio-
syncratic approach to dramatic topology, Kon also opens up metafictional
opportunities for its anime: insofar as Battler and Beatrice’s status as in-text
detectives is explicitly foregrounded by their spatial removal, we are invited
to reflect consciously on the show’s constructed standing as a tantalizingly
irreverent appropriation of its parent genres’ dominant codes and conventions.
In embracing in tandem the mystery story and the detective story’s respectively
centered and decentered realities, Umineko no Naku Koro ni enters the domain
of the crime story as defined by Malmgren: i.e., an “oppositional discourse”
capable of situating itself “in either the centered world of mystery fiction or
the decentered world of detective fiction” and hence pitting itself “in oppo-
sition to either mystery or detective fiction” (p. 137). Bound neither by the
imperative to force its clues to conform to a rationally planned agenda nor
by an utterly subversive urge to erase all vestiges of meaning from its signs,
Umineko no Naku Koro ni experiments with plural discursive identities, shifting
from one to the other with the same iconoclastic glee with which many of its
personae don disparate masks from arc to arc. In this matter, the anime is
deeply loyal to the source form, the visual novel’s principal attribute indu-
bitably lying with its buoyant polymorphousness.
In the series, the concept of identity as a prismatic construct, on both
the formal and the psychological planes, is deployed consistently as a means
of eroding any prospect of reparative closure or plenitude, leaving viewers
themselves to confront the precarious value of their interpretations of the
drama’s enigmas. The anime thus echoes William V. Spanos’ delineation of
the “anti-detective story” as a narrative that seeks to “evoke the impulse to
‘detect’ ... in order to violently frustrate it by refusing to solve the crime”
(Spanos, p. 154). In this scenario, any faith in foundational principles designed
to promote the solidity of human interaction and the reliability of the sign
systems in which this is inscribed is radically questioned. A character’s deviant
behavior cannot be — either sympathetically or patronizingly — dismissed as
a temporary aberration in an otherwise stable personality. In fact, it operates
as a localized symptom of the inveterately fluid, unanchored, fragmentary
and — above all — indecipherable — nature of the story’s whole universe and
informing zeitgeist. Furthermore, Umineko no Naku Koro ni’s cross-generic
texture, allied to its proclivity to invite reflection on the processes through
which stories are produced and consumed, draws the story into collusion with
the domain of what Merivale and Sweeney have termed “metaphysical detec-
tive fiction” as a construct inclined to raise “profound questions” about “nar-
rative, interpretation, subjectivity, the nature of reality, and the limits of
knowledge” (Merivale and Sweeney, pp. 9–10). Umineko no Naku Koro ni
adventurously embarks on precisely such an interrogative enterprise by throw-
ing into relief the idea that the outcome of detection is not so much the solu-
tion of the crime or chain of crimes as a confrontation of the ineffable mystery
of human selfhood and the limitations of human comprehension. Accordingly,
if readers — or viewers — are also detectives, as suggested earlier in the discus-
sion, it is also the case that they, too, must face up to the precariousness of
their own identities and interpretations as integral components of the narrative
weave. We are thereby enjoined to wonder what, if anything, we can actually
presume to know, how we can unequivocally trust the reality of what we think
we know, and how we can finally demonstrate that this amounts to anything
more substantial and universal than a subjective — and therefore intrinsically
imaginary — construction of the real.
The show’s designation as metaphysical is most forcefully validated by
Battler and Beatrice’s experiences in an alternate reality plane, which afford
them an apparently privileged stance as external observers and investigators.
Yet, such a stance is inexorably undermined by the emphasis placed by the
drama — discreetly, yet uncompromisingly — on the inevitable limitations of
human perception and understanding. No matter how transcendental Battler

and Beatrice’s situation might be, it remains restricted and circumscribed:
whatever grand theories they might dare to formulate in the face of chaos,
their knowledge is delimited by the confines of their parallel dimension. In a
sense, the two characters are akin to readers trapped in a huge library which
may at first seem to provide them with any enthusiastic reader’s ultimate Eden
and to promise the prospect of boundless knowledge but can never fully
appease their thirst for answers. That figurative library might be unthinkably
vast and even approximate closely Jorge Luis Borges’ or Umberto Eco’s notion
of a bookish cosmos stretching to infinity. Nevertheless, the readers lodged
therein can only, everything considered, consult the volumes within their
reach and make do with fragmentary, discordant and eventually unsatisfying
information. Battler and Beatrice’s experiences in their alternate realm meta-
phorically intimate that our bastions of order and knowledge are not, after
all, necessarily or exclusively treasurehouses of truth.
As an anime adaptation spawned by an eminently pop cultural medium,
Umineko no Naku Koro ni may be deemed to sit somewhat uneasily in the
company of adaptations vaunting honorable descent from media of long estab-
lished repute and academically respected worth. However, Kon’s series demon-
strates that virtually any medium (or indeed genre) holds immense dramatic
potentialities which, if met and appropriated by an enterprising director, can
reach actualization as thought-provoking and, most importantly, autonomous
artifacts. Furthermore, as an adaptation of a visual novel as a particular subset
of the videogaming megaverse, Umineko no Naku Koro ni is one of several
anime released over the past decade utilizing as their source material a relatively
recent development in the realm of popular entertainment, and specifically
the videogaming industry. Several other anime have relied on a much older
popular form: the comic book. Of course, countless anime are adaptations of
manga, the Japanese equivalent of the comic book or the graphic novel (in a
loose sense of the term), and it would be preposterous to assume that a com-
prehensive compendium could be provided in the present context — or indeed
in anything other than an encyclopedic taxonomy. A more modest but still
notable range of anime adaptations have drawn on comic books of the Western
variety such as the ones immortalized by the Marvel Comics giant. An inter-
esting development in the field, still under way as this study is being written,
consists of the intended transposition to the anime screen by the illustrious
studio Madhouse of Marvel Comics characters, appropriately reimagined so
as to suit Japanese tastes and expectations through the infusion into the orig-
inal yarns of some new elements and the excision of other motifs familiar to
Western readers. Wolverine and Iron Man are the two main figures expected
to reach the anime screen in the near future. Complementing this synergetic
process, Marvel Comics are concurrently endeavoring to infiltrate the Japanese

market through the creation of manga adaptations of comic books centered
on the X-Men and Wolverine. This initiative finds a parallel in the Western
market in the live-action Batman movies which, as Patrick Drazen comments,
“were themselves based on new versions of the comic book, now gradually
referred to as ‘graphic novels,’ some of which showed the influence of Japanese
manga!” (Drazen, p. 13).
One of the most successful instances of adaptation to the anime screen
of a comic-book series of Western parentage is Witchblade (TV series; dir.
Yoshimitsu Ohashi, 2006), a show produced by Gonzo like Gankutsuou: The
Count of Monte Cristo, here discussed in Chapter 3, and Romeo x Juliet, the
case study covered in Chapter 5. Witchblade anticipates the later Madhouse
projects cited above in editing its source material so as to satisfy specifically
Japanese sensibilities. One of the most intriguing reorientations engineered
by Gonzo consists of a subtle change in atmosphere, whereby the mood evoked
by the original comic book is overlaid with genuine echoes of TV cop drama
interleaved with supernatural imagery. The anime adaptation is faithful to
the parent text in deploying as its sustaining structure the mythos of the
Witchblade — a legendary weapon supposed to transcend time barriers and
to endow its wielder, who must by definition be a woman, with supernatural
faculties. Among the Witchblade’s many eminent bearers rank the likes of
Cleopatra and Joan of Arc but its current user is no more esteemed a figure
than a simple NYC cop rather prosaically named Sara Pezzini. The anime
does a superb job in exploring the heroine’s troubled emotions and thus high-
lighting her intrinsic humanity despite the preternatural connotations of the
status to which she inevitably ascends when the portentous weapon decides
to latch itself onto her wrist. In this respect, the anime closely parallels
Umineko no Naku Koro ni, where the more fantastical aspects of the adventure
are never quite allowed to obfuscate the characters’ affective intricacy, in keep-
ing with the visual novel’s well-documented devotion to the portrayal of intel-
ligently nuanced personalities. Some of Witchblade’s most unforgettable
moments consist of the relatively early sequences in which Sara discovers that
the weapon is capable of both deflecting lethal bullets and effortlessly stabbing
its foes but does not yet know how to communicate with it any more than
tentatively. At a later stage, the protagonist will find out that the Witchblade
also equips her with hypercognitive powers enabling her to perceive what has
actually happened at a crime scene. Also remarkable, from a dramatic point
of view, is Sara’s interaction with the villain of the piece, the character of Ken-
neth Irons, a man driven by an insane desire to appropriate the Witchblade
for himself as a result of an abortive attempt to wield the weapon in the
remote past.
Chapter 7
A Tapestry of Courtly Life

The Tale of Genji
The Tale of Genji has become many different things to

many different audiences through many different media over a
thousand years, a position unmatched by any other Japanese text
or artifact. It is also one of the few Japanese texts that, in the
modern period, has had a global reach, coming to be recognized
as part of world literature, earning acclaim as perhaps the
world’s first novel, and being placed alongside such modern
masterpieces as Marcel Proust’s À la recherche du temps perdu.
— Haruo Shirane 2008
The Tale of Genji, an eleventh-century narrative created by Lady Murasaki

Shikibu and hailed as both one of the greatest classics of Japanese literature
and one of the world’s first novels, was first transposed from the page to the
anime screen by director Gisaburou Sugii in 1987 in the form of a feature
film. As noted in Chapter 2, Sugii also contributed in the capacity of art
director to Eiichi Yamamoto’s 1973 movie Belladonna of Sadness, and aspects
of the style adopted by The Tale of Genji indeed echo the earlier anime. Sugii’s
preference for character and background designs of heightened minimalism
and the emphasis on pure line are assiduously confirmed by The Tale of Genji.
The 1987 film does not overtly resort to still images in the way Belladonna
of Sadness does. Nevertheless, it strives to evoke an atmosphere of stillness by
capitalizing on the unique powers of motionless — or motion-attenuated —
drama by often emulating a stage play: a ruse abetted by the director’s
approach to lighting. The use of delicate, yet haunting, music and of tra-
ditional poetry and dance further intensifies the action’s theater-oriented sen-
sibility. As Kazuhiro Tateishi emphasizes, Sugii’s anime focuses on the
protagonist’s “psychological struggle” to reconfigure the original narrative
principally as “Genji’s growth to independence,” relying throughout on sym-
bols as key constituents of his world and eschewing “explanatory speech” so
146
7. A Tapestry of Courtly Life 147
as to appeal to the viewer “by direct visual and aural representation” (Tateishi,
p. 315). One of the movie’s most distinctive features is its highly deliberate
pace: a frank dramatic correlative for the rhythm of court life in the Heian
era (794–1185), where plots and feuds would often be proliferating at an
alarming rate while remaining cloaked under a strictly codified semblance of
order and almost ponderous quietude. (The period derives its designation
from its capital Heian Kyou, and the word “Heian” itself is translatable as
“peace and tranquillity.”) Individual ambitions, in such a climate, would auto-
matically become subsumed to the demands of a communal identity designed
to communicate a sense of imperturbable stability. To sustain this ambience
of depersonalized composure, the film keeps its characters stylized and some-
what devoid, at least on the surface, of personal urges, anxieties and yearnings.
Lady Murasaki herself would have been enabled by numerous years of service
with the royal dynasty to supply some candid insights into court life, its
intrigues and its aesthetic tastes.
Adaptations of Lady Murasaki’s text in various forms are so profuse as
to defy comprehensive enumeration in the present context. Suffice it to men-
tion that since the twelfth century, they have included literary works inspired
by both its prose writing and its poetry, paintings meant either to symbolize
court power or to adjust the story’s message to the requirements of mass
culture depending on the period, plays, commentaries, allegories, parodies,
handbooks, textbooks, calligraphic works, games, book illustrations, and
design patterns. In addition, as Haruki Ii points out, The Tale of Genji was
held in high esteem as “a guide to moral ideals for rulers, a book of Confucian
and Buddhist teachings, and a text for women’s education” (Ii, p. 157). In
subsequent phases of Japanese history, Lady Murasaki’s saga was also harnessed
to ideological agendas. Therefore, with the transfer of “political power ... from
the aristocracy to the military class” in the Kamakura Period (1183–1333) and
Muromachi Period (1392–1573), it inspired the development of the “new
moral system” meant to serve as “the basis for warrior society,” while the wan-
ing nobility could turn to The Tale of Genji’s representation of “the splendor
of court culture ... for spiritual support” (p. 159). Thus, while the story’s evo-
cation of a society that no longer existed except in memory and imagination
could easily have been overshadowed by the ascendancy of the samurai, it
actually came to gain both their interest and their nostalgic respect. The cul-
tural route traced by the ancient story’s reception and transmutation over time
persuasively proves that the text’s worth does not consist of an immutable
core but rather depends on the variable adaptive opportunities to which it
has been liable at any one point in history.
Of special relevance to the present context are the two manga versions
authored by Waki Yamato —Asake yume mishi (i.e., Fleeting Dreams, 1980–
1993)— and by Maki Miyako —Genji monogatari (1989). Yamato’s manga is

most remarkable at the aesthetic level, yielding graceful graphics that perfectly
capture the courtly elegance of Genji’s world and thus yield a modern adap-
tation of Heian scroll painting. Where Yamato focuses on the source text’s
ambience, Miyako is principally concerned with conveying The Tale of Genji’s
erotic import, as evinced by her detailed, though not overtly pornographic,
execution of sexual acts. Also worthy of attention are the two live-action
movies bearing the original title helmed by Kouzaburou Yoshimura (1951)
and by Kon Ichikawa (1966). As Tateishi explains, the 1951 movie “was epoch
making in being the first publicly released film that deals with an imperial
scandal and in which the emperor is portrayed by an actor, although he is
visible only through bamboo blinds or from the back.” While the screenplay
was careful to avoid irreverence in the depiction of the imperial system and
therefore represented the liaison between Genji and Fujitsubo as an “‘open
secret’” rather than a “clandestine affair,” the film was banned as disrespectful
toward the court during World War Two (Tateishi, p. 305). This example
indicates that an adaptation does not only open the source text on which it
draws to interpretation — and hence the possibility of metamorphosis over
time — but is itself liable to changing perceptions dictated by ideological shifts
in the contexts of its reception. The 1966 movie, for its part, is structurally
more adventurous than its predecessor in that it is orchestrated primarily as
an extended flashback through which Genji reflects upon various past rela-
tionships from an advanced stage in the original story. Although its critical
reception was by no means uniformly complimentary, the film did meet with
enthusiastic accolades of its artistic worth and technical daring. A very loose
adaptation of Lady Murasaki’s text, taking considerable liberties in the evo-
cation of Heian culture, is offered by the live-action movie Sennen no Koi —
Hikaru Genji monogatari (A Thousand Years of Love —The Tale of Shining
Genji), directed by Tonkou Horikawa and scripted by Akira Hayasaka (2001).
Although the film is rather formulaic in its adherence to gender-defined char-
acter stereotypes, it comes across as structurally inventive due its construc-
tion, as Tateishi comments, as “a story within a story, in which Murasaki
Shikibu narrates her newly written tale to the young Empress Shoushi” (p.
316).
In a historical perspective, The Tale of Genji’s openness to adaptation is
inscribed in the dynamics of cultural production and consumption typical of
the epoch in which it came into being. Indeed, as Yukio Lippit argues, “the
essentially modern notion of the work of art as a fixed entity” is irrelevant to
Lady Murasaki’s saga insofar as it “does not adequately capture the open-end-
edness and plural existence of the Heian literary object” resulting from the
circulation of courtly narratives “in multiple copies” that would invariably be
“subject to the type of creative scribal variation” attendant on “practices of

manual reproduction” (Lippit, p. 51). Simultaneously, it is vital to remember
that the act of reading itself was not considered private in the sense it is nowa-
days but actually constituted an eminently communal practice entailing not
merely literary or technical expertise but also cultivated capacities in the fields
of calligraphy, aural performance and the visual arts. Texts, therefore, existed
as collective objects at the levels of both creation and reception. These factors,
allied to the plethora of reincarnations spawned by The Tale of Genji over the
centuries, makes the saga the very epitome of the adaptive spirit as described
by Michael Emmerich: “Canonical works of literature do not remain canonical
because they are continually being reproduced — although, no doubt, most
of them are — but because they are continually being replaced” (Emmerich,
p. 211). H. Richard Okada promulgates a cognate textual philosophy in arguing
that “the impressive and ongoing flow of modern-day Genji scholarship attests
to the fact that a final word on the text will never be written.” By implication,
it is unlikely that a conclusive adaptation of Lady Murasaki’s saga — whatever
medium or genre one may choose to invoke — will ever reach fruition and
seize the work’s essence so irreversibly as to foreclose the possibility of further
adaptation. For a narrative like The Tale of Genji, Okada avers, “‘final words
are destined always to be inscribed on one of those ‘magic slates’ whose traces
serve to remind us only that we can and must perform the act of writing yet
again” (Okada, p. 292). The galaxy of adaptational moves to which The Tale
of Genji has proved amenable likewise intimates that the existence of any one
adaptation is ultimately a prompt to go on adapting.
It must also be noted that The Tale of Genji has had a far-reaching influ-
ence not only on Japanese art — and especially in the fields of poetry, theater,
scroll painting, music and dance — but also on worldwide cultural production,
profoundly affecting the codes and conventions of court fiction and the psy-
chological novel over the centuries. Numerous readers have observed intrigu-
ing affinities, as intimated by the opening quotation, between Lady Murasaki’s
text and Marcel Proust’s Remembrance of Things Past. According to Donald
Keene, the text “occupies in Japanese literature the place of Shakespeare in
English literature, of Dante in Italian literature, or of Cervantes in Spanish
literature. It is also a monument to world literature, the first novel of magni-
tude composed anywhere” (Keene, p. 39). One of the first and most resonant
paeans to Lady Murasaki’s art within Western culture is undoubtedly Virginia
Woolf ’s 1925 review of the opening volume of Arthur Waley’s translation,
where the author’s unique flair for psychological insights of timeless cogency
is brought to the fore: “To light up the many facets of [Genji’s] mind, Lady
Murasaki, being herself a woman, naturally chose the medium of other wom-
en’s minds. Aoi, Asagao, Fujitsubo, Murasaki, Yuugao, Suetsumuhana ... one
after another they turn their clear or freakish light upon the gay young man
at the centre” (Woolf, p. 427).
The ensuing part of this chapter offers a detailed examination of Osamu
Dezaki’s version of The Tale of Genji (TV series; 2009) in relation to its source.
It is important, on this point, to note that the full version of the original text
composed by Lady Murasaki consists of a work of considerable length com-
prising fifty-four chapters (or books). The portion of the story adapted by
Dezaki covers the period spanning the protagonist’s birth to his exile (chapters
1–12). However, before embarking on a close study of the series, it is worth
briefly considering another recent adaptation of the ancient narrative which,
though orchestrated in a different medium, evinces some interesting affinities
with Dezaki’s anime: Yoshitaka Amano’s artbook adaptation (2006) also bear-
ing the title of Lady Murasaki’s venerable text. Dezaki’s anime and Amano’s
paintings are most pointedly linked by their rendition of the ancient narrative’s
specifically mythological flavor, which they capture in a graphically trenchant
fashion even when they strike their most graceful and canorous chords. In a
sense, both works posit the art of adaptation and the very spirit of myth as
virtually inseparable to the extent that “the fundamental character of the
mythical construct,” as Roland Barthes stresses, “is to be appropriated”
(Barthes 1993, p. 119). The appropriative process operates through the trans-
generational and crosscultural communication of mythical “material which
has already been worked on so as to make it suitable” for such a purpose (p.
110) but is repeatedly altered and recontextualized in accordance with distinc-
tive historical, geographical and cultural milieux. In the process, myths “ripen”
(p. 149) and thus fuel an ongoing amplification of the original discourses
whence they emanate. In addressing contemporary relocations of Lady Mur-
asaki’s tale, for instance, we must ponder the implications of their adaptive
moves no less than a millennium after the original text’s production. Especially
tantalizing, in this respect, is the use made by Dezaki’s anime and Amano’s
artwork alike of the story’s mythical essence in their own times to comment
on current approaches to the ethics and politics of sexual pleasure.
Admired around the world for his luscious watercolor paintings and lyri-
cal evocation of myriad facets of both Eastern and Western mythology and
lore, Amano encounters fertile soil in Lady Murasaki’s ancient text as the ter-
rain on which to cultivate an intensely personal retelling of the classic saga of
romance, longing and intrigue and thus infuse it with fresh life for the delight
of contemporary audiences. As Matthew Alexander poetically observes, the
volume allows “Amano’s stunning art style” to stream “across the pages like a
meandering brook late in the summer months before the first rains” (Alexan-
der). Amano organizes his pictorial adaptation around a sample of Genji’s
lovers: Dezaki, as will be shown in detail later in this discussion, adopts an
analogously selective approach. The artist subtly varies his colors in order to
highlight the singularity of each persona and convey symbolically her emo-
tional state, giving prominence to primary-based palettes to express energetic
passion and pastel-based palettes to underscore moments of contemplation
or languorous yearning. In prioritizing the original story’s women, Amano
pays homage not only to its female parentage and to the substantial percentage
of female characters in Lady Murasaki’s cast but also to the feminine ethos
pervading various aspects of Heian culture.
Both Amano and Dezaki consistently evoke the relational nature of the
characters’ identities through the trope of intertwining or even overlapping
bodies. While the image is logically consonant with the narrative’s emphasis
on eros, it also serves as a succinct cultural comment on Lady Murasaki’s soci-
ety: a world that allowed little, if any, real privacy. Even when other people’s
inquisitive gaze does not literally inspect Genji and his lovers so as to spawn
rumors and feed courtly gossip, one gets the impression that the eye of eti-
quette follows them everywhere and at all times as an overarching system of
surveillance. The collapse of individual boundaries suggested by both the
artbook and the anime through the aforementioned strategy is additionally
conveyed by their creators through a methodical blurring of framing and
demarcating lines. Plumes of mist, dusky locales, vistas traversed by ceaselessly
dancing blossom and snowflakes, alongside ubiquitous fans, veils and screens,
bear witness to a deliberate avoidance of stark definition in favor of ambiguous
or equivocal moods. At the same time, the original narrative’s mythical dimen-
sion suits ideally the two artists’ aesthetic preference for magical realism insofar
as myth, in situating relatively ordinary actions in an extraordinary context,
fosters the collusion of the natural and the supernatural, the down-to-earth
and the esoteric, the phenomenal and the transcendental. Furthermore, sty-
listic similarities between Dezaki’s series and Amano’s paintings consistently
invite reflection on their distinctive celebration of the visual image’s story-
telling powers. The momentous significance of visuality in The Tale of Genji
per se is emphasized by Joan Stanley-Baker in her discussion of Japanese art
of the Heian age.
Commenting on the earliest pictorial adaptation of Lady Murasaki’s tale,
the Genji scrolls (1120–1150), Stanley-Baker maintains that this “must have
covered at least twenty separate scrolls with hundreds of illustrations and
thousands of sheets of calligraphy.... The paintings were done by court ladies....
The influence of court women over the entire Heian cultural sphere has given
the world the first full-blown fulfilment of feminine aesthetics since the spir-
itual and lyrical culture of Bronze Age Crete” (Stanley-Baker, p. 80). The
style used for the scrolls of The Tale of Genji is known as “onna-e,” i.e., “fem-
inine painting” (p. 84). A pensive mood characterizes Lady Murasaki’s nar-
rative throughout its unfolding (and with a definite shift toward darkness in
the second half of the saga) and this finds a close parallel in the text’s ancient
illustrations, where a sense of “nostalgia and melancholy for the passing of
the old Heian order of poetry and peace” is ubiquitous (p. 81). Both Dezaki
and Amano honor stylistic preferences harbored by the Heian artists them-
selves. These include the use of stylized facial attributes evocative of symbolic
masks akin to the ones employed in Noh drama and the tendency to focus
on the suspenseful build-up to action rather than on the action as such. More-
over, Dezaki and Amano alike appear to have inherited the Heian penchant
for scenes that initially come across as placid but soon disclose undercurrents
of tension or even turmoil. Items such as draperies and ribbons, veils and
braided ropes, silk streamers and smoke wisps are often deployed to splendid
effect as understated means of conveying a sense of dynamic ferment in even
the most tranquil composition. Rumpled sheets or curtains in a state of relative
disarray are also utilized as symbolic markers of emotive unrest, often rein-
forced by the adoption of tilted planes and daring perspectives. To commu-
nicate a feeling of affective isolation intended to magnify a scene’s internal
turbulence, architectural partitions such as sliding screens and room dividers
are concurrently brought into play as major spatial forces. Bridges likewise
serve symbolic purposes, alluding to prospects of connectivity and harmony
but also exposing the characters’ psychological suspension in a reality they
can never take safely for granted — a reality, as The Tale of Genji keeps remind-
ing us, no more durable than melting snow.
At the same time, both Dezaki and Amano reveal an acute awareness of
the codes and conventions governing body language in the period in which
The Tale of Genji is set, particularly in the treatment of almost sculpturally
formalistic gestures, positions and expressions. They thus corroborate Stan-
ley-Baker’s contention that “Language, conduct and posture were so rigidly
regulated in the eleventh and twelfth centuries that courtiers developed
uncanny sensitivity to the slightest nuance of behaviour and situation allowing
court paintings to depict scenes of great psychological intensity in composi-
tions of apparent physical inertia” (p. 82). Accordingly, even though the
explicit representation of emotional or psychological tension was proscribed
by courtly etiquette, inner disquiet could nonetheless be summoned by sym-
bolic means. Especially useful, in this matter, was the pictorial technique
known as “hikime kagihana (line-eye hook-nose) which indicates features but
does not identify individuals” (p. 81) and thus makes it possible to suggest
highly polished “emotional nuances” through simple elements. For example,
“eyebrows and eyes” may be “built up from many fine, straight lines into thick
layers, with the eyebrows high on the foreheads,” and the “pupils” rendered
as “single dots, exactly placed along the eyeline” (p. 83). Calligraphy was con-
comitantly enthroned by Heian culture as a pictorial art in its own right.

Dezaki’s anime throws this idea into relief by exploiting the very nature of
Japanese writing as a multilayered body of signs of pictographic derivation.
In so doing, it foregrounds the concreteness of language even when it denotes
abstract concepts, and thus underscores the material roots of narrative and
drama alike in all their manifestations, as well as of other media likewise
reliant on language in the broad sense of the term. The Tale of Genji therefore
partakes of a specific semiotic sensibility eager to emphasize the performative
nature of textuality — i.e., the power of words to operate as gestures and
actions — by allowing writing to function as a kinetic instrument unrestrained
by the limitations of the static physical page. Especially memorable, in this
regard, are the shots used specifically by Dezaki to highlight various characters’
calligraphic skills, where the kanji materialize on the screen stroke by stroke
without the visible input of anybody’s hand in so vibrant a mode as to appear
not only tangible but even endowed with autonomous life. The written word,
in this scenario, is elevated to the rank of an art form in its own right, inti-
mately connected with the traditional Eastern practice of “wash painting”
known in Japanese as sumi-e .
In evaluating the significance of the pictorial dimension in The Tale of
Genji, it is also important to observe that “pictures in the Heian era,” as Joshua
S. Mostow points out, appear to be invested with a “power” akin “to what is
expressed in English by the verbal form ‘to picture’— an active power to present
and transform the real world” (Mostow, p. 1). This would entail that “the
viewers of such pictures understood them to represent a magical world where
time stood still” and could therefore experience them as “an escape from both
mundane cares and the ravages of time” (p. 2). Painters, in this perspective,
deserve praise for their knack of transcending ordinary reality through the
vision of alternative scenarios. Pictures, moreover, can serve educational and
documentary purposes and operate as tokens of eternity but also, in keeping
with the period’s melancholy sensibility, as somber mementoes of the inevit-
ability of decline. On the subject of pictures, it is also noteworthy that the
art of painting plays a prominent part in the anime’s opening theme, Puffy
AmiYumi’s “Hiyori Hime,” at the levels of both visuals and lyrics. More
importantly, Genji’s childhood bond to Fujitsubo, as the woman destined to
occupy a unique position in his entire life, is symbolically sealed over their
shared admiration for the art of scroll painting as Fujitsubo befriends the boy
by showing him pictures inspired by indigenous landscape and lore, which
she has brought from her parental home, just after her introduction to Genji
by the Emperor.
The television version of The Tale of Genji helmed by Dezaki focuses
even more pointedly than its feature-length predecessor on the quasi-mytho-
logical bildungsroman undertaken by its hero. In so doing, it studiously

underscores the parent text’s cultivation of a unique sensitivity to the ephemer-
ality of beauty and pleasure, famously encapsulated by the aesthetic concept
of mono no aware . The first renowned critic of The Tale of Genji,
Motoori Norinaga (1730–1801), views the narrative precisely as a poetic incar-
nation of mono no aware, emphasizing that this notion permeates Lady Mur-
asaki’s presentation of “what people feel” in response to disparate situations.
These encompass “things both public and private, the best of things interest-
ing, splendid, or awesome; there are also such things as flowers, birds, the
moon, and the snow, appealingly described according to the season.... When
the heart is heavy, then especially do the sight of the sky, the colors of the
trees and grass, act to produce aware” (Norinaga, p. 203). Since “Nothing is
felt more deeply by the human heart than love,” in the logic of the tale, it is
only natural that aware should be “experienced particularly profoundly, indeed
unendurably, most often in love” (p. 213). Dezaki’s anime, as we shall see,
diligently evokes this world view, taking full advantage of the distinctive capac-
ities held by the animated image as a means of expressing emotions directly
associated with visual stimuli of the kind enumerated by Norinaga. In the
process, it also maximizes the dialogue’s lyrical propensities to paint the mys-
tery of love without seeking to dissipate it through rational explication. Simul-
taneously, the anime seeks to replicate as closely as its medium allows the
original work’s impartial anatomy of Heian Japan: its decadent nobility, its
intricate conspiracies and vendettas and, no less crucially, its unique take on
concepts of style, elegance and etiquette.
The cultural connotations of the story outlined above will be examined
in detail later in this chapter among other relevant concepts and motifs. An
evaluation of the broad thematics articulated by Lady Murasaki and appro-
priated by Dezaki is first apposite. Dezaki’s anime weaves a sumptuously
embroidered tapestry of intertwined emotional adventures, chronicling the
life and loves of Genji Hikaru (the “Shining Prince”) and yielding equal doses
of romance, psychological acuity, dynamic vibrance and pensive lyricism. In
this respect, the show echoes faithfully its source text’s own tenor and stylistic
devotion to the ethos of indigenous waka poetry, where — as noted in a recent
review of the series — thematic priority is consistently accorded to “the tyranny
of time and the inescapable sorrow of romantic love” presented “within the
context of man’s relationship to nature” (“Genji Monogatari Sennenki”). The
importance of poetry in The Tale of Genji will be also attended to in depth
at a later stage in this discussion.
While Lady Murasaki brings into play over four-hundred characters
across four generations, articulating her densely woven narrative through the
collusion of their distinct personalities, Dezaki is required by his medium to
concentrate much more closely on the immediate protagonist. In so doing,

he is loyal to the original in depicting the titular hero as an Emperor’s second
son who, having been conceived by a concubine, has his status lowered to
that of a commoner (albeit a clearly privileged one) in accordance with auto-
chthonous customs of the epoch, and is employed as a courtly retainer. Even
though Dezaki’s series is eminently watchable and enjoyable even if one has
not read its source text, some of the key events which Lady Murasaki posits
as foundational narrative premises and structural mainstays deserve consid-
eration for the sake of contextual cogency. Key to the ancient novel’s opening
part is the disclosure that despite her relatively humble status, the Emperor
admires and respects Genji’s mother, Kiritsubo, not solely as a sexual partner
but also and no less importantly as a friend and advisor. This special position
makes the lady prey to all sorts of pernicious rumors and acts: given the prac-
tice of polygamy at the Heian court, there was certainly no dearth of women
so keen on advancing their personal causes as to strive quite unscrupulously
to sully the name of any courtier to whom the Emperor might seem to be
according exceptional attention or dedication. Kiritsubo’s sufferings escalate,
paradoxically, when she gives birth to Genji, a boy of unquestionably unpar-
alleled beauty and charm whom the Emperor dotes upon as a finer child than
the designated descendant to the throne, named Suzaku, and would gladly
promote to that status instead. Although many of the courtly ladies criticize
Genji’s mother and do not hesitate to play some nasty tricks to aggravate her
or even frighten her in the extreme, Lady Murasaki names one of Kiritsubo’s
persecutors in particular, Kikoden: as the mother of the selected crown prince,
or Heir Apparent, she is the one who would be affected most adversely if the
Emperor were to shift his allegiances to the lowly concubine and her son to
the point of nominating Genji to the position of future Emperor instead of
her own child.
However, since the Emperor could not possibly allow Genji to inherit
the throne in preference to the official Heir Apparent without unleashing
political turmoil, the best position the boy can hope for is that of an imperial
underling. While this affords him an excellent education, stoked by Genji’s
unmatched versatility, intelligence, creativity and inquisitiveness, as well as a
life of pleasure and unending romantic opportunities, the hero is haunted by
a yearning which neither the Emperor nor any of the ladies he cherishes and
cherish him in return have the power to fulfill and will eventually pave the
way to his undoing. As Harold Bloom beautifully puts it, “The splendid Genji
paradoxically is destroyed by his own incessant longing for the renewed expe-
rience of falling in love” (Bloom, p. 2). Utterly incapable of thwarting this
dangerous addiction, Genji does not merely stand for erotic desire: he actually
“is a state of longing” (p. 3). The idealized image of the woman Genji truly
desires — as a lover, friend and all-time playmate in the game of life — is irrev-
ocably beyond his reach. As a result, the original text tells us, on the “rare
occasions” when “love did gain a hold upon him, it was always in the most
improbable and hopeless entanglement that he became involved” (Lady
Murasaki, p. 16). Dezaki follows his source closely in chronicling Genji’s hope-
less passion. The boy is seen to meet the object of his lifelong desire, Fujitsubo,
at the age of nine, when she enters the imperial household as Genji’s father’s
latest wife. This makes her, strictly speaking, the protagonist’s fourteen-year-
old stepmother. Nevertheless, Fujitsubo’s young age and general disposition
encourage the establishment of a relationship more akin to that of siblings
than to that of mother and son. Genji makes it quite clear at an early stage
that he does not regard the girl as either a parent or a sister and confirms his
words with explicitly physical professions of love. Although there is every
indication that Fujitsubo reciprocates Genji’s feelings, she is restrained by
their illicit character from giving them free rein. She finally resolves to snuff
out the boy’s “forbidden love” and distance herself from him once an for all
upon his Coming of Age, coinciding with Genji’s twelfth birthday, at which
point she resolutely refuses even to let him gaze one last time at her lovely
visage. As Genji officially becomes a man, he sheds his erstwhile infantile
dress, loses his long locks, is barred access to the female quarters of his father’s
court and is engaged to the daughter of the Minister of the Left, Aoi — a girl
four years his senior who shuns him as an inadequate suitor, as Dezaki empha-
sizes, having grown up to believe she would marry the heir to the throne.
The anime places great emphasis on the proposition that Genji’s devotion
to Fujitsubo never falters or wanes — as attested to by his habit of standing
worshipfully in a secluded part of the imperial gardens whence to hear the
lady’s music as she plays the koto (the Japanese equivalent of the zither) once
a month. Even though the Shining Prince struggles to stifle his pain by cruising
through a seemingly interminable series of loves, his telltale eyes go on exhibit-
ing the “faraway look,” as Aoi’s brother and Genji’s closest friend Tou no
Chuujou describes his expression in the screenplay, of one who is prey to “an
unrequited love.” According to Royall Tyler, the topos of unrequited love is
axial to the story and emplaced as such right from the start through Kiritsubo’s
ordeal: “The major love-related elements in the introductory ‘Kiritsubo’ chap-
ter ... foreshadow future developments. Genji’s yearning for Fujitsubo ...
remains alive for him until the end of his life. However, ‘Kiritsubo’ also evokes
the political pressure that forces Genji’s father, against his wishes, to appoint
Suzaku rather than Genji heir apparent” (Tyler 2009, p. 3).
Due to the intractably unappeasable nature of Genji’s one true passion,
the joy exuded by the hero’s exploits can never conclusively assuage the under-
current of grief that courses his entire existence, sealing it in memory as the
very quintessence of wistfulness. A story that could easily have amounted to

no more than the mantra-like recitation of a philanderer’s amours actually
turns out to be an exquisitely profound and elegant record of the most intimate
interpersonal relations and of their often tormented entanglement in a web
of ethical, affective and societal tensions. It is from the protagonist’s emo-
tionally tormented personality and forever unsatisfied quest for physical and
intellectual fulfillment — at times ostensibly verging on self-indulgence and a
childish espousal of pleasure at any price — more than from any obvious dra-
matic complication that The Tale of Genji derives a psychological richness of
veritably timeless appeal: not merely as a historical drama but also, and indeed
more resonantly, as a meticulous dissection of desire and affective turmoil.
The political machinations surrounding the hero’s personal voyage are indu-
bitably vital to the enhancement of the anime’s narrative complexity but we
are always invited to perceive them as metaphorically imbricated with Genji’s
experiences rather than reportorially documented independent events. This
proposition is confirmed by the tale’s treatment of the relationship between
eros and politics. Genji’s ambitiousness is inevitably conducive to the pursuit
of political ascendancy. However, his society is so obsessed with style that it
could not possibly tolerate any naked indications of a yearning for power in
its supposedly finest specimen. Therefore, the hero’s aspirations must be care-
fully dissimulated as the cultivation of ideals that transcend the sphere of
petty procedures. Genji finds a perfect tool in eros: as most of his exploits
tend to take an amorous turn, eroticism becomes the means through which
political ambitions can be purified and sublimated. Erotic vicissitudes often
operate as metaphors for fundamentally political conflicts, enabling both Lady
Murasaki and Dezaki to present eros and politics as interacting forces. Accord-
ingly, the personal and the social are relentlessly mapped onto each other as
inseparable facets of being-in-the-world.
Dezaki stays faithful to Lady Murasaki’s characterization of the titular
hero, putting to maximum advantage his medium’s distinctive capabilities
and hence relying as far as possible on actions and wordless allusion to convey
the Shining Prince’s bodily and moral excellence rather than on verbal descrip-
tion. With its emphasis on the specifically visual dimension, the anime suc-
ceeds in capturing silently the content and tenor of Lady Murasaki’s textual
portrayal of her hero as a creature of “unrivalled beauty” (Lady Murasaki, p.
9), deemed by Korean clairvoyants to bear “the marks of one who might
become a Father of the State” (p. 10). Genji is so conscious that his qualities
could easily make him a victim of unwanted “scrutiny” and “jealous censure”
as to feel “obliged to act with great prudence to preserve at least the outward
appearance of respectability” (p. 16). It must be stressed, for the purpose of
historical accuracy, that Genji’s society would have readily interpreted his
physical perfection as symbolic of his mental and ethical worth. In Heian

culture, it would indeed be automatically assumed that a man endowed with
bodily beauty would make a good ruler, for a comely outside must correspond
to an admirable inside. The fortune-tellers (and physiognomists) who examine
the boy at the Emperor’s behest vividly convey this very message. The inex-
tricability of body and mind promulgated by Lady Murasaki constitutes a
time-honored lynchpin of Eastern thought and medicine in their multifarious
and eclectic manifestations, reverberating throughout the teachings of the
doctrine of yin and yang, the Chinese philosophy of the “Five Movements”
(Wu Xing) and its Japanese counterpart in the system of the “Five Elements”
or godai (which is redolent of Western alchemy), the Chinese divination prac-
tice of the I Ching and the geomantic tenets of feng shui.
When Genji grows so disenchanted with the world and its delights that
his spiritual mettle weakens and his inner distinction becomes debatable, his
body mirrors the state of his mind by contracting a mysterious illness of clearly
psychosomatic proportions. The Shining Prince’s vulnerability to penetration
by malign natural agents visibly symbolizes his spiritual pollution. When, in
the more advanced stages of the narrative, Genji’s amative appetite is dispas-
sionately exposed and his preference for unattainable lovers is accordingly
revealed, Lady Murasaki seems keen on debunking her hero’s godlike image
to foreground his intrinsic humanity. Intriguingly, although Genji’s deterio-
ration cannot be openly witnessed until this point, there is already an ironical
hint at the inner foibles that might feasibly mar even a man as fine as the
Shining Prince in the passage, quoted earlier, where a clear difference is drawn
between internal reality and external semblance. Thus, while indulging in
her metafictional reflections, Lady Murasaki does not lose sight of her hero’s
spiritual fragility, and indeed underscores it in an utterly unsentimental man-
ner. “Now at least we must suppose he was convinced that such secret adven-
tures led only to misery,” the narrator notes in the wake of amorous exploits
that have left the protagonist in a state of hideous dejection. Lady Murasaki’s
clinical exposure of the hero’s moral flaws reaches an intriguing peak as the
narrator admits to being “very loath to recount in all their detail matters
which he [Genji] took so much trouble to conceal,” yet observes, in a further
ironic flourish of her agile brush, that she cannot afford the luxury of dis-
creetness. “I ... know that if you found I had omitted anything,” she states,
“you would at once ask why, just because he was supposed to be an Emperor’s
son, I must needs put a favorable showing on his conduct by leaving out all
his indiscretions; and you would soon be saying that this was no history but
a mere made-up tale designed to influence the judgment of posterity. As it is
I shall be called a scandalmonger, but that I cannot help” (p. 80). By laying
upon the reader full responsibility for the frank approach she adopts toward
her subject matter, Lady Murasaki deploys irony to justify her depiction of
situations and character traits that might have been commonly regarded by
her society as incompatible with the dictates of decorum by claiming that
failure to linger on such unpalatable aspects of the story would be tantamount
to expediency, sycophantic flattery and, ultimately, sheer mendacity.
According to Okada, Lady Murasaki’s narrative also interrogates the
authority of historiography by focusing not on reportorial accuracy but on
“the narrating itself, which continually locates us in its tenseless moment with-
out any pretense of offering a detached, representational account of past
events.” Commenting specifically on the opening chapter titled after Genji’s
mother, where the narrator deliberately refrains from using precise historical
dates and names, Okada shows how Lady Murasaki subtly succeeds in telling
us that “what is now being narrated might really have happened” while also
intimating that “its referent is not accurately determinable” (Okada, p. 183).
The discrepancy between actual history and the course of events as officially
recorded by historiography is thus subtly alluded to in a vein that brings to
mind some of the chief preoccupations thrown into relief by the films discussed
in Chapter 2 and, to a certain extent, by Mahiro Maeda’s series Gankutsuou:
The Count of Monte Cristo (Chapter 3). The narrative intrusions through
which Lady Murasaki’s narrator asserts her presence and endeavors to explain
her rationale and objectives also serve to establish a strong, even conspiratorial,
sense of intimacy between author and reader via the storytelling voice. In the
anime, where analogous interventions would have felt quite out of place, a
similar mood is created by a different means: that is to say, the employment
in the capacity of narrator of the uniquely endearing persona of Murasaki,
whom Genji adopts as a child, accommodates in his household as a surrogate
little sister and eventually marries. Murasaki, incidentally, is also the character
after whom the original author is named. Murasaki the character displays a
fundamentally sympathetic attitude toward her beloved Genji, yet is not so
blinded by her feelings as to fail to recognize and lay open his frailties and
thus follows the model set by the original narrator with overall fidelity. The
narrative ploys utilized by both the historical Lady Murasaki and her fictive
namesake are axial in enabling the reader to empathize with Genji, on the
one hand, and to take cognizance of his often lamentable shortcomings on
the other. When the character coldly — though not ungallantly — rejects the
women who long to share his bed while he chases obsessively those who play
hard-to-get, it is sometimes tempting to despise him as a spoilt and arrogant
youth. Yet, these are also the very situations in which his defenselessness in
the face of unfulfillable yearnings and his abeyant dissatisfaction with a life
of vaporous pleasures transpire most candidly and affectingly. The anime takes
advantage of these moments, thus enhancing the original story’s timeless
cogency — and, specifically, its trenchant relevance to the sense of emptiness,

anomie and directionlessness afflicting many contemporary cultures.
An episode in Genji’s erotic escapades which paradigmatically illustrates
Lady Murasaki’s take on her hero’s exploits is the one in which Fujitsubo falls
ill and is forced by her condition to leave the palace for a while. Genji cannot
help exploiting her temporary distance from the Emperor to pay her a clan-
destine visit. The action that ensues provides a brilliant instance of Lady
Murasaki’s ability to convey a potent sense of emotive tension and particularly
the conflict between the young woman’s guilt-ridden conscience, which causes
her to look back upon her moments of intimacy with Genji “as something
wicked and horrible” and to be filled with “torment” by their recollection,
and the youth’s frenzied longing to “vanish forever” with the beloved into a
“dream” known to them alone (Lady Murasaki, p. 96). Shortly after the secret
rendezvous has taken place, we are informed that Fujitsubo is pregnant and
although there can be no doubt that the lady carries Genji’s child, the precise
circumstances in which the conception occurred are never explicitly disclosed.
The narrative strategy based on the presentation of the effects of events that
have not been mentioned before as though the reader could be expected to
know all about them is diligently treasured by Lady Murasaki and eagerly
emulated by Dezaki in his anime adaptation.
The director maximizes the dramatic potentialities inherent in this ploy
to tailor them to the requirements of his own medium. Specifically, the free-
dom to present the results of incidents and occurrences that have not overtly
featured on the screen before as and when the director deems apposite affords
him plenty of scope for unexpected twists, narrative reorientations, shifts of
perspective and even occasional coups de théâtre. At the same time, it squarely
exonerates him from the strictures of chronological linearity. In the handling
of temporality, both Lady Murasaki and Dezaki earnestly rely on foreshadow -
ing and on the incremental accumulation of dramatic tension, dropping casual
hints at later developments that gain intensity and significance as the story
progresses. Much is implied and it is therefore up to the recipient of the writ-
ten or filmic text to extrapolate certain meanings from mere clues. A good
example is supplied, in the anime, by the installment in which the narrator
states early on that Lady Rokujou will be required to reside with her daughter
at the Ninomiya Shrine in Sagano for a year prior to the girl’s assumption of
her post as shrine maiden at Ise. Later in the episode, we see Genji rushing
off to Sagano in the middle of a stormy night to bid Lady Rokujou farewell,
hav ing learnt that she is about to leave for Ise. This is a laconically effective
way of suggesting that an entire year is meant to have elapsed between the
beginning and end of the installment even though, on the surface, the events
dramatized therein appear to have covered no more than a couple of days.
Axial to Lady Murasaki’s literary vision is the firm belief in the value of
fantasy as a means not merely of constructing entertaining worlds and thus
providing escapist routes for their audiences but also — and far more cru-
cially — of abetting people’s understandings of their own worlds and ability
to negotiate their intricacies. This point is lucidly encapsulated by a passage
from Chapter 25 of the source text outlining the author’s stance as a literary
critic. In the passage, here quoted in Ivan Morris’ translation, Genji remarks
that although “romances” are not likely to accommodate a single “ounce of
truth,” it is precisely through texts ostensibly “full of fabrications” that “the
emotion of things” is evoked “in a most realistic way” (Morris, pp. 308–309).
We are here reminded of the message conveyed by Willy in Romeo x Juliet
when he argues that fantastic tales play a key role in helping people deal with
reality. (Please see Chapter 5.) In commenting, both elliptically and explicitly,
on the function of literary fiction as a social, psychological and existential
phenomenon, The Tale of Genji anticipates recent theoretical approaches to
textuality eager to expose its inherent constructedness and thus explode the
mimetic fallacy centered on the concept of the text as a transparent window
onto reality. Such a stance finds eloquent confirmation in Dezaki’s tendency
to lay bare his adaptation’s artificiality as an animated text, in keeping with
both his medium’s aesthetic proclivities and his own personal vision. As
Richard Bowring points out, in his study of the original text, this strategy
serves to “deliberately destabilise the reader, undercutting any decision on his
or her part as to who may or may not be in the right at any one particular
point.” Never losing sight of its protagonist’s consuming erotic longing, The
Tale of Genji relishes in irony, ambiguity and even, at times, equivocation.
Critical to this modus operandi is its tendency to engage with various char-
acters’ perspectives and viewpoints simultaneously, and thus invite us to guess
the hidden motives lurking therein. In so doing, it embraces an incisively
modern outlook. “As we are swung first one way and then the next,” Bowring
comments, “we come to appreciate the subjectivity of all vision” (Bowring,
p. 63).
By looking at Genji’s prismatic world through the eyes of various char-
acters, Lady Murasaki is careful to diversify not only the moral and emotional
tenor of their perspectives but also the intensity with which they typify a par-
ticular world view. Dezaki follows closely this approach in his selective retelling
of the original tale. To undertake their multiperspectival project, both the
writer and the director rely to a considerable extent on richly varied charac-
terization. Therefore, whereas some personae (most notably, in the anime,
Genji himself, Fujitsubo and Lady Rokujou) come across as fully rounded
individuals through detailed psychological analysis, others (e.g., Yuugao, Aoi
and Roku no Kimi) are more dependent on their situation within contingent
predicaments as identity markers. There are also characters (e.g., Tou no Chu-
ujou, Koremitsu) who, though undoubtedly appealing and insightful, exhibit
steady attributes that render them more two-dimensional. Others still belong
to the category of extras whose primary function is to augment the setting’s
authenticity — such as the urban crowds, the women in the Imperial Com-
pound guarded by ubiquitous fans and screens, the innumerable servants and
the unceasingly gossiping court retainers. Even such minor actors embody
viewpoints of vital import to the story as a whole for they cast light, from the
interstices of Heian society, on the aesthetic and ethical values underpinning
that culture. No less importantly, they illuminate significant aspects of the
main characters’ personalities through their varyingly astute and shallow opin-
ions. In addition, character is frequently revealed by means of contrasting
mentalities and attitudes. For instance, the nurturing figure of Murasaki,
capable of maternal affection and selfless behavior even when jealousy gnaws
at her, is implicitly contrasted with Lady Rokujou, a woman of immense cre-
ativity, intelligence and charm whose jealousy, conversely, turns into the dead-
liest (and ultimately most self-destructive) of weapons. Uniting these diverse
character typologies, in both the novel and the anime, is the pervasive feeling
that life is governed by inscrutable forces wherein the metaphysical power of
karma and the subjective power of unconscious desires blend and clash by
turns. Much as the actors may look for happiness in the fleeting moment,
they invariably find that any one instant of potential fulfillment is bound to
lead to another instant along an endless chain of experiences that only ever
leave them feeling incomplete, insecure, rudderless in the current of yearn-
ing.
According to Haruo Shirane, one of the most distinctive technical traits
of Lady Murasaki’s narrative is the substantial extent to which it “diverges
from and works against literary conventions,” thus providing something of
“an ironic comment upon the monogatari tradition” (Shirane 1987, p. xix).
This tendency is amusingly conveyed by passages, of the kind cited earlier,
in which Lady Murasaki demystifies the notion of Genji as an exemplar. Con-
currently, the notion of the Emperor’s divine authority is also undermined,
since the splendor that ought to be associated, in accordance with tradition,
only with imperial charisma and hence the supreme ruler is actually presented
by Lady Murasaki as an attribute of Genji the commoner and not of the heir
to the throne. Dezaki’s anime parallels the source narrative’s good-humored
tendency to puncture the conventions of its genre by repeatedly highlighting
the hero’s entrapment in an inescapable past. This motif serves to reinforce
the tale’s preoccupation with the ethos of mono no aware, congruously with
the spirit of the Heian age, but also reminds us at virtually each turn that no
narrative meant to elevate a human being and thus pave his path to literary
immortality is truly viable in a world of forever broken promises and forever

shattered dreams. The series’ emphasis on the past finds an overt correlative
in the parent text insofar as Lady Murasaki’s story, much as it may appear to
evolve organically from one stage to the next through a process of potentially
endless metamorphosis, never loses sight of its building blocks even when
they seemingly recede into oblivion. In fact, is allows past occurrences to
gather meaning and importance incrementally as the saga unfolds.
In the source text, the gulf between Genji and Fujitsubo becomes con-
clusively insurmountable when the title of Empress is conferred upon the lady
by her doting spouse. The Emperor, at this juncture, intends soon to resign
the throne and would very much like to proclaim his new-born son Yuugiri
(i.e., Genji and Fujitsubo’s adulterous issue) as crown prince instead of Koki-
den’s boy. The situation witnessed earlier in relation to the protagonist thus
reproposes itself in adapted guise later in the story vis-à-vis his son. As before,
the Emperor is reluctant to enforce such a radical decision without a faction
to support his move. After all, even the choice to pass over Kokiden, as the
mature “mother of the Heir Apparent,” for the sake of “a concubine aged little
more than twenty” proves sufficient to cause “a good deal of discontent” as
the “public” vociferously proceeds to “take Kokiden’s side.” However, as Fujit-
subo is “installed” as the new Empress, Genji finally senses that she has “been
raised so far beyond his reach that scarce knowing” what he is doing, he finds
himself whispering “to himself the lines: ‘Now upon love’s dark path has the
last shadow closed; for I have seen you carried to a cloud-land whither none
may climb’” (Lady Murasaki, p. 150).
The anime reimagines these crucial components of the original narrative
in a number of subtle ways while remaining faithful to their cumulative
import. The show proposes that Genji, who has just returned to the capital
following a protracted spell of depression occasioned by the sudden death of
his beloved Yuugao and his attendant possession by demonic powers, engineers
a nocturnal encounter with Fujitsubo on the outskirts of the imperial gardens,
as the lady leaves the shrine in the woods where she has been secretly and
tenaciously praying for his recovery. At this stage, the Shining Prince claims
to be resolved to seal away his feelings for Fujitsubo and avert his gaze from
her forever. This, he insists, is meant to be his very last trip to the grounds
and shrine associated with his childhood and hence a symbolically final way
of saying farewell to the past and its deceitful promises. However, Genji soon
regrets his actions, wishing he had not put on a nonchalant and formally
charming façade just to hide his true emotions. On a rainy night when Fujit-
subo is staying at her parents’ home, Genji effortlessly manages to access the
lady’s room as she inadvertently invites him in, believing the visitor to be her
loyal attendant Myoubu (the title accorded to members of the Fifth Rank in
the rigidly stratified Heian class system). It is on this “fateful” occasion that
the passion haunting Genji and Fujitsubo from a young age is finally — and
fleetingly — consummated and their child is conceived. It is now Fujitsubo
that announces her determination to cut herself off from the Shining Prince
for good, convinced that to bear the sin alone is written in her karma, and
reflects upon her own doleful experience as a possible marker of broader gender
politics: “Is it the fate of a woman,” she wonders, “to live a life of sin?” Genji
remains adamant, however, about the sanctity of their bond, trusting that it
is neither tainted nor culpable, and dramatically declares: “If my love for you
is forbidden, then there is no such thing as love in the world.” The coup de
théâtre coincides with the Emperor’s announcement that he intends to hand
the throne over to the current Heir Apparent and appointment of Genji as
the guardian of his and Fujitsubo’s new-born baby (much to the biological
father’s confusion). Wishing the child himself to ascend the throne upon
reaching the appropriate age, the Emperor believes that Genji has the power
to help him “pave the way for a new era.”
From a cinematographical point of view, Dezaki’s The Tale of Genji
exhibits many of the technical and aesthetic preferences discussed in relation
to the same director’s adaptation of The Snow Queen in Chapter 4, and par-
ticularly, freeze-frame shots, segmented motion, split screens and stills dis-
playing the original artwork. However, the later show’s greater technical
sophistication enables it to utilize additional tools to unprecedented effect.
Modulating filters, intersecting slides and glittering overlays are among the
most prominent. Pacing also plays a key role, being kept generally tight in
Dezaki’s capsulation of the source narrative through a keen focus on emotions
and meditative excursions but appropriately varied as Genji moves from love
to love, in keeping with the ancient art of scroll painting. In Heian scrolls,
as Stanley-Baker stresses, every “painting has its own tempo, fast or slow,
which engages our viewing to the extent of conditioning the speed at which
we unroll the scroll. In the Genji scrolls, for instance, the pictorial sections
are different paintings interleaved with a continuous calligraphic narrative”
(Stanley-Baker, p. 97). Calligraphy itself, as Lippit explains, supplies a kind
of visual “meter” whereby the artists could “choreograph the tempo and
columnar flow of the writing” (Lippit, p. 59). An impression of acceleration
can be conveyed, for example, by fluidly compressing a great number of char-
acters in a vertical cascade — a technique used by Dezaki in the scene where
his protagonist is depicted in the process of writing his farewell letters prior
to his exile in order to lend urgency to his situation.
Concomitantly, Dezaki endeavors to capture the unique aesthetic sense
treasured by Heian court civilization and attendant devotion to all manner
of natural and artificial beauty. Hydrangea beds and wisteria trails so palpable
as to reach, synesthetically, not only the eye but also the sense of olfaction,
and swirls of fireflies redolent of fairy dust are among Dezaki’s many gems.
Gold-tinged sunsets and comely courtiers, swirling cherry blossom and snow
flurries, melodious verse and fine garments, alongside mastery of music, dance,
horse-riding, archery, calligraphy and, of course, the art of wooing, are held
in high esteem by the Shining Prince’s society as mutually interdependent
facets of a single, holistic notion of the beautiful. The protagonist incarnates
this ethos by excelling in all areas, thus epitomizing the notion of miyabi
— i.e., “courtliness.” In the rendition of costumes, traditional patterns
are accorded pride of place, with the butterflies and peonies adorning the
robes of the characters of Lady Rokujou and Roku no Kimi as particularly
resplendent examples of Dezaki’s artistry in their ability to detach themselves
from the fabric and attain to a life of their own.
Dezaki’s adaptation shares with its source a number of pivotal themes.
The topos of supernatural phenomena is conspicuous among them and finds
several expressions. References to demonic possessions, subjection to an evil
influence, mononoke and magical agencies are frequent, as are the recurrent
tropes inspired by traditional purifying and exorcizing rituals. Paradigmatic
illustrations of the theme of the supernatural are supplied by the episodes in
which Genji’s mistress Yuugao and his wife Aoi are bewitched and killed by
potent curses, ostensibly concocted by the jilted lover Lady Rokujou, here
portrayed as a prototypical hannya , or jealous woman, and hence as
one of the most dreaded of Japanese demons. The Shining Prince himself is
so profoundly affected by the malefic spell attendant upon Yuugao’s death as
to precipitate into a potentially fatal state of melancholia. What enables him
to recover, apart from the scores of precious and salubrious gifts lavishly show-
ered upon the royal retainer by his many admirers, is a sojourn at a mountain
monastery where he engages in intensive praying and cleansing ceremonies.
Several of the occurrences which both Lady Murasaki and Dezaki surround
with an otherworldly aura may be explained in mundane ways. For example,
Genji’s state following Yuugao’s departure could be interpreted clinically as a
result of his inability to negotiate bereavement, and the monastic rites of
which he partakes as a transition from paralyzing melancholia to resigned
mourning. Relatedly, as Mary Dejong Obuchowski stresses, “it becomes
increasingly clear through the novel that one is fundamentally responsible for
his feelings and desires as well as for his acts, and that religious belief has firm
grounding in common sense” (in The Tale of Genji Study Guide, p.182).
Moreover, regardless of Rokujou’s necromantic skills, what the “cluster
of stories” revolving around this character ultimately discloses is that sooner
or later (and by whatever means), “hatred kills, directly or indirectly” (p. 181).
One of the story’s most enduring messages — and one which Dezaki is espe-
cially keen to promulgate in his own adaptation — is that “the religious ele-
ments of court ritual, exorcism and folk superstition, and themes of jealousy,
guilt, and responsibility turn out to be so closely intertwined as to be insep-
arable” (p. 184). In evaluating the ethical and social implications of demonic
possession, it is additionally useful to bear in mind Doris G. Bargen’s con-
tention that the instances of such a phenomenon depicted in The Tale of Genji
could be read as attempts at female self-expression tied up with the sexual
mores of Heian culture. Discussing specifically Yuugao’s tragedy, the critic
maintains that being “Of lower rank than her former and her present lovers,”
the girl “must consider herself fortunate to be favored by such high-ranking
courtiers [i.e., Tou no Chuujou and Genji respectively]. At the same time,
she has learned to be distrustful of uneven matches” (in The Tale of Genji
Study Guide, p. 170). Concurrently, “it is important to see that the drama of
Yuugao’s possession is so powerful that Genji feels compelled to share her
altered state and continues to do so,” as suggested by his precipitation into a
state of utterly debilitating forlornness. The Shining Prince is also presented
as central to the supernatural experience, as though to indicate that while
Yuugao might be trying to give voice to her repressed anxieties through her
condition, her embryonic narrative is appropriated by her lover: “It is through
Genji’s feverishly involved perspective, at crucial times bordering on the hal-
lucinatory, that Yuugao’s rapid psychological and physical decline are first
assessed” (p. 171).
In order to grasp the exact import of The Tale of Genji’s utilization of
the supernatural, it is crucial to bear in mind that in Lady Murasaki’s day, it
was common for people to feel spiritually governed by superstitions more
than by systematized religious doctrines. As Morris explains, some beliefs,
“notably those related to witchcraft, necromancy, and other occult practice,
were influenced by Shintoism, and represent the shamanistic strain in the
native religion” (Morris, p. 123), whereas others, “including many that are
concerned with ghosts and demons, appear to have derived from ancient native
folklore whose origin is still obscure.” Other superstitions strike their roots
in Chinese culture, as most famously attested to by the influence of “omen
lore based on yin-yang dualism and the five elements” (pp. 123–124). This
composite body of beliefs is ever-present in Dezaki’s adaptation — both explic-
itly, as demonstrated by the episodes concentrating on possessions, hauntings,
exorcisms and divinatory practices — and implicitly, but more pervasively, as
a shadow text stalking Genji’s saga everywhere and imbuing it at all turns
with somber poignancy. In the process, we are consistently reminded that the
Heian world was “heavily populated with goblins, demons, spirits, and other
supernatural beings” (p. 130).
A contemporary audience’s appreciation of the full import of scenes such
as the ones depicting Yuugao and Aoi’s demonically engineered deaths or the
later sequence centered on the ghost of Genji’s father also requires, on a
broader scale, recognition of the centrality of the subject of death to Japanese
folklore and mythology. According to Michiko Iwasaka and Barre Toelken,
death indeed constitutes “the principal topic in Japanese tradition” and this
is attested to by the fact that “nearly every festival, every ritual, every custom
is bound up in some way with the relationship between the living and the
dead, the present family and its ancestors.” While the ubiquity of death-
related traditions can be explained largely on the basis of their ability to throw
into relief pivotal tenets in the indigenous value system, such as “obligation,
duty, debt, honor and personal responsibility” (Iwasaka and Toelken, p. 6),
it also serves as a perfect trope to encapsulate the ethos of mono no aware seen
to be axial to Genji’s whole universe. Furthermore, the interpenetration of
the domains of the breathing and the departed underpinning ghost lore posits
the realm of the dead as intrinsically alive and animate by virtue of its impact
on the beliefs and practices of the living world, and thus entails patterns of
reciprocal responsibility connecting the two spheres. The death topos as dram-
atized in The Tale of Genji at the levels of both the source text and its anime
version is rooted in a pluralistic approach to faith, ritual and life in general,
which bears witness to the Japanese people’s traditional tendency “to adopt,
adapt, translate, reform and integrate the ideas and values of many cultures
and religions into their own system” (p. 2). Therefore, The Tale of Genji’s take
on spectral lore and, by extension, death in both the supernatural and mun-
dane areas of existence partakes of a broader cultural attitude that could be
described as the very epitome of the adaptive mentality — and hence as a forth-
right celebration of the focal concern pursued in this book in its entirety.
While it is important to acknowledge the role played by the supernatural,
it is no less vital to appreciate the narrative’s unwavering adherence to reality.
As Keene stresses, even as Lady Murasaki appears to ideate Genji’s world as
something of a “refuge from the world in which she actually found herself, a
transmutation of the prose of daily life at the court to the poetry of her imag-
ination,” she nonetheless derided the blatantly fantastic yarns unleashed by
old folktales in their own deployment of otherworldly themes. The realm she
portrays must therefore be grasped as “a sublimation” of her actual social real-
ity, “not a never-never land” (Keene, pp. 18–19). Hence, Lady Murasaki’s nar-
rative also supplies a dispassionate dissection of social decline, and this
constitutes another prominent theme which Dezaki’s show shares with his
source. The cultural climate inhabited by Genji is shaped by a fatalistic belief
in the irreversibility of degeneration as a process affecting not only secular
human affairs but even religion and its time-honored systems. Portraying the
hero as a creature endowed with unrivaled beauty and urbanity is a circuitous
way of suggesting that once humanity has reached such an apotheosis, every-
thing that follows is bound to be inferior, marred, uninspiring. After all, the
original narrator herself seems to find it surprising that a child as fine as Genji
should have been conceived in what she terms “these latter and degenerate
days” (Lady Murasaki, p. 3). According to Bloom, Lady Murasaki’s “exaltation
of longing over fulfillment throughout the novel” can itself be regarded as
symptomatic of “a mingled spiritual and aesthetic nostalgia” that consistently
“takes the place of a waning social order” (Bloom, p. 2). The anime closely
echoes this proposition in its rendition of the theme of social decline, which
Dezaki concurrently posits as inextricable from a wider world view. In this
perspective, human existence at large is perceived as a fleeting occurrence on
both “the main stage and the backstage,” as the script evocatively puts it.
With its telescoped reconfiguration of the original narrative, the anime tren-
chantly communicates this message by dramatizing the rapid intensification
of the darkness ready to swallow Genji’s gleaming aura as the story progresses.
This is portrayed as a series of life-changing losses, as each of the three prin-
cipal women in his life recedes from the scene and his father dies, leaving
behind a disabling premonition of the impossibility of ever achieving any
conclusive resolutions or absolutions.
The topos of social decline should also be understood in specific relation
to the exhaustion of Heian civilization as such. Indeed, as Morris points out,
numerous scholars have interpreted the demise of what stands out as one of
Japan’s most intriguing periods precisely as an outcome of ethical deterioration,
highlighting “the growing self-indulgence and effeteness of the ruling class
and their failure to observe Confucian principles of rectitude” (Morris, p. 5).
James Murdoch is an exemplary case in point insofar as his History of Japan
indeed brands the Heian upper echelons as an “ever-pullulating brood of
greedy, needy, frivolous dilettanti — as often as not foully licentious, utterly
effeminate, incapable of any worthy achievement, but withal the polished
exponents of high breeding and correct ‘form.’... Now and then a better man
did emerge; but one such man is impotent to avert the doom of an intellectual
Sodom.... A pretty showing, indeed, these pampered minions and bepowdered
poetasters might be expected to make” (Murdoch, p. 230). Morris adopts an
altogether less prejudiced take on Heian civilization, attributing its decline
to a wide range of political and economic forces rather than a single ethical
cause. However, he concedes that “an imbalance of energies poured into intel-
lectual and artistic pursuits” at the expense of more pragmatic concerns would
have been largely responsible for the erosion of that culture (Morris, p. 6).
Relatedly, the historian is eager to emphasize the coexistence of the “delight
in the aesthetic joys of the world” so characteristic of the Heian era with a no
less ubiquitous apprehension of the “vanity of human pleasures” (p. 13).
Dezaki’s anime vividly encapsulates this tension, dwelling on the passion

for ceremonial grandeur typical of the hero’s age with no dearth of descriptive
details in the representation of magnificent tableaux exuding elegance and
energy in equal measures, yet also showing how even the most splendid spec-
tacle is destined to leave in its wake dark intimations of dislocation, evanes-
cence and sorrow. No sooner has a feast, parade or ceremony left the screen
than a dusky sense of foreboding seizes Genji’s forever unsettled heart. Yet,
the show is also keen to indicate that a truly accomplished Heian gentleman
such as the Shining Prince would never allow the perception of mono no aware
to ascend to the heights of sensationalist turmoil, since the maintenance of a
sense of restraint is deemed critical to the display of genuine refinement. In
this respect, Dezaki aptly employs his protagonist to document symbolically
the spirit of a whole epoch. The season most suited to the capture of this
mood is, unsurprisingly, autumn and Dezaki dutifully lingers on recurrent
images of melancholy rain wreathed with veils of lacy vapor. The fading light
of autumn is a perfect metaphor for humanity’s vain pursuits and faltering
visions.
A major factor to be taken into careful consideration while assessing The
Tale of Genji’s melancholy contemplation of impermanence is the influence
on Heian civilization of the teachings of Buddhism. Although that period, as
indeed subsequent chapters in Japanese history, evinces a marked proclivity
toward religious syncretism, allowing for the coexistence of Buddhism, Shin-
toism, Confucianism, Taoism and various beliefs rooted in both indigenous
and Chinese lore, there can be little doubt that Buddhist principles predom-
inate in the context of Lady Murasaki’s narrative and its anime version alike.
Thus, while Confucian beliefs impact significantly on the story’s approach to
family and clan, ancestor worship and filial respect, it is from Buddhism that
The Tale of Genji derives its emphasis on the transience of earthly matters
(mujoukan) and, relatedly, on the dreamlike character of life. The final chapter
of Lady Murasaki’s novel, importantly, is titled “The Bridge of Dreams” to
emphasize the elusive quality of existence. Analogously, in Dezaki’s final
episode, Genji reflects on his life and concludes that it has all been merely “a
dream”— or, in fact, something even “more fleeting than a dream.” In addi-
tion, Dezaki makes frequent use of oneiric sequences and visionary experiences
to convey the illusory nebulousness of the phenomenal domain.
As John R. Wallace argues, by injecting the Buddhist perception of life
as insubstantial and transient into the ethos of aristocratic sophistication
embodied by the concept of miyabi, Lady Murasaki “darkens the vision of
beauty” so central to her work (Wallace, p. 311) by pointing to the “dark or
infinite” world (p. 315) that underpins at all times the radiant card house of
Heian courtliness. Savoir-faire, grace and pleasure cannot elude, due to their
entanglement with the rhythms of fate and becoming, “the inevitability of

the cycle of suffering” and “the essentially transitory nature of the object one
finds beautiful or desirable” (p. 324). This proposition parallels Morris’ afore-
cited account of the Heian era’s schizoid vision. In this regard, The Tale of
Genji could be said to anticipate Georges Bataille’s contention that beauty
can never unproblematically represent a flight from the ultimate shadow host-
ing the specters of sorrow, violation and death, since its existence is predicated
upon the very possibility that “it may be befouled” (Bataille, p. 144). In por-
traying the metaphorically incestuous bond between Genji and Fujitsubo as
pivotal to his adaptation, Dezaki reinforces this perspective insofar as he
thereby posits any idealized notions of beauty and desire as inextricable from
the murky reality of transgression, defilement and profanation. From an aes-
thetic point of view, it must also be remembered that the tendency toward
meditative gloom so ingrained in the Heian age was tangentially fueled by
the atmosphere of the typical upper-class dwelling of the time. As Morris
comments, the aristocracy spent a substantial part of their lives in “semi-
obscurity” and its female members, specifically, “lived in a state of almost
perpetual twilight. As if the rooms were not already dark enough, they nor-
mally immured themselves behind thick silk hangings or screens” (p. 34).
Furthermore, as William J. Puette notes, “For the denizens of the capital, the
actual world of daily activities was ... largely nocturnal” and “time was solely
governed by the flow of events. People slept, ate, and committed their other
quotidian duties around their social activities, which more often than not
were conducted at night, till just before dawn” (Puette, p. 28).
A further topos of recurrent significance throughout the novel and the
anime alike is the equation of human weakness to a lack of self-discipline and
self-control, connotative of a loss of direction — and hence of a rupture in the
natural equilibrium — and emblematized by overindulgence in earthly appe-
tites. In using lack of restraint in the pursuit of sexual pleasure as the epitome
of weakness, neither the original narrative nor the series are being stuffily
moralistic: in fact, there is every indication that their authors are well aware
of the dramatic potentialities inherent in that aspect of human existence and
understandably keen to actualize them to the best of their abilities as a par-
ticularly effective way of communicating their existential message. Throughout
the anime, all of the themes outlined above are often elaborated in a tersely
economical, yet allusive, fashion through the interspersal of regular dialogue
with snippets of poetry. In this respect, the show follows closely its source
text, emulating its typically Heian devotion to the poetic word as the acme
of artistic accomplishment and as a symbolic bridge between the human and
spiritual realms. As Bowring explains, the poetic word “had from its beginnings
been equated with divine speech, having the potential to bring into being
that of which it spoke,” and in Lady Murasaki’s era, it had come to be auto-
matically associated with “the realm of erotic possession/obsession.” Hence,
a “talented poet” was expected to be also a “talented lover” (Bowring, p. 66).
This contention brings to mind the Platonic equation of the poet and the
lover as vessels of a so-called fine (or divine) frenzy which, while enabling
them to perceive levels of reality inscrutable by common eyes, also renders
them unstable, unruly and irrational. This same idea resonates throughout
Duke Theseus’ famous speech at the beginning of the final act of Shakespeare’s
A Midsummer Night’s Dream, where “the lunatic, the lover and the poet” are
bracketed together as victims of an unbridled imagination capable of conjuring
entire worlds out of their fantasies and delusions.
According to Morris, “The composition, exchange and quotation of
poems was central to the daily life of the Heian aristocracy, and it is doubtful
whether any other society in the world has ever attached such importance to
the poetic versatility of its members” (Morris, p. 177). This is repeatedly
confirmed by the ubiquitous use of poetry as a major component of the anime’s
textual repartee, and most pointedly by Genji’s relationship with Lady Roku-
jou: a lady to whom he is at first drawn not only by rumors concerning her
beauty but also by her reputation as a poet and calligrapher of unique caliber.
The initial stages of the courtship are orchestrated almost entirely in lyrical
form as exchanges of extemporaneous poems. Most importantly, Heian society
expected poetry to thrive on allusiveness and obscurity, in the conviction that
clarity and explicitness amounted to lack of refinement. In this matter, Lady
Murasaki’s culture parallels the world of the Western Renaissance courtier,
where an accomplished individual’s greatest asset was held to be the ability
to convey an impression of effortless brilliance through studious effort in the
deployment of cryptic imagery and densely layered allusions. The rule of
sprezzatura (nonchalance) demanded the careful erasure of all traces of con-
scious toil. According to Yanping Wang, The Tale of Genji attests to the cen-
trality of poetry in the Heian era insofar as the very “thematic frame” of Lady
Murasaki’s text depends on “waka” — literally, “Japanese poem”— as
“the language of love.” The story’s distinctive “poetics” is accordingly shaped
by the aristocratic conception of eros as “an elaborate code of courtship” with
stringent “rules of communion by poetry” (Wang, p. 35). Lynne K. Miyake
argues that three main techniques govern waka poetry of the kind employed
by Lady Murasaki — a discourse, it must again be stressed, that Dezaki’s adap-
tation consistently enthrones as pivotal to its own dramatic structure. These
encompass the use of polysemantic words (kakerotoba), linguistic associations
grounded in culturally sanctioned diction and imagery (engo) and intertextual
references to a wide range of poetic texts (honkadori). These strategies enjoin
readers (or listeners) to engage in a collaborative exercise with the text by
using their own imagination to actualize its potential meanings (Miyake, p.

79). The devices described by Miyake guide the dialogue between lovers
resorting to poetry as their principal communicational vehicle. They thus
supply a structure within which members of the two sexes, normally divided
both by linguistic laws ratifying the utilization of different registers by men
and women and behavioral codes prohibiting physical proximity, could estab-
lish and sustain powerful emotive connections.
Therefore, as Wang points out, the “medium” of “written poetry” and
the “means” of “the hand-carried letter” containing the poetic word provided
lovers with a “sign of presence” and hence a “physical substitute” comparable
to “a fetish.” This entails that in the context of The Tale of Genji, the “poetic
letter” comes “to be privileged over presence itself ” (Wang, p. 36). The ongo-
ing translation of love and desire into aesthetically polished rituals, which in
turn become embodied in poetic communication, makes Genji’s world a per-
fect example of what Barthes terms an “empire of signs.” In such a milieu,
the critic contends, there is no such thing as a deep self since identity is con-
stantly voided into urbane semiotic gestures (Barthes 1983). These ideas are
paradigmatically borne out, in the series, by Genji’s first meeting with Yuugao.
Upon espying a flower he has never cast his eyes on before — the evening glory
(or evening faces) whence Yuugao derives her denomination — Genji realizes
that he cherishes its beauty even though it is not the kind of plant one would
encounter in a patrician garden. Wishing to appease his master’s aesthetic
appetite, Koremitsu — Genji’s chief retainer — seeks access to the residence
disporting the object of his admiration and asks for an arrangement. He
returns bearing a gracefully simple floral composition, placed upon a fan to
ensure its integrity and accompanied by a piece of poetry. It is on the basis
of this textual communication that the hero will soon enter one of the rela-
tionships destined to prove most influential in his psychological and moral
evolution. The fact that Yuugao is capable of delivering beautiful lines even
though she is but a humble city girl alludes to the power of poetry to transcend
hierarchical barriers but there is little doubt that in reality, it was very much
a prerogative of the Heian nobility.
Bowring confirms the existence of an intimate relationship between
“poetic creation” and “sexuality” in Heian society, positing the composition
of poetry as a means of gaining control over potentially unruly desires
(Bowring, p. 14). The written word functions as a substitute for presence
which, while inevitably signifying the absence of the desired object for which
it stands, manages to rise to the status of a tangible reality unto itself. By
“bridging the gap between self and other,” the poetic sign temporarily plugs
a “gap” that “itself is erotic” insofar as it is pivotal to the genesis of attraction
and yearning (p. 15). The concept of the gap as an erotic element is corrob-
orated by the popular trope of “kaimami or ‘seeing through a gap in the

hedge’” used in literature to allude to the frisson yielded by the experience of
seeing and being seen surreptitiously” (p. 14). This idea brings to mind Barthes’
tantalizing remarks on the topic: “Is not the most erotic portion of a body
where the garment gapes? ... it is intermittence ... which is erotic: the inter-
mittence of skin flashing between two articles of clothing ... between two
edges ... it is this flash itself which seduces, or rather: the staging of an appear-
ance-as-disappearance” (Barthes 1990, pp. 9–10). In Lady Murasaki’s narrative,
a paradigmatic illustration of kaimami is provided by the scene in which Genji
catches his very first glimpse of Murasaki through a galvanizing gap in the
fence. A mere peep is sufficient to allow him to detect the little girl’s uncanny
resemblance to Fujitsubo and to trigger in his mind a far-reaching chain of
associations, culminating with the desire to bring her up to become his ideal
wife. Dezaki’s adaptation of Genji’s initial encounter with Murasaki does not
explicitly deploy the kaimami formula but does capitalize to considerable dra-
matic effect on Murasaki’s presentation as the passive object of Genji’s gaze:
by the time the child comes face to face with the Shining Prince and finds
herself instantly captivated by his gentle smile, the protagonist has already
had the opportunity to study her behavior and formulate a preliminary assess-
ment of her likely personality.
The scenes depicting Lady Rokujou in the act of writing enable Dezaki
to throw into relief several key facets of traditional Japanese poetry as an art
based on the interplay of what Shirane defines as “performance, visuality, and
textuality” (Shirane 2005, p. 217). The character’s alternately graceful and
vigorous movements of hand and brush constitute a performance in the sense
that they are choreographed in accordance with culturally endorsed codes and
conventions enabling an audience to grasp them as actions endowed with rit-
ualistic significance rather than an isolated event. The poem, as the physical
entity yielded by that performance, stands out as both a written text amenable
to reading and hermeneutic evaluation and a visual ensemble of artistically
polished signs. In both its written and its visual dimensions, the poem rests
on a substratum of collectively ratified assumptions in much the same way as
the performance itself does. As the underpinning of Lady Rokujou’s intellec-
tual and erotic communion with Genji, her poetic texts call attention to the
fundamentally dialogical nature of traditional Japanese poetry. As Shirane
observes, “Modern readers tend to read poetry monologically, either in an
expressive, lyrical mode, as an expression of a speaker’s subjective state, or in
a descriptive, mimetic mode, as a reflection of the external world as perceived
by the speaker.” In the context of “pre-modern or early modern Japan,” by
contrast, it “functioned dialogically, fulfilling socioreligious functions” (pp.
218–219).
When, in the opening moments of her first poetic dialogue with Genji,
Lady Rokujou delivers hermetically brief poetic utterances, left deliberately
suspended in the air so as to challenge her interlocutor to expand upon them,
the anime points to another important aspect of traditional Japanese poetry:
the expectation among cultured audiences that a respectable piece of poetry
should always feel somewhat unfinished in order to enable its recipients to
“participate in its production” (p. 221). Finally, the emphasis placed by the
relevant scenes on both calligraphy and paper fully validates Shirane’s con-
tention that the aesthetic worth of the writing often exceeded in significance
the quality of the content, while the materials employed in the process of
composition were deemed likewise crucial. “A poor poem with excellent cal-
ligraphy,” the critic explains, “was probably preferable to a good poem with
poor calligraphy” and the “type, color, and size of the paper” upon which it
was executed also carried critical weight. Furthermore, a writer could “add a
sketch, attach a flower or leaf, or add incense or perfume to the poetry sheet”
(p. 224) as a means of enhancing the medium’s inherent attractiveness through
the inspired inclusion of a personal touch of style. Given the immense value
attached by Lady Rokujou to incense throughout the series (necromantic
moments included), one can easily imagine the Lady applying a dab of her
distinctive fragrance to the poetic messages issuing from her sumi well.
While Dezaki follows his source closely in the articulation of The Tale
of Genji’s cardinal themes, he also reveals acute sensitivity to the story’s original
setting. No doubt reliant on punctilious historical research into the environ-
mental and architectural attributes of Heian Kyou (now Kyoto), the anime
portrays the capital as a thoroughly planned urban grid of great geometrical
precision, traversed by uncommonly capacious streets, on which most aristo-
cratic mansions would be situated, and by narrow alleys intersecting them
across the city’s chessboard, where the commoners’ dwellings would cluster
in close proximity to one another. The show draws attention on numerous
occasions to the capital’s natural location in an attractive rural region punc-
tuated by numerous lakes and streams and surrounded by woods and moun-
tains shrouded in hazy trails, where monasteries and shrines seamlessly
coalesced with the habitat. The series is also faithful to Lady Murasaki’s pres-
entation of the Imperial Compound, which in turn closely mirrors its real-
life counterpart. Hence, in both the source text and the anime, the characters’
movements through the Compound are made to tally with the factual plan
of the location as it stood at the time in which the story is set. Dezaki is also
loyal to the original in the representation of Heian interiors as spaces shaped
by Zen’s dedication to an atmosphere of quiet composure devoid of redundant
ornamentation and gaining their energy, in fact, from austerity and emptiness.
The fluid interpenetration of the traditional Japanese dwelling and its envi-
ronment is concurrently recorded — in particular, in the scenes where Genji

enters his lovers’ apartments by moving so effortlessly through the screens
that separate them from the outside world as to seem to be crossing a barrier
no more substantial than autumn mist.
Another aspect of the source narrative’s cultural milieu which Dezaki
captures with considerable accuracy is its rigid hierarchical approach to social
organization. According to Morris, Heian culture made “court rank” the deter-
mining factor in the allocation of a person’s “post in the government” and
general affluence, which meant that “entry into the rank hierarchy was decided
exclusively by one’s family connexions” (Morris, p. 64). Concomitantly, the
codes and conventions guiding aristocratic lifestyle were predicated on rank
down to the minutest details of architectural, decorative and sartorial vogues.
Dezaki’s show is loyal to the parent text in stressing that “to determine a per-
son’s precise standing was no simple diversion but a matter of overriding
importance” (p. 67). Thus, despite frequent claims advanced by classic his-
torians regarding the nature of Heian civilization as an era of indolence and
inaction, hierarchical priorities entailed that court life was often riven by tur-
bulent tensions. In making the preservation of hierarchical barriers its priority,
the set of stringent regulations governing daily existence at all levels of courtly
intercourse inevitably led to discord. This is typified by The Tale of Genji’s
opening as a veritable roster of tempestuous commotions unleashed by the
Emperor’s unorthodox attachment to a lowly concubine, which implies a vio-
lation of the very power basis on which the state thrives.
It is in its take on what Morris evocatively terms the “Cult of Beauty”
that Dezaki’s adaptation asserts its ability to mirror and appropriate its parent
text’s distinctive aesthetic with unmatched gusto. As the critic emphasizes,
“refined standards of cultural appreciation and performance had become gen-
erally accepted values among members of the ruling class” (Morris, p. 170),
to the point that lack of responsiveness to aesthetic matters rendered a Heian
aristocrat as reproachable as a cowardly nobleman would be held to be in
Western cultures of the same period (and indeed later epochs). Thus, “artistic
sensibility” was held in higher esteem than “ethical goodness,” while “style”
was accorded precedence over “moral principles” and “good looks” ranked
above “virtue” (p. 195). All facets of patrician Heian society corroborated this
world picture, from architecture and interior design to vehicles and dress.
The anime provides some of its most exquisite descriptive touches in the ren-
dition of the accessories adorning the ladies’ rooms, which are otherwise
sparsely furnished in accordance with tradition. These include not only several
painted screens that stand out as artworks in their own right but also writing
equipment, incense burners, mirrors and musical instruments impeccably
faithful to Heian style. It is in its approach to color that the aesthetic culti-
vation characteristic of Lady Murasaki’s age proclaims itself most distinctively,

evincing a passion for symbolic associations in all spheres of artistic produc-
tion, as well as great sensitivity to the impact of the minutest nuances of
chroma in the evocation of disparate moods.
The interplay of radiance and darkness is everywhere felt as a major
factor in the Heian treatment of color, encapsulating the era’s simultaneous
devotion to pleasure and to the acknowledgment of its vaporousness. Dezaki’s
adaptation tirelessly demonstrates that it is in the domain of costume that the
period’s fascination with color is most palpably manifest, depicting hues that
do not have exact equivalents in the Western world and of which not even
contemporary Japanese audiences would necessarily know the names. The art
of juxtaposing different shades in both male and female attire was of critical
significance to the vestimentary sensibility of the age. In addition, the cult of
beauty found ideal expression in the elaborate kind of kimono associated with
court ladies of the era, which features pervasively in the anime and at times
appears to infuse the duskiest of rooms with dancing iridescent light. Known
as the juunihitoe (literally, “twelve-layer robe”), the garment came into fashion
in the course of the tenth century. As the Wikipedia entry devoted to the juu-
nihitoe explains, “The colours and the arrangements of the layers are very
important. The colours have poetic names, such as ‘crimson plum of the
spring.’ The only place where the layers are discernible is around the sleeves
and the neck. The arrangements of the layers and their colours were a good
indication to any outsider what taste and what rank the lady had” (“Juuni-
hitoe”). In Heian fashion, a useful article on kimono history informs us, “Some
two hundred rules were established which governed things like the combina-
tion of colors ... and how the colors of the outside and the lining should be
harmonized. This resulted in certain colors being associated with November
to February which were called ume-gasane or ‘shades of the plum blossom.’
Such kimonos were white on the outside and red on the inside. For March
and April there was a combination called ‘shades of wisteria,’ a kimono with
lavender outside and a blue lining. Winter and Spring had their own set with
an outer garment of yellow and orange. The colors were set to mirror the sea-
sons and their moods, showing just how closely the Japanese were attuned to
the world of nature around them” (“Kimono History: The Heian Era”).
Dezaki’s anime respects these traditional rules throughout, to the point
that any viewer acquainted with the basic chromatic conventions of the period
would be in a position to guess in which season a particular scene is meant
to take place by just looking at the colors of the female characters’ costumes
and without dwelling on the setting itself. Furthermore, the juunihitoe had
an important part to play in the handling of gender relations in the Heian
era: “Since a lady was not allowed to speak face-to-face to a male outsider,
she could hold her sleeve up or use her opened fan to shield herself from
inquiring looks. Communication to a suitor had to follow with her normally
hiding behind the sudare (screen or blinds) in any case. The suitor could only
see the sleeves of her juunihitoe that were peeking underneath the blinds”
(“Juunihitoe”). One imagines that dressing and undressing must have consti-
tuted quite laborious tasks. The gracefully artless and fluid motion with which
women’s clothes tend to be shed in the context of Genji’s trysts in the anime
would seem to be something of a dramatic license on Dezaki’s part. It should
also be noted, however, that the director handles the act of dressing more
realistically than its opposite — as evinced by the shots in which Roku no
Kimi robes herself again at the end of a night of passion.
According to Wang, the profound significance held by colors in the Heian
era is fully demonstrated by The Tale of Genji’s use of various hues as symbolic
markers of the hero’s lovers: “Genji’s affection for his women is multi-color
love.... His colors of love are individualized as green love for Fujitsubo, (ide-
alistic, romantic impulsive symbolized by peacock, rain and tree), black love
for Yuugao, (creative, mystic, transcendental symbolized by owl, night, dream
and death) ... brown love for Murasaki, (heterogeneous, aggressive, passionate
and paternal symbolized by horse, pyramid and mountain).” Furthermore,
diverse hues are consistently associated with flowers that “stand as metaphors
signifying different colors of love and erotic transformations.” Genji also links
his particular colors of love with flowers by ideating for each of the ladies “a
floral name based on his artistic tastes.” Thus, the color of love associated
with Murasaki, brown, is identified by Genji with “red lotus,” while her name
designates “his most favorite flower” (Wang, p. 47). One witnesses an almost
constant rhetorical movement from Genji’s women to colors, from colors to
flowers, from flowers to names, and from the names back to the women them-
selves in a pattern as cyclical as the rhythms governing the Heian era’s Buddhist
cosmos. In the original narrative, flowers also operate as a symbolic means of
fostering harmony and concord among potentially adversarial figures.
This is borne out by the portion of the story in which Genji moves to a
large estate, the Rokujou mansion: a magnificent palace where he can com-
fortably accommodate various ladies who have acquired special positions in
his life and indeed bring together disparate strands of his experiences up to
that point. These include Murasaki, Lady Rokujou’s daughter Akikonomu,
Genji’s daughter by the Akashi Lady (a character not included in Dezaki’s
anime) and Tamakazura, Yuugao and Tou no Chuujou’s daughter. An exem-
plary symbol of floral cordiality is provided by the scenes wherein Murasaki
and Akikonomu exchange poems in their respective gardens, the spring garden
and the autumn garden. The anime underscores the emblematic association
of diverse female characters with flowers in its own fashion and chiefly through
the presentation, in smooth succession, of frames of a female character and

of the flower connected with her. Thus, the early flashback to Kiritsubo,
emphasizing that her beauty was so proverbial that she was often compared
to moonlight, intercuts images of Genji’s mother and shots of candid
moonflowers (a.k.a. morning glories). Analogously juxtaposed are the frames
depicting Yuugao and the evening glory after which she is named, and Fujit-
subo and the luxurious wisteria surrounding the pavilion to which she owes
her own designation. (Aoi, though this point is not explicitly made in the
anime, is named after the heartvine.)
While hues are undoubtedly accorded a privileged role in Heian culture,
likewise vital is the part played by scents. As Brian Moeran maintains, the
Heian era regarded the sense of smell as “a cultural pursuit” invested with
“spiritual and aesthetic qualities.” Insofar as “the kind of incense a nobleman
or woman created” was generally held to mirror or even accentuate his or her
intrinsic personality, “olfaction was also a moral construction of reality.... In
general, Japanese believe that fragrance calms the spirit (which makes sense,
given that it is also used to communicate with and soothe the ancestral spirits)”
(Moeran, p. 4). The sense of smell has been conventionally relegated to the
lowliest rank in the sensorium because it is held to be more intimately asso-
ciated with the body’s materiality than any of the other senses. In the West,
in particular, the enduring legacy of ocularcentrism has served to perpetuate
this trend. Heian attitudes to olfaction demonstrate that this sense may in
fact rise to the status of an aesthetically sophisticated and culturally esteemed
expressive vehicle. Women’s garments were punctiliously imbued with delicate
incense blends meant to communicate the wearer’s individuality through her
metonymic connection with a specific fragrance. Hence, while a female mem-
ber of the aristocracy and royal retinue would not, as a rule, exhibit her face
in public, she could assert her distinctive presence by means of the olfactory
trail that followed her — a somewhat inevitable corollary of the custom
whereby the same robes were often donned and even slept in for protracted
periods of time. Dezaki’s anime eagerly throws into relief the importance of
smell in Genji’s world by recourse to recurrent visual tropes. The most intrigu-
ing of these consists of frames in which the pattern on a woman’s robe appears
to detach itself from the fabric and to drift through space as a swarm of but-
terflies or a flowery cloud, suggestive of the particular scent exuding from the
wearer’s body in the form of inebriating plumes of multicolored mist. Another
frequent image operating as a punctuating refrain throughout the series is the
image of the incense burner — an item of interior design invested with great
significance in the sparsely furnished rooms typical of traditional Japanese
architecture. Although the image itself is insistently reiterated, repetition
always entails an element of difference, and each of the frames devoted to the
object dwells on a subtly individualized vessel. The uniqueness of the scent

associated with each of Genji’s lovers — and, by implication, of each of the
women themselves — is succinctly encapsulated by the images of the censers
located in their respective apartments. Impalpable aromas are thereby embod-
ied as tangible icons.
In an article evocatively titled “A Wisp of Smoke. Scent and Character
in The Tale of Genji,” Aileen Gatten comments on the enduring importance
of olfaction in Japanese culture with reference to the practice of the “incense
ceremony,” or Genji kou : a ritualized parlor game combining “the match-
ing of rare sensations” with “easy sociability.” This practice harks back to
Heian culture, with its enthroning of the art of smell as an axial component
of aristocratic etiquette requiring no less schooling and competence than cal-
ligraphic, poetic and musical pursuits. The critic underscores the imbrication
of olfactory experience with gender politics in unequivocal terms, arguing
that given Heian society’s pronounced sexual segregation, “one of the few
means of forming an opinion of one’s companion was the scent emanating
from his or her quarters” (Gatten, p. 36). Dezaki’s smell-centered shots capture
this atmosphere with unsurpassed visual dexterity, deploying the synesthetic
powers of the animated image to evoke sensations normally unattainable by
the eye alone. Just as the colors used in the assemblage of the juunihitoe match
the symbolic connotations of different seasons, so the Heian codification of
the language of olfaction relies on six fundamental fragrances, each of which
is equated to a different season. “Plum Blossom is linked with spring, Lotus
Leaf with summer, Chamberlain with the autumn wind, and Black with deep-
est winter” (p. 37). As Liza Dalby explains, the participants in an incense cer-
emony express their evaluations of particular fragrances by means of a “scoring
system” using “a set of symbols coded to 52 of the 54 chapters of The Tale of
Genji.” Thus, a potent cultural connection can again be seen to obtain between
Lady Murasaki’s eleventh-century milieu and the incense ceremony, even
though this practice actually originated in a ludic ritual formalized “in the
fourteenth century.” The symbols used to describe the olfactory experience
are now well-established “design motifs” with autonomous ornamental value
and consist of “combinations of five vertical bars joined at the top by horizontal
bars in different combinations” (Dalby).
The foregoing analysis will hopefully have made it quite clear that both
Lady Murasaki’s novel and Dezaki’s adaptation of it accord axial significance
to gender relations in all three forms these could assume in Heian culture:
i.e., marriage as primary wife, marriage as concubine and casual affair. The
Tale of Genji’s historical situation in the Heian era provides the basis for this
thematic emphasis insofar as its women, as long as they belonged to the upper
echelons, held a central position in the cultural sphere even though they were
still routinely excluded from political affairs. Stanley-Baker, as noted earlier

in this chapter, posits the Heian era’s cultivation of a distinctively feminine
aesthetic as an almost unprecedented phenomenon. Tyler argues that what is
most remarkable about the treatment of gender relations in The Tale of Genji
is that even though Genji’s world is a male-dominated society in which a
woman’s “main concern, and that of her entire household, was that she should
escape the gaze of any unrelated male,” it is nonetheless the case that “gender
relations in The Tale of Genji ... are humane in tone. There is no trace of
physical violence against women, nor is there any unreasonable insistence on
purity, virginity, and so on. Men expect women to overlook many things, but
they may also do their best to reciprocate” (Tyler 2002).
Several factors militated in favor of women’s cultural ascendancy. Espe-
cially important among them, given Lady Murasaki’s particular vocation, was
the introduction of a specifically Japanese script that enabled women to engage
in literary composition despite their exclusion from the scholarly realm of
Chinese letters — the sole available medium up to that point in history.
According to Shirane, prose writing employing the indigenous script and the
vernacular was not taken seriously at first, largely due to its uncertain status
at both the thematic and the formal levels, resulting in “a hybrid form that
seemed to be reinvented at every stage in its development” and related assump-
tion that it was just “a frivolous pastime” for “women and children who could
not read Chinese” (Shirane 1987, p. xvi). Nevertheless, the form — broadly
termed monogatari — did hold the undeniable advantage of supplying
female writers with a way into the practice of literature. Moreover, when Lady
Murasaki’s narrative was finally recognized as a work of great richness and
sophistication, it was not held in esteem simply as a story but also, more sig-
nificantly, as an eminent “sourcebook for poets” and “a guide to poetic diction”
(pp. xvi-xvii), which contributed vitally to the consolidation of the author’s
standing despite her traditionally marginalized gender. Hence, the emanci-
patory potentialities of linguistic reform must not be ignored for they played
a key part in the redefinition of women’s lives in the Heian era. Okada further
reinforces the connection between femininity and the monogatari tradition,
arguing that with the advent of a distinctively Japanese script, “women eagerly
and skillfully occupied the subject positions of writing in a linguistic medium
named after them. Known by the term ‘feminine hand’ (onna-de), which sig-
nified hiragana writing, their discourse employed one of the two types of
phonetic syllabary developed to transcribe the sounds of the native language.
The term contrasted with ‘masculine hand’ (otoko-de), which signified Chinese
writing practised in Japan” (Okada, p. 160). It is also crucial to note that “in
addition to their own discursive mode,” aristocratic ladies in Lady Murasaki’s
age also owned “their own discursive space” in the guise of the “salon”: a place
in which women could gather, within a thoroughly “organized” system,

“around an imperial princess, empress, or other high-ranking woman” to write
and engage in critical debates (p. 162).
However, we must not forget, as Morris points out, that “despite the rel-
atively favorable social and economic situation of Heian women, the condi-
tions of polygamy made their actual position precarious” (Morris, p. 241).
Although a woman was entitled to the inheritance and retention of property,
she could not hope to manage it in the absence of male assistance, and this
rendered her highly dependent on the imperative to obtain and maintain a
man’s protective love regardless of how many other women might also feature
in his life. According to Tyler, it is also worth observing that “in The Tale of
Genji the simple existence of another wife or quasi-wife may not alarm a lady
too seriously. What matters more is the other woman’s intrinsic rank.... A
formal wife seems to have been prepared to accept the existence of other wives
or quasi-wives as long as none threatened her own standing with her husband”
(Tyler 2002). These ideas are profoundly relevant to both Lady Murasaki’s
novel and Dezaki’s series insofar as the familial power struggles of which
Genji’s mother is a helpless victim form the story’s main premise and indirectly
pave the way to many subsequent developments in the protagonist’s own life.
The most eloquent plea for the sanctity of true love in contrast with socially
sanctioned bonds is voiced by Genji’s elder half-brother Suzaku shortly after
his ascent to the throne. Although the hero’s half-brother is obviously not
blessed with the charisma proverbially associated with the sparkling Genji,
he is consistently depicted by Dezaki as magnanimous and sensitive. This is
most memorably evinced by his clement treatment of Genji when Kikoden
craftily masterminds his downfall. Suzaku is even willing to condone his wife
Roku no Kimi’s amorous involvement with Genji in the belief that fond as
he is of the lady, he has no right to legislate where her heart lies.
Lady Murasaki’s work, in this perspective, does not constitute simply
one instance of Heian female writing among many. Its take on both established
forms and genres (the monogatari, the courtly romance, the bildungsroman)
and myriad sociohistorical facets of her epoch in fact indicates that The Tale
of Genji represents a radical intervention in the field. As Bowring argues, in
Lady Murasaki’s milieu, it was common for female texts to bear the marks of
sexual discrimination. Unlike their male counterparts, they tended to contain
“few dates, few names, no references to political realities,” as though their
authors were trying to “cut away that part of the world” in which women
could not hold any authority. Lady Murasaki, by contrast, engages adventur-
ously with “history and politics,” thus standing out as the first female author
in her culture capable of breaking free from “the autobiographical straitjacket
that her contemporaries had so successfully created for themselves” (Bowring,
p. 17). What is most impressive about both Lady Murasaki’s attitude to her
hero’s exploits and Dezaki’s adaptive take on the ancient narrative is their
shared ability to draw the modern reader or viewer into the psychological
dimension of gender politics, allowing us to experience it intimately and affec-
tively rather than merely as a social reality or historical phenomenon. This
strategy is instrumental in dispelling the prejudicial reservations of audiences
inclined to doubt the ancient text’s current relevance and accessibility. The
representation of jealousy as the direst of human afflictions is a prime example
of Lady Murasaki’s psychological acuity. The anime itself resonantly validates
this contention in the dramatization of Genji’s tortuous relationship with
Lady Rokujou and of its wide-ranging repercussions not only on the protag-
onist’s personal existence but also on the destinies of other women he loves.
Dezaki articulates his personal vision of gender relations in the Heian period
by focusing on a relatively small selection, over its eleven installments, of the
women loved by Genji in the corresponding portion of Lady Murasaki’s novel
(i.e., as noted, chapters 1–12). This strategy enables the director to concentrate
closely on the influence exerted by those ladies on the shaping and evolution
of the hero’s identity without diluting its significance through the incorpora-
tion of digressive episodes — something in which the original author was, by
contrast, free to indulge due to the massively greater breadth of her own work.
Tyler maintains that while it is important to acknowledge that Genji is central
to the story, this recognition ought not to induce us to overlook “the experi-
ence and importance of the women whose absorbingly difficult relationships
with him give the work its most accessible appeal,” for “Genji and the tale’s
female characters of course stand in a reciprocal relationship to each other,
as do living men and women” (Tyler 2009, pp. 7–8).
At the same time, in examining the subtle balance of power in which
the Shining Prince and his lovers operate, it is crucial to appreciate both the
magnitude of the hero’s striving and the overall integrity evinced by his treat-
ment of women. According to Donald Evans, Genji “predates Tristan. The
modern era is filled with such stories of reckless, hopeless romance. Impor-
tantly, Genji is not a cad. Unlike Don Juan, his interest is never in the con-
quest. Unlike Don Giovanni, who humiliates Donna Elvira for belaboring
their affair, Genji never forgets any woman he has loved” (in The Tale of Genji
Study Guide, p. 156). Relatedly, Genji does not function simply as a narrative
device deployed to string together a chain of erotic exploits, since the parts
he plays in relation to his numerous lovers vary significantly from case to case,
and several of his entanglements carry a significance that evidently transcends
romantic boundaries. The most blatant instance is the hero’s liaison with
Fujitsubo: a dramatic complication that cannot be dismissed purely as an
instance of amorous extravagance due to its far-reaching social implications:
“The major issue,” Tyler contends, “is not outrageous behavior by a son toward
his father, although this is bad enough. Rather, it is the implied possibility
of a break in the legitimate imperial line” (Tyler, “Genji Monogatari and The
Tale of Genji”).
Dezaki’s reconfiguration of his source delivers a number of structural
alterations based on the adoption of telescoping, capsulation and synthetic
collage. It is hence worth considering in some detail the anime’s approach to
Lady Murasaki’s text at the principally organizational level. (Please note that
even when plot details are outlined, there is no danger of incurring in spoilers
in this instance, since the series does not depend on the withholding of out-
comes for dramatic effect but frankly anticipates the likely consequences of
its characters’ actions from the outset.) As intimated earlier in this discussion,
Lady Murasaki begins her narrative ab ovo in keeping with Heian literary
tastes, describing Kiritsubo’s relationship with the Emperor and victimization
by jealous courtiers, Genji’s birth and his mother’s premature demise, Fujit-
subo’s introduction into the imperial household as a concubine and the pro-
tagonist’s development up to his Coming of Age and betrothal to Aoi. The
structure to which Lady Murasaki adheres in the opening segment of the saga
is fundamentally linear and chronological — although, it must be stressed, this
approach is by no stretch of the imagination dominant in The Tale of Genji
as a whole, where conventional syntagmatic ordering is in fact repeatedly
shunned in favor of crosstemporal leaps. In Dezaki’s anime, conversely, the
opening installment moves back and forth in time between Genji’s childhood
and the present. This format demonstrates the director’s preference for a mul-
titemporal approach to storytelling, while offering him scope for reflection
on the enduring impact of the past and its emotive legacy upon the entire
course of the hero’s life. Genji’s mother features only in the context of flash-
backs and is said to have perished shortly after the child’s birth. Like Lady
Murasaki, Dezaki allows some time to elapse between Genji’s delivery and
Kiritsubo’s departure — supposedly, because Heian Japan believed that dying
at childbirth was a heinous sin.
Again in keeping with Heian preferences in literary matters, Lady
Murasaki then devotes a substantial section to the so-called conversation-on-
a-rainy-night set piece, a subset of the “judgment” (sadame) formula, wherein
Genji and his male associates discuss the characteristics of various stereotypes
of femininity. This segment of the novel is followed by the narrative’s first
direct engagement with Genji’s amorous habits as it portrays the hero’s insis-
tent — and vain — pursuit of the character ot Utsusemi (“Lady of the Locust
Shell”). The anime adaptation skips these occurrences. However, its opening
episode is sufficient to give the audience a clear sense of Genji’s “diverse and
magnificent” erotic palate — as the character of Tou no Chuujou ironically
describes it. Thus far, the only woman accorded unequivocal prominence by
the series is Fujitsubo. Aoi is also ushered into the action but solely to indicate
the coldness pervading her relationship with Genji and with no hint at her
future importance in the story. Lady Rokujou, the next lady to whom Dezaki
draws dramatic attention by means of practically a whole installment, is almost
casually introduced by the source text with the information that the protag-
onist has been seeing her for some time, just before launching into a compre-
hensive elaboration of Genji’s doomed relationship with Yuugao. When,
having devoted ample space to Lady Rokujou, Dezaki turns to Yuugao, the
anime’s handling of the events centered on this young female closely mirrors
their treatment by Lady Murasaki. Yuugao’s sudden death as a result of an
evil spirit’s intervention (putatively at the behest of a jealous rival) and Genji’s
resulting depression are according chronicled in detail. Like the source text,
the show is eager to emphasize the fascination with vulnerability and inno-
cence as a major trait of Genji’s personality. (Both Lady Murasaki’s narrative
and the anime make it also possible to extrapolate, at this juncture, the ages
of various key personae — it is therefore safe to assume that Genji is now sev-
enteen while Yuugao is nineteen, which makes Lady Rokujou twenty-five,
Fujitsubo twenty-two and Aoi twenty-one.)
In both the original story and the series, Genji meets another female
destined to play a pivotal role in his overall life trajectory just as he begins to
recover from his long illness: Murasaki. A child around ten years of age, Mura-
saki is immediately revealed by Lady Murasaki’s narrative to be the daughter
of Fujitsubo’s elder brother, Prince Hyoubu, which makes it incontrovertibly
obvious why the kid should remind Genji of Fujitsubo. The novel also tells
us that Genji wishes to adopt the child but is not allowed to do so by protective
agents who automatically suspect that he wishes to exploit her sexually. Genji
is finally in a position to take charge of Murasaki upon the death of her grand-
mother, who has been looking after the girl in the aftermath of her expulsion
from the paternal home due to the interference of an evil stepmother (a pop-
ular topos in Heian romantic prose). A final obstacle arises when Prince
Hyoubu resolves to take Murasaki back after all but Genji draconianly over-
comes it by simply abducting her. In the anime, we do not meet Murasaki
again, following her initial encounter with the protagonist, until a fairly
advanced stage in the drama, by which time she is already established in
Genji’s household. It is even later in the show that the reason for Murasaki’s
stunning resemblance to Fujitsubo is disclosed.
The two characters are also connected by their names, Fujitsubo meaning
“Lady of the Wisteria Pavilion” and Murasaki “lavender” or “purple”— i.e., a
color deemed highly fashionable in Heian society, produced by grinding grom-
well roots. It is also worth stressing, in this regard, that in the eminently
color-oriented aesthetic sensibility of the Heian age, purple played an espe-

cially important role. It covered an impressive variety of hues which ranged,
as Norma Field elucidates, “from the palest of lavenders or pinks to the deepest
red, almost black, blues” (Field, p. 161) and strict rules dictated that “only the
highest-ranking of the aristocracy could wear purple, the dark hues being
restricted to princes of the blood of the fourth order or above and officials of
the second and third ranks. It also connoted imperial rule, Buddhist law, and
even the Taoist paradise” (p. 162). An occurrence of momentous consequence
in Genji’s character development, Murasaki’s introduction into the story is
handled by Dezaki with fidelity to the source text. In the anime, as in the
parent narrative, the girl enters the action with an emotive vocal eruption
triggered by her playmate Inuki’s malicious release of her pet sparrow from
its makeshift home in the incense basket. Genji’s gaze is instantly captivated
by the sight of a child that bears an uncanny resemblance to his beloved. As
Field observes, the connection between Murasaki and Fujitsubo perceived by
Genji upon this accidental sighting is so potent as to cause something of a
magical “transubstantiation (of niece into aunt, of copy into original, or
metonymy into metaphor)” (p. 160). Bloom proffers an analogous hypothesis
in arguing that “Lady Murasaki, more than nine hundred years before Freud,
understood that all erotic transferences were substitute-formations for earlier
attachments” (Bloom, p. 5).
Murasaki clearly stands, to a significant degree, as a replica of Fujitsubo
in Genji’s love life in much the same way as Fujitsubo herself stands as a
replica of Kiritsubo in the Emperor’s love life. It would be erroneous to
assume, however, that the two women’s shared role as duplicates — or adap-
tations — makes them in any way inferior to either the models they are sup-
posed to repeat or other members of the hero’s metaphorical harem. In fact,
they carry substantial weight as principal and autonomous dramatis personae
in both the novel and the anime. As argued earlier, Lady Murasaki questions
the conventional subordination of fiction to historiography, based on a doxastic
trust in the de facto reliability of official records, with a unique alloy of irony
and grace. In enthroning two characters of replicative standing as key dramatic
agents, she advances a cognate philosophy insofar as this ploy enables her to
debunk the presumed superiority of the original over its adaptation, and thus
implicitly provide validation for the independent import of subsequent adap-
tive works taking The Tale of Genji as their launchpad — of which Dezaki’s
series is a resplendent contemporary instance. In this respect, Murasaki and
Fujitsubo could be regarded as incarnations en abyme of the very notion of
adaptation as a textual formation that does not occupy a secondary, parasitical
position vis-à-vis its source but actually holds individual signifying value.
The original author suggests that the nature of Genji’s attraction to Murasaki,
shaped as it is by the bizarre logic of displaced yearning, is sexual from the

start, although she also shows that the protagonist has the decency to wait
until she turns fourteen before taking her as his bride and consummating the
bond. The anime subtly redefines the original perspective. Murasaki, as the
dispossessed princess of classic fairy tale, sees Genji as something of a Prince
Charming or Knight in Shining Armor, while to Genji, she epitomizes the
childhood innocence he has never known. It is not until the final portion of
the anime that the erotic dimension of Genji and Murasaki’s connection
becomes manifest and even then, its onscreen rendition remains fundamentally
Platonic. Significantly, the relationship between Genji and Murasaki grows
increasingly intimate in inverse proportion to the hero’s ever-decreasing
involvement in public affairs caused by his steep fall from grace toward the
end of the series.
Both the novel and the show devote their next crucial moments to the
dramatization of the events leading to the conception and birth of Genji and
Fujitsubo’s child, with the differences outlined earlier. The novel does not
univocally follow the revamping of Genji and Fujitsubo’s impossible relation-
ship: in fact, it takes time to meander on the outskirts of the sprawling empire
of its hero’s erotic pursuits by chronicling Genji’s abortive affair with the
pathetic Suetsumuhana (“Sunflower” or “Safflower”). The anime, by contrast,
only shifts its focus from that crucial relationship to develop another bond
bound to grow in importance as the story progresses. It accordingly devotes
a brief, yet very poignant, sequence to Genji and Aoi’s achievement of unpre-
cedented intimacy, as a result of which yet another child fathered by the pro-
tagonist will soon come into the world. The show then exhibits one of its
most proficient feats of adaptive editing as Dezaki integrates the occurrences
portrayed in two of the novel’s key chapters (7 and 8) into a single and
vibrantly paced episode. These are the segments devoted by Lady Murasaki
to the Festival of the Red Leaves, where the Emperor proclaims Fujitsubo
Empress and announces that her newborn child will become crown prince
once Kokiden’s son has ascended the throne, and the Festival of the Cherry
Blossoms, where Genji’s lust paves the way to his debacle as he seduces Koki-
den’s sister Oborozukiyo (“Misty Moon of Spring”). In the anime, the key
event is the Festival of the Cherry Blossoms and is said to be held to celebrate
the birth of the Emperor’s (in fact, Genji’s) son. On this occasion, the pro-
tagonist gives a magnificent display of his excellence of both body and mind
by performing the traditional dance known as “Waves of the Blue Sea.” At
the end of the night, inebriated by drink and the spell of the misty moon,
Genji embarks on a dangerous liaison with Kokiden’s sister, here referred to
as Roku no Kimi, the “Sixth Princess,” with no inkling of her status. (Please
note that in the original, Oborozukiyo and Roku no Kimi are two separate
characters.) Whereas in the parent narrative Kokiden has been known to the
reader from the start, in the series, the formidable lady does not make an
overt appearance until this stage in the action, at which point we are also
informed that Roku no Kimi is betrothed to the Heir Apparent. The reasons
for the unique dangerousness of Genji’s affair with Roku no Kimi thus gain
urgency, in the anime, through their sudden and roller-coaster exposure. In
the source text, by contrast, they come as a logical consequence of factors we
are already familiar with.
In Lady Murasaki’s text, the events that ensue travel fluidly between the
political and the personal in the space of four more chapters (9–12). These
chronicle Genji’s father’s abdication and half-brother Suzaku’s ascent to the
throne, Lady Rokujou’s grudge against Aoi, resulting from a tragic incident
held to have insulted the older woman’s standing and conducive to yet another
lethal curse, and Aoi’s death shortly after her son’s delivery. (A decorous time
gap is again inserted between birth and death for the aforementioned reason.)
It is at this point that Genji abruptly turns to Murasaki with the intention of
becoming a good husband and hence, ideally, a better man altogether. Shortly
after Aoi’s demise, the only two key women left in Genji’s life also recede
from the scene, as Lady Rokujou relocates to Ise, where her daughter is due
to take the post of priestess, while Fujitsubo takes the vows as a Buddhist nun
and enters a life of stark self-denial. As Shirane observes, whereas “the social
romance could be regarded as a movement in which an alienated or lost indi-
vidual is reintegrated in society, the spiritual quest moves in the opposite
direction” (Shirane 1987, p. 185). Lady Murasaki is keen to emphasize that
Genji cannot reinvent himself from one day to the next by depicting his rekin-
dling of the nefarious affair with Oborozukiyo and, as a result of his being
caught in the act by her father the Minister of the Right, his persecution by
Kokiden who is hell-bent on the Shining Prince’s disgrace having resented his
very existence from the moment he left Kiritsubo’s womb. It is as a direct out-
come of his ruthless demonization by Suzaku’s mother that Genji, now aged
twenty-six, resolves to sail to the rustic and wind-swept region of Suma with
just a handful of loyal attendants. This aspect of the original yarn reflects a
well-documented historical reality since, as Bowring emphasizes, the “dom-
inant political fact” in Heian society “was that the Emperor, at the spiritual
and psychological centre, was politically impotent and under the influence of
whichever aristocratic family happened to be in a position to take decisions”
(Bowring, p. 1). The anime script throws this idea into relief through Tou no
Chuujou, who comments that while Genji’s father was on the throne, the
Minister of the Left (i.e., Tou no Chuujou’s own father) held an influential
position, yet never presumed to steer governmental policies to personal advan-
tage, whereas Suzaku’s ascension has signaled the advent of the Minister of
the Right (i.e., Kokiden and Roku no Kimi’s father) as a major force and this
nobleman’s aggressive tactics result in his faction’s unscrupulous interference
with imperial governance.
Women’s paradoxical position as simultaneously active and passive pres-
ences in the Heian political system is paradigmatically communicated by Fuji-
tsubo’s part in both the source text and the anime. This character is accorded
a far more prominent role in the anime than it is in the original saga. The
greater temporal breadth of Lady Murasaki’s text enables it to trace the char-
acter’s significance over a more protracted trajectory, culminating with Fujit-
subo’s emplacement as an influential agent in her son’s court and the recipient
of all the privileges of a retired ruler. Yet, her overall presence is understated
and situated in the margins of visibility rather than at its focal point, and
thus posited as stationary rather than explicitly active, as if to intimate that
the clandestine nature of her bond with the hero makes it imperative to shield
her privacy. Making the most of the emphatically visual and dynamic qualities
of his medium, Dezaki chooses to enthrone Fujitsubo as a dramatic fulcrum
from beginning to end. Importantly, the last dialogical sequence presented by
the anime pivots on this character and her active voice as she professes undying
love for Genji. The very final shot is devoted to the hero himself but divests
him of language, featuring instead an allusively brief voiceover spoken by the
narrator. In positing Fujitsubo as a pivotal presence, Dezaki foregrounds the
source text’s preoccupation with what Field describes as the dichotomy of
“sacred and profane” (Field, p. 22). As intimated, the imperial system is pred-
icated on the myth of the supreme ruler as the incarnation of the sacred. Nev-
ertheless, this supposedly superior reality cannot totally divorce itself from
the realm of the secular and the mundane since “The issue of succession,
implicated in the political machinations revolving around women (i.e., poten-
tial mothers) forever betrays the presence of the profane at the heart of divine
rule” (p. 23). Dezaki’s presentation of the affair involving Genji and Fujitsubo
as an axial component lends special weight to these issues. It indeed stresses
that the sacred and the profane are inextricably intertwined by not only high-
lighting the infiltration of the former by the latter as a result of a woman’s
instrumentality in the politics of succession but also polluting the transcen-
dental purity of imperial authority through adultery and metaphorical incest.
Although critics are divided over the issue of whether or not Genji and Fujit-
subo’s relationship should be considered incestuous, the anime screenplay
explicitly refers to Fujitsubo as Genji’s “older sister and mother.”
Dezaki’s show follows quite faithfully the events presented by Lady
Murasaki as the trigger of Genji’s downfall, yet with the infusion of editing
and cinematic maneuvers that enable the director to impart his anime with
a distinctive flavor of its own. Particularly remarkable, in this regard, is
Dezaki’s knack of varying the action’s tempo. Thus, while the episode intro-
ducing Roku no Kimi is by and large deliberately paced, the segment that
follows exhibits a rapid accumulation of dexterously intercut occurrences.
Like the original text, Dezaki’s anime alternates between the public and the
private. In the political sphere, we see the Emperor abdicate and Genji’s
guardianship of his little boy conclusively ratified. In the personal domain,
Aoi’s pregnancy is announced, while Lady Rokujou’s mounting frustration
with Genji’s protracted absence from her residence is concurrently exposed.
The two dimensions intersect when the new Emperor, who admires Genji
deeply even though he is well aware of his own inferiority in the face of the
Shining Prince’s polyhedric talents, appoints the hero as Imperial Messenger
for the Summer Festival and this celebration, in turn, marks the genesis of
Lady Rokujou’s grudge against Aoi. In the course of the splendid procession
where everybody hopes to catch a glimpse of the charismatic Imperial Mes-
senger, a quarrel erupts between the bearers of Aoi’s and Lady Rokujou’s car-
riages, culminating with the ungallant remark that the “mistress” must give
way to the “wife,” and the older woman’s vehicle is overturned, thus inflicting
on its occupant an unpardonable insult. As Lady Rokujou’s resentment grows,
the malign spirit that seems to function as her doppelganger throughout the
series gains control of her psyche and engineers Aoi’s possession, long illness
and eventual death shortly after the delivery of her and Genji’s baby boy Yuu-
giri. Dezaki’s depiction of Lady Rokujou at this critical juncture in the series
finds a perfect match in Field’s vivid portrayal of Genji’s arguably most com-
plicated lover. The critic emphasizes Lady Rokujou’s “distinguished” standing
as a “possessing spirit” within a “tradition rich in ghosts” and views “this man-
ifestation of her character” as a wellhead of “abiding interest, even now when
the darkness of Heian estates, so conducive to the play of spirits, has given
way to well-lit rooms” (p. 45). Most importantly, as far as the anime’s diegesis
is concerned, it is what Field terms the character’s “bifurcated self ” that enables
Lady Murasaki to realize “a concentration of being unreplicated by other hero-
ines” (p. 61). The character’s knack of branching off into discordant person-
alities that may coexist harmoniously one moment and clash catastrophically
the next supplies Dezaki with an invaluable pivot through which the protag-
onist’s ordeal can be smoothly imparted with psychological and dynamic
coherence.
Once it has become incontrovertibly obvious that Genji’s fall from grace
is inevitable due to his illicit liaison with Roku no Kimi, the anime’s pace
slows down to a considerable degree. This is achieved principally through the
displacement of action as a cinematographical priority in favor of meditative
and dialogical scenes. Those devoted to Genji’s final farewells to Lady Rokujou
and Fujitsubo, specifically, could be said to emblematize the very essence of
mono no aware, suggesting that Genji has reached a stage in his life whence
no turning back is possible. Once again, the show moves smoothly between
personal and collective preoccupations, with poignant moments of emotional
intimacy centered on Genji and Murasaki at one end of the spectrum, and
tense exchanges between rival political forces (i.e., the supporters of the Min-
ister of the Left and the Minister of the Right) at the other. Despite its overall
preference for dialogical drama, the final part of Dezaki’s series is not in any
way stagnant. In fact, the few action sequences it does contain are endowed
with scintillating dynamism. The fight in which Genji and Tou no Chuujou
vanquish quite effortlessly a gang of thugs keen to seize the hero to ingratiate
themselves with the authorities is especially notable as an instance of kinetic
ebullience. In the episodes leading to Genji’s departure for the desolate shores
of Suma following his spiritual marriage to Murasaki in the blissful light of
the full moon, the most memorable sequences are arguably the ones revolving
around Genji and Suzaku. Although the new Emperor has no choice but to
demote his half-brother, he is only too eager to be as lenient as possible toward
him and goes on respecting Genji as a man of unequaled worth despite his
apparent flaws. For Suzaku, Genji could never cease to be the Shining Prince.
A paradigmatic illustration of this aspect of the adaptation is the scene — also
flooded by moonlight — in which Suzaku, modestly conceding that his terp-
sichorean skills are paltry, asks Genji to perform with him in private the afore-
cited “Waves of the Blue Sea.” As the Emperor and the disgraced retainer
harmonize their bodies to the dance, the entire hierarchical structure at the
core of the Heian system appears to collapse as though it were no more sub-
stantial than a decrepit paper screen.
An intriguing structural aspect of the anime, which closely mirrors the
source text’s orchestration and simultaneously marks its eschewal of formats
more typical of Western prose and drama, lies with Dezaki’s handling of nar-
rative progression. This does not pivot on intimate interplay within a cast of
fixed personae but rather on the juxtaposition of relatively discreet strands.
Lady Murasaki, argues Shirane, likewise “conceived of the monogatari as a
changeable entity built on the autonomy of each part” (Shirane 1987, p. 155).
The foregoing analysis will hopefully have succeeded in showing that the
series posits five female characters and the emotional travails associated with
them as axial to Genji’s bildungsroman: namely, Fujitsubo, Lady Rokujou,
Yuugao, Aoi and Murasaki. However, these threads are not systematically
inter woven. In fact, the key ladies are not seen to interact dramatically with
one another as the action progresses. Lady Rokujou and Aoi do come into
contact at the time of the notorious carriage mishap but even though the acci-
dent leads to lethal consequences, the two characters do not meet face to face.
Similarly, an important connection is said to exist between Fujitsubo and
Murasaki but the two women never communicate or feature in the same scene.
Thus, Dezaki seems primarily interested in presenting his narrative blocks as
components of a horizontal arrangement open to multifarious ramifications,
not in subordinating them to a vertical hierarchy intended to culminate in
clear-cut resolutions. The director is, however, keen to highlight internal cor-
respondences between different characters as a means of braiding together
distinct portions of the story. An especially critical parallel can be seen to
obtain between Kiritsubo and Fujitsubo as favorite concubines. In addition,
Dezaki throws into relief Genji’s tendency to fall for women of inferior social
standing (e.g., Yuugao) and, in so doing, implicitly uncloaks the hero’s pro-
pensity to follow closely in his father’s footsteps when it comes to a dangerous
disregard for rank. These parallels could be seen as an ineluctable outcome
of Genji’s psychological shaping by his forebears’ actions, and specifically by
an immoderate passion deemed illicit by the Heian imperial system. Although
Genji’s tactics of constant deferral as he shifts from love to love and involve-
ment in the contingent sphere of politics help him keep the legacy of the past
at bay, his actions actually end up replicating submerged events dating back
to his conception and infancy, with his premature loss of a uniquely significant
female figure as the critical factor. While the Shining Prince might appear to
have adequately negotiated orphanhood and learnt to live with loneliness, the
reiteration of his primal trauma upon relinquishing Fujitsubo figuratively
reactivates the infantile shock with intensified vigor. It is in response to this
twin experience of severe emotional deprivation that Genji embarks on an
amorous career which, due to the ephemeral nature of each of its stages, seems
subliminally designed to repeat the drama of loss ad infinitum, feasibly in a
desperate effort to bind its negative affects and hence come to terms with its
inexorability. It is as if Lady Murasaki’s — and, by extension, Dezaki’s — hero
were striving to reconcile the life drive that fosters love above all else and the
death drive that declares love all but unthinkable, and thus transmute the
agony caused by the remembrance of traumatic experiences into a cathartic
journey of both the imagination and the senses.
The most dramatic correspondence established by Lady Murasaki’s nar-
rative is the fatalistically painful analogy between the climax of Genji’s emo-
tional life in his youth — the consummation of his love for Fujitsubo and
resulting conception of a son destined for the throne — and the events sur-
rounding the protagonist’s eventual downfall (chapters 34–41). These events
find inception with the Shining Prince’s marriage to the Third Princess,
Emperor Suzaku’s most treasured daughter, upon Suzaku’s retirement and
monastic renunciation of the world. When Genji leaves his mansion to visit
the ailing Murasaki, one more victim of spirit possession, the young Kashiwagi
(Tou no Chuujou’s son) entertains a clandestine liaison with the hero’s new
wife and makes her pregnant. Thus, Genji’s transgression against his father
is here replicated with tragic irony by Kashiwagi’s affair with the Third Prin-
cess. As in the previous case, the truly unpardonable crime does not lie so
much with the breach of marital fidelity as with the potential violation of the
political system implied by the act. Moreover, Genji’s own origins and early
stages of character formation eerily presage many of the subsequent events in
his life — and particularly the ones destined to lead to the gravest and most
irreversible repercussions for both the hero and his whole society. At the begin-
ning of the narrative, we are informed that the Minister of the Left has chosen
Genji as his daughter Aoi’s future husband in preference to the Heir Apparent
despite the younger brother’s uncertain standing. We also learn, as mentioned,
that Suzaku is the son of an especially ambitious and vindictive imperial
spouse, Kikoden, and that the latter detests Genji due to the Emperor’s fond-
ness for both the boy himself and his late mother Kiritsubo. When Suzaku
asks Genji to marry the Third Princess, he symbolically wreaks an unconscious
revenge on his half-brother by roping him into a catastrophic relationship.
Such a move should only, it must be emphasized, be regarded as unconscious,
for Suzaku seems genuinely attached to Genji despite the Shining Prince’s
superiority in all areas — an aspect of the source text to which the anime is
pointedly faithful — and to derive no pleasure from Genji’s debacle. The cor-
respondence here outlined demonstrates that despite its apparent structural
looseness, Lady Murasaki’s text is so scrupulously orchestrated that Genji’s
end is directly connected with his beginnings, and each narrative fragment
has a distinct and unique place within the text’s overall puzzle.
In choosing to end the series with Genji’s journey to Suma, and hence
an adaptation of events presented in the twelfth chapter of Lady Murasaki’s
work, Dezaki makes quite an imaginative choice. Indeed, it is so common for
editions of The Tale of Genji destined for both students and the general public
to encompass just the first nine chapters of the original saga that one could
easily have expected the director to follow suit. In stretching the drama’s span
to the hero’s exile, the anime gives itself a chance to reflect on crucial aspects
of Japanese thought directly informed by Buddhist ideals: namely, the value
of self-detachment from materialistic pursuits as the crux of a person’s spiritual
journey. This concept complements dialectically the aesthetic principle of
mono no aware. As Shirane maintains, while the latter entails “a sensitivity to
all, particularly love and nature, that gives rise to deep emotions,” self-detach-
ment “demands resolution, stoicism, selflessness.” Yet, this does not render
the two concepts adversarial, let alone incompatible: “instead of simply being
at odds with mono no aware, the drama of renunciation reveals once more the
emotional depth, the sensitivity, and the vulnerability of the individual” and
thus confirms The Tale of Genji’s overarching preoccupation with “the aes-
thetics of pathos, fragility, weakness, and uncertainty” (Shirane 1987, p. 201).

In extending his show’s purview to moments in the source text that signal the
saga’s descent into darkness, Dezaki is in a position to harness his medium to
the exploration of humanity’s murkier connotations instead of encouraging
the viewer to bask unreflectively in the Shining Prince’s ephemeral aura.
Furthermore, while the departure for Suma occurs in Lady Murasaki’s
twelfth chapter, the narrative of renunciation dramatized by Dezaki in his
closing installment also captures, albeit obliquely rather than through overt
onscreen adaptation, major preoccupations evinced by the original author at
several points in her text. The two key moments recording Genji’s contem-
plation of his spiritual fate — and the prospect of damnation to which a life
spent exclusively in the service of carnal delights is likely to have paved the
way — take place early in the episode. The first is the pre-credit sequence
chronicling a dream set in a bleak snow-swept landscape. This sequence harks
back to a previous oneiric passage capturing Fujitsubo’s delirious vision just
as she is about to give birth. This also staged in the context of a snow storm
and dramatizes Fujitsubo and Genji’s vain attempt to flee the reality of court
life and give their love free rein, when it is clearly already too late. In the sub-
sequent snowy sequence, Genji struggles through the blizzard, his heart already
pierced by two arrows and about to be penetrated by one more fatal bolt, and
chances upon Fujitsubo and Myoubu in their monastic garb. Genji tells the
holy women that he is beyond salvation and therefore deserves the severest of
punishments. When his beloved encouragingly advises him to pray to Amida
Buddha, the protagonist ripostes that he has no hope of redemption as long
as the mere thought of an unclothed body is sufficient to lead his senses astray.
Moreover, he is still powerless to suppress his “forbidden love” and would
welcome eternal damnation in exchange for just one chance to embrace his
beloved again. In fact, he would even be willing to accept rebirth as an
Asura — a demon possessed by extreme passions that thrives on carnage. The
second key sequence revolves around Genji’s visit to his late father’s funerary
monument, traditionally constructed out of a huge stone, just before leaving
for Suma. The former Emperor materializes before Genji in a truly classic
scene paying full homage to Japanese culture’s inveterate fascination with
ghostly matters. (Like any respectable indigenous specter, he has invisible
feet.) The supernatural entity makes it incontrovertibly clear, in this scene,
that Genji’s sole hope of salvation ultimately rests not with external absolution
but with the young man’s preparedness to forgive himself.
The strictest forms of Buddhism maintain that to interrupt the ceaseless
revolution of the wheel of karma, it is necessary to cut oneself off from desire
as the ultimate root of all human afflictions through intense discipline and,
by embracing the doctrine that the self is non-existent, eventually access the
enlightened state of nirvana beyond the rhythms of Eternal Recurrence.

Although, in principle, all human beings can aspire to nirvana, it is quite
clear that in classic Buddhism, only few special beings possess the intellectual
resources and perseverance needed to achieve that goal. However, as Bowring
points out, “The kind of Buddhism (Mahayana) that lies at the heart of the
Genji was more compassionate and was based on a shift from enlightenment
for the few to salvation for all; a shift from meditation to devotion” (Bowring,
p. 9). In this religious perspective, the karmic cycle is not seen as utterly
unbreakable by ordinary people and salvation is therefore attainable even by
those who have not undertaken rigorous training intended to lead to the
haven of illumination. Of the various characters populating Buddhist mythol-
ogy that are held to have achieved nirvana but to have chosen to abide among
common humans to assist their quest for salvation, the figure of Amida was
accorded a privileged place in Lady Murasaki’s days. Amida was said to have
“promised eventual salvation to all who simply trusted him and had faith,”
Bowring explains. “His paradise (known as the Pure Land) was not nirvana
itself but ... was certainly outside the karmic wheel and once gained there was
no backsliding. This quickly became the paradise to which all aspired ... and
when people talk of devotion in the Genji it is mainly with Amida in mind”
(p. 10).
Dezaki’s adaptation of the most salient events chronicled in the first
twelve chapters of his source text reveals a consistent commitment to the prin-
ciple of repetition, where Fujitsubo’s experiences echo Kiritsubo’s fate, Aoi’s
tragedy replicates Yuugao’s ordeal, and both Kokiden and Lady Rokujou,
driven by jealousy, reenact analogous crimes. Repetition on the structural
plane of the show emulates the rhythm of the rolling seasons on the basis of
which the action’s settings are defined. Concomitantly, it parallels the Buddhist
concept of Eternal Recurrence embedded in the original tale’s cultural context.
Dezaki’s introduction of the themes of sin, forgiveness, penance and redemp-
tion at the close of his series enables him to foreshadow events chronicled by
Lady Murasaki’s narrative beyond the twelfth chapter, and specifically in
Chapters 13–21, where those very themes are invested with paramount sig-
nificance. In that portion of the saga Genji’s self-imposed relinquishment of
the glamorous world of the capital constitutes a cleansing rite of passage entail-
ing a process of death and rebirth. Its culmination coincides with the pro-
tagonist’s pious undertaking of a lustration ceremony through which he
symbolically washes his sins away by sending off an effigy of himself in a boat.
Once again, the personal and the political are seen to coalesce, for Genji’s
private self-purification paves the way to important public developments.
These are marked by the hero’s eventual return to the capital and rapid rise
to the status of a full-fledged politician. However, Genji’s redemption is not
conclusive — any more than human life can ever be presumed to be in a cosmos
governed by cyclical patterns and rhythms. Thus, even when the hero asserts
himself in the political arena, accepts the prestigious title of Honorary Retired
Emperor and holds ascendancy over his son’s government, he is still cursed
by an ethical makeup that prevents him from drawing satisfaction from his
accomplishments and compels him to overreach himself, to strive for newer
and better ends. The outcome, as with so many Faustian figures, is catastro-
phe: a fate here sealed, as noted, by Genji’s entanglement in an emotional and
political triangle akin to the one previously engendered by his affair with his
father’s favorite wife.
What renders Lady Murasaki’s narrative so compellingly modern despite
its historical remoteness — and allows Dezaki to take it as the springboard for
an animated drama of great contemporary relevance — is above all its dramati-
zation of the evolution of interiority through a focus on the processes attendant
upon the genesis of consciousness itself. Genji’s self-imposed exile constitutes
the critical point in the parable. The topos of a hero’s separation from society
as a result of a transgressive act and ensuing state of guilt-ridden alienation
could indeed be described as a seminal concern of the novel form. The self,
in this scenario, is ineluctably sculpted out of seclusion and loneliness in the
face of a world proverbially ungenerous in the dispensation of answers regard-
ing the meaning and purpose of existence. Faithful to the source text’s core
philosophical message throughout its diegesis, Dezaki’s anime does not fail
to close with a sobering reflection on the ultimate vapidity of any promise of
lasting fulfillment, to remind us that this pales to near insignificance in the
face of both the anguish and the glory of incessant longing.
The revamping of ancient materials comparable to Lady Murasaki’s
eleventh-century novel informs one of the most revered anime productions
of all times dating back to the medium’s early history and renowned as the
very first full-color animated movie to be released in Japan: the feature film
Hakujaden (a.k.a. The Legend of the White Serpent) helmed by Kazuhiko
Okabe and Taiji Yabushita (1958). Based on a venerable Chinese fairy tale,
the movie chronicles the tortuous love relationship between a girl named Bai
Niang and a boy named Xu Xiang. However, Bai Niang also happens to be
a snake spirit and hence invites the unsolicited attention of a zealous demon-
fighting wizard, Fa Hai, who believes she is a vampire and condemns her to
hard labor in a remote town to protect Xu Xiang. In a suspenseful and lush
drama portraying the struggle between the seemingly doomed protagonists
and the wizardly monk with a tasteful avoidance of cut-and-dried decisions
about the ethical superiority of either party, Hakujaden abounds with vividly
rendered references to Oriental lore. The characters of Xu Xiang’s panda pets
Panda and Mimi — both of whom are varyingly endowed with magical or
supernatural connotations — come across as especially unforgettable, in this

regard. The fantastic action sequences triggered by a plucky all-animal team
mustered by Panda and Mimi to attack the magician and further the protag-
onists’ romance are most remarkable, not only in dramatic terms but also
from a purely technical point of view when one takes into consideration the
film’s historical situation. Some of Hakujaden’s marine visuals, incidentally,
foreshadow Hayao Miyazaki’s movie Ponyo on the Cliff by the Sea (2008), here
briefly discussed in Chapter 4, confirming Miyazaki’s youthful infatuation
with the seminal anime production and self-conscious acknowledgment of its
profound influence on his own output. Most importantly, in this context,
Hakujaden could be said to foreshadow The Tale of Genji in its recent configu-
rations through its ability to imbue an ancient story with tantalizingly con-
temporary appeal.
Filmography
Primary Titles DESIGNER: Eriko Murata. ANIMATION

PRODUCTION: Gonzo. PRODUCTION:
Belladonna of Sadness (1973) Gonzo. SOUND EFFECTS PRODUCTION:
Rakuonsha. MUSIC PRODUCTION: Future
ORIGINAL TITLE: Kanashimi no Be-
Vision Music.
radona. STATUS: movie. DIRECTOR: Eiichi
Yamamoto. ORIGINAL CREATOR: Jules
Michelet. SCREENPLAY: Yamamoto, Yoshi- Grave of the Fireflies (1988)
yuki Fukada. MUSIC: Masahiko Satoh,
ORIGINAL TITLE: Hotaru no Haka. STA-
Nobuhiko Sato. ART DIRECTOR: Kuni
TUS: movie. DIRECTOR: Isao Takahata.
Fukai. ANIMATION DIRECTOR: Gisaburou
ORIGINAL CREATOR: Akiyuki Nosaka.
Sugii.
SCREENPLAY: Takahata. MUSIC: Masahiko
Satoh, Michio Mamiya. CHARACTER DE-
Gankutsuou: The Count SIGNER: Yoshifumi Kondou. ART DIREC-
of Monte Cristo (2004–2005) TOR: Nizo Yamamoto. ANIMATION DI-
ORIGINAL TITLE: Gankutsuou: The RECTOR: Kondou. PRODUCER: Toru Hara.
Count of Monte Cristo. STATUS: TV series BACKGROUND ART: Eiji Hirakawa, Eiko
(24 episodes). EPISODE LENGTH: 24 min- Sudo, Fukiko Hashizume, Junko Ina,
utes. DIRECTOR: Mahiro Maeda. ORIG- Mutsuo Koseki, Noriko Higuchi, Seiki
INAL CREATOR: Alexandre Dumas. Tamura, Shuichi Hirata, Tooru Hishi-
SCREENPLAY: Natsuko Takahashi, Tomo- yama, Youji Nakaza, Yoshinari Kinbako.
hiro Yamashita. SCENARIO: Takahashi, Ya- EDITOR: Takeshi Seyama. SOUND DIREC-
mashita. MUSIC: Jean Jacques Burnel, TOR: Yasuo Uragami. S OUND EFFECTS:
Koji Kasamatsu, Reiji Kitazato. CHARAC- Michihiro Ito, Noriyoshi Oohira. SPECIAL
TER DESIGNER: Hidenori Matsubara. ART EFFECTS: Kunji Tanifuji. ANIMATION
DIRECTORS: You Sasaki, Yusuke Takeda. PRODUCTION: Studio Ghibli. PRODUC-
ANIMATION DIRECTOR: Takaaki Wada. TION : Studio Ghibli. S OUND EFFECTS
BACKGROUND ART: Masanori Kikuchi. PRODUCTION: E & M Planning Center.
SOUND DIRECTOR: Yota Tsuruoka.
SOUND EFFECTS: Yoshiki Matsunaga. Like the Clouds,
SPECIAL EFFECTS: Shin Inoie. SPECIAL Like the Wind (1990)
3DCGI ANIMATOR: Akira Suzuki. TEX-
TILE CONVERTER: Sayuri Okada. TEXTILE ORIGINAL TITLE: Kumo no You ni, Kaze
DESIGNER: Yasufumi Soejima. COLOR no You ni. STATUS: TV movie. DIRECTOR:
197
198 Filmography
Hisayuki Toriyumi. ORIGINAL CREATOR: kawa. COLOR DESIGNER: Junko Ito. AN-
Ken’ichi Sakemi. SCREENPLAY: Akira IMATION PRODUCTION: TMS Entertain-
Miyazaki. MUSIC: Haruhiko Maruya. ment. PRODUCTION: NHK.
CHARACTER DESIGNER: Katsuya Kondou.
ART DIRECTOR: Yuji Ikeda. ANIMATION The Tale of Genji (2009)
DIRECTOR: Kondou. EDITOR: Takeshi ORIGINAL TITLE: Genji Monogatari
Seyama. SOUND DIRECTOR: Kan Mizu- Sennenki. STATUS: TV series (11 episodes).
moto. PRODUCTION: Studio Pierrot, EPISODE LENGTH: 30 minutes. DIREC-
Yomiko Advertising, Inc. TOR: Osamu Dezaki. ORIGINAL CREATOR:
Lady Murasaki Shikibu. SERIES COMPO-
Romeo x Juliet (2007) SITION: Tomoko Konparu. SCREENPLAY:
Dezaki, Konparu. MUSIC: S.E.N.S.
ORIGINAL TITLE: Romeo x Juliet. STA- CHARACTER DESIGNER: Akio Sugino. ART
TUS: TV series (24 episodes). EPISODE DIRECTOR: Jirou Kouno. ANIMATION DI-
LENGTH: 30 minutes. DIRECTOR: Fumi- RECTOR: Sugino. MUSIC DIRECTOR: Seiji
toshi Oizaki. ORIGINAL CREATOR: Wil- Suzuki. ANIMATION PRODUCTION: Te-
liam Shakespeare. SERIES COMPOSITION: zuka Productions, Tokyo Movie (TMS
Reiko Yoshida. SCREENPLAY: Kurasumi Entertainment). PRODUCTION: Tokyo
Sunayama, Miharu Hirami, Natsuko Movie Shinsha.
Takahashi, Reiko Yoshida. MUSIC: Hi-
toshi Sakimoto. CHARACTER DESIGNER:
Umineko no Naku Koro ni
Daiki Harada. ART DIRECTOR: Masami
Saito. PRODUCER: Touyou Ikeda. EDITOR: (a.k.a. When Seagulls Cry; 2009)
Seiji Hirose. SOUND DIRECTOR: Tomo- ORIGINAL TITLE: Umineko no Naku
hiro Yoshida. COLOR DESIGNER: Toshie Koro ni. STATUS: TV series (26 episodes).
Suzuki. ANIMATION PRODUCTION: EPISODE LENGTH: 23 minutes. DIREC-
Gonzo. PRODUCTION: CBC, G.D.H., TOR: Chiaki Kon. ORIGINAL CREATOR:
Gonzo, SKY Perfect Well Think Co., Ltd. Ryukishi07. SERIES COMPOSITION: Toshi-
SOUND PRODUCTION: Rakuonsha. fumi Kawase. SCREENPLAY: Fumihiko
Shimo, Tatsushi Moriya, Toshifumi Ka-
The Snow Queen (2005–2006) wase. CHARACTER DESIGNER: Yoko Ki-
kuchi. ART DIRECTOR: Junichi Higashi.
ORIGINAL TITLE: Yuki no Jo-Oh. STA- CHIEF ANIMATION DIRECTORS: Yoko
TUS: TV series (39 episodes). EPISODE Kikuchi, Yukiko Ban. PRODUCERS: Hi-
LENGTH: 25 minutes. DIRECTOR: Osamu royuki Oomori, Mika Nomura, Takema
Dezaki. ORIGINAL CREATOR: Hans Chris- Okamura. BACKGROUND ART: Akiko
tian Andersen. SERIES COMPOSITION: Manabe, Asami Saito, Etsuko Abe, Hyun
Masashi Sogo. SCREENPLAY: Makoto Chul Won, Hyun Soo Kim, Junko Shi-
Nakamura, Michiru Shimada, Sukehiro mizu, Kayoko Haruhara, Kenta Shimizu,
Tomita, Tomoko Konparu. MUSIC: Akira Kim Soon Ja, Miho Sugiura, Minami
Chisumi. CHARACTER DESIGNER: Akio Usui, Misuzu Noma, Rie Kikuchi, Sachie
Sugino. ART DIRECTOR: Jirou Kouno. Endou, Seung Hyeon Lee, Sin Hye Lee,
ANIMATION DIRECTOR: Kenji Hachizaki. So Young Kim, Sun Hee Ban, Takamasa
PRODUCERS: Hideaki Miyamoto, Tadao Honma, Tetsuo Imaizumi, Toshie Honda,
Matsumoto. BACKGROUND ART: Mayumi Won Suk Choi, Yayoi Okashiwa, Yuka
Okabe. SOUND DIRECTOR: Tomoaki Ya- Ohashi, Yuki Maeda. 3D DIRECTOR:
mada. SOUND EFFECTS: Yukiyoshi Ito- Akira Inagaki. EDITOR: Masahiro Mat-
Filmography 199
sumura. SOUND DIRECTOR: Hozumi The Tale of Genji (movie; dir. Gisaburou
Gouda. SOUND EFFECTS: Noriko Izumo. Sugii, 1987)
SPECIAL EFFECTS: Masakazu Uehara. Tsuyokiss — CoolxSweet (TV series; dir.
COLOR DESIGNER: Eiko Kitazume. Shinichiro Kimura, 2006)
COLOR KEY: Eiko Kitazume, Yui Azumi. Witchblade (TV series; dir. Yoshimitsu
TEXTURE DESIGNER: Emi Akiba. Anima- Ohashi, 2006)
tion Production: Studio DEEN. Produc-
tion: Frontier Works. SOUND PRODUC-
TION: Dax Production. Additional Titles Cited
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (TV series;
Secondary Titles dir. Hiroyoshi Saitou, 1980)
Aesop’s Fables (TV series; dir. Eiji Okabe,
Anne of Green Gables (TV series; dirs. Isao 1983)
Takahata and Shigeo Koshi, 1979) The Alcoa Hour (TV series; dirs. Kirk
The Dagger of Kamui (movie; dir. Rintaro, Browning, Herbert Hirschman et al.,
1985) 1955–1957)
A Dog of Flanders (TV series; dir. Yoshio Andersen Stories (TV series; dir. Masami
Kuroda, 1975) Hata, 1971)
The Hakkenden (OVA series; dirs. Takashi Animal Treasure Island (movie; dir. Hi-
Anno and Yuki Okamoto, 1990–1991 roshi Ikeda, 1971)
[Part 1]; 1993–1995 [Part 2: Shinsho]) Animated Classics of Japanese Literature
Hakugei: The Legend of Moby Dick (TV (TV series; dir. Fumio Kurokawa, 1986)
series; dir. Osamu Dezaki, 1997–1999) Black Jack (OVA series; dirs. Osamu De-
Hakujaden (a.k.a. The Legend of the White zaki and Fumihiro Yoshimura, 2006)
Serpent) (movie; dirs. Kazuhiko Okabe Cinderella (TV series; dir. Hiroshi Sasa-
and Taiji Yabushita,1958) gawa, 1996)
Heidi, Girl of the Alps (TV series; dir. Isao The Count of Monte Cristo (movie; dirs.
Takahata, 1974) Francis Boggs and Thomas Persons,
The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya (TV 1908)
series; dir. Tatsuya Ishihara, 2006) The Count of Monte Cristo (movie; dirs.
One Thousand and One Arabian Nights Joseph A. Golden and Edwin S. Porter,
(movie; dir. Eiichi Yamamoto, 1969) 1913)
Ponyo on the Cliff by the Sea (movie; dir. The Count of Monte Cristo (TV series; dir.
Hayao Miyazaki, 2008) Henri Pouctal, 1918)
Puss in Boots (movie; dir. Kimio Yabuki, The Count of Monte Cristo (movie; dir.
1969) Henri Fescourt, 1929)
Sennen no Koi — Hikaru Genji monogatari The Count of Monte Cristo (movie; dir.
(a.k.a. A Thousand Years of Love —The Rowland V. Lee, 1934)
Tale of Shining Genji; dir. Tonkou The Count of Monte Cristo: 1ère époque:
Horikawa, 2001) Edmond Dantès (movie; dir. Robert
The Stingiest Man in Town (TV special; Vernay, 1943)
Katsuhisa Yamada, 1978) The Count of Monte Cristo (movie; dir.
The Tale of Genji (movie; dir. Kouzaburou Robert Vernay, 1955)
Yoshimura, 1951) The Count of Monte Cristo (TV series;
The Tale of Genji (movie; dir. Kon Ichi- dirs. David MacDonald and Sidney
kawa, 1966) Salkow, 1956)
200 Filmography
The Count of Monte Cristo (movie; dir. Shakespeare in Love (movie; dir. John
Claude Autant-Lara, 1961) Madden, 1998)
The Count of Monte Cristo (TV series; dir. Snedronningen (movie; dirs. Jacob Jør-
Peter Hammond, 1964) gensen and Kristof Kuncewicz, 2000)
The Count of Monte Cristo (a.k.a. Under Snezhnaya Koroleva (movie; dir. Lev Ata-
the Sign of Monte Cristo; movie; dir. manov, 1957)
André Hunebelle, 1968) Snezhnaya Koroleva (movie; dir. Gennadi
The Count of Monte Cristo (movie; dir. Kazansky, 1966)
David Greene, 1975), The Count of The Snow Queen (TV movie; dir. Andrew
Monte Cristo (TV miniseries; dir. Gosling, 1976)
Denys de La Patellière, 1980) The Snow Queen (short movie; dirs.
The Count of Monte Cristo (TV miniseries; Marek Buchwald and Vladlen Barbe,
dir. Josée Dayan, 1998) 1992)
The Count of Monte Cristo (movie; dir. The Snow Queen (movie; dir. Martin
Kevin Reynolds, 2002) Gates, 1995)
Gulliver’s Space Travels: Beyond the Moon Snow Queen (TV movie; dir. David Wu,
(movie; dir. Yoshio Kuroda, 1965) 2002)
Howl’s Moving Castle (movie; dir. Hayao The Snow Queen (TV movie; dir. Julian
Miyazaki, 2004) Gibbs, 2005)
Iron Man (currently in production at The Snow Queen’s Revenge (movie; dir.
Madhouse Studio) Martin Gates, 1996)
The Jungle Book (movie; dir. Wolfgang Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (movie;
Reitherman, 1967) dirs. David Hand, William Cottrell,
Kiki’s Delivery Service (movie; dir. Hayao Wilfred Jackson, Larry Morey, Perce
Miyazaki, 1989) Pearce and Ben Sharpsteen, 1937)
Rascal the Raccoon (TV series; dirs. Hiroshi The Story of Pollyanna (TV series; dir.
Saitou, Seiji Endou, Shigeo Koshi, 1977) Kouzou Kuzuha, 1986)
Romanoff and Juliet (movie; dir. Peter Swiss Family Robinson (TV series; dir.
Ustinoff, 1961) Yoshio Kuroda, 1981)
Rome and Jewel (movie; dir. Charles Kan- Tales from Earthsea (movie; dir. Goro
ganis, 2006) Miyazaki, 2006)
Romeo and Juliet (movie; dir. George Three Thousand Miles in Search of Mother
Cukor, 1936) (TV series; dir. Hayao Miyazaki, 1975)
Romeo and Juliet (movie; dir. Renato Tromeo and Juliet (movie; dir. Loyd Kauf-
Castellani, 1954) man, 1996)
Romeo and Juliet (movie; dir. Franco Ze- Uznik zamka If (a.k.a. The Count of
ffirelli, 1968) Monte Cristo or The Prisoner of If Castle;
Romeo and Juliet (movie; dir. Baz Luhr- movie; dir. Georgi Yungvald-Khilke-
mann, 1996) vich, 1988)
Romeo and Juliet: Sealed with a Kiss Veta (movie; dir. Kodanda Rami Reddy
(movie; dir. Phil Nibbelink, 2006) A., 1986)
Romeo Must Die (movie; dir. Andrzej West Side Story (movie; dirs. Jerome Rob-
Bartkowiak, 2000) bins and Robert Wise, 1961)
Romie-0 and Julie-8 (TV special; dir. Wolverine (currently in production at
Clive A. Smith, 1996) Madhouse Studio)
The Sex Lives of Romeo and Juliet (movie;
dir. Peter Perry, Jr., 1969)
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Index
À la recherche du temps perdu (Remembrance Belladonna of Sadness 9, 10, 20–26, 31, 36,
of Things Past) 149 37, 146
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer 66 Bellini, G. 120
Aesop’s Fables 66 Belsey, C. 108, 117
Akiyuki, N. 27, 29 Benjamin, W. 3, 11
The Alcoa Hour 62 Berger, J. 11
Alexander, M. 150 Bernstein, L. 121
Amanda, L. 57 Bettelheim, B. 65
Amano, Y. 150–151, 152 Birmingham, C. 63, 91–92, 93, 94, 95
Andersen, H.C. 9, 63, 64 Black Jack 94
Andersen Stories 65 Blake, W. 25, 42–43
Anderson, A. 93 Bloom, H. 155, 168, 185
Andrew, D. 7–8 Borges, J.L. 144
Animal Treasure Island 66 Botticelli, S. 120
Animated Classics of Japanese Literature Bowring, R. 161, 170–171, 172–173, 181–182
27 Brasseur, P. 58
Anne of Green Gables 66, 98 Brontë, E. 25
Anno, T. 35 Brooke, A. 100–101
Art Nouveau 57 Brown, F.M. 123
As You Like It 114 Browning, K. 62
Asake yume mishi (a.k.a. Fleeting Dreams) Bruegel the Elder, P. 94
147–148 Buchwald, M. 96
Ascari, M. 132, 139–140 Buckminster Fuller, R. 31
Atamanov, L. 96 Bunbury, H.W. 122
Auster, P. 132 bunraku 27
Byron, Lord G.G. 43
Badel, A. 57
Bakin, K. 35 Calderon, P.H. 123
Barbe, V. 96 Callaghan, D. 126
Barge, P. 58 Calvino, I. 58–59
Bargen, D.G. 166 Carpaccio, V. 120–121
Barthes, R. 150, 172, 173 Carter, A. 65
Bartkowiak, A. 122 Cartmell, D. 7
Bass, J. 62 Castellani, R. 120
Bataille, G. 25, 170 Cavallaro, D. 138
Baudelaire, C. 25, 43 Caviezel, J. 58
Baudrillard, J. 3, 12 Cervantes, M. 149
Beardsley, A. 20 Chagall, M. 93, 123
Beauty and the Beast 76 Chamberlain, R. 58
207
208 Index
Chesterton, G.K. 128 Dominczyk, D. 58

Chiranjeevi 58 Donat, R. 57
A Christmas Carol 62–63 Donizetti, G. 55
Church, R. 48, 52 Drazen, P. 145
Cinderella 66 Dulac, E. 20
Cixous, H. 20 Dumas, A. 9, 39, 40, 43, 44, 47, 51, 59, 60
Clément, C. 20
Coker, P., Jr. 62 Ebert, R. 29
Coleridge, S.T. 53–54 Eco, U. 144
Conan Doyle, A. 133 Edison, T.A. 1
Costanzo Cahir, L. 6, 7 Elliott, K. 8
Costras, D. 123 Ellis, J. 19–20
Cottrell, W. 96 Emmerich, M. 149
The Count of Monte Cristo (novel) 39 The Emperor’s New Clothes 68, 73
The Count of Monte Cristo (1980 miniseries) Endou, S. 66
58 Eno, B. viii
The Count of Monte Cristo (1998 miniseries) Ephesiaca 100
58 Evans, D. 183
The Count of Monte Cristo (1908 movie) 57
The Count of Monte Cristo (1913 movie) 57 Faust 195
The Count of Monte Cristo (1929 movie) 57 Fescourt, H. 57
The Count of Monte Cristo (1934 movie) 57 Field, N. 185, 188, 189
The Count of Monte Cristo (1943 movie) 57 Fini, L. 120
The Count of Monte Cristo (1955 movie) 57 Fischlin, D. 100
The Count of Monte Cristo (1961 movie) 57 Fisher, H. 108
The Count of Monte Cristo (1968 movie) 58 Fitzgerald, F.S. 54
The Count of Monte Cristo (1975 movie) 58 The Flying Trunk 67, 68, 69, 70
The Count of Monte Cristo (2002 movie) 58 Fortier, M. 100
The Count of Monte Cristo (1918 series) 57 Frazer, J.G. 25
The Count of Monte Cristo (1956 series) 57 Freud, A. 77
The Count of Monte Cristo (1964 series) 57 Fukai, K. 21
Crowfoot 26 Fukushima, D.H., Jr. 29
Cukor, G. 120 Füssli, J.C. 22
Curtis, T. 58
Gage, J. 109
The Dagger of Kamui 35 Gankutsuou: The Count of Monte Cristo 10,
Dalby, L. 179 38–62, 137, 145, 159
Dante 149 Gates, M. 96
D’arc: Histoire de Jeanne D’arc 31 Gatten, A. 179
Davis, L. 124–125, 126 Gaudreault, A. 94
Debussy, C. 55 Genet, J. 25
A Defense of Poetry 43 Genette, G. 17, 99
Delacroix, E. 23 Genji monogatari (manga) 148
Deleuze, G. 10–11,12 Genji Scrolls 151
Demko, G.J. 131–132 Geraghty, C. 10, 17
Depardieu, G. 58 Ghirlandaio, D. 121
Derrida, J. 11–12, 115–116, 117 Gibbs, J. 96
de Sica, V. 30 Gill, R. 100–101, 121
Desmond, J.M. 7 Gillies, J. 28, 30
Dezaki, O. 61–62, 64–98, 150–196 The Goblin at the Grocer’s 67
Dickens, C. 62–63 Gombrich, E.H. 108–109
Dicksee, Sir F. 123 Gosling, A. 96
Disney, W. 96 Goya, F. 22
A Dog of Flanders 66, 98 Gozzoli, B. 94, 120
Index 209
Grave of the Fireflies (film) 8, 26–30, 33, Kaufman, L. 122

36, 37, 107 Kawai, H. 22–23
Grave of the Fireflies (novel) 27 Kazansky, G. 96
Grella, G. 140 Keene, D. 149, 167
Guida, F. 63 Kemp, L. 123–124
Gulliver’s Space Travels: Beyond the Moon 66 Kidnie, M.J. 106–107
Kiki’s Delivery Service 66
The Hakkenden 35, 36 Kimura, S. 116–117
The Hakkenden: Shinsho 35 King Lear 112, 123
Hakugei: The Legend of Moby Dick 61–62 Klimt, G. 20, 55–56
Hakujaden (a.k.a. The Legend of the White Kon, C. 130–144
Serpent) 195 Kondou, K. 31
Hamlet 110, 111, 123 Koshi, S. 66, 98
Hand, D. 96 Kristeva, J. 126–127
Harada, D. 119–120 Kuncewicz, K. 96
Hata, M. 65 Kuroda, Y. 66, 98
Hawkes, P. 7 Kurokawa, F. 27
Hayasaka, A. 148 Kurosawa, A. 102
Heidi, Girl of the Alps 66, 97 Kuzuha, K. 66
Hirschman, H. 62
Hoban, R. viii Lederer, W. 75–76, 77
Hoffmann, E.T.A. 99 Legg, M.C. 77, 78
Holbein, H. 93 Leighton, Lord F. 123
Holt, E. 96 Leitch, T. 7
Horikawa, T. 148 Lewis, N. 66–67, 89
Howard, T. 120 Liberty Leading the People (La Liberté
Howl’s Moving Castle 66 guidant le peuple) 23
Hubert, H. 25 Like the Clouds, Like the Wind 8, 31–33,
Hutcheon, L. 6, 18, 60, 106 34, 35, 36, 37
Lippit, Y. 148–149, 164
Ihara, S. 131 La Litterature Et Le Mal (Literature and
Ii, H. 147 Evil) 25
Ikeda, H. 66 The Little Match Girl 69, 80
Impressionism 20 The Little Mermaid 68, 69, 80
Inner Palace Harem Story 31 Louis XIII 39
Ishihara, T. 34 Louis XVI 40
Ito, N. 31 Louis XVII 40
Iwasaka, M 167 Louis XVIII 40
The Love Suicides at Sonezaki 27
Jackson, W. 96 Luhrmann, B. 121
Jade, C. 58 Lynch, P.J. 92, 93, 94
Jayaprada 58
Joan of Arc 20 Macbeth 123
Jørgensen, J. 96 Macherey, P. 122
Jourdan, L. 57 Madden, J. 121–122
Joyce, J. 19 Maeda, M. 38, 44–47, 49, 52–56, 60, 159
Juliet (1888) 123 Malmgren, C.D. 139–140, 141, 142
Juliet (1898) 123 Mantegna, A. 120–121
Julius Caesar 110, 111 Marais, J. 57
The Jungle Book 96 Marc 28
Marion, P. 94
Kadono, E. 66 Marquis de Sade 25
Kafka, F. 25 The Marriage of Heaven and Hell 43
Kanganis, C. 121 Martin, T. 48, 50
210 Index
Martini, S. 94 One Thousand and One Nights (a.k.a. Ara-

Marvel Comics 144–145 bian Nights) 26, 41
Mathot, L. 57 O’Neill, J. 57
Matthau, W. 62 Ong, M.L. 76–77
Mauss, M. 25 Othello 110, 123
The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya 34–
35 Parry, N. 57
Melville, H. 62 The Pea Blossom 80
The Merchant of Venice 111 Pearce, G. 58
Merivale, P. 136, 143 Pearce, P. 96
Meyerbeer, G. 55 Peary, G. 60
Michelet, J. 20, 24–25, 26 Perry, P., Jr. 122
A Midsummer Night’s Dream (pantomime) Peterson, T. 123
124 Piero della Francesca 120
A Midsummer Night’s Dream (play) 110, pinku 21
123, 171 Plato 3, 10
Milton, J. 42, 43 Poe, E.A. 137
Miyake, L.K. 171–172 Ponyo on the Cliff by the Sea 66, 196
Miyako, M. 148 Porter, D. 142
Miyazaki, G. 66 Pratchett, T. 5
Miyazaki, H. 31, 65–66, 196 Pre–Raphaelites 20
Mizuno, J. 21 The Princess and the Pea 67, 89
Moeran, B. 178 Prokofiev, S. 96
Monzaemon, C. 27, 28 Proust, M. 25, 149
Morey, L. 96 Puette, W. 170
Morris, I. 161, 166, 168, 170, 171, 175, 181 Puffy AmiYumi 153
Mostow, J.S. 153 Puss in Boots 66, 96
Much Ado About Nothing 111 Pym, T. 93, 95
Munch, E. 20
Murasaki, Lady Shikibu 146–195 Rachmaninoff, S. 55
Murdoch, J. 168 Rackham, A. 20
Muti, O. 58 Rankin, A., Jr. 62
Rapoport, A. 139
Nansou Satomi 35 Rascal the Raccoon 66
Napoleon Bonaparte 39–40 Rathbone, B. 62
Naremore, J. 61 Raven, N. 81, 93
Nelligan, K. 58 The Reconciliation of the Montagues and Ca-
Nibbelink, P. 122 pulets Over the Dead Bodies of Romeo and
Nielsen, K. 92 Juliet 123
The Nightingale 69 The Red Shoes 80
Noh Theatre 21, 152 Reeve, J. 1, 20–21
Norinaga, M. 154 Reitherman, W. 96
Remembrance of Things Past (À la recherche
Obuchowski, M.D. 165 du temps perdu) 149
Ohashi, Y. 145 Renoir, P.-A. 21
Oizaki, F. 99–129 Revelations: Persona 96
Okabe, E. 66 Richard III 110
Okabe, K. 195 Richard-Willm, P. 57
Okada, H.R. 149, 159, 180 Richelieu, Cardinal 39
Okamoto, Y. 35 Rintaro 35
Okri, B. 64 Robbins, J. 121
Olson, D. 87 Romanelli, C. 58
One Thousand and One Arabian Nights Romanoff and Juliet 122
(movie) 26 Romanticism 42–44, 57
Index 211
Rome and Jewel 121 The Snow Queen (British animated TV

Romeo and Juliet (artbook) 118–119 movie) 96
Romeo and Juliet (contemporary paintings) The Snow Queen (British hybrid movie) 96
123 The Snow Queen (English National Ballet)
Romeo and Juliet (1936 movie) 120 96
Romeo and Juliet (1954 movie) 120 The Snow Queen (fairy tale) 64–98
Romeo and Juliet (1968 movie) 121 The Snow Queen (live-action TV movie)
Romeo and Juliet (1996 movie) 121 96
Romeo and Juliet (1870 painting) 123 The Snow Queen — Ballet Redefined… 96
Romeo and Juliet (1884 painting) 123 The Snow Queen’s Revenge 96
Romeo and Juliet (1964 painting) 123 Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (fairy
Romeo and Juliet (play) 99, 100, 110, 111, 112, tale) 76
113, 114, 115, 116, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 126 Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (movie)
Romeo and Juliet: Sealed with a Kiss 122 58
Romeo and Juliet with Friar Lawrence 122 Soliman 120–121
Romeo Must Die 122 Sondheim, S. 121
Romeo x Juliet 10, 13, 85, 99–129, 137, 145, La Sorcière 20, 25
161 Spanos, W.V. 142
Romie-0 and Julie-8 122 Stam, R. 60
Rossellini, R. 30 Stanley-Baker, J. 151–152, 164
Rushdie, S. 5 The Steadfast Tin Soldier 67, 68, 69
Stevenson, R.L. 66
Saitou, H. 66 Stewart, J. 90–91, 94, 95
Sakemi, K. 31, 32 The Stingiest Man in Town (animated spe-
Sakimoto, H. 109 cial) 62–63
Sanders, J. 6, 19–20, 23, 24, 36, 64, 99, 100 The Stingiest Man in Town (musical) 62
Sasagawa, H. 66 The Story of Pollyanna 66
Schumann, R. 55 Studio Ghibli 31
Segur, A. 92–93 Studio Gonzo 13, 145
Sennen no Ko — Hikaru Genji monogatari Studio Pierrot 31
(a.k.a. A Thousand Years of Love —The Sugii, G. 21, 146
Tale of Shining Genji) 148 Sui, A. 53
The Sex Lives of Romeo and Juliet 122 Surrealism 57
Shakespeare, W. 9, 78, 99, 100, 101, 104, Sweeney, S.E. 136, 143
105, 106, 107, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 120, Swift, J. 66
121, 124, 171 Swiss Family Robinson 66
Shakespeare in Love 121–122 Symbolism 20, 57
Sharpsteen, B. 96 Symons, J. 138
Shatzkin, R. 60
She Was Good for Nothing 80 Takahata, I. 27, 29, 66, 97, 98
Shearer, N. 120 The Tale of Genji (anime, 1987) 21–22,
Shelley, P.B. 43 146–147
Shirane, H. 146, 162, 173–174, 180, 187, The Tale of Genji (anime, 2009) 3, 10, 137,
190, 192–193 150–196
Smith, C.A. 122 The Tale of Genji (artbook) 150–152
Snedronningen 96 The Tale of Genji (live-action movie, 1951)
Snezhnaya Koroleva (animated movie) 96 148
Snezhnaya Koroleva (live-action movie) 96 The Tale of Genji (live-action movie, 1966)
The Snow Queen (American animated 148
short) 96 The Tale of Genji (novel) 146–195
The Snow Queen (anime) 10, 64–98, 137, Tales from Earthsea 66
164 The Taming of the Shrew 111
The Snow Queen (British animated movie) Tanigawa, N. 31
96 Tanizaki, J. 2
212 Index
Tarot 20 Valter 25
Tateishi, K. 146–147, 148 Verdi, G. 107
Tchaikovsky, P.I. 55 Veta 58
The Tempest 111, 112
Thalberg, I. 120 Waley, A. 149
The Three Musketeers 39 Wallace, J.R. 169–170
Three Thousand Miles in Search of Mother Wang, Y. 171, 172, 177
66 Waterhouse, J.W. 123
Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Watts, B. 93, 95
Found There 76 Weber, J. 58
Thumbelina 68 West Side Story 121
The Tinder Box 68 Whelehan, I. 7
Titus Andronicus 111 White, R.S. 107, 120, 121
Tobin, R.M. 96 Wilde, O. 54
Todorov, T. 140–141 The Winter’s Tale 78, 111
Toelken, B. 167 Wise, R. 121
Toriyumi, H. 31 Witchblade 145
Tsuyokiss — CoolxSweet 116–117 Woolf, V. 149–150
The Tragicall History of Romeus and Juliet World Masterpiece Theater 66
100 Wu, D. 96
The Traveling Companion 80 Wullschlager, J. 73
La Traviata 107
Tristan and Isolde 107 Xenophon of Ephesus 100
Tromeo and Juliet 122
Twelfth Night 111 Yabuki, K. 66, 96
Tyler, R. 156, 180, 181, 182, 183 Yabushita, T. 195
Yamada, K. 62, 63
The Ugly Duckling 68, 69, 70, 80 Yamamoto, E. 20, 23, 26, 146
Umineko no Naku Koro ni (anime) 9, 10, Yamato, W. 147–148
130–145 Yano, T. 35
Umineko no Naku Koro ni (videogame) Yerko, V. 93–94, 95
128–130 Yoshimura, F. 94, 148
Ustinoff, P. 122
Uznik zamka If (a.k.a. The Count of Zeffirelli, F. 121
Monte Cristo or The Prisoner of If Castle) 07th Expansion 128, 130, 131
58 Zipes, J. 65

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Anime and the

Anime and the Visual Novel: Narrative

McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers

1. Animated ﬁlms — History and criticism. 2. Film

British Library cataloguing data are available

©2010 Dani Cavallaro. All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form

On the cover: Artwork from the 1988 animated ﬁlm

Manufactured in the United States of America

McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers

1. The Frame of Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

This study explores a selection of anime offering adaptations of famous

can never be conclusively dissevered from the perception, albeit subliminal,

medium (and hence a different means of expression) generates an entirely dif-

section of approaches to the theory and practice of adaptation and appropriate

The Frame of Reference

No story comes from nowhere; new stories

Adaptations are ubiquitous in the history of anime and have accrued

about the source, challenging us repeatedly to consider what happens to the

“equivalent,” ways of translating ideas into signs — verbal or audiovisual —

infusion of sci-ﬁ or action-adventure motifs into its fabric —Gankutsuou: The

original if we admit, albeit tangentially, to its liability to imitation or repro-

to ponder not simply the general signiﬁcance of the adaptation process as a

these interconnected ideas is the passionate cultivation of an ethos, as hinted

thus evoke the impression of exaggerated perspectives, and “zoom” lenses

The Nightmare of History

History is a nightmare from which I am trying to awake.

According to Julie Sanders, “The processes of adaptation and appropri-

title, where elements of the overall style brought to bear on Belladonna of

to symbolize the urge to bring something new to Japanese culture.” Most

Complementing Belladonna of Sadness in its integration of diverse source

outcomes. The ﬁnale pithily encapsulates this proposition by providing an

sonality exhibits comparably exceptional connotations, here transposed to the

animation, fetchingly stylized character designs, opulent backgrounds, elegant

A deliberate promotion of temporal ambiguity sustains all three of the

Jacques Derrida’s comments on “the desire to write” to the desire to create at

My solitude has ceased to be solitude.

In its handling of the journey of a hugely popular nineteenth-century

nobleman, accedes to a desirable social circle of professionals and public ﬁgures

it thrusts it into an almost unimaginably distant future, in the visible guise

imize the central adventure’s apparently ancillary ramiﬁcations as intimately

essentially incompatible with the dictates of systematized legislation as a pre-

Coleridge. In its cumulative take on the supernatural, Gankutsuou: The Count

reveling in psychedelic effects. Opulent and intricately detailed patterns are

gems, and a pervasive aura of dreamy eroticism emanating from twining or

Other notable pictures emphasize the show’s symbolism. These include a

However, it is primarily with a literary adaptation in a different form,

As noted in Chapter 1, adaptations have traditionally been regarded as

The Fairy Tale Reimagined

An apposite point of entry to the assessment of Osamu Dezaki’s rework-

Bettelheim to be pivotal to their psychological and ideological signiﬁcance:

as attested to by his adaptations of Three Thousand Miles in Search of Mother

A scintillating instance of Andersen’s power to make the weather a ver-

handled than natural ones. In The Snow Queen, a paradigmatic illustration is

ative myths capable of sustaining individual journeys of maturation and self-

farewell occurring at that juncture. Like Andersen’s Finmark Woman, Dezaki’s

tales at large: the crucial importance of trials as inevitable vicissitudes to be

by various shapes as they are reﬂected and refracted by their surroundings.

The artbooks documenting the series’ most salient moments by means