?

Tornadoes are spawned by severe

­thunderstorms, so being able to predict
the path of thunderstorms is essential.
If a thunderstorm is moving at 15 km>h in
a direction 37° north of east, how far north
does the thunderstorm move in 2.0 h?
(i) 30 km; (ii) 24 km; (iii) 18 km; (iv) 12 km;
(v) 9 km.

1  nits, Physical
U
Quantities, and Vectors
P
hysics is one of the most fundamental of the sciences. Scientists of all ­disciplines LEARNING OUTCOMES
use the ideas of physics, including chemists who study the structure of molecules, In this chapter, you'll learn...
paleontologists who try to reconstruct how d­ inosaurs walked, and climatologists 1.1 What a physical theory is.
who study how human activities affect the atmosphere and oceans. Physics is also the 1.2 The four steps you can use to solve any
foundation of all engineering and technology. No engineer could design a flat-screen TV, physics problem.
a prosthetic leg, or even a better mousetrap without first understanding the basic laws 1.3 Three fundamental quantities of physics
of physics. and the units physicists use to measure
them.
The study of physics is also an adventure. You’ll find it challenging, sometimes frus- 1.4 How to work with units in your
trating, occasionally painful, and often richly rewarding. If you’ve ever wondered why the ­calculations.
sky is blue, how radio waves can travel through empty space, or how a satellite stays in 1.5 How to keep track of significant figures
orbit, you can find the answers by using fundamental physics. You’ll come to see phys- in your calculations.
1.6 How to make rough, order-of-magnitude
ics as a towering achievement of the human intellect in its quest to understand our world
estimates.
and ourselves. 1.7 The difference between scalars and
In this opening chapter, we’ll go over some important preliminaries that we’ll need ­vectors, and how to add and subtract
throughout our study. We’ll discuss the nature of physical theory and the use of ideal- ­vectors graphically.
ized models to represent physical systems. We’ll introduce the systems of units used to 1.8 What the components of a vector are
describe physical quantities and discuss ways to describe the accuracy of a number. We’ll and how to use them in calculations.
1.9 What unit vectors are and how to use
look at examples of problems for which we can’t (or don’t want to) find a precise answer, them with components to describe
but for which rough estimates can be useful and interesting. Finally, we’ll study several vectors.
aspects of vectors and vector algebra. We’ll need vectors throughout our study of physics 1.10 Two ways to multiply vectors: the ­scalar
to help us describe and analyze physical quantities, such as velocity and force, that have (dot) product and the vector (cross)
direction as well as magnitude. ­product.

1.1 THE NATURE OF PHYSICS

Physics is an experimental science. Physicists observe the phenomena of nature and try to
find patterns that relate these phenomena. These patterns are called physical theories or,
when they are very well established and widely used, physical laws or principles.

1
2    CHAPTER 1 Units, Physical Quantities, and Vectors

Figure 1.1 Two research laboratories.    CAUTION    The meaning of “theory” A theory is not just a random thought or an u
­ nproven
(a) According to legend, Galileo investigated
concept. Rather, a theory is an explanation of natural phenomena based on observation and ac-
falling objects by dropping them from the cepted fundamental principles. An example is the well-established theory of biological evolution,
Leaning Tower of Pisa, Italy, ... which is the result of extensive research and observation by generations of biologists. ❙

To develop a physical theory, a physicist has to ask appropriate questions, design exper-
iments to try to answer the questions, and draw appropriate conclusions from the results.
Figure 1.1 shows two important facilities used for physics experiments.
Legend has it that Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) dropped light and heavy objects from
the top of the Leaning Tower of Pisa (Fig. 1.1a) to find out whether their rates of fall were
different. From examining the results of his experiments (which were actually much more
sophisticated than in the legend), he deduced the theory that the acceleration of a freely
falling object is independent of its weight.
The development of physical theories such as Galileo’s often takes an indirect path,
with blind alleys, wrong guesses, and the discarding of unsuccessful theories in favor of
more promising ones. Physics is not simply a collection of facts and principles; it is also
the process by which we arrive at general principles that describe how the physical uni-
... and he studied pendulum motion
verse behaves.
by observing the swinging chandelier No theory is ever regarded as the ultimate truth. It’s always possible that new observa-
in the adjacent cathedral. tions will require that a theory be revised or discarded. Note that we can disprove a theory
by finding behavior that is inconsistent with it, but we can never prove that a theory is
always correct.
(b) By doing experiments in apparent
weightlessness on board the International Getting back to Galileo, suppose we drop a feather and a cannonball. They certainly
Space Station, physicists have been able to do not fall at the same rate. This does not mean that Galileo was wrong; it means that his
make sensitive measurements that would be theory was incomplete. If we drop the feather and the cannonball in a vacuum to elimi-
impossible in Earth’s surface gravity.
nate the effects of the air, then they do fall at the same rate. Galileo’s theory has a range
of validity: It applies only to objects for which the force exerted by the air (due to air
resistance and buoyancy) is much less than the weight. Objects like feathers or parachutes
are clearly outside this range.

1.2 SOLVING PHYSICS PROBLEMS

At some point in their studies, almost all physics students find themselves t­hinking, “I
understand the concepts, but I just can’t solve the problems.” But in physics, truly under-
standing a concept means being able to apply it to a variety of problems. Learning how to
solve problems is absolutely essential; you don’t know physics unless you can do physics.
How do you learn to solve physics problems? In every chapter of this book you’ll find
Problem-Solving Strategies that offer techniques for setting up and solving problems
efficiently and accurately. Following each Problem-Solving Strategy are one or more
worked Examples that show these techniques in action. (The Problem-Solving Strategies
will also steer you away from some incorrect techniques that you may be tempted to use.)
You’ll also find additional examples that aren’t associated with a particular Problem-
Solving Strategy. In addition, at the end of each chapter you’ll find a Bridging Problem
that uses more than one of the key ideas from the chapter. Study these strategies and
problems carefully, and work through each example for yourself on a piece of paper.
Different techniques are useful for solving different kinds of physics problems, which
is why this book offers dozens of Problem-Solving Strategies. No matter what kind of
problem you’re dealing with, however, there are certain key steps that you’ll always fol-
low. (These same steps are equally useful for problems in math, engineering, chemistry,
and many other fields.) In this book we’ve organized these steps into four stages of solving
a problem.
All of the Problem-Solving Strategies and Examples in this book will follow these four
steps. (In some cases we’ll combine the first two or three steps.) We encourage you to follow
these same steps when you solve problems yourself. You may find it useful to remember the
acronym I SEE—short for Identify, Set up, Execute, and Evaluate.
 1.3 Standards and Units    3

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY 1.1 Solving Physics Problems

IDENTIFY the relevant concepts: • If appropriate, draw a sketch of the situation described in the
• Use the physical conditions stated in the problem to help you problem. (Graph paper and a ruler will help you make clear,
­decide which physics concepts are relevant. ­useful sketches.)
• Identify the target variables of the problem—that is, the EXECUTE the solution:
­quantities whose values you’re trying to find, such as the speed at • Here’s where you’ll “do the math” with the equations that you
which a projectile hits the ground, the intensity of a sound made selected in the SET UP step to solve for the target variables that
by a siren, or the size of an image made by a lens. you found in the IDENTIFY step. Study the worked examples to
• Identify the known quantities, as stated or implied in the problem. see what’s involved in this step.
This step is essential whether the problem asks for an algebraic
EVALUATE your answer:
expression or a numerical answer.
• Check your answer from the SOLVE step to see if it’s reasonable.
SET UP the problem: (If you’re calculating how high a thrown baseball goes, an a­ nswer
• Given the concepts, known quantities, and target variables that of 1.0 mm is unreasonably small and an answer of 100 km is
you found in the IDENTIFY step, choose the equations that you’ll ­unreasonably large.) If your answer includes an algebraic expres-
use to solve the problem and decide how you’ll use them. Study sion, confirm that it correctly represents what would happen if the
the worked examples in this book for tips on how to select the variables in it had very large or very small values.
proper equations. If this seems challenging, don’t worry—you’ll • For future reference, make note of any answer that represents a
get better with practice! quantity of particular significance. Ask yourself how you might
• Make sure that the variables you have identified correlate exactly answer a more general or more difficult version of the problem
with those in the equations. you have just solved.

Idealized Models
In everyday conversation we use the word “model” to mean either a small-scale replica, Figure 1.2 To simplify the analysis of
such as a model railroad, or a person who displays articles of clothing (or the absence (a) a baseball in flight, we use (b) an
idealized model.
thereof). In physics a model is a simplified version of a physical system that would be too
complicated to analyze in full detail. (a) A real baseball in flight
For example, suppose we want to analyze the motion of a thrown baseball (Fig. 1.2a). A baseball spins and has a complex shape.
How complicated is this problem? The ball is not a perfect sphere (it has raised seams),
Air resistance and
and it spins as it moves through the air. Air resistance and wind influence its motion, the wind exert forces
ball’s weight varies a little as its altitude changes, and so on. If we try to include all these on the ball. Direction of
motion
effects, the analysis gets hopelessly complicated. Instead, we invent a simplified version of
the problem. We ignore the size, shape, and rotation of the ball by representing it as a point Gravitational force on ball
object, or particle. We ignore air resistance by making the ball move in a vacuum, and depends on altitude.
we make the weight constant. Now we have a problem that is simple enough to deal with
(Fig. 1.2b). We’ll analyze this model in detail in Chapter 3. (b) An idealized model of the baseball
We have to overlook quite a few minor effects to make an idealized model, but we must Treat the baseball as a point object (particle).
be careful not to neglect too much. If we ignore the effects of gravity completely, then our
model predicts that when we throw the ball up, it will go in a straight line and disappear No air resistance.
Direction of
into space. A useful model simplifies a problem enough to make it manageable, yet keeps motion
Gravitational force
its essential features. on ball is constant.
The validity of the predictions we make using a model is limited by the validity of
the model. For example, Galileo’s prediction about falling objects (see Section 1.1) corre-
sponds to an idealized model that does not include the effects of air resistance. This model
works fairly well for a dropped cannonball, but not so well for a feather.
Idealized models play a crucial role throughout this book. Watch for them in discus-
sions of physical theories and their applications to specific problems.

1.3 STANDARDS AND UNITS

As we learned in Section 1.1, physics is an experimental science. Experiments require
measurements, and we generally use numbers to describe the results of measurements.
Any number that is used to describe a physical phenomenon quantitatively is called
4    CHAPTER 1 Units, Physical Quantities, and Vectors

a physical quantity. For example, two physical quantities that describe you are your
weight and your height. Some physical quantities are so fundamental that we can define
them only by describing how to measure them. Such a definition is called an operational
definition. Two examples are measuring a distance by using a ruler and measuring a
time interval by using a stopwatch. In other cases we define a physical quantity by de-
scribing how to calculate it from other quantities that we can measure. Thus we might
define the average speed of a moving object as the distance traveled (measured with a
ruler) divided by the time of travel (measured with a stopwatch).
When we measure a quantity, we always compare it with some reference standard.
When we say that a basketball hoop is 3.05 meters above the ground, we mean that this
distance is 3.05 times as long as a meter stick, which we define to be 1 meter long. Such
a standard defines a unit of the quantity. The meter is a unit of distance, and the second
is a unit of time. When we use a number to describe a physical quantity, we must always
specify the unit that we are using; to describe a distance as simply “3.05” wouldn’t
mean anything.
To make accurate, reliable measurements, we need units of measurement that do not
change and that can be duplicated by observers in various locations. The system of units
Figure 1.3 The measurements used to used by scientists and engineers around the world is commonly called “the metric sys-
determine (a) the duration of a second tem,” but since 1960 it has been known officially as the International System, or SI (the
and (b) the length of a meter. These abbreviation for its French name, Système International). Appendix A gives a list of all SI
measurements are useful for setting
standards because they give the same units as well as definitions of the most fundamental units.
results no matter where they are made.
(a) Measuring the second
Time
Microwave radiation with a frequency of
exactly 9,192,631,770 cycles per second ... From 1889 until 1967, the unit of time was defined as a certain fraction of the mean solar
day, the average time between successive arrivals of the sun at its highest point in the sky.
The present standard, adopted in 1967, is much more precise. It is based on an atomic
clock, which uses the energy difference between the two lowest energy states of the
Outermost
cesium atom (133Cs). When bombarded by microwaves of precisely the proper frequency,
electron
cesium atoms undergo a transition from one of these states to the other. One second
Cesium-133
atom (abbreviated s) is defined as the time required for 9,192,631,770 cycles of this microwave
radiation (Fig. 1.3a).

... causes the outermost electron of a Length

cesium-133 atom to reverse its spin direction.
In 1960 an atomic standard for the meter was also established, using the wavelength of the
orange-red light emitted by excited atoms of krypton 186Kr2. From this length standard,
the speed of light in vacuum was measured to be 299,792,458 m>s. In November 1983, the
Cesium-133
length standard was changed again so that the speed of light in vacuum was defined to be
atom precisely 299,792,458 m>s. Hence the new definition of the meter (abbreviated m) is the
distance that light travels in vacuum in 1>299,792,458 second (Fig. 1.3b). This modern
definition provides a much more precise standard of length than the one based on a wave-
length of light.
An atomic clock uses this phenomenon to tune
microwaves to this exact frequency. It then
counts 1 second for each 9,192,631,770 cycles.
Mass
Until recently the unit of mass, the kilogram (abbreviated kg), was defined to be the
(b) Measuring the meter
mass of a metal cylinder kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in
France (Fig. 1.4). This was a very inconvenient standard to use. Since 2018 the value of
0:00 s 0:01 s the k­ ilogram has been based on a fundamental constant of nature called Planck’s constant
(symbol h), whose defined value h = 6.62607015 * 10 -34 kg # m2>s is related to those of
the kilogram, meter, and second. Given the values of the meter and the second, the masses
Light
source Light travels exactly of objects can be experimentally determined in terms of h. (We’ll explain the meaning of
299,792,458 m in 1 s. h in Chapter 28.) The gram (which is not a fundamental unit) is 0.001 kilogram.
 1.3 Standards and Units    5

Other derived units can be formed from the fundamental units. For example, the units Figure 1.4 Until 2018 a metal cylinder
of speed are meters per second, or m>s; these are the units of length (m) divided by the was used to define the value of the
kilogram. (The one shown here, a copy
units of time (s).
of the one in France, was maintained by
the U. S. National Institute of Standards
and Technology.) Today the kilogram is
Unit Prefixes defined in terms of one of the fundamental
constants of nature.
Once we have defined the fundamental units, it is easy to introduce larger and smaller
units for the same physical quantities. In the metric system these other units are related to
1
the fundamental units (or, in the case of mass, to the gram) by multiples of 10 or 10 . Thus
1
one kilometer 11 km2 is 1000 meters, and one centimeter 11 cm2 is 100 meter. We usually
1
express multiples of 10 or 10 in exponential notation: 1000 = 103, 1000
1
= 10-3, and so on.
3 -2
With this notation, 1 km = 10 m and 1 cm = 10 m.
The names of the additional units are derived by adding a prefix to the name of the
fundamental unit. For example, the prefix “kilo-,” abbreviated k, always means a unit
larger by a factor of 1000; thus

1 kilometer = 1 km = 103 meters = 103 m

1 kilogram = 1 kg = 103 grams = 103 g

1 kilowatt = 1 kW = 103 watts = 103 W

A table in Appendix A lists the standard SI units, with their meanings and abbreviations.
Table 1.1 gives some examples of the use of multiples of 10 and their prefixes with the
units of length, mass, and time. Figure 1.5 (next page) shows how these prefixes are used
to describe both large and small distances.

The British System

Finally, we mention the British system of units. These units are used in only the United
States and a few other countries, and in most of these they are being replaced by SI units.
British units are now officially defined in terms of SI units, as follows:

Length:  1 inch = 2.54 cm (exactly)

Force:  1 pound = 4.448221615260 newtons (exactly)

The newton, abbreviated N, is the SI unit of force. The British unit of time is the second,
defined the same way as in SI. In physics, British units are used in mechanics and thermo-
dynamics only; there is no British system of electrical units.

TABLE 1.1 Some Units of Length, Mass, and Time

Length Mass Time

1 nanometer = 1 nm = 10-9 m 1 microgram = 1 mg = 10-6 g = 10-9 kg 1 nanosecond = 1 ns = 10-9 s
(a few times the size of the largest atom) (mass of a very small dust particle) (time for light to travel 0.3 m)
1 micrometer = 1 mm = 10-6 m 1 milligram = 1 mg = 10-3 g = 10-6 kg 1 microsecond = 1 ms = 10-6 s
(size of some bacteria and other cells) (mass of a grain of salt) (time for space station to move 8 mm)
1 millimeter = 1 mm = 10-3 m 1 gram = 1 g = 10-3 kg 1 millisecond = 1 ms = 10-3 s
(diameter of the point of a ballpoint pen) (mass of a paper clip) (time for a car moving at freeway speed
to travel 3 cm)
1 centimeter = 1 cm = 10-2 m
(diameter of your little finger)
1 kilometer = 1 km = 103 m
(distance in a 10 minute walk)
6    CHAPTER 1 Units, Physical Quantities, and Vectors

Figure 1.5 Some typical lengths in the universe.

Note: (f) is a scanning tunneling

microscope image of atoms on a
crystal surface; (g) is an artist’s
impression.

(a) 10 26 m
Limit of the (b) 1011 m
observable Distance to (c) 107 m
universe the sun Diameter of (d) 1 m
the earth Human (e) 10 - 5 m
dimensions Diameter of a
red blood cell (f) 10 -10 m
Radius of an (g) 10 - 14 m
atom Radius of an
atomic nucleus

Figure 1.6 Many everyday items make In this book we use SI units for all examples and problems, but we occasionally give
use of both SI and British units. An approximate equivalents in British units. As you do problems using SI units, you may also
example is this speedometer from a
wish to convert to the approximate British equivalents if they are more familiar to you
U.S.-built car, which shows the speed in
both k­ ilometers per hour (inner scale) and (Fig. 1.6). But you should try to think in SI units as much as you can.
miles per hour (outer scale).

1.4 USING AND CONVERTING UNITS

We use equations to express relationships among physical quantities, represented
by algebraic symbols. Each algebraic symbol always denotes both a number and a
unit. For example, d might represent a distance of 10 m, t a time of 5 s, and v a speed
of 2 m>s.
An equation must always be dimensionally consistent. You can’t add apples and au-
tomobiles; two terms may be added or equated only if they have the same units. For ex-
ample, if an object moving with constant speed v travels a distance d in a time t, these
quantities are related by the equation

d = vt

If d is measured in meters, then the product vt must also be expressed in meters. Using the
above numbers as an example, we may write

m
10 m = a 2 b (5 s)
s

Because the unit s in the denominator of m>s cancels, the product has units of meters, as
it must. In calculations, units are treated just like algebraic symbols with respect to multi-
plication and division.

   CAUTION    Always use units in calcula­tions Make it a habit to always write numbers with
the correct units and carry the units through the calculation as in the example above. This pro-
vides a very useful check. If at some stage in a calculation you find that an equation or an
expression has inconsistent units, you know you have made an error. In this book we’ll always
carry units through all calculations, and we strongly urge you to follow this practice when you
solve problems. ❙
 1.4 Using and Converting Units    7

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY 1.2 Unit Conversions

IDENTIFY the relevant concepts: In most cases, it’s best to use the (which we call unit multipliers) without changing that quantity’s
fundamental SI units (lengths in meters, masses in kilograms, and physical meaning. For example, to find the number of seconds in
times in seconds) in every problem. If you need the answer to be in a 3 min, we write
different set of units (such as kilometers, grams, or hours), wait until
the end of the problem to make the conversion. 60 s
3 min = (3 min) a b = 180 s
1 min
SET UP the problem and EXECUTE the solution: Units are multi-
plied and divided just like ordinary algebraic symbols. This gives us EVALUATE your answer: If you do your unit conversions correctly,
an easy way to convert a quantity from one set of units to another: unwanted units will cancel, as in the example above. If, instead, you
Express the same physical quantity in two different units and form had multiplied 3 min by (1 min)>(60 s), your result would have been
1
an equality. the nonsensical 20 min2>s. To be sure you convert units properly, in-
For example, when we say that 1 min = 60 s, we don’t mean clude the units at all stages of the calculation.
that the number 1 is equal to the number 60; rather, we mean that Finally, check whether your answer is reasonable. For exam-
1 min represents the same physical time interval as 60 s. For this ple, the result 3 min = 180 s is reasonable because the second is a
reason, the ratio (1 min)>(60 s) equals 1, as does its reciprocal, smaller unit than the minute, so there are more seconds than minutes
(60 s)>(1 min). We may multiply a quantity by either of these f­ actors in the same time interval.

EXAMPLE 1.1 Converting speed units

The world land speed record of 763.0 mi>h was set on October 15, EVALUATE This example shows a useful rule of thumb: A speed
1997, by Andy Green in the jet-engine car Thrust SSC. Express this e­ xpressed in m>s is a bit less than half the value expressed in mi>h, and
speed in meters per second. a bit less than one-third the value expressed in km>h. For example, a
normal freeway speed is about 30 m>s = 67 mi>h = 108 km>h, and a
IDENTIFY, SET UP, and EXECUTE We need to convert the units of a
typical walking speed is about 1.4 m>s = 3.1 mi>h = 5.0 km>h.
speed from mi>h to m>s. We must therefore find unit multipliers that re-
late (i) miles to meters and (ii) hours to seconds. In Appendix E we find KEYCONCEPT To convert units, multiply by an appropriate unit
the equalities 1 mi = 1.609 km, 1 km = 1000 m, and 1 h = 3600 s. We multiplier.
set up the conversion as follows, which ensures that all the desired can-
cellations by division take place:

mi 1.609 km 1000 m 1h
763.0 mi>h = a763.0 ba ba ba b
h 1 mi 1 km 3600 s
= 341.0 m>s

EXAMPLE 1.2 Converting volume units

One of the world’s largest cut diamonds is the First Star of Africa Appendix E also gives us 1 m = 100 cm, so
(mounted in the British Royal Sceptre and kept in the Tower of
London). Its volume is 1.84 cubic inches. What is its volume in cubic 1m 3
30.2 cm3 = 130.2 cm32a b
centimeters? In cubic meters? 100 cm
IDENTIFY, SET UP, and EXECUTE Here we are to convert the units of 1 3 cm3 m3
3 3 = 130.22a b = 30.2 * 10-6 m3
a volume from cubic inches 1in. 2 to both cubic centimeters 1cm 2 and 100 cm3
cubic meters 1m32. Appendix E gives us the equality 1 in. = 2.540 cm,
from which we obtain 1 in.3 = (2.54 cm)3. We then have = 3.02 * 10-5 m3

EVALUATE Following the pattern of these conversions, can you show

2.54 cm 3 that 1 in.3 ≈ 16 cm3 and that 1 m3 ≈ 60,000 in.3?
1.84 in.3 = 11.84 in.32a b
1 in.
KEYCONCEPT If the units of a quantity are a product of simpler
3 in.3 cm3 3 units, such as m3 = m * m * m, use a product of unit multipliers to
= 11.84212.542 = 30.2 cm
in.3 convert these units.
8    CHAPTER 1 Units, Physical Quantities, and Vectors

Figure 1.7 This spectacular mishap was

the r­ esult of a very small percent error—­ 1.5 UNCERTAINTY AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
traveling a few meters too far at the end
of a journey of hundreds of thousands of
Measurements always have uncertainties. If you measure the thickness of the cover of a
meters. hardbound version of this book using an ordinary ruler, your measurement is reliable to
only the nearest millimeter, and your result will be 3 mm. It would be wrong to state this
result as 3.00 mm; given the limitations of the measuring ­device, you can’t tell whether
the actual thickness is 3.00 mm, 2.85 mm, or 3.11 mm. But if you use a micrometer cali-
per, a device that measures distances reliably to the nearest 0.01 mm, the result will be
2.91 mm. The distinction between the measurements with a ruler and with a caliper is in
their uncertainty; the measurement with a caliper has a smaller uncertainty. The uncer-
tainty is also called the error because it indicates the maximum difference there is likely
to be between the measured value and the true value. The uncertainty or error of a mea-
sured value depends on the measurement technique used.
We often indicate the accuracy of a measured value—that is, how close it is likely
to be to the true value—by writing the number, the symbol {, and a second number
indicating the uncertainty of the measurement. If the diameter of a steel rod is given as
56.47 { 0.02 mm, this means that the true value is likely to be within the range from
56.45 mm to 56.49 mm. In a commonly used shorthand notation, the number 1.64541212
means 1.6454 { 0.0021. The numbers in parentheses show the uncertainty in the final
digits of the main number.
We can also express accuracy in terms of the maximum likely fractional error or
percent error (also called fractional uncertainty and percent uncertainty). A resistor la-
beled ;47 ohms { 10%< probably has a true resistance that differs from 47 ohms by no
more than 10% of 47 ohms—that is, by about 5 ohms. The resistance is probably between
TABLE 1.2 Using Significant Figures 42 and 52 ohms. For the diameter of the steel rod given above, the fractional error is
10.02 mm2>156.47 mm2, or about 0.0004; the percent error is 10.000421100%2, or about
Multiplication or division:
Result can have no more significant figures 0.04%. Even small percent errors can be very significant (Fig. 1.7).
than the factor with the fewest significant figures: In many cases the uncertainty of a number is not stated explicitly. Instead, the uncer-
tainty is indicated by the number of meaningful digits, or significant ­figures, in the mea-
0.745 * 2.2 sured value. We gave the thickness of the cover of the book as 2.91 mm, which has three
= 0.42
3.885 significant figures. By this we mean that the first two digits are known to be correct, while
1.32578 * 107 * 4.11 * 10 - 3 = 5.45 * 104 the third digit is uncertain. The last digit is in the ­hundredths place, so the uncertainty is
about 0.01 mm. Two values with the same number of significant figures may have different
Addition or subtraction: uncertainties; a distance given as 137 km also has three significant figures, but the uncer-
Number of significant figures is determined by tainty is about 1 km. A distance given as 0.25 km has two significant figures (the zero to the
the term with the largest uncertainty (i.e., fewest left of the decimal point doesn’t count); if given as 0.250 km, it has three significant figures.
digits to the right of the decimal point):
When you use numbers that have uncertainties to compute other numbers, the com-
puted numbers are also uncertain. When numbers are multiplied or divided, the result
27.153 + 138.2 - 11.74 = 153.6 can have no more significant figures than the factor with the fewest significant figures
has. For example, 3.1416 * 2.34 * 0.58 = 4.3. When we add and subtract numbers, it’s
the location of the decimal point that matters, not the number of significant figures. For
example, 123.62 + 8.9 = 132.5. Although 123.62 has an uncertainty of about 0.01, 8.9
Figure 1.8 Determining the value of p from has an uncertainty of about 0.1. So their sum has an uncertainty of about 0.1 and should
the circumference and diameter of a circle. be written as 132.5, not 132.52. Table 1.2 summarizes these rules for significant figures.
To apply these ideas, suppose you want to verify the value of p, the ratio of the circum-
ference of a circle to its diameter. The true value of this ratio to ten digits is 3.141592654.
To test this, you draw a large circle and measure its circumference and diameter to the
nearest millimeter, obtaining the values 424 mm and 135 mm (Fig. 1.8). You enter these
into your calculator and obtain the quotient 1424 mm2>1135 mm2 = 3.140740741. This
may seem to disagree with the true value of p, but keep in mind that each of your mea-
135 mm surements has three significant figures, so your measured value of p can have only three
significant figures. It should be stated simply as 3.14. Within the limit of three significant
figures, your value does agree with the true value.
424 mm In the examples and problems in this book we usually give numerical values with three
significant figures, so your answers should usually have no more than three significant fig-
The measured values have only three significant
figures, so their calculated ratio (p) also has ures. (Many numbers in the real world have even less accuracy. The speedometer in a car,
only three significant figures. for example, usually gives only two significant figures.) Even if you do the arithmetic with a
 1.5 Uncertainty and Significant Figures    9

calculator that displays ten digits, a ten-digit answer would misrepresent the accuracy of the
results. Always round your final answer to keep only the correct number of significant figures
or, in doubtful cases, one more at most. In Example 1.1 it would have been wrong to state
the answer as 341.01861 m>s. Note that when you reduce such an answer to the appropriate
number of significant figures, you must round, not truncate. Your calculator will tell you that
the ratio of 525 m to 311 m is 1.688102894; to three significant figures, this is 1.69, not 1.68.
Here’s a special note about calculations that involve multiple steps: As you work, it’s helpful
to keep extra significant figures in your calculations. Once you have your final answer, round it
to the correct number of significant figures. This will give you the most accurate results.
When we work with very large or very small numbers, we can show significant figures
much more easily by using scientific notation, sometimes called powers-of-10 notation.
The distance from the earth to the moon is about 384,000,000 m, but writing the number in
this form doesn’t indicate the number of significant figures. Instead, we move the decimal
point eight places to the left (corresponding to dividing by 108) and multiply by 108; that is,
384,000,000 m = 3.84 * 108 m
In this form, it is clear that we have three significant figures. The number 4.00 * 10-7
also has three significant figures, even though two of them are zeros. Note that in scien-
tific notation the usual practice is to express the quantity as a number between 1 and 10
multiplied by the appropriate power of 10.
When an integer or a fraction occurs in an algebraic equation, we treat that number
as having no uncertainty at all. For example, in the equation vx2 = v0x2 + 2ax 1x - x02,
which is Eq. (2.13) in Chapter 2, the coefficient 2 is exactly 2. We can consider this coeffi-
cient as having an infinite number of significant figures (2.000000 c). The same is true
of the exponent 2 in vx2 and v0x2.
Finally, let’s note that precision is not the same as accuracy. A cheap digital watch that
gives the time as 10:35:17 a.m. is very precise (the time is given to the second), but if the watch
runs several minutes slow, then this value isn’t very accurate. On the other hand, a grandfather
clock might be very accurate (that is, display the correct time), but if the clock has no second
hand, it isn’t very precise. A high-quality measurement is both precise and accurate.

EXAMPLE 1.3 Significant figures in multiplication

The rest energy E of an object with rest mass m is given by Albert Since the value of m was given to only three significant figures, we
Einstein’s famous equation E = mc2, where c is the speed of light must round this to
in vacuum. Find E for an electron for which (to three significant
figures) m = 9.11 * 10-31 kg. The SI unit for E is the joule (J); E = 8.19 * 10-14 kg # m2>s2 = 8.19 * 10-14 J
1 J = 1 kg # m2>s2.
EVALUATE While the rest energy contained in an electron may seem
IDENTIFY and SET UP Our target variable is the energy E. We are given ridiculously small, on the atomic scale it is tremendous. Compare our
the value of the mass m; from Section 1.3 (or Appendix F) the speed of answer to 10-19 J, the energy gained or lost by a single atom during
light is c = 2.99792458 * 108 m>s. a typical chemical reaction. The rest energy of an electron is about
EXECUTE Substituting the values of m and c into Einstein’s equation, 1,000,000 times larger! (We’ll discuss the significance of rest energy in
we find Chapter 37.)

E = 19.11 * 10-31 kg212.99792458 * 108 m>s22 KEYCONCEPT When you are multiplying (or dividing) quantities,
= 19.11212.9979245822110-312110822 kg # m2>s2 the result can have no more significant figures than the quantity with the
= 181.8765967821103 - 31 + 12 * 8242 kg # m2>s2
fewest significant figures.

= 8.187659678 * 10-14 kg # m2>s2

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 1.5 The density of a material is equal to its
mass divided by its volume. What is the density 1in kg>m32 of a rock of mass 1.80 kg and volume
6.0 * 10-4 m3? (i) 3 * 103 kg>m3; (ii) 3.0 * 103 kg >m3; (iii) 3.00 * 103 kg>m3;
(iv) 3.000 * 103 kg>m3; (v) any of these—all of these answers are mathematically equivalent.

ANSWER
❙ (ii) Density = 11.80 kg2>16.0 * 10-4 m32 = 3.0 * 103 kg>m3. When we multiply or divide, the
number with the fewest significant figures controls the number of significant figures in the result.
10    CHAPTER 1 Units, Physical Quantities, and Vectors

1.6 ESTIMATES AND ORDERS OF MAGNITUDE

We have stressed the importance of knowing the accuracy of numbers that represent phys-
ical quantities. But even a very crude estimate of a quantity often gives us useful informa-
tion. Sometimes we know how to calculate a certain quantity, but we have to guess at the
data we need for the calculation. Or the calculation might be too complicated to carry out
exactly, so we make rough approximations. In either case our result is also a guess, but
such a guess can be useful even if it is uncertain by a factor of two, ten, or more. Such cal-
culations are called order-of-magnitude estimates. The great Italian-American nuclear
physicist Enrico Fermi (1901–1954) called them “back-of-the-envelope calculations.”
Exercises 1.15 through 1.20 at the end of this chapter are of the estimating, or order-of-
magnitude, variety. Most require guesswork for the needed input data. Don’t try to look up
a lot of data; make the best guesses you can. Even when they are off by a factor of ten, the
results can be useful and interesting.

EXAMPLE 1.4 An order-of-magnitude estimate

You are writing an adventure novel in which the hero escapes with a Roughly what is the volume of this gold? The density of water is
billion dollars’ worth of gold in his suitcase. Could anyone carry that 103 kg>m3; if gold, which is much denser than water, has a density 10
much gold? Would it fit in a suitcase? times greater, then 104 kg of gold fits into a volume of 1 m3. So 109 dollars’
worth of gold has a volume of 2 m 3, many times the volume of a
IDENTIFY, SET UP, and EXECUTE Gold sells for about $1400 an
1 suitcase.
ounce, or about $100 for 14 ounce. (The price per ounce has varied
between $200 and $1900 over the past twenty years or so.) An ounce EVALUATE Clearly your novel needs rewriting. Try the calculation
1
is about 30 grams, so $100 worth of gold has a mass of about 14 of again with a suitcase full of five-carat (1-gram) diamonds, each worth
9
30 grams, or roughly 2 grams. A billion 110 2 dollars’ worth of gold $500,000. Would this work?
has a mass 107 times greater, about 2 * 107 120 million2 grams or
KEYCONCEPT To decide whether the numerical value of a quantity
2 * 104 120,0002 kilograms. A thousand kilograms has a weight in
is reasonable, assess the quantity in terms of other quantities that you
British units of about a ton, so the suitcase weighs roughly 20 tons!
can estimate, even if only roughly.
No human could lift it.

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 1.6 Can you estimate the total number of teeth
in the mouths of all the students on your campus? (Hint: How many teeth are in your mouth?
Count them!)

ANSWER ❙ The answer depends on how many students are enrolled at your campus.

APPLICATION Scalar
Temperature, Vector Wind The 1.7 VECTORS AND VECTOR ADDITION
comfort level on a wintry day depends
on the temperature, a scalar quantity Some physical quantities, such as time, temperature, mass, and density, can be described
that can be positive or negative (say, completely by a single number with a unit. But many other important quantities in phys-
+ 5°C or - 20°C) but has no direction. ics have a direction associated with them and cannot be described by a single number. A
It also depends on the wind velocity, a simple example is the motion of an airplane: We must say not only how fast the plane is
vector quantity with both magnitude and
moving but also in what direction. The speed of the airplane combined with its direction
direction (for example, 15 km>h from
the west). of motion constitute a quantity called velocity. Another example is force, which in physics
means a push or pull exerted on an object. Giving a complete description of a force means
describing both how hard the force pushes or pulls on the object and the direction of the
push or pull.
When a physical quantity is described by a single number, we call it a ­scalar quantity.
In contrast, a vector quantity has both a magnitude (the “how much” or “how big” part)
and a direction in space. Calculations that combine scalar quantities use the operations of
ordinary arithmetic. For example, 6 kg + 3 kg = 9 kg, or 4 * 2 s = 8 s. However, com-
bining vectors requires a different set of operations.
To understand more about vectors and how they combine, we start with the simplest
vector quantity, displacement. Displacement is a change in the position of an object.
 1.7 Vectors and Vector Addition    11

Displacement is a vector quantity because we must state not only how far the object moves Figure 1.9 Displacement as a vector
but also in what direction. Walking 3 km north from your front door doesn’t get you to the quantity.
same place as walking 3 km southeast; these two displacements have the same magnitude (a) We represent a displacement by an arrow that
but different directions. points in the direction of displacement.
We usually represent a vector quantity such as displacement by a single letter, such as Ending position: P2
S
A in Fig. 1.9a. In this book we always print vector symbols in boldface italic type with an S
arrow above them. We do this to remind you that vector quantities have different proper- Displacement A
ties from scalar quantities; the arrow is a reminder that vectors have direction. When you Starting position: P1
handwrite a symbol for a vector, always write it with an arrow on top. If you don’t distin-
Handwritten notation:
guish between scalar and vector quantities in your notation, you probably won’t make the
distinction in your thinking either, and confusion will result.
(b) A displacement is always a straight arrow
We always draw a vector as a line with an arrowhead at its tip. The length of the line directed from the starting position to the ending
shows the vector’s magnitude, and the direction of the arrowhead shows the vector’s direc- position. It does not depend on the path taken,
tion. Displacement is always a straight-line segment directed from the starting point to the even if the path is curved.
ending point, even though the object’s actual path may be curved (Fig. 1.9b). Note that dis- P2
placement is not related directly to the total distance traveled. If the object were to continue
S
A
past P2 and then return to P1 , the displacement for the entire trip would be zero (Fig. 1.9c). Path taken
If two vectors have the same direction, they are parallel. If they have the same mag- P1
nitude and theS
same direction, they are equal, no matter where they are ­located in space.
The vector SA ′ from point P3 to point P4 in Fig. 1.10 has the same length and direction as (c) Total displacement for a round trip is 0,
the vector A from P1 to P2 . TheseS two displacements
S
are equal, even though they start at regardless of the path taken or distance traveled.
different points. We write this as A ′ = A in Fig. 1.10; the boldface equals sign emphasizes
that equality of two vector quantities is not the same relationship as equality of two scalar
quantities. Two vector quantities are equal only when they have the same magnitude and
the same direction.
S S P1
Vector
S
B in Fig. 1.10, however, is not equal to A because its direction is ­opposite that
of A. We define the negative of a vector as a vector having the same magnitude as the
S
original vector but the opposite direction. The negative of vector quantity A is denoted as Figure 1.10 The meaning of vectors that
S
−AS, and we use a boldface Sminus sign to emphasize the vector nature of the quantities. have the same magnitude and the same or
If
S
A is S87 m south, thenS −A is S87 mS north. SThus we can write theS relationship
S
between opposite direction.
A and B in Fig. 1.10 as A = − B or B = − A. When two vectors A and B have opposite P2 P4 P5
directions, whether their magnitudes are the same or not, we say that they are antiparallel.
We usually represent the magnitude of a vector quantity by the same letter used for S S S S S

the vector, but in lightface italic type with no arrow on top. For example, if displacement A A′ = A B = −A
S
vector A is 87 m south, then A = 87 m. An alternative notation is the vector symbol with
P1 P3 P6
vertical bars on both sides:
S S S
S S Displacements A and A′ Displacement B has
1Magnitude of A2 = A = 0 A 0 (1.1) are equal because they theSsame magnitude
have the same length as A but opposite
The magnitude of a vector quantity is a scalar quantity (a number) and is a­ lways positive. and direction.
S
direction; BSis the
Note that a vector can never
S
be equal to a scalar because they are different kinds of quan- negative of A.
tities. The expression ;A = 6 m< is just as wrong as ;2 oranges = 3 apples<!
When we draw diagrams with vectors, it’s best to use a scale similar to those used for
maps. For example, a displacement of 5 km might be represented in a diagram by a vector
1 cm long, and a displacement of 10 km by a vector 2 cm long.

Vector Addition and Subtraction

S S
Suppose a particle undergoes a displacement A followed by a second displacement B. The
final result is the same Sas if the particle had started at the same initial point
S
and undergone
a single displacement C (Fig. 1.11a,S
next
S
page). We call displacement C the vector sum,
or resultant, of displacements A and B. We express this relationship symbolically as
S S S
C = A + B (1.2)
The boldface plus sign emphasizes that adding two vector quantities requires a geo-
metrical process and is not the same operation as adding two scalar quantities such as
2 + 3 = 5. In vector addition we usually place the tail of the second vector at the head,
or tip, of the first vector (Fig. 1.11a).
12    CHAPTER 1 Units, Physical Quantities, and Vectors

S S S S
Figure 1.11 Three ways to add two vectors. If we make the displacements A and B in reverse order, with B first and A second, the
(a) We can add two vectors by placing them result is the same (Fig. 1.11b). Thus
head to tail.
S S S S S S S S
The vector sum C ... to the head
S C = B + A and A + B = B + A (1.3)
extends from Sthe of vector B.
tail of vector A ... S
B This shows that the order of terms in a vector sum doesn’t matter. In other words, vector
S
addition obeys the commutative law. S
A S S S
Figure 1.11c shows another way to representS the vector sum: If we draw vectors A
C=A+ B S
and B with their
S
tailsS at the same point, vector C is the diagonal of a parallelogram con-
structed with A and B as two adjacent sides.
(b) Adding them in reverse order gives the same S S S
   CAUTION    Magnitudes in vector addition It’s a common error to conclude that if C = A + B,
S S S S
result: A + B = B + A. The order doesn’t
matter in vector addition. then magnitude C equals magnitude A plus magnitude B. In general, S S
this conclusion is wrong; for
S S S theSvectorsS
shown in Fig. 1.11, C 6 A S
+ B. The
S
magnitude of A + B depends onS the magnitudes
S
C=B+ A S
of A and B and on the angle between A and B . Only in the special case in which A and B are par-
A S S S S S
allel is the magnitude of C = A + B equal to the sum of the magnitudesS
of A and B (Fig. 1.12a).
S
When the vectors
S
are
S
antiparallel (Fig. 1.12b), the magnitude of C equals the difference of the mag-
B nitudes of A and B. Be careful to distinguish between scalar and vector quantities, and you’ll avoid
making errors about the magnitude of a vector sum. ❙
(c) We can also add two vectors by placing them
S S S
tail to tail and constructing a parallelogram. Figure 1.13a shows Sthree vectors A, B, and C. To Sfind the vector sum of all three, in
S S S
Fig. 1.13b we first add A and B to give a vector
S
sum D ; we then add v
­ ectors C and D by
S
A S S S the same process to obtain the vector sum R:
C=A+ B
S S S S S S
S
B R = 1A + B2 + C = D + C
S S S S
Alternatively,
S S
we can first add B and C to obtain vector E (Fig. 1.13c), and then add A and
Figure 1.12 Adding vectors that are (a) E to obtain R:
parallel and (b) antiparallel.
S S S S S S
S
(a) Only when vectors A and B are parallel
S R = A + 1B + C 2 = A + E
S
does the magnitude of their vector sum C equal S S S S S
the sum of their magnitudes: C = A + B. We don’t even need to draw vectors D and E; all we need to do is draw A, B, andSC in suc-
S
A
S
B cession, with the tail of each at the head of the one preceding it. The sum vector R extends
from the tail of the first vector to the head of the last vector (Fig. 1.13d). The order makes
S
C=A+ B
S S no difference; Fig. 1.13e shows a different order, and you should try others. Vector addi-
tion obeys the associative law. S
S S We can subtract vectors as well as add them. To see how, recall that vector −AS has the
(b) When A and B are antiparallel, the S S
S
magnitude of their vector sum C equals the same magnitude S
as A but the opposite direction.
S
We
S
define the difference A − B of two
S
difference of their magnitudes: C = 0 A - B 0. vectors A and B to be the vector sum of A and −B:
S
A S S S S
A − B = A + 1−B2 (1.4)
S S S S
C=A+ B B Figure 1.14 shows an example of vector subtraction.

S S S
Figure 1.13 Several constructions for finding the vector sum A + B + C.
S S S S S S S S
(a) To find the sum of (b) ... add
S
A and B (c) ... or
S
add B and C (d)
S
... or Sadd A, B, and (e)
S
... or add A, B, and
these three vectors ... to
S
getS
D and then add to
S
get S
E and then
S
add C to get R directly ... C in anySother order and
C to D to get theSfinal E to A to get R ... still get R.
sum (resultant) R ...
S S S S
C R R R S
S S S S S
R
A D S A E S A S S
S S C C C B S
A B A S
S S S C
B B B
 1.7 Vectors and Vector Addition    13

S S S
Figure 1.14
S
To construct the vectorS difference
S
A − B, you can either place the tail of −B at the
head of A or place the two vectors A and B head to head.
S S S S S S S S
Subtracting B from A ... ... is equivalent to adding −B to A. A + 1−B2 = A − B

S S S S S S
−B
A
− B
= A
+ = −B
S
S
A + 1−B2
S S = S
B S
S
A−B
S

A =A−B A
S S S S
With
S
A and −B head to tail,
S
With
S
A and B head to head,
S
A − BSis the vector from Sthe A − BSis the vector from S
the
tail of A to the head of −B. tail of A to the tail of B.

A vector quantity such as a displacement

S
can be multiplied by a scalar quantity (an Figure 1.15 Multiplying a vector by a scalar.
ordinary number). The
S
displacement 2A is a displacement (vectorSquantity) in the same (a) Multiplying a vector by a positive scalar
direction as vector A but twice as long; Sthis is the same as adding AS to itself (Fig. 1.15a). changes the magnitude (length) of the vector
In general, when we multiply a vector A by a scalar c, the result S
cA has magnitudeS 0 c 0 A but not its direction.
S
(the absolute value of cSmultiplied by the magnitude
S
of vector A). If c is positive,
S
cA isS in A
the same direction
S
as AS; if c is negative, cA
S
is in the direction opposite to A. Thus 3A is S
2A
parallel to A, while -3A is antiparallel to A (Fig. 1.15b).
A scalar used to multiply a vector canSalso be a physical quantity. S
For example, 2AS is twice as long as A. S

S
you may be familiar with the relationship F = ma; the net force F (a vector quantity)
that acts on an object is equal to the product of the object’s mass S
m (a scalar quan- (b) Multiplying a vector by a negative scalar
S
tity) and its acceleration a (a vector quantity). TheS direction of F is the same as that changes its magnitude and reverses its direction.
S
of a because m is positive, and the magnitude of F is equal to the mass m multiplied A
S

S
by the magnitude of a. The unit of force is the unit of mass multiplied by the unit
S
of acceleration. - 3A
S S
- 3A is three times as long as A and points
in the opposite direction.

EXAMPLE 1.5 Adding two vectors at right angles

A cross-country skier skis 1.00 km north and then 2.00 km east on a Figure 1.16 The vector diagram, drawn to scale, for a ski trip.
horizontal snowfield. How far and in what direction is she from the
starting point? N

W E
IDENTIFY and SET UP The problem involves combining two displace-
S
ments at right angles to each other. This vector addition amounts to
solving a right triangle, so we can use the Pythagorean theorem and 2.00 km
trigonometry. The target variables are the skier’s straight-line distance
and direction from her starting point. Figure 1.16 is a scale diagram of 1.00 km
f
the two displacements and the resultant net displacement. We denote the Resultant displacement
direction from the starting point by the angle f (the Greek letter phi).
The displacement appears to be a bit more than 2 km. Measuring the
angle with a protractor indicates that f is about 63°. 0 1 km 2 km
EXECUTE The distance from the starting point to the ending point is
equal to the length of the hypotenuse:
EVALUATE Our answers (2.24 km and f = 63.4°) are close to our pre-
211.00 km2 2 + 12.00 km2 2 = 2.24 km dictions. In Section 1.8 we’ll learn how to easily add two vectors not at
A little trigonometry (from Appendix B) allows us to find angle f: right angles to each other.

Opposite side KEYCONCEPT In every problem involving vector addition, draw the
2.00 km
tan f = = = 2.00 two vectors being added as well as the vector sum. The head-to-tail ar-
Adjacent side 1.00 km rangement shown in Figs. 1.11a and 1.11b is easiest. This will help you
f = arctan 2.00 = 63.4° to visualize the vectors and understand the direction of the vector sum.
Drawing the vectors is equally important for problems involving vector
We can describe the direction as 63.4° east of north or
subtraction (see Fig. 1.14).
90° - 63.4° = 26.6° north of east.
14    CHAPTER 1 Units, Physical Quantities, and Vectors

S S
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 1.7 Two displacement vectors, S and T, have
magnitudes SS = S3 m and T = 4 m. Which of the following could be the magnitude of the differ-
ence vector S − T? (There may be more than one correct answer.) (i) 9 m; (ii) 7 m; (iii) 5 m; (iv) 1 m;
(v) 0 m; (vi) - 1 m.

ANSWER
because the magnitude of a vector cannot be negative.
only if the two vectors are antiparallel and have the same magnitude; and answer (vi) is impossible
the sum of the magnitudes; answer (v) is impossible because the sum of two vectors can be zero
Answer (i) is impossible because the magnitude of the sum of two vectors cannot be greater than
is 5 m if S and −T are perpendicular, when vectors S, T, and S − T form a 3–4–5 right triangle.
S S
if S and −T S S
are parallel and magnitude 1 m if S andS−T
S
are antiparallel. The magnitude of S − T

❙ (ii), (iii), and (iv) Vector −T has the same magnitude as vector T, so S − T = S + 1−T2 is
the sum of one vector of magnitude 3 m and one of magnitude 4 m. This sum has magnitudeS7 m S
S S S S

S S S S S S

1.8 COMPONENTS OF VECTORS

In Section 1.7 we added vectors by using a scale diagram and properties of right triangles.
But calculations with right triangles work only when the two vectors are perpendicular.
So we need a simple but general method for adding vectors. This is called the method of
components. S
Figure 1.17 Representing a vector A in
S
To define what we mean by the components of a vector A, we Sbegin with a rectangular
terms of its components Ax and Ay. (Cartesian) coordinate
S
system of axes (Fig. 1.17). If we think of A as a displacement vec-
The components of A
S
tor, we can regard A as the sum of a displacement parallel to the x-axis and a displacement
y are the projections parallel to the y-axis. We use the numbers Ax and Ay to tell us how much displacement
of the vector onto there is parallel to the x-axis and how much there is parallel to the y-axis,
S
respectively.
the x- and y-axes. For example, if the +x-axis points east and the +y-axis points north, A in Fig. 1.17 could
S
A be the sum of a 2.00 m displacement to the east and a 1.00 m displacement to the north.
Ay = A sin u Then Ax = +2.00 m and Ay = +1.00 m. We can use the same idea for any vectors,S not
u
x
just displacement vectors. The two numbers Ax and Ay are called the components of A.
O
Ax = A cosu S
   CAUTION    Components are not vectors The components Ax and Ay of a vector A are numbers;
In this case, both Ax and Ay are positive.
they are not vectors themselves. This is why we print the symbols for components in lightface italic
type with no arrow on top instead of in boldface italic with an arrow, which is reserved for vectors. ❙

?
S
We can calculate the components of vector A if we know its magnitude A and its
direction. We’ll describe the direction of a vector by its angle relative to some refer-
ence direction. In
S
Fig. 1.17 this reference direction is the positive x-axis, and the angle
Figure 1.18 The components of a vector
between
S
vector A and the positive x-axis is u (the Greek letter theta). Imagine that vector
may be positive or negative numbers. A originally lies along the +x@axis and that you then rotate it to its true direction, as indi-
cated by the arrow in Fig. 1.17 on the arc for angle u. If this rotation is from the +x@axis
(a) y By is positive. toward the +y@axis, as is the case in Fig. 1.17, then u is positive; if the rotation is from the
S
+x@axis toward the -y@axis, then u is negative. Thus the +y@axis is at an angle of 90°, the
B -x@axis at 180°, and the -y@axis at 270° (or -90°). If u is measured in this way, then from
By 1+2
u the definition of the trigonometric functions,
x Ax Ay
Bx 1-2 = cos u and = sin u
Bx is negative. A A (1.5)
Ax = A cos u and Ay = A sin u
(b) y 1u measured from the +x@axis, rotating toward the +y@axis2
u
Cx 1-2 In Fig. 1.17 Ax and Ay are positive. This is consistent with Eqs. (1.5); u is in the first
x
quadrant (between 0° and 90°), and both the cosine and the sine of an angle in this quad-
rant are positive. But in Fig. 1.18a the component Bx is negative andS the component By
Cy 1-2
S
C is positive. (If the +x-axis points east and the +y-axis points north, B could represent a
displacement of 2.00 m west and 1.00 m north. Since west is in the –x-direction and north
S
Both components of C are negative. is in the +y-direction, Bx = -2.00 m is negative and By = +1.00 m is positive.) Again,
 1.8 Components of Vectors    15

this is consistent with Eqs. (1.5); now u is in the second quadrant, so cos u is negative and
sin u is positive. In Fig. 1.18b both Cx and Cy are negative (both cos u and sin u are negative
in the third quadrant).

   CAUTION    Relating a vector’s magnitude and direction to its components Equations (1.5) are
correct only when the angle u is measured from the positive x-axis. If the angle of the vector is
given from a different reference direction or you use a different rotation direction, the relationships
are different! Example 1.6 illustrates this point. ❙

EXAMPLE 1.6 Finding components

S
(a) What are the x- and y-components of vector D in Fig. 1.19a? The EXECUTE (a) The angle a (the Greek letter alpha) between the positive
S
magnitude of the vector is D = 3.00 m,S and angle a = 45°. (b) What x-axis and D is measured toward the negative y-axis. The angle we
are the x- and y-components of vector E in Fig. 1.19b? The magnitude must use in Eqs. (1.5) is u = - a = - 45°. We then find
of the vector is E = 4.50 m, and angle b = 37.0°.
Dx = D cos u = 13.00 m21cos1- 45°22 = + 2.1 m
IDENTIFY and SET UP We can use Eqs. (1.5) to find the components of
these vectors, but we must be careful: Neither angle a nor b in Fig. 1.19 Dy = D sin u = 13.00 m21sin1- 45°22 = - 2.1 m
is measured from the + x@axis toward the +y@axis. We estimate from the
figure that the lengths of both components in part (a) are roughly 2 m, Had we carelessly substituted +45° for u in Eqs. (1.5), our result for Dy
and that those in part (b) are 3 m and 4 m. The figure indicates the signs would have had the wrong sign.
of the components. (b) The x- and y-axes in Fig. 1.19b are at right angles, so it doesn’t
matter that they aren’t horizontal and vertical, respectively. But we
Figure 1.19 Calculating the x- and y-components of vectors. can’t use the angle b (the Greek letter beta) in Eqs. (1.5), because
b is measured from the +y-axis. Instead, we must use the angle
(a) Angle a is (b) Angle b is measured from the
u = 90.0° - b = 90.0° - 37.0° = 53.0°. Then we find
measured in the +y-axis, not from the +x-axis.
y wrong sense from Ex = E cos 53.0° = 14.50 m21cos 53.0°2 = + 2.71 m
the + x-axis, so in
Eqs. (1.5) we Ey = E sin 53.0° = 14.50 m21sin 53.0°2 = + 3.59 m
must use -a. Ex 1+2
Dx 1+2 Ey 1+2 EVALUATE Our answers to both parts are close to our predictions.
b u
x But why do the answers in part (a) correctly have only two significant
a S
E figures?
Dy 1-2 S x
D y We must use u,
which is measured from KEYCONCEPT When you are finding the components of a vector,
the +x-axis toward the always use a diagram of the vector and the coordinate axes to guide
+y-axis, in Eqs. (1.5). your calculations.

Using Components to Do Vector Calculations

Using components makes it relatively easy to do various calculations involving
vectors. Let’s look at three important examples: finding a vector’s magnitude and direc-
tion, multiplying a vector by a scalar, and calculating the vector sum of two or more
vectors.
1. Finding a vector’s magnitude and direction from its components. We can de-
scribe a vector completely by giving either its magnitude and direction or its x- and
y-components. Equations (1.5) show how to find the components if we know the
magnitude and direction. We can also reverse the process: We can find the magni-
tude and direction if we know the components. By applying
S
the Pythagorean theo-
rem to Fig. 1.17, we find that the magnitude of vector A is

A = 2Ax2 + Ay2  (1.6)

(We always take the positive root.) Equation (1.6) is valid for any choice of x-axis
and y-axis, as long as they are mutually perpendicular. The expression for the vector
direction comes from the definition of the tangent of an angle. If u is measured from
16    CHAPTER 1 Units, Physical Quantities, and Vectors

Figure 1.20 Drawing a sketch of a vector the positive x-axis, and a positive angle is measured toward the positive y-axis (as in
reveals the signs of its x- and y-components. Fig. 1.17), then
Ay Ay Ay
Suppose that tan u =
Ax
= +1. What is u? tan u = and u = arctan (1.7)
Ax Ax
Two angles have tangents of +1: 45° and 225°. We’ll always use the notation arctan for the inverse tangent function (see Example
The diagram shows that u must be 225°.
1.5 in Section 1.7). The notation tan-1 is also commonly used, and your calculator
y
may have an INV or 2ND button to be used with the TAN button.

   CAUTION    Finding the direction of a vector from its components There’s one complica-
45° tion in using Eqs. (1.7) to find u: Any two angles that differ by 180° have the same tangent.
Ax = - 2 m
x For example, in Fig. 1.20 the tangent of the angle u is tan u = Ay>Ax = + 1. A calculator will
225° tell you that u = tan - 11+12 = 45°. But the tangent of 180° + 45° = 225° is also equal to
+1, so u could also be 225° (which is actually the case in Fig. 1.20). Always draw a sketch
like Fig. 1.20 to ­determine which of the two possibilities is ­correct. ❙
S
A Ay = - 2 m S
2. Multiplying a vectorS
by aSscalar. If we multiply a vector A by a scalar c, each compo-
S
nent of the product D = cA is the product of c and the corresponding component of A:
S S
Dx = cAx , Dy = cAy (components of D = cA) (1.8)
S
For example, Eqs. (1.8) say that each
S
component
S
of the vector 2A is twice
S
as great as
the corresponding component of A, so 2A is in theS same direction as A but has twice
the magnitude. Each component
S
of the vector -3A is three Stimes as great as the cor-
Figure 1.21 Finding the vector sum respondingScomponent of A but has the opposite sign, so -3A is in the opposite direc-
S S
­(resultant) of A and B using components. tion from A and has three times the magnitude. Hence Eqs. (1.8) are consistent with
y S our discussion in Section 1.7 of multiplying a vector by a scalar (see Fig. 1.15).
R is the vectorSsum S
(resultant) of A and B. 3. Using components to calculateSthe vectorS
sum (resultant) ofS two or more vectors.
S Figure 1.21 shows two vectors A and B and their vector sum R, along with the x- and
R
By y-components of all three vectors. The x-component Rx of the vector sum is simply the
S
B sum 1Ax + Bx2 of the x-components of the vectors being added. The same is true for
Ry the y-components. In symbols,
S S S S
Ay A Each component of R = A + B ...
x
O Ax Bx Rx = Ax + Bx , Ry = Ay + By (1.9)
S S
... is the sum of the corresponding components of A and B.
Rx
S
The components of R Sare theSsums
of the components of A and B: Figure 1.21 shows this result for the case in which the components Ax , Ay , Bx , and
Ry = Ay + By Rx = Ax + Bx By are all positive. Draw additional diagrams
S
to verify
S
for yourself that Eqs. (1.9) are
valid for any signs of the components of A and B. S S
If we know the components of any two vectors A and BS, perhaps by using Eqs.
(1.5), we can compute the Scomponents of the vector sum R. Then if we need the
magnitude and direction of R, we can obtain them from Eqs. (1.6) and (1.7) with the
A’s replaced by R’s.
Figure 1.22 A vector in three dimensions. S
We can use the Ssame procedure to find the sum of any Snumber of vectors. If R is
S S S S
In three dimensions, a vector has
the vector sum of A, B, C, D, E, c, the components of R are
x-, y-, and z-components.
z
Rx = Ax + Bx + Cx + Dx + Ex + g
(1.10)
S
A Ry = Ay + By + Cy + Dy + Ey + g 
We have talked about vectors that lie in the xy-plane only, but the compo-
Az y nent method works just as well for vectors having any direction in space. We can
S
­introduce a z-axis perpendicular to the xy-plane; then in general a vector A has com-
Ay
ponents Ax, Ay, and Az in the three coordinate directions. Its magnitude A is
Ax A = 2Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2  (1.11)

x Again, we always take the positive root (Fig. 1.22). Also, Eqs. (1.10) for the vector
S

The magnitude of vector A

S
sum R have a third component:
is A = 2Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2 . Rz = Az + Bz + Cz + Dz + Ez + g
 1.8 Components of Vectors    17

We’ve focused on adding displacement vectors, but the method is applicable to

all vector quantities. When we study the concept of force in Chapter 4, we’ll find
that forces are vectors that obey the same rules of vector addition.

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY 1.3 Vector Addition

IDENTIFY the relevant concepts: Decide what the target variable is. It If the angles of the vectors are given in some other way, perhaps
may be the magnitude of the vector sum, the direction, or both. using a different reference direction, convert them to ­angles mea-
sured from the +x@axis as in Example 1.6.
SET UP the problem: Sketch the vectors being added, along with suit- 2. Add the individual x-components algebraically (including signs)
able coordinate axes. Place the tail of the first vector at the origin of to find Rx, the x-component of the vector sum. Do the same for
the ­coordinates, place the tail of the second Svector at the head of the the y-components to find Ry. See Example 1.7.
first ­vector, and so on. Draw the vector sum R from the tail of the first 3. Calculate the magnitude R and direction u of the vector sum by
­vector (at the origin) to the head of the last
S
vector. Use your sketch to using Eqs. (1.6) and (1.7):
estimate the magnitude and direction of R. Select the equations you’ll
Ry
need: Eqs. (1.5) to obtain the components of the vectors given, if neces- R = 2Rx2 + Ry2  u = arctan
sary, Eqs. (1.10) to obtain the components of the vector sum, Eq. (1.11) Rx
to obtain its magnitude, and Eqs. (1.7) to obtain its direction. EVALUATE your answer: Confirm that your results for the magnitude
and direction of the vector sum agree with the estimates you made
EXECUTE the solution as follows:
from your sketch. The value of u that you find with a calculator may
1. Find the x- and y-components of each individual vector and be off by 180°; your drawing will indicate the correct value. (See
­record your results in a table, as in Example 1.7 below. If a vector Example 1.7 below for an illustration of this.)
is described by a magnitude A and an angle u, measured from the
+x@axis toward the +y@axis, then its components are given by
Eqs. (1.5):
Ax = A cos u  Ay = A sin u

EXAMPLE 1.7 Using components to add vectors WITH ARIATION PROBLEMS

S S S
Three players on a reality TV show are brought to the center of a Figure 1.23 Three successive displacements
S S
AS, B, and
S
C and the
large, flat field. Each is given a meter stick, a compass, a calculator, a resultant (vector sum) displacement R = A + B + C.
shovel, and (in a different order for each contestant) the following three y (north)
displacements:
S 36.0°
A: 72.4 m, 32.0° east of north
S
B: 57.3 m, 36.0° south of west 57.3 m
S
C: 17.8 m due south S
B
The three displacements lead to the point in the field where the keys to
a new Porsche are buried. Two players start measuring immediately,
but the winner first calculates where to go. What does she calculate?
S

IDENTIFY and SET UP The goal is to find the sum (resultant) of the S A 72.4 m
17.8 m C
three displacements, so this is a problem in vector addition. See
32.0°
Fig. 1.23. We have chosen the +x@axis as east and theS
+ y@axis as north.
We estimate from the diagram that the vector sum R is about 10 m, 40° u
west of north (so u is about 90° plus 40°, or about 130°). S
R x (east)
EXECUTE The angles of the vectors, measured from the + x@axis toward O
the +y@axis, are 190.0° - 32.0°2 = 58.0°, 1180.0° + 36.0°2 = 216.0°,
and 270.0°,
S
respectively. We may now use Eqs. (1.5) to find the compo- Distance Angle x-component y-component
nents of A:
A = 72.4 m 58.0° 38.37 m 61.40 m
Ax = A cos uA = 172.4 m21cos 58.0°2 = 38.37 m B = 57.3 m 216.0° - 46.36 m - 33.68 m
Ay = A sin uA = 172.4 m21sin 58.0°2 = 61.40 m C = 17.8 m 270.0° 0.00 m - 17.80 m
We’ve kept an extra significant figure in the components; we’ll round to Rx = -7.99 m Ry = 9.92 m
the correct number of significant figures at the end of our calculation.
R = 21- 7.99 m22 + 19.92 m22 = 12.7 m
The table at right shows the components of all the displacements, the
addition of the components, and the other calculations from Eqs. (1.6) 9.92 m
u = arctan = - 51°
and (1.7). - 7.99 m Continued
18    CHAPTER 1 Units, Physical Quantities, and Vectors

Comparing to angle u in Fig. 1.23 shows that the calculated angle is KEYCONCEPT When you are adding vectors, the x-component of
clearly off by 180°. The correct value is u = 180° + 1-51°2 = 129°, the vector sum is equal to the sum of the x-components of the vectors
or 39° west of north. being added, and likewise for the y-component. Always use a diagram
to help determine the direction of the vector sum.
EVALUATE Our calculated answers for R and u agree with our esti-
mates. Notice how drawing the diagram in Fig. 1.23 made it easy to
avoid a 180° error in the direction of the vector sum.

S S
TEST YOUR
S
UNDERSTANDING OFSSECTION 1.8 Two vectors A and B S
lie in the xy-plane.
(a) Can A have
S
the same magnitude as B but different components? (b) Can A have the same com-
ponents as B but a different magnitude?
1A = B2 and so must have the same magnitude.
ANSWER
S
point inS different directions. If they have the same components, however, they are the same vector
❙ (a) yes, (b) no Vectors A and B can have the same magnitude but different components if they
S S

1.9 UNIT VECTORS

A unit vector is a vector that has a magnitude of 1, with no units. Its only purpose is to
point—that is, to describe a direction in space. Unit vectors provide a convenient notation
for many expressions involving components of vectors. We’ll always include a caret, or
“hat” 1^2, in the symbol for a unit vector to distinguish it from ordinary vectors whose
magnitude may or may not be equal to 1.
In an xy-coordinate system we can define a unit vector nd that points in the direction
Figure 1.24 (a) The unitS vectors nd and ne .
(b) Expressing a vector A in terms of its of the positive x-axis and a unit vector ne that
S
points in the direction of the positive y-axis
components. (Fig. 1.24a). Then we can write a vector A in terms of its components as
S
(a)
Unit vectors nd and ne point in the A = Ax nd + Ay ne (1.12)
y
directions of the positive x- and y-axes.
Each has a magnitude of 1. Equation (1.12) is a vector equation; each term, such asSAx nd , is a vector quantity
S S
(Fig. 1.24b).
ne
Using unit vectors, we can express the vector sum R of two vectors A and B as follows:
x S
O n
d A = Ax nd + Ay ne
S
B = Bx nd + By ne
S S S
(b) R=A+B
y S (1.13)
We can express a vector A in = 1Ax nd + Ay ne 2 + 1Bx nd + By ne 2
terms of its components as
S S
A = Axnd + Ay en
= 1Ax + Bx2dn + 1Ay + By2 ne
Ay en A
= Rx nd + Ry ne 
ne
x Equation (1.13) restates the content of Eqs. (1.9) in the form of a single vector equation
O
nd Axnd
rather than two component equations.
If not all of the vectors lie in the xy-plane, then we need a third component. We in-
troduce a third unit vector kn that points in the direction of the positive z-axis (Fig. 1.25).
Then Eqs. (1.12) and (1.13) become
Figure 1.25 The unit vectors nd , ne ,
and kn .
Any vector can be expressed in terms
Unit vectors nd, ne, and kn point in the of its x-, y-, and z-components ...
directions of the positive x-, y-, and
S
z-axes. Each has a magnitude of 1. A = Axnd + Ayne + Aznk
y S
(1.14)
B = Bxnd + Byne + Bznk
en ... and unit vectors nd, e,
n and nk.

S
O
R = 1Ax + Bx2dn + 1Ay + By2en + 1Az + Bz2 kn
nk nd
z
x
= R nd + R ne + R kn
x y z (1.15)
 1.10 Products of Vectors    19

EXAMPLE 1.8 Using unit vectors

Given the two displacements From Eq. (1.11) the magnitude of F is

S

S
D = 16.00 nd + 3.00 ne − 1.00kn 2 m and
S F = 2F x2 + F y2 + F z2
E = 14.00 nd − 5.00 ne + 8.00kn 2 m
S S = 218.00 m2 2 + 111.00 m2 2 + 1- 10.00 m2 2
find the magnitude of the displacement 2D − E.
S
IDENTIFY and SET UP We are to multiply vector D by 2 (a scalar) and = 16.9 m
S S S S
subtract vector E from the result, so as to obtain the vector F = 2D − E.
S
Equation (1.8) says that to multiply D by 2, we multiply each of its EVALUATE Our answer is of the same order of magnitude as the larger
components by 2. We can use Eq. (1.15) to do the subtraction; recall components that appear in the sum. We wouldn’t expect our answer to
from Section 1.7 that subtracting a vector is the same as adding the neg- be much larger than this, but it could be much smaller.
ative of that vector.
KEYCONCEPT By using unit vectors, you can write a single equa-
EXECUTE We have tion for vector addition that incorporates the x-, y-, and z-components.
S
F = 216.00dn + 3.00 ne − 1.00kn 2 m − 14.00dn − 5.00 ne + 8.00kn 2 m
= 3112.00 - 4.002dn + 16.00 + 5.002 ne + 1- 2.00 - 8.002kn 4 m
= 18.00dn + 11.00 ne − 10.00kn 2 m

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 1.9 Arrange S

the following vectors in order of
theirS magnitude, with the vector of largest
S
magnitude first. (i) A =S
(3dn + 5en − 2kn ) m;
(ii) B = 1- 3dn + 5en − 2kn 2 m; (iii) C = 13dn − 5en − 2kn 2 m; (iv) D = 13dn + 5en + 2kn 2 m.
= 29 m2 + 25 m2 + 4 m2 = 238 m2 = 6.2 m
A = B = C = D = 21{3 m2 2 + 1{5 m2 2 + 1{2 m2 2
ANSWER

same magnitude:
❙ All have the same magnitude. Vectors A, B, C, and D point in different directions but have the
S S S S

1.10 PRODUCTS OF VECTORS

Figure 1.26 Calculating the scalar product
of two vectors, A # B = AB cos f.
S S
We saw how vector addition develops naturally from the problem of combining displace-
ments. It will prove useful for calculations with many other vector quantities. We can also (a) S
express many physical relationships by using products of vectors. Vectors are not ordinary B
Place the vectors tail to tail.
numbers, so we can’t directly apply ordinary multiplication to vectors. We’ll define two f
different kinds of products of vectors. The first, called the scalar product, yields a result S
A
that is a scalar quantity. The second, the vector product, yields another vector.

(b) A # B equals A(B cos f).

S S
Scalar Product
We denote the scalar product of two vectors A and B by AS# B. Because
S S S S
of this notation,
S S
(Magnitude of A) * Component of B
S a S b
the scalar product is also called the dot product. Although A and B are vectors, the quan- in direction of A
tity A # B is a scalar.
S S S
B
To define the scalar product A # B we draw the two vectors A and B with their tails at the
S S S S
f
same point (Fig. 1.26a). The angle f (the Greek letter phi) between their directions ranges S
S S A
from 0° to 180°. Figure 1.26b shows the projection of ­
v ector B onto the direction of A; this
S S B cos f
projection is the component of B in the direction of A and is equal to B cos f. (We can take
components along any direction that’s convenient, not just theS x- and y-axes.) WeSdefine
(c) A # B also equals B(A cos f).
A # B to be the magnitude of A multiplied by the component of B in the direction of A, or
S S S
S S

S S
(Magnitude of B) * Component of A
a Sb
in direction of B
Scalar (dot) product Magnitudes of
S S
of vectors A and B
S S
A and B A cos f S
B
S S S S
A ~ B = AB cos f = 0 A 0 0 B 0 cos f (1.16) f
S S
S
Angle between A and B when placed tail to tail A
20    CHAPTER 1 Units, Physical Quantities, and Vectors

we can defineS A # B to be the magnitudeSofSB multiplied by the compo-

S S S
Figure 1.27 The scalar product Alternatively,
A#B
S S

nent of A in the direction of B, as in Fig. 1.26c. Hence A # B = B1A cos f2 = AB cos f,

= AB cos f can be positive, S

negative, or zero,
S
depending
S
on the
angle between A and B. which is the same as Eq. (1.16).
The scalar product is a scalar quantity, not a vector, and it may be positive, negative,
(a) If f is between
0° and 90°, A # B or zero. When f is between 0° and 90°, cos f 7 0 and the scalar product is Spositive
S S S
B
is positive ... (Fig. 1.27a). When f is between S90°Sand 180° so cos f 6 0, the component of B in the
and A # B is negative (Fig. 1.27b). Finally, when f = 90°,
f S
direction of A is negative,
S
A
S
# S
A B = 0 (Fig. 1.27c). The scalar product of two perpendicular vectors isSalways zero.
For any two vectors A and B, AB cos f = BA cos f. This means that A # B = B # A.
S S S S S
... because B cos f 7 0.
The scalar product obeys the commutative law of multiplication; the order of the two vec-
(b) tors does not matter.
If fSis between 90° and 180°,
We’ll use the scalar product in Chapter 6 to describe work done by a force. In later
A # B is negative ...
S
S
B chapters we’ll use the scalar product for a variety of purposes, from calculating electric
f
potential to determining the effects that varying magnetic fields have on electric circuits.
S
A
... because B cos f 6 0.
Using Components to Calculate the Scalar Product
the scalar product A # B directly if we know the x-, y-, and z-components
S S
WeScan calculate
S

A#B = 0 of A and B. To see how this is done, let’s first work out the scalar products of the unit
S S
(c) If f = 90°,
vectors nd , ne , and kn . All unit vectors have magnitude 1 and are perpendicular to each other.
S
S because B has zeroScomponent
B in the direction of A. Using Eq. (1.16), we find
f = 90°
S nd # nd = ne # ne = kn # kn = 112112 cos 0° = 1
A (1.17)
nd # ne = nd # kn = ne # kn = 112112 cos 90° = 0 
S S
Now we express A and B in terms of their components, expand the product, and use these
products of unit vectors:

A # B = 1Ax nd + Ay ne + Az kn 2 # 1Bx nd + By ne + Bz kn 2
S S

= Ax nd # Bx nd + Ax nd # By ne + Ax nd # Bz kn

+ Ay ne # Bx nd + Ay ne # By ne + Ay ne # Bz kn

+ Az kn # Bx nd + Az kn # By ne + Az kn # Bz kn (1.18)

= Ax Bx nd # nd + Ax By nd # ne + Ax Bz nd # kn

+ Ay Bx ne # nd + Ay By ne # ne + Ay Bz ne # kn

+ Az Bx kn # nd + Az By kn # ne + Az Bz kn # kn 

From Eqs. (1.17) you can see that six of these nine terms are zero. The three that sur-
vive give

Scalar (dot) product S

S S
of vectors A and B Components of A
S S
A ~ B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz (1.19)
S
Components of B

Thus the scalar product of two vectors is the sum of the products of their respective
components.
The scalar
S
product
S
gives a straightforward way to find the angle f between any two
vectors A and B whose components are known. In this case we can use Eq. (1.19) to find
S S
the scalar product of A and B. Example 1.10 shows how to do this.
 1.10 Products of Vectors    21

EXAMPLE 1.9 Calculating a scalar product WITH ARIATION PROBLEMS

Find the scalar product A # B of the two vectors in Fig. 1.28. The mag-
S S S S
EXECUTE The angle between the two vectors A and B is
nitudes of the vectors are A = 4.00 and B = 5.00. f = 130.0° - 53.0° = 77.0°, so Eq. (1.16) gives us
A # B = AB cos f = 14.00215.002 cos 77.0° = 4.50
S S
IDENTIFY and SET UP We can calculate the scalar product in two
ways: using the magnitudes of the vectors and the angle between them
To use Eq.S (1.19),S we must first find the components of the vectors. The
(Eq. 1.16) and using the components of the vectors (Eq. 1.19). We’ll do
angles of A and B are given with respect to the + x@axis and are measured
it both ways, and the results will check each other.
in the sense from the +x@axis to the +y@axis, so we can use Eqs. (1.5):
Ax = 14.002 cos 53.0° = 2.407
S S
Figure 1.28 Two vectors A and B in two dimensions. Ay = 14.002 sin 53.0° = 3.195
Bx = 15.002 cos 130.0° = -3.214
y
S
By = 15.002 sin 130.0° = 3.830
B
As in Example 1.7, we keep an extra significant figure in the compo-
S nents and round at the end. Equation (1.19) now gives us
130.0° A
A # B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz
S S

f
en = 12.40721-3.2142 + 13.195213.8302 + 102102 = 4.50

53.0° EVALUATE Both methods give the same result, as they should.
x
KEYCONCEPT The scalar product A # B is a scalar (a number) that
S S
nd
equals the sum of Sthe products
S
of the x-components, y-components, and
z-components of A and B.

EXAMPLE 1.10 Finding an angle with the scalar product WITH ARIATION PROBLEMS

Find the angle between the vectors Figure 1.29 Two vectors in three dimensions.
S
A = 2.00dn + 3.00 ne + 1.00kn y
S
and A extends from origin
S
B = - 4.00dn + 2.00 ne − 1.00kn
S
B extends from origin to near corner of red box.
to far corner of blue box.
IDENTIFY and SET UP We’re given the x-, y-, and z-components of two
vectors. Our target variable is the angle f between them (Fig. 1.29).
(1.16), A # B = AB cos f, for f in terms
S S S S
To find this, we’ll solve Eq. B A
of the scalar product A # B and the magnitudes
S S
A and B. We can use
Eq. (1.19) to evaluate the scalar product, A # B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz, en
S S

and we can use Eq. (1.6) to find A and B. x

nd
EXECUTE We solve Eq. (1.16) for cos f and use Eq. (1.19) to write A B:
S
# S
nk

A#B
S S
AxBx + AyBy + AzBz
cos f = = z
AB AB
We
S
can Suse this formula to find the angle between any two vectors
A and B. Here we have Ax = 2.00, Ay = 3.00, and Az = 1.00, and
Bx = -4.00, By = 2.00, and Bz = - 1.00. Thus
AxBx + AyBy + AzBz -3.00
A # B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz
S S cos f = = = -0.175
AB 214.00 221.00
= 12.0021-4.002 + 13.00212.002 + 11.0021-1.002 f = 100°
= - 3.00
EVALUATE As a check on this result, note that the scalar product A B
S
# S

A = 2Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2 = 212.002 2 + 13.002 2 + 11.002 2 is negative. This means that f is between 90° and 180° (see Fig. 1.27),
which agrees with our answer.
= 214.00 S
KEYCONCEPT You can find the angle f between two vectors A and
B = 2Bx2 + By2 + Bz2 = 21- 4.002 2 + 12.002 2 + 1- 1.002 2 S
B whose components are known by first finding their scalar product,
then using the equation A # B = AB cos f.
S S
= 221.00
22    CHAPTER 1 Units, Physical Quantities, and Vectors

Figure
S S
1.30 The
S
vector
S
product of (a) Vector Product
A : B and (b) B : A. S S
We
S
denote
S
the vector product of two vectors A and B, also called the cross product, by
(a) Using theS right-hand rule to find the
S A : B. As the name suggests, the vector product is itself a vector. We’ll use this product
direction of A : B
S S S S
in Chapter 10 to describe torque and angular momentum; in Chapters 27 and 28 we’ll use
1 Place A and B tail to tail. A:B it to describe magnetic fields and forces.
S S S S
2 Point fingers
S
of right hand S To define the vector product A : B, we again draw the two vectors A and B with
along A, with palm facing B.
S
their tails at the same point (Fig. 1.30a). The two vectors then lie in a plane. We define
3 Curl fingers toward B. S
A the vector product to be a vectorS
quantity
S
with a direction perpendicular to this plane
4 Thumb points in S f (that
S
is,
S
perpendicular
S
to both A and B ) and a magnitude equal to AB sin f. That is, if
S
direction of A : B. S C = A : B, then
B

S S
(b) Using theS right-hand
S
rule to
S S
find the Magnitude of vector (cross) product of vectors B and A
direction of B : A = −A : B
(vector product is anticommutative) C = AB sin f (1.20)
S S S
1 Place B and A tail to A S S S S
Magnitudes of A and B Angle between A and B
tail. f when placed tail to tail
2 Point fingersS of right B
S

hand along B,S with

S S
palm facing A.
S S S
We measure the angle f from A toward B and take it to be the smaller of the two pos-
3 Curl fingers toward A. B:A sible angles, so f ranges from 0° to 180°. Then sin f Ú 0 and C inSEq. (1.20) is never
S
4 Thumb points in direction of B : A.
S S
negative, as must be the case for a vector magnitude. Note that when A and B are parallel
5
S S
B : A has same magnitude as A : B
S S or antiparallel, f = 0° or 180° and C = 0. That is, the vector product of two parallel or
but points in opposite direction. antiparallel vectors is always zero. In particular, the vector product of any vector with
itself is zero.

   CAUTION    Vector product vs. Sscalar

S
product Don’t confuse the expression AB sin f for the
magnitude of the vector product A : B with the similar expression AB cos f for the scalar prod-
uct A # B.STo seeS the difference between these two expressions, imagine
S S

S
that we vary the angle
S
between A and B while keeping their magnitudes constant. When A and B are parallel, the S
mag-S
nitude of the vector product will be zero and the scalar product will be maximum. When A and B
are perpendicular, the magnitude of the vector product will be maximum and the scalar product
will be zero. ❙

There are always two directions perpendicular to a givenS plane, one on each side of the
S
Figure 1.31 Calculating the magnitude plane. We
S
choose which of these is the direction
S
of A : B asSfollows. Imagine rotating
AB sin f Sof theS vector product of two vector A about the perpendicularSline until A is aligned with B, choosing the smaller of
S
vectors, A : B. the two possible angles between A and B. Curl the fingers of your right hand around the
(a) perpendicular line so that your fingertips
S S
point in the direction of rotation; your thumb
S S
(Magnitude of A : B) equals A(B sin f). will then point in the direction of A : B. Figure 1.30a shows this right-hand rule and
S S describes a second way to think about this rule.
(Magnitude of A) : Component of B S S S S S
aperpendicular to Ab Similarly, we determine the direction of B : A Sby rotating
S
B into A as in Fig. 1.30b.
S The result is a vector that is opposite to the vector A : B. TheSvectorS product is not com-
B B sinf mutative but instead is anticommutative: For any two vectors A and B,
f S
S S S S
A
A : B = −B : A (1.21)

(b) Just as we did for the scalar product, we can give a geometrical interpretation of
S S
(Magnitude of A : B) also equals B(A sinf). the
S
magnitude of the vector product. In Fig. 1.31a, B sin f is the component of vector
S
S S B that is perpendicular to the direction of vector A. From Eq. (1.20) the magnitude of
(Magnitude of B) : Component of A S S S S S
aperpendicular to Bb A : B Sequals the magnitude of A multiplied by the component
S S
of B that is perpendicu-
lar Sto A. Figure 1.31b shows that the Smagnitude of A : B also equals
S
the magnitude
A sin f
S
B of B multiplied by the component of A that is perpendicular to B. Note that Fig. 1.31
shows the case in which f is between 0° and 90°; draw a similar diagram for f between
f
90°
S
and
S
180° to show that the same geometrical interpretation of the magnitude of
S
A A : B applies.
 1.10 Products of Vectors    23

Using Components to Calculate the Vector Product Figure 1.32 (a) We’ll always use a
S S right-handed coordinate system, like
If we know the components of A and B, we can calculate the components of the vector this one. (b) We’ll never use a left-
product by using a procedure similar to that for the scalar product. First we work out the handed coordinate system (in which
multiplication table for unit vectors nd , ne , and kn , all three of which are perpendicular to nd : ne = −kn , and so on).
each other (Fig. 1.32a). The vector product of any vector with itself is zero, so (a) A right-handed coordinate system
y
nd : nd = ne : ne = kn : kn = 0 nd : ne = nk
en en : nk = nd
The boldface zero is a reminder that each product is a zero vector—that is, one with all nk : nd = en
components equal to zero and an undefined direction. Using Eqs. (1.20) and (1.21) and the O
right-hand rule, we find nk nd x
z
nd : ne = − ne : nd = kn

ne : kn = −kn : ne = nd (1.22) (b) A left-handed coordinate system;

we will not use these.

kn : nd = − nd : kn = ne  y

You can verify theseSequations by referring to Fig. 1.32a. en z

S
Next we express A and B in terms of their components and the corresponding unit vec-
O nk
tors, and we expand the expression for the vector product:
nd x
S S
A : B = 1Ax nd + Ay ne + Az kn 2 : 1Bx nd + By ne + Bz kn 2

= Ax nd : Bx nd + Ax nd : By ne + Ax nd : Bz kn
(1.23)
+ Ay ne : Bx nd + Ay ne : By ne + Ay ne : Bz kn

+ Az kn : Bx nd + Az kn : By ne + Az kn : Bz kn 

We can also rewrite the individual terms in Eq. (1.23) as Ax nd : By ne = 1Ax By2 nd : ne , and
so on. Evaluating these by using the multiplication table for the unit vectors in Eqs. (1.22)
and then grouping the terms, we get
S S
A : B = 1Ay Bz - Az By2 nd + 1Az Bx - Ax Bz2 ne + 1Ax By - Ay Bx2kn  (1.24)

If
S
you
S
compare
S
Eq. (1.24) with Eq. (1.14), you’ll see that the components of
C = A : B are

S S
Components of vector (cross) product A : B

Cx = Ay Bz - Az By Cy = Az Bx - Ax Bz Cz = Ax By - Ay Bx (1.25)
S S
Ax , Ay , Az = components of A Bx , By , Bz = components of B

With the axis system of Fig. 1.32a, if we reverse the direction of the z-axis, we get the
system shown in Fig. 1.32b. Then, as you may verify, the definition of the vector product
gives nd : ne = −kn instead of nd : ne = kn . In fact, all vector products of unit vectors nd , ne ,
and kn would have signs opposite to those in Eqs. (1.22). So there are two kinds of coor-
dinate systems, which differ in the signs of the vector products of unit vectors. An axis
system in which nd : ne = kn , as in Fig. 1.32a, is called a right-handed system. The usual
practice is to use only right-handed systems, and we’ll follow that practice throughout
this book.
24    CHAPTER 1 Units, Physical Quantities, and Vectors

EXAMPLE 1.11 Calculating a vector product

S S S
Vector AS
has magnitude 6 units and is in the direction of the +x@axis. By the right-hand rule, the direction S
of SA : SB is along the + z@axis (the
Vector B has magnitude 4 units and lies in the xy-plane, making an direction of the unit vector kn ), so C = A : B = 12kn . S S
angle
S S
of 30°
S
with the + x@axis (Fig. 1.33). Find the vector product To use SEqs. (1.25), we first determine the components of A and B.
C = A : B. Note that
S
A points along the x-axis, so its only nonzero component is
Ax. For B, Fig. 1.33 shows that f = 30° is measured from the +x-axis
IDENTIFY and SET UP We’ll find the vector product in two ways, which
toward the + y-axis, so we can use Eqs. (1.5):
will provide a check of our calculations. First we’ll use Eq. (1.20) and
the right-hand rule; then we’ll use Eqs. (1.25) to find the vector product Ax = 6 Ay = 0 Az = 0
by using components.
Bx = 4 cos 30° = 223 By = 4 sin 30° = 2 Bz = 0
S S S S S
Figure 1.33
S
Vectors A and B and their vector product C = A : B. Then Eqs. (1.25) yield
Vector B lies in the xy-plane.
y Cx = 102102 - 102122 = 0
Cy = 10212232 - 162102 = 0
S
B Cz = 162122 - 10212232 = 12
O f = 30° S
S Thus again we have C = 12kn .
A x
EVALUATE Both methods give the same result. Depending on the situa-
tion, one or the other of the two approaches may be the more convenient
S
C one to use.
z S S
KEYCONCEPT The vector productS A : B
S
of two vectors is a third
vector that is perpendicular to both A and B. You can find the vector
product either from the magnitudes of the two vectors, the angle be-
EXECUTE From Eq. (1.20) the magnitude of the vector product is
tween them, and the right-hand rule, or from the components of the two
AB sin f = 1621421sin 30°2 = 12 vectors.

S S
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SSECTION S
1.10 Vector A has magnitude 2 and vector B
has magnitude 3. The angle f between A and B is (i) 0°, (ii) 90°, or (iii) 180°. For each of the
following situations, state what the value of fS must be. (In each situation there may be more
than one correct answer.)
S S
(a)
S
A # S
B = 0; (b) A : B = 0; (c) A # B = 6; (d) A # B = - 6;
S S S S S

(e) 1magnitude of A : B2 = 6.
31magnitude of A : B2 = AB4 only if A and B are perpendicular.
ANSWER
is equal to the negative of the product of the magnitudes 1A # B = - AB2 only if A and B are
S S S S
antiparallel. (e) The magnitude of the vector product is equal to the product of the magnitudes

product of the magnitudes 1A # B = AB2 only if A and B are S S

parallel. S
(d) The scalar S
product
S S S S
uct is zero only if A and B are parallel or antiparallel. (c) The scalar product is equal to the
S S
F = 90° (a) The scalar product is zero only if A and B are perpendicular. (b) The vector prod-
S S
❙ (a) (ii) F = 90°, (b) (i) F = 0° or (iii) F = 180°, (c) (i) F = 0°, (d) (iii) F = 180°, (e) (ii)
 Summary    25

CHAPTER 1 SUMMARY
Physical quantities and units: Three fundamental physical quantities are mass, length, and time. The
corresponding fundamental SI units are the kilogram, the meter, and the second. Derived units for other
physical quantities are products or quotients of the basic units. Equations must be dimensionally consistent;
two terms can be added only when they have the same units. (See Examples 1.1 and 1.2.)

Significant figures: The accuracy of a measurement can Significant figures in magenta

be indicated by the number of significant figures or by
a stated uncertainty. The significant figures in the result C 0.424 m
p = = = 3.14
of a calculation are determined by the rules summarized 2r 210.06750 m2
in Table 1.2. When only crude estimates are available for
123.62 + 8.9 = 132.5
input data, we can often make useful order-of-magnitude
estimates. (See Examples 1.3 and 1.4.)

Scalars, vectors, and vector addition: Scalar quantities S

A+ B
S
S
are numbers and combine according to the usual rules A
+
S S

of arithmetic. Vector quantities have direction as well as

B = S
A
B
magnitude and combine according to the rules of vector
addition. The negative of a vector has the same magnitude
but points in the opposite direction. (See Example 1.5.)

Vector components and vector addition: Vectors can be Rx = Ax + Bx y

added
S
byS using
S
components of vectors. The x-component
S S
Ry = Ay + By (1.9) S
R
of R = A + B is the sum of the x-components of A and B, Rz = Az + Bz By S

and likewise for the y- and z-components. (See Examples 1.6 Ry B

and 1.7.) Ay S
A
x
O Ax Bx
Rx

Unit vectors: Unit vectors describe directions in space. A S

A = Ax nd + Ay ne + Az kn (1.14) y
unit vector has a magnitude of 1, with no units. The unit Ay en
vectors nd , ne , and kn , aligned with the x-, y-, and z-axes of a
S
A = Axnd + Ay en
en
rectangular coordinate system, are especially useful. (See x
O
Example 1.8.) nd Axnd

The scalar product C = A # B of two A # B = AB cos f = 0 A 0 0 B 0 cos f Scalar product A # B = AB cosf

S S S S S S S S
Scalar product:
S S
(1.16)
vectors A and B is a scalar quantity. ItS can be expressed A # B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
S S
S (1.19) S
in terms of the magnitudes of A and B and the angle f B
between the two vectors, or in terms of the components ofS
A and B. The scalar product is commutative; A # B = B # A.
S S S S S f
S

The scalar product of two perpendicular vectors is zero. A

(See Examples 1.9 and 1.10.)

S S S
Vector product: The vector product C = A : B of two C = AB sin f (1.20) S S

S S S
A : B is perpendicular
S S
vectors
S S
A and B is a third vector C . The
S
magnitude
S
of Cx = Ay Bz - Az By S
A:B
S
to the plane of A and B.
A : B depends on the magnitudes of A and B and Sthe S Cy = Az Bx - Ax Bz (1.25)
angle f between the two vectors. The direction of A : B Cz = Ax By - Ay Bx
S
A
is perpendicular to the plane of the two vectors being f
multiplied,
S S
asSgiven by the right-hand rule. The components B
S

of CS = AS: B can be expressed in terms of the components

S S
(Magnitude of A : B) = AB sinf
of
S
A and
S
B. The
S
vector
S
product is not commutative;
A : B = −B : A. The vector product of two parallel or
antiparallel vectors is zero. (See Example 1.11.)
26    CHAPTER 1 Units, Physical Quantities, and Vectors
Chapter 1 Media Assets

GUIDED PRACTICE For assigned homework and other learning materials, go to Mastering Physics.

KEY EXAMPLE ARIATION PROBLEMS counterclockwise from the positive x-axis, and state in which quadrant
this angle lies.
Be sure to review EXAMPLE 1.7 (Section 1.8) before attempting these
problems. Be sure to review EXAMPLES 1.9 and 1.10 (Section 1.10) before
S S S
­attempting these problems.
VP1.7.1 Consider the three vectors SA, BS, and C in Example 1.7. S
S S
VP1.10.1 Vector A has magnitude 5.00 and is at an angle of 36.9°
IfS a fourth vector D is added to A + B + C, the result Sis zero: S
S
A+B+C+D
S S
= 0. Find the magnitude and direction of D. State south of east. Vector B has magnitude 6.40 and is at an angle of 20.0°
S
the direction of D in terms of an angle measured counterclockwise from west of north. (a) Choose the positive x-direction to the eastS and the S
positive y-direction to the north. Find the components of A and B.
product A # B.
the positive x-axis, and state in which quadrant this angle lies. S S
S S S
VP1.7.2 Consider the three vectors A, B, and C Sin Example 1.7. (b) Calculate the scalar
S
S S S
VP1.10.2 Vector C has magnitude 6.50 and is at an angle of 55.0° mea-
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the vector S = A − B + C. S
S
State the direction of S in terms of an angle measured counterclockwise sured counterclockwise from the +x-axis toward the +y-axis. Vector D
has components Dx = +4.80 and Dy = -8.40. (a) Calculate the scalar
product C # D. (b) Find
from the positive x-axis, and state in which quadrant this angle lies. (Hint: S S S S
S
The components of −B are just the negatives of the components
S
of B.) S
the angle f between the vectors C and D .
S S S
VP1.10.3 Vector A S has components Ax = -5.00, Ay = 3.00,
VP1.7.3 Consider the three vectors A , B,S andS C in SExample 1.7.
(a) Find the components of the vector
S
T = A + B + S2C. (b) Find the and Az = 0. Vector B has components Bx = 2.50, By = 4.00, and
S
magnitude and direction of T. State the direction of T in terms of an Bz = - 1.50. Find theSangle between the two vectors.
VP1.10.4 If a force F acts on an object as that object moves through
angle measured counterclockwise from the positive x-axis, and state in S
a displacement s , the work done by that force equals the scalar prod-
uct of F and s : W = F # s . A certain object moves through displace-
which quadrant this angle lies. S
S S S S
VP1.7.4 A hiker undergoes the displacement A shown in Example 1.7. S
The hiker then undergoes a second displacement such that she ends up ment
S
s = 14.00 m2dn + 15.00 m2en. As it moves it is acted on by force
F, which has x-component Fx = -12.0 N (1 N = 1 newton is the
SI unit of force). The work done by this force is 26.0 N # m = 26.0 J
38.0 m from her starting point, in a direction from her starting point
that is 37.0° west of north. Find the magnitude and direction of this
second displacement. State the direction in terms of an angle measured (1 J = 1 jouleS= 1 newton@meter is the SI unit S
of work). (a) Find the y-
S
component of F. (b) Find the angle between F and s .

BRIDGING PROBLEM Vectors on the Roof

An air-conditioning unit is fastened to a roof that slopes atSan angle of Figure 1.34 An air-conditioning unit on a slanted roof.
35° above the horizontal (Fig. 1.34). Its weight is a force F on the air
conditioner that is directed vertically downward. In order that the unit
not crush the roof tiles, the component of the unit’s weight perpendicu-
lar to the roof cannot exceed 425 N. (One newton, or 1 N, is the SI unit 1.50 m
of force. It is equal to 0.2248 lb.) (a) What is the maximum allowed
weight of the unit? (b) If the fasteners fail, the unit slides 1.50 m along S y
the roof before it comes to a halt against a ledge. How much work does F
the weight force do on the unit during its slide if the
S
unit has the weight 35°
calculated in part (a)? The work done by a force F on an object that un- x
dergoes a displacement s is W = F # s .
S S S

SOLUTION GUIDE
part (a). Be careful: Is 35° the correct angle to use in the equa-
IDENTIFY and SET UP tion? (Hint: Check your sketch.)
1. This problem involves vectors and components. What are the 5. Make sure your answer has the correct number of significant
known quantities? Which aspect(s) of the weight vector (magnitude, figures.
direction, and>or particular components) represent the target vari- 6. Use the definition of the scalar product to solve for the target
able for part (a)? Which aspect(s) must you know to solve part (b)? variable in part (b). Again, use the correct number of significant
2. Make a sketch based on Fig. 1.34. Draw the x- and y-axes, figures.
choosing the positive direction for each. Your axes don’t have to EVALUATE
be horizontal and vertical, but they do have to be mutually per-
pendicular. Figure 1.34 shows a convenient choice of axes: The 7. Did your answer to part (a) include a vector component whose
x-axis is parallel to the slope of the roof. absolute value is greater than the magnitude of the vector? Is
3. Choose the equations you’ll use to determine the target variables. that possible?
8. There are two ways to find the scalar product of two vectors,
EXECUTE one of which you used to solve part (b). Check your answer by
4. Use the relationship between the magnitude and direction of repeating the calculation, using the other way. Do you get the
a vector and its components to solve for the target variable in same answer?
 Problems    27

PROBLEMS
•, ••, •••: Difficulty levels. CP: Cumulative problems incorporating material from earlier chapters. CALC: Problems requiring calculus.
DATA: Problems involving real data, scientific evidence, experimental design, and>or statistical reasoning. BIO: Biosciences problems.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
S S S S
Q1.1 How many correct experiments do we need to disprove a theory? Q1.18
S S
If A and B are nonzero vectors, is it possible for both A ~ B and
How many do we need to prove a theory? Explain. A : B to be zero? Explain.
S S
Q1.2 Suppose you are asked to compute the tangent of 5.00 meters. Is Q1.19 WhatSdoesS A ~ A, the scalar product of a vector with itself, give?
this possible? Why or why not? What about A S
: A, the vector product of a vector with itself? S
Q1.3 What is your height in centimeters? What is your weight in Q1.20 Let A represent any nonzero vector. Why is AS> A a unit vec-
newtons? tor, and what is its direction? S
If u is the angle that A makes with
Q1.4 The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) the +x-axis, explain why 1A >A2 ~ nd is called the direction ­cosine for
maintains several accurate copies of the international standard kilo- that axis.
gram. Even after careful cleaning, these national standard kilograms are Q1.21 Figure 1.7 shows the result of an unacceptable error in the stop-
gaining mass at an average rate of about 1 mg>y (y = year) when com- ping position of a train. If a train travels 890 km from Berlin to Paris
pared every 10 years or so to the standard international kilogram. Does and then overshoots the end of the track by 10.0 m, what is the percent
this apparent increase have any importance? Explain. error in the total distance covered? Is it correct to write the total distance
Q1.5 What physical phenomena (other than a pendulum or cesium covered by the train as 890,010 m? Explain.
clock) could you use to define a time standard? Q1.22
S
Which
S S
of the following
S S
are
S
legitimate
S S
mathematical
S S
­operations:
S S
Q1.6 Describe how you could measure the thickness of a sheet of paper (a) A
S
~ 1BS
− CS
2; (b) 1A − B 2 : C ; (c) A ~ 1B : C 2; (d) A : 1B : C2;
with an ordinary ruler. (e) A : 1B ~ C2? In each case, give theS reason S
forS your answer.
S S S
Q1.7 The quantity p = 3.14159 c is a number with no dimensions, Q1.23 Consider the vector products A : 1B : C2 and 1A : B2 : C.
since it is a ratio of two lengths. Describe two or three other geometrical Give an example that illustrates the general rule that these two vector
or physical quantities that are dimensionless. productsSdoS not have S
the same magnitude or direction. Can you choose
Q1.8 What are the units of volume? Suppose another student tells vectors A, B, and C such that these two vector products are equal? If so,
you that a cylinder of radius r and height h has volume given by pr 3h. give an example. S S S S S
Explain why this cannot be right. Q1.24 Show that, no matter what A and B are, A ~ 1A : B2 = 0.
Q1.9 Three archers each fire four arrows at a target. Joe’s four arrows (Hint: Do not look for an elaborate mathematical proof. Consider the
hit points that are spread around in a region that goes 10 cm above, definition of theS direction
S
of the cross product.)
10 cm below, 10 cm to the left, and 10 cm to the right of the center of Q1.25 (a) If A ~ B = 0,S doesS it necessarily follow that A = 0 or
the target. All four of Moe’s arrows hit within 1 cm of a point 20 cm B = 0? Explain. (b) If A : B = 0, does it necessarily follow that
from the center, and Flo’s four arrows hit within 1 cm of the center. The A = 0 or BS = 0 ? Explain.
contest judge says that one of the archers is precise but not accurate, an- Q1.26 If A = 0 for a vector in the xy-plane, does it follow that
other archer is accurate but not precise, and the third archer is both ac- Ax = - Ay ? What can you say about Ax and Ay?
curate and precise. Which description applies to which archer? Explain.
Q1.10 Is the vector 1dn + ne + k n 2 a unit vector? Is the vector
13.0dn − 2.0en2 a unit vector? Justify your answers. EXERCISES
Q1.11 A circular racetrack has a radius of 500 m. What is the displace-
ment of a bicyclist when she travels around the track from the north Section 1.3 Standards and Units
side to the south side? When she makes one complete circle around the Section 1.4 Using and Converting Units
track? Explain. 1.1 • Starting with the definition 1 in. = 2.54 cm, find the number of
Q1.12 Can you find two vectors with different lengths that have a vec- (a) kilometers in 1.00 mile and (b) feet in 1.00 km.
tor sum of zero? What length restrictions are required for three vectors 1.2 •• According to the label on a bottle of salad dressing, the vol-
to have a vector sum of zero? Explain. ume of the contents is 0.473 liter (L). Using only the conversions
Q1.13 The “direction of time” is said to proceed from past to future. 1 L = 1000 cm3 and 1 in. = 2.54 cm, express this volume in cubic
Does this mean that time is a vector quantity? Explain. inches.
Q1.14 Air traffic controllers give instructions called “vectors” to tell 1.3 •• How many nanoseconds does it take light to travel 1.00 ft in
airline pilots in which direction they are to fly. If these are the only in- vacuum? (This result is a useful quantity to remember.)
structions given, is the name “vector” used correctly? Why or why not? 1.4 •• The density of gold is 19.3 g>cm3. What is this value in kilo-
Q1.15 Can you find a vector quantity that has a magnitude of zero but grams per cubic meter?
components that are not zero? Explain. Can the magnitude of a vector 1.5 • How many years older will you be 1.00 gigasecond from now?
be less than the magnitude of any of its components? Explain. (Assume a 365-day year.)
Q1.16 (a) Does it make sense to say that a vector is negative? Why? 1.6 • The following conversions occur frequently in physics and are
(b) Does it make sense to say that one vector is the negative of another? very useful. (a) Use 1 mi = 5280 ft and 1 h = 3600 s to convert 60 mph
Why? Does S
yourS
answer
S
here contradict what you said in part (a)? to units of ft>s. (b) The acceleration of a freely falling object is 32 ft>s2.
Q1.17 If CS = A + S
B , what must be true about the directions and mag- Use 1 ft = 30.48 cm to express this acceleration in units of m>s2.
nitudes of A and B if C S= A +S B? What must be true about the direc- (c) The density of water is 1.0 g>cm3. Convert this density to units of
tions and magnitudes of A and B if C = 0? kg>m3.
28    CHAPTER 1 Units, Physical Quantities, and Vectors

1.7 • A certain fuel-efficient hybrid car gets gasoline mileage of 1.18 • BIO Four astronauts are in a spherical space station. (a) If, as
55.0 mpg (miles per gallon). (a) If you are driving this car in Europe is typical, each of them breathes about 500 cm3 of air with each breath,
and want to compare its mileage with that of other European cars, ex- approximately what volume of air (in cubic meters) do these astronauts
press this mileage in km>L 1L = liter2. Use the conversion factors in breathe in a year? (b) What would the diameter (in meters) of the space
Appendix E. (b) If this car’s gas tank holds 45 L, how many tanks of gas station have to be to contain all this air?
will you use to drive 1500 km? 1.19 • You are using water to dilute small amounts of chemicals in the
1.8 • BIO (a) The recommended daily allowance (RDA) of the trace laboratory, drop by drop. How many drops of water are in a 1.0 L bottle?
metal magnesium is 410 mg>day for males. Express this quantity in (Hint: Start by estimating the diameter of a drop of water.)
mg>day. (b) For adults, the RDA of the amino acid l­ysine is 12 mg per 1.20 • BIO How many times does a human heart beat during a per-
kg of body weight. How many grams per day should a 75 kg adult re- son’s lifetime? How many gallons of blood does it pump? (Estimate that
ceive? (c) A typical multivitamin tablet can contain 2.0 mg of vitamin the heart pumps 50 cm3 of blood with each beat.)
B2 (riboflavin), and the RDA is 0.0030 g>day. How many such tablets
should a person take each day to get the proper amount of this vitamin, Section 1.7 Vectors and Vector Addition
if he gets none from other sources? (d) The RDA for the trace element 1.21 •• A postal employee drives a delivery truck along the route
selenium is 0.000070 g>day. Express this dose in mg>day. shown in Fig. E1.21. Determine the magnitude and direction of the
1.9 •• Neptunium. In the fall of 2002, scientists at Los Alamos resultant displacement by drawing a scale diagram. (See also Exercise
National Laboratory determined that the critical mass of neptunium-237 1.28 for a different approach.)
is about 60 kg. The critical mass of a fissionable material is the mini-
mum amount that must be brought together to start a nuclear chain reac- Figure E1.21
tion. Neptunium-237 has a density of 19.5 g>cm3. What would be the
radius of a sphere of this material that has a critical mass? STOP

1.10 •• BIO Bacteria. Bacteria vary in size, but a diameter of 2.0 mm

km
is not unusual. What are the volume (in cubic centimeters) and sur-

1
3.
face area (in square millimeters) of a spherical bacterium of that size? 4.0 km
(Consult Appendix B for relevant formulas.) 45°

Section 1.5 Uncertainty and Significant Figures

2.6 km
1.11 • With a wooden ruler, you measure the length of a rectangular N
piece of sheet metal to be 12 mm. With micrometer calipers, you mea- W E
sure the width of the rectangle to be 5.98 mm. Use the correct number START S
of significant figures: What are (a) the area of the rectangle; (b) the ratio
of the rectangle’s width to its length; (c) the perimeter of the rectangle; S S

(d) the difference between the length and the width; and (e) the ratio of
1.22 •• For the vectors A and B Figure E1.22
in Fig. E1.22, use a scale drawing y
the length to the width?
to find the magnitudeSand Sdirection S
1.12 • The volume of a solid cylinder is given by V = pr 2h, where r is B (15.0 m)
of (a) the vector sum A S+ B Sand (b)
the radius and h is the height. You measure the radius and height of a thin
the vector difference A − B. Use
cylindrical wire and obtain the results r = 0.036 cm and h = 12.1 cm. S
30.0°
your answers to find theSmagnitude D (10.0 m)
What do your measurements give for the volume of the wire in mm3? S
and Sdirection of (c) −A − B and
Use the correct number of significant figures in your answer. S 53.0°
(d) B − A. (See also Exercise 1.29
1.13 •• A useful and easy-to-remember approximate value for the
for a different approach.) x
number of seconds in a year is p * 107. Determine the percent error in O
1.23 •• A spelunker is surveying 25.0°
this approximate value. (There are 365.24 days in one year.)
a cave. She follows a passage 180
1.14 • Express each approximation of p to six significant f­ igures: (a) 22>7 S
m straight west, then 210 m in a di- C (12.0 m) S
and (b) 355>113. (c) Are these approximations accurate to that precision? A (8.00 m)
rection 45° east of south, and then
Section 1.6 Estimates and Orders of Magnitude 280 m at 30° east of north. After a
1.15 •• BIO A rather ordinary middle-aged man is in the hospital for a fourth displacement, she finds her-
routine checkup. The nurse writes “200” on the patient’s medical chart but self back where she started. Use a scale drawing to determine the mag-
forgets to include the units. Which of these quantities could the 200 plau- nitude and direction of the fourth displacement. (See also Problem 1.57
sibly represent? The patient’s (a) mass in kilograms; (b) height in meters; for a different approach.)
(c) height in centimeters; (d) height in millimeters; (e) age in months.
1.16 • How many gallons of gasoline are used in the United States Section 1.8 Components of Vectors
S
in one day? Assume that there are two cars for every three people, that 1.24 •• Let u be the angle that the vector A makes with the + x-
each car is driven an average of 10,000 miles per year, and that the aver- axis, measured counterclockwise from that axis. Find angle u for a
age car gets 20 miles per gallon. vector that has these components: (a) Ax = 2.00 m, Ay = - 1.00 m;
1.17 • In Wagner’s opera Das Rheingold, the goddess Freia is ran- (b) Ax = 2.00 m, Ay = 1.00 m; (c) Ax = - 2.00 m, Ay = 1.00 m;
somed for a pile of gold just tall enough and wide enough to hide her (d) Ax = -2.00 m, Ay = -1.00 m. S S S
from sight. Estimate the monetary value of this pile. The density of gold 1.25
S
• Compute the x- and y-components of the vectors A, B, C, and
is 19.3 g>cm3, and take its value to be about $40 per gram. D in Fig. E1.22.
 Problems    29

1.37 •• (a) Write each vector Figure E1.37

S
1.26 • Vector A is inS the direction 34.0° clockwise from the - y@axis.
TheS x-component of A is Ax = - 16.0 m. (a) What is the y-component in Fig. E1.37 in terms of the unit y
vectors nd and ne . (b) Use Sunit vec-
S
of A? (b) What isS
the magnitude of A? S
S
A (3.60 m)
1.27 • Vector A has y-component Ay = +9.60 m. A makes an angle of tors
S
to express
S
vector
S
C, where
32.0° counterclockwise from the + y-axis. (a) What is the x-component C = 3.00A − 4.00B. (c) Find S
the
S S
of A? (b) What is the magnitude of A? magnitude and direction of C. 70.0°
1.28 •• A postal employee drives a delivery truck over the route 1.38 • SYou are given two vec- x
shown in Fig. E1.21. Use the method of components to determine the tors A = - 3.00dn + 6.00en and 30.0° O
S
magnitude and direction of her resultant displacement. In a vector-­ B = 7.00dn + 2.00en. Let coun- S
B (2.4 m)
addition diagram (roughly to scale), show that the resultant displace- terclockwise anglesS be positive.
ment found from your diagram is in qualitative agreement with the (a) What angle does A make with S
the S
result you ­obtained by using the method of components. + x@axis? (b) What
S
angle
S
does
S
B S
makeS
with the + x@axis? S(c) Vector C
S S
1.29 • For the vectors A and B in Fig. E1.22, use the method of is the sum of A and B, so C = A + B. What angle does C make with
components to find the magnitude and direction of (a) the vector sum the +x@axis? S
• Given two vectors A = - 2.00dn + 3.00en + 4.00kn and
S S S S S S
A + B; (b) the vector sum BS + A; (c) the vector difference A − B; 1.39
S
S
(d) the vector difference B − A. B = 3.00dn + 1.00en − 3.00kn , (a) find the magnitude of each vector;
1.30 • Find the magnitude and direction of the vector represented by (b)
S
use
S
unit vectors to write an expression for the vector difference
S S
the following pairs of components: (a) Ax = -8.60 cm, Ay = 5.20 cm; A − B; and (c) find the magnitude S
of Sthe vector difference A − B. Is
(b) Ax = - 9.70 m, Ay = - 2.45 m; (c) Ax = 7.75 km, Ay = -2.70 km. this the same as the magnitude of B − A? Explain.
1.31 •• A disoriented physics professor drives 3.25 km north, then
2.20 km west, and then 1.50 km south. Find the magnitude and direc- Section 1.10 Products of Vectors
S S
tion of the resultant displacement, using the method of components. In 1.40 •• (a) Find the scalar product of the vectors A and B given in
a vector-addition diagram (roughly to scale), show that the resultant dis- Exercise 1.36. (b) Find the angle between these two vectors.
S S S
placement found from your diagram is in qualitative agreement with the 1.41 • SFor Sthe vectors
S S
A , B ,
S
and
S
C in Fig. E1.22, find the scalar prod-
result you obtainedS
by using the method of components. ucts (a) A ~ B; (b) B ~ C; (c) A ~ C.S S
1.32 •• Vector A has magnitude 8.00 m and is in the xy-plane at an 1.42 •• Find the vector product A : B (expressed in unit vectors) of
angle of 127° counterclockwise from the +x–axis S(37˚ past the +y-axis).
S S the two vectors given in Exercise 1.36. What is the magnitude of the
What are the magnitude and direction of vector B if the sum A + B is vector product?
in the -y-directionS
and has magnitude 12.0 m? 1.43S •• Find the angle between each of these pairs of vectors:
1.33 •• Vector A is 2.80
S
S
cm long and is 60.0° above the x-axis in the (a) A = - 2.00d n + 6.00en and B = 2.00dn − 3.00en
S S
first quadrant. Vector B is 1.90 cm long and is 60.0° below the x-axis in (b) A = 3.00dn + 5.00en and B = 10.00dn + 6.00en
S S
the fourth quadrant (Fig.
S
E1.33).
S S
Use Scomponents
S S
to find the mag­nitude (c) A = - 4.00dn + 2.00en and B = 7.00dn + 14.00en
and direction of (a) A + B; (b) A − B; (c) B − A. In each case, sketch 1.44 • For the two vectors in Fig. E1.33, find the magnitudeS andSdi-
S S
the vector addition or subtraction and show that your numerical answers rection of (a) the vector product A : B ; (b) the vector product B : A.
S S
are in qualitative agreement with your sketch. 1.45 • For the two vectors A and D in Fig. S
E1.22,
S
find the magnitude
and
S
direction
S
of (a) the vector product A : D ; (b) the vector product
Figure E1.33 D : A. S S
y 1.46 • ForS
the two vectors A and B in Fig. E1.37, find (a) the scalar
S
S product
S S
A ~ B ; (b) the magnitude and direction of the vector product
A (2.80 cm) A : B. S S
1.47 •• The vector product of vectors S
A and B has magnitude 16.0 m2
and is in the +z-direction. If vector A has magnitude 8.0 m andS is in the
60.0°
x - x-direction, what are the magnitude and direction of vector B if it has
O 60.0° no x-component?
S
1.48 • The angle between two vectors is u. (a) If u = 30.0o, which has
B (1.90 cm) the greater magnitude: the scalar product or the vector product of the
two vectors? (b) For what value (or values) of u are the magnitudes of
the scalar product and the vector product equal?
Section 1.9 Unit Vectors
S
1.34
S
• In each case, find
S
the x- and y-components
S
of vector A: (a)
PROBLEMS
A =S 5.0dn −S6.3en; (b) SA = 11.2en − 9.91dn; (c) A = -15.0dn + 22.4en ;
(d) A = 5.0B, where B = 4dn − 6en. 1.49 •• White Dwarfs and Neutron Stars. Recall that density is mass
1.35 •• Write each vector in Fig. E1.22 in terms of the unit vectors nd divided by volume, and consult Appendix B as needed. (a) Calculate the av-
and ne . S S
erage density of the earth in g>cm3, assuming our planet is a perfect sphere.
1.36 •• Given two vectors A = 4.00dn + 7.00en and B = 5.00dn − (b) In about 5 billion years, at the end of its lifetime, our sun will end up as
2.00en, (a) find the magnitude of each vector; (b) use unit vectors to write a white dwarf that has about the same mass as it does now but is reduced
S S
an expression for the vector difference A S− B;S and (c) find the magni- to about 15,000 km in diameter. What will be its density at that stage?
tude and directionS of the
S S S
vector difference A − B. (d) In a vector diagram (c) A neutron star is the remnant of certain supernovae (explosions of giant
show A, B, and A − B, and show that your diagram agrees qualitatively stars). Typically, neutron stars are about 20 km in diameter and have about
with your answer to part (c). the same mass as our sun. What is a typical neutron star density in g>cm3?
30    CHAPTER 1 Units, Physical Quantities, and Vectors

1.50 •• The Hydrogen Maser. A maser is a laser-type device that 1.58 ••• Emergency Landing. A plane leaves the airport in Galisteo
produces electromagnetic waves with frequencies in the microwave and flies 170 km at 68.0° east of north; then it changes direction to fly
and ­radio-wave bands of the electromagnetic spectrum. You can use the 230 km at 36.0° south of east, after which it makes an immediate emer-
radio waves generated by a hydrogen maser as a standard of frequency. gency landing in a pasture. When the airport sends out a rescue crew, in
The frequency of these waves is 1,420,405,751.786 hertz. (A hertz is an- which ­direction and how far should this crew fly to go directly to this plane?
other name for one cycle per second.) A clock controlled by a ­hydrogen 1.59 •• A charged object with electric charge q produces an electric
maser is off by only 1 s in 100,000 years. For the following questions, field. The SI unit for electric field is N>C, where N is the SI unit for
use only three significant figures. (The large number of significant fig- force and C is the SI unit for charge. If at point P there are electric fields
ures given for the frequency simply illustrates the remarkable accuracy from two or more charged objects, then the resultant field is theS vector
to which it has been measured.) (a) What is the time for one cycle of the sum of the fields from each object. At point P the electric field E S1
from
radio wave? (b) How many cycles occur in 1 h? (c) How many cycles charge q1 is 450 N>C in the +y-direction, and the electric field E2 from
would have occurred during the age of the earth, which is estimated charge q2 is 600 N>C in the direction 36.9o from the - y-axis toward
to be 4.6 * 109 years? (d) By how many seconds would a hydrogen the
S
-x-axis.
S S
What are the magnitude and direction of the resultant field
maser clock be off after a time interval equal to the age of the earth? E = E1 + E2 at point P due to these two charges?
1.51 •• An Earthlike Planet. In January 2006 astronomers reported 1.60 •• A sailor in a small sailboat encounters shifting winds. She
the discovery of a planet, comparable in size to the earth, orbiting an- sails 2.00 km east, next 3.50 km southeast, and then an additional dis-
other star and having a mass about 5.5 times the earth’s mass. It is be- tance in an unknown direction. Her final position is 5.80 km directly
lieved to consist of a mixture of rock and ice, similar to Neptune. If this east of the starting point (Fig. P1.60). Find the magnitude and direction
planet has the same density as Neptune 11.76 g>cm32, what is its ra- of the third leg of the journey. Draw the vector-addition diagram and
dius expressed (a) in kilometers and (b) as a multiple of earth’s radius? show that it is in qualitative agreement with your numerical solution.
Consult Appendix F for astronomical data.
1.52 ••• A rectangular piece of aluminum is 7.60 { 0.01 cm long Figure P1.60
and 1.90 { 0.01 cm wide. (a) Find the area of the rectangle and the
N
uncertainty in the area. (b) Verify that the fractional uncertainty in the START FINISH
W E
area is equal to the sum of the fractional uncertainties in the length and
S 5.80 km
in the width. (This is a general result.)
1.53 • BIO Estimate the number of atoms in your body. (Hint: Based
2.00 km 45.0°
on what you know about biology and chemistry, what are the most
common types of atom in your body? What is the mass of each type of 3.50 km
Third
atom? Appendix D gives the atomic masses of different elements, mea- leg
sured in atomic mass units; you can find the value of an atomic mass
unit, or 1 u, in Appendix E.)
1.54 • BIO Biological tissues are typically made up of 98% water. Given 1.61 ••• BIO Dislocated Shoulder. A patient with a dislocated shoulder
that the density of water is 1.0 * 103 kg>m3, estimate the mass of (a) the S S
is put into a traction apparatus as shown in Fig. P1.61. The pulls A and B
heart of an adult human;
S
(b) a cell with a diameter of 0.5 mm; (c) a honeybee. have equal magnitudes and must combine to produce an outward traction
1.55 •• Vector S
A = 3.0dn − 4.0k n . (a) Construct a unit vector that
S force of 12.8 N on the patient’s arm. How large should these pulls be?
is parallel to A. (b) Construct a unit vector that is antiparallel
S
to A.
(c) Construct two unit vectors that are perpendicular to A and that have Figure P1.61 S
A
no y-component.
1.56 •• Three horizontal ropes pull on a large stone stuck in the
S S S
32°
ground, producing the vector forces A, B, and C shown in Fig. P1.56.
Find the magnitude and direction of a fourth force on the stone that will
make the vector sum of the four forces zero. 32°

Figure P1.56 S

y B
S
B (80.0 N)
S
30.0° A (100.0 N)
1.62 ••• On a training flight, a Figure P1.62
student pilot flies from Lincoln,
Nebraska, to Clarinda, Iowa, next IOWA
30.0° 147 km
x
53.0° O to St. Joseph, Missouri, and then to Lincoln 85° Clarinda
Manhattan, Kansas (Fig. P1.62). The
S
C (40.0 N) directions are shown relative to north: 106 km
0° is north, 90° is east, 180° is south, NEBRASKA 167°
1.57 ••• As noted in Exercise 1.23, a spelunker is surveying a cave. and 270° is west. Use the method of
St. Joseph
She follows a passage 180 m straight west, then 210 m in a direction components to find (a) the distance Manhattan
45° east of south, and then 280 m at 30° east of north. After a fourth dis- she has to fly from Manhattan to get 166 km
placement, she finds herself back where she started. Use the method back to Lincoln, and (b) the direction N 235°
of components to determine the magnitude and direction of the fourth (relative to north) she must fly to get W E
displacement. Draw the vector-addition diagram and show that it is in there. Illustrate your solutions with a S MISSOURI
KANSAS
qualitative agreement with your numerical solution. vector diagram.
 Problems    31

1.63 •• You leave the airport in College Station and fly 23.0 km in a 1.73 ••• You are camping with Joe and Karl. Since all three of you like
direction 34.0o south of east. You then fly 46.0 km due north. How far your privacy, you don’t pitch your tents close together. Joe’s tent is 21.0 m
and in what direction must you then fly to reach a private landing strip from yours, in the direction 23.0° south of east. Karl’s tent is 32.0 m from
that is 32.0 km due west of the College Station airport? yours, in the direction 37.0° north of east. What is the distance between
1.64 ••• Getting Back. An explorer in Antarctica leaves his shelter Karl’s tent and Joe’s tent?
during a whiteout. He takes 40 steps northeast, next 80 steps at 60° 1.74 •• Bond Angle in Methane. In the methane molecule, CH4,
north of west, and then 50 steps due south. Assume all of his steps are each hydrogen atom is at a corner of a regular tetrahedron with
equal in length. (a) Sketch, roughly to scale, the three vectors and their the carbon atom at the center. In coordinates for which one of the
resultant. (b) Save the explorer from becoming hopelessly lost by giving C ¬ H bonds is in the direction of nd + ne + kn , an adjacent C ¬ H
him the displacement, calculated by using the method of components, bond is in the nd − ne − kn direction. Calculate the angle between these
that will return him to his shelter. two bonds. S
1.65 •• As a test of orienteering skills, your physics class holds a con- 1.75 •• The work W done by a constant force F on an object that un-
dergoes displacement s from point 1 to point 2 is W = F # s . For F in
S S S
test in a large, open field. Each contestant is told to travel 20.8 m due
north from the starting point, then 38.0 m due east, and finally 18.0 m newtons (N) and s in Smeters (m), W is in joules (J). If, during a displace-
in the direction 33.0° west of south. After the specified displacements, ment of the object, F has constant direction 60.0o above the - x-axis
a contestant will find a silver dollar hidden under a rock. The winner is and constant magnitude 5.00 N and if the displacement S
is 0.800 m in the
the person who takes the shortest time to reach the location of the silver +x-direction, what is the work done by the force F?
dollar. Remembering what you learned in class, you run on a straight 1.76 •• Magnetic fields are produced by moving charges and exert
line from the starting point to the hidden coin. How far and in what forces on moving charges. When a Sparticle withS charge q is moving
S
direction do you run? with velocity v in a magnetic S
field BS, the force F that the field exerts
1.66 • You are standing on a street corner with your friend. You then
S
on the particle is given by F = qv : B. The SI units are as follows: For
travel 14.0 m due west across the street and into your apartment build- charge it is the coulomb (C), for magnetic field it is tesla (T), for force
it is newton (N), and for velocity it is m>s. SIf q = - 8.00 * 10-6 C, v
S
ing. You travel in the elevator 22.0 m upward to your floor, walk 12.0 m
4
north to the door of your apartment, and then walk 6.0 m due east to is 3.00 * 10 m>s in the + x-direction, and B is 5.00 T in the - y-direc-
your balcony that overlooks the street. Your friend is standing where tion, what are the magnitude and direction of the force that the magnetic
you left her. Now how far are you from your friend? field exerts on the charged
S S
particle?
1.67 •• You are lost at night in a large, open field. Your GPS tells you 1.77 •• Vectors A and B have scalar product - 6.00, and their vec-
that you are 122.0 m from your truck, in a direction 58.0° east of south. tor product has magnitude +9.00. What is the angle between these two
You walk 72.0 m due west along a ditch. How much farther, and in what vectors?
direction, must you walk to reach your truck? 1.78 •• Torque is a vector quantity that specifies the effectiveness of S
1.68 ••• You live in a town where the streets are straight but are in a a force in causing the rotation of an object. The torque that a force F
variety of directions. On Saturday you go from your apartment to the exerts on a rigid object depends on the point where the force acts and on
S
grocery store by driving 0.60 km due north and then 1.40 km in the the location of the axis of rotation. If r is the length vector from the axis S S
direction 60.0o west of north. On Sunday you again travel from your
S
to the point of application of the force, then the torque is r : F. If F is
S
apartment to the same store but this time by driving 0.80 km in the 22.0 N in the -y-direction and if r is in the xy-plane at an angle of 36°
­direction 50.0o north of west and then in a straight line to the store. from the +y-axis toward the -x-axis and has magnitude S
4.0 m, what are
(a) How far is the store from your apartment? (b) On which day do you the magnitude and Sdirection of the torque exerted S
by F ?
travel the greater distance, and how much farther do you travel? Or, do 1.79 •• Vector A = adn − bkn and vector B = −cen + dknS. (a) In
you travel the same distance on each route to the store? terms of the positive scalar quantities a, b, c, and d, what are A # S
B and
A : B? (b) If c = 0, what isS the Smagnitude of A # B and what are the
S S S S
1.69 •• While following a treasure map, you start at an old oak tree.
You first walk 825 m directly south, then turn and walk 1.25 km at 30.0° magnitude
S S
and direction of A : B? Does your result for S
the direction
S
west of north, and finally walk 1.00 km at 32.0° north of east, where for A : B agree with the result you get if you sketch A and B in the
you find the treasure: a biography of Isaac Newton! (a) To return to the xz-plane and apply the right-hand S
rule? The scalar product S
can be de-
old oak tree, in what direction should you head and how far will you scribed
S
as the magnitude of B times the component of A that is parallel
walk? Use components to solve this problem. (b) To see whether your to B. Does this agree with your result? The magnitude S
of the vector
calculation in part (a) is reasonable, compare it with a graphical solution product
S
can be described as the S
magnitude of B times the component
drawn roughly to scale. of A that is perpendicular
S S
to B. Does this agree with your S
result?
1.70 •• A fence post is 52.0 m from where you are standing, in a di- 1.80 •• Vectors A and B are in theS xy-plane. Vector A is in the +x-
rection 37.0° north of east. A second fence post is due south from you. direction, and the direction of vector B is at an angle u from the + x-axis
How far are you from the second post if the distance between the two measured toward the + y-axis. (a) If u is in the range S0° … u … 180°,
for what two values of u does the scalar product A # B have its maxi-
S
posts is 68.0 m?
1.71 •• A dog in an open field runs 12.0 m east and then 28.0 m in a mum magnitude? For each S
of these values of u, what is the magnitude
S
direction 50.0° west of north. In what direction and how far must the of the vector product A : B? (b) If u is in the S
range
S
0° … u … 180°,
dog then run to end up 10.0 m south of her original starting point? for what value of u does the vector product A : B have its maximum
1.72 ••• Ricardo and Jane are standing under a tree in the middle of value? For this value of u, what is the magnitude of the scalar product
a pasture. An argument ensues, and they walk away in different direc- A
S
# B
S
? (c) WhatS is the angle u in the range 0° … u … 180° for which
A # B is twice  A S: B  ?
S S S
tions. Ricardo walks 26.0 m in a direction 60.0° west of north. Jane S
walks 16.0 m in a direction 30.0° south of west. They then stop and turn 1.81 •• Vector A has magnitude S S
12.0 m, and vector B has magnitude
2
to face each other. (a) What is the distance between them? (b) In what 16.0 m. The scalar product A ~ B is 112.0 m . What is the magnitude of
direction should Ricardo walk to go directly toward Jane? the vector product between these two vectors?
32    CHAPTER 1 Units, Physical Quantities, and Vectors

S
1.82 ••
Vector A has magnitude 5.00 m and lies in the xy-plane in a 1.89 ••• DATA Navigating in the Solar System. The Mars Polar
direction
S
53.0o from the +x-axis axis measured toward the + y-axis. Lander spacecraft was launched on January 3, 1999. On December 3,
Vector B has magnitude 8.00 S
mS
and a direction you can adjust. (a) You 1999, the day Mars Polar Lander impacted the Martian surface at high
want the vector product A : B to have a positive z-component of the velocity and probably disintegrated, the positions of the earth and Mars
largest
S
possible magnitude. What directionS
shouldSyouSselect for vec- were given by these coordinates:
tor B? (b) What is the direction of B for which A : B has S
the most
negative
S S
z-component? (c) What are the two directions of B for which x y z
A : B is zero? S S S Earth 0.3182 AU 0.9329 AU - 0.0000 AU
1.83 •• The scalar product of vectors A and B is +48.0 m2. Vector A
S Mars 1.3087 AU - 0.4423 AU - 0.0414 AU
has magnitude 9.00 m and direction 28.0° west of south. S
If vector B has
direction 39.0° south of east, what is the magnitude of B? With these coordinates, the sun is at the origin and the earth’s orbit is
1.84 ••• Obtain a unit vector perpendicular to the two vectors given in the xy-plane. The earth passes through the +x-axis once a year on
in Exercise 1.39. S S
the autumnal equinox, the first day of autumn in the northern hemi-
1.85 •• You are S
given vectors A = 5.0dn − 6.5e S
n and B = 3.5dn − 7.0en. sphere (on or about September 22). One AU, or astronomical unit, is
A third
S
vector, C, lies in the xy-plane.
S
Vector
S
C is perpendicular to vec- equal to 1.496 * 108 km, the average distance from the earth to the
tor A, and the scalar product ofSC with B is 15.0. From this information, sun. (a) Draw the positions of the sun, the earth, and Mars on December 3,
find the components of vector
S
C. S 1999. (b) Find these distances in AU on December 3, 1999: from (i) the
1.86 •• Two vectors A and B ShaveS magnitudes A = 3.00 and sun to the earth; (ii) the sun to Mars; (iii) the earth to Mars. (c) As seen
B = 3.00. Their vector
S
product
S
is A : B = - 5.00kn + 2.00dn. What is from the earth, what was the angle between the direction to the sun and
the angle between A and B? the direction to Mars on December 3, 1999? (d) Explain whether Mars
1.87 ••• DATA You are a team leader at a pharmaceutical company. was visible from your current location at midnight on December 3,
Several technicians are preparing samples, and you want to compare the 1999. (When it is midnight, the sun is on the opposite side of the earth
densities of the samples (density = mass>volume) by using the mass from you.)
and volume values they have reported. Unfortunately, you did not spec-
ify what units to use. The technicians used a variety of units in reporting
their values, as shown in the following table. CHALLENGE PROBLEMS
1.90 ••• Completed Pass. The football team at Enormous State
Sample ID Mass Volume University (ESU) uses vector displacements to record its plays, with
A 8.00 g 1.67 * 10-6 m3 the origin taken to be the position of the ball before the play starts.
In a certain pass play, the receiver starts at + 1.0dn − 5.0en, where the
B 6.00 mg 9.38 * 106 mm3 units are yards, nd is to the right, and ne is downfield. Subsequent dis-
C 8.00 mg 2.50 * 10-3 cm3 placements of the receiver are +9.0dn (he is in motion before the snap),
+ 11.0en (breaks downfield), -6.0dn + 4.0en (zigs), and + 12.0dn + 18.0en
D 9.00 * 10-4 kg 2.81 * 103 mm3 (zags). Meanwhile, the quarterback has dropped straight back to a posi-
E 9.00 * 104 ng 1.41 * 10-2 mm3 tion -7.0en. How far and in which direction must the quarterback throw
the ball? (Like the coach, you’ll be well advised to diagram the situation
F 6.00 * 10-2 mg 1.25 * 108 mm3 before solving this numerically.)
List the sample IDs in order of increasing density of the sample. 1.91 ••• Navigating in the Big Dipper. All of the stars of the Big
Dipper (part of the constellation Ursa Major) may appear to be the
1.88 ••• DATA You are a mechanical
S
engineer working for a manu-
S
same distance from the earth, but in fact they are very far from each
facturing company. Two forces, F1 and F2, act on a component part of other. Figure P1.91 shows the distances from the earth to each of
a piece of equipment. Your boss asked you to find the magnitude S
of the
S
these stars. The distances are given in light-years (ly), the distance
larger of these two forces. You can vary the angle between F1 and F2 that light travels in one year. One light-year equals 9.461 * 1015 m.
o o
from 0 to 90 while the magnitude of each force stays constant. And, (a) Alkaid and Merak are 25.6° apart in the earth’s sky. In a diagram,
you can measure the magnitude of the resultant force they produce show the relative positions of Alkaid, Merak, and our sun. Find the
(their vector sum), but you cannot directly measure the magnitude of distance in light-years from Alkaid to Merak. (b) To an inhabitant of
each separate force. You measure the magnitude of the resultant force a planet orbiting Merak, how many degrees apart in the sky would
for four angles u between the directions of the two forces as follows: Alkaid and our sun be?

U Resultant force (N)

0.0° 8.00 Figure P1.91
45.0° 7.43 Dubhe
Megrez
105 ly
60.0° 7.00 Mizar 81 ly
73 ly
90.0° 5.83
Alioth Merak
(a) What is the magnitude of the larger of the two forces? (b) When the 64 ly 77 ly
equipment is used on the production line, the angle between the two Alkaid Phad
forces is 30.0°. What is the magnitude of the resultant force in this case? 138 ly 80 ly
 Answers    33

MCAT-STYLE PASSAGE PROBLEMS (a) the number and volume of individual alveoli increase; (b) the num-
ber of alveoli increases and the volume of individual alveoli decreases;
BIO Calculating Lung Volume in Humans. In humans, oxygen and
(c) the volume of the individual alveoli remains constant and the num-
carbon dioxide are exchanged in the blood within many small sacs
ber of alveoli increases; (d) both the number of alveoli and the volume
called alveoli in the lungs. Alveoli provide a large surface area for gas
of individual alveoli remain constant.
exchange. Recent careful measurements show that the total number of
alveoli in a typical pair of lungs is about 480 * 106 and that the average
volume of a single alveolus is 4.2 * 106 mm3. (The volume of a sphere Figure P1.94
is V = 43 pr 3, and the area of a sphere is A = 4pr 2.)

Average alveolar volume

1.92 What is total volume of the gas-exchanging region of the lungs? 6
(a) 2000 mm3; (b) 2 m3; (c) 2.0 L; (d) 120 L. 5

(10 6 mm 3)
1.93 If we assume that alveoli are spherical, what is the diameter of a 4
typical alveolus? (a) 0.20 mm; (b) 2 mm; (c) 20 mm; (d) 200 mm. 3
1.94 Individuals vary considerably in total lung volume. Figure P1.94 2
shows the results of measuring the total lung volume and average al- 1
veolar volume of six individuals. From these data, what can you infer 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
about the relationship among alveolar size, total lung volume, and num- Total lung volume (10 - 6 m 3)
ber of alveoli per individual? As the total volume of the lungs increases,

ANSWERS
Chapter Opening Question
?
(iii) Take the + x@axis to point east and the + y@axis to point north. VP1.7.4 68.7 m, u = 207° (third quadrant)
Then we need to find the y-component of the velocity vector, which VP1.10.1 (a) Ax = 4.00, Ay = -3.00, Bx = -2.19, By = 6.01
(b) A # B = - 26.8
S S
has magnitude v = 15 km>h and is at an angle u = 37° measured
VP1.10.2 (a) C # D = - 26.8 (b) f = 115°
S S
from the +x@axis toward the + y@axis. From Eqs. (1.5) we have
vy = v sin u = 115 km>h2 sin 37° = 9.0 km>h. So the thunderstorm VP1.10.3 f = 91°
moves 9.0 km north in 1 h and 18 km north in 2 h. VP1.10.4 (a) 14.8 N (b) 77.7°

Key Example ARIATION Problems Bridging Problem

VP1.7.1 D = 12.7 m, u = - 51° = 309° (fourth quadrant) (a) 5.2 * 102 N
VP1.7.2 S = 115 m, u = 42° (first quadrant) (b) 4.5 * 102 N # m
VP1.7.3 (a) Tx = -7.99 m, Ty = -7.88 m (b) T = 11.2 m, u = 225°
(third quadrant)