Computational Group

Theory
Soria Summer School 2009
Session 1: Basics from group theory

July 2009 Hans Sterk ([email protected])

Where innovation starts
 Overview 2/18

This course focuses on some computational aspects in group theory

• Basics on groups
• Permutation groups
• Coset enumeration
• Mathieu groups
There are other areas where computations with groups come up, such as in-
variant theory
Some useful literature:
• G. Butler: Fundamental algorithms for permutation groups
Lecture Notes in Computer Science 559 (1991). Springer-Verlag
• Derek F. Holt, Bettina Eick, Eamonn A. O’Brien: Handbook of computational group theory
Chapman & Hall/CRC (2005)
• Arjeh M. Cohen, Hans Cuypers, Hans (Eds.): Some tapas of computer algebra. Algorithms
and Computation in Mathematics, vol 4 (1999). Springer-Verlag
(In particular, Chap 8: Working with finite groups; Project 6: The small Mathieu groups)

/ department of mathematics and computer science July 2009

 Groups
3/18

Groups occur in various settings:

• As an abstract ‘computational structure’: a set plus decent multiplication
• As a structure in a range of structures: groups, rings, fields, etc.
• As a means to catch symmetries, like the symmetries of a cube, or a more
advanced structure
• As a means to do geometry à la Klein: the (transformation) groups deter-
mine the geometry:
– spherical geometry
– hyperbolic geometry
– euclidean geometry
• Also: geometry and other structures inspire group theory
– Automorphisms of structures like ‘algebraic curves’

/ department of mathematics and computer science July 2009

 Groups
4/18

Group: a set G together with an operation G × G → G such that

• associativity: (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c) ∀a, b, c ∈ G
• unit element: there exists e ∈ G s.t. e ∗ g = g ∗ e = g ∀g ∈ G
• inverse elements: for every g ∈ G there is a g −1 ∈ G with g ∗ g −1 =
g −1 ∗ g = e
Remarks:
• There is a unique unit element:
e = e ∗ e0 = e0

• Inverses are unique, hence the notation g −1

h = h ∗ e = h ∗ (g ∗ h0 ) = (g ∗ h) ∗ h0 = e ∗ h0 = h0

(Homo)morphism: f : G → G0 s.t.

f (gh) = f (g)f (h)

Kernel: {g ∈ G | f (g) = e}; Image: f (G)

/ department of mathematics and computer science July 2009

 Subgroups and normal subgroups
5/18

• Subgroup H < G:
a subset which is a group wrt ∗
– Permutations: S3 < S4
• Normal subgroup N / G:
subgroup N s.t. gN = N g for all g ∈ G, or

gng −1 ∈ N for all g ∈ G, n ∈ N

– A3 < S3 , where An denotes even permutations

– Kernels of morphisms f : G → G0 of groups

{g ∈ G | f (g) = eG0 }

/ department of mathematics and computer science July 2009

 Constructions with groups
6/18

• (Direct) product group G × H :

{(g, h) | g ∈ G, h ∈ H}
with coordinatewise multiplication
– Z×Z
• Semi-direct product G = N o H :
– N is a normal subgroup, H a subgroup
– G = N H and N ∩ H = {e}
Also from 2 groups N and H and morphism φ : H → Aut(N )

(n1, h1) ∗ (n2, h2) = (n1φh1 (n2), h1h2)

– Translations, orthogonal transformations within isometries of a eu-
clidean vector space
• Quotient group: G/N , where N is a normal subgroup

/ department of mathematics and computer science July 2009

 A semidirect product: isometries of the plane
7/18

• V : euclidean plane, ‘say’, R2

• Isometry A : V → V with
d(Av, Aw) = d(v, w) for all v, w ∈ V
– Translation Ta with Ta (v) = v + a
– Orthogonal linear transformations

(Av, Aw) = (v, w) for all v, w ∈ V

• Subgroup of translations T is normal:

g −1Tag(v) = g −1(g(v) + a) = v + g −1(a) = Tg−1(a)(v)

• Every isometry is a composition of a translation and an orthogonal map

Related: Affine linear transformations of an affine space (‘vectorspace without
origin’)

/ department of mathematics and computer science July 2009

 Quotients 8/18

N /G
• Left and right cosets
aN = {an | n ∈ N }, N b = {nb | n ∈ N }
For normal subgroups: aN = N a, since aN a−1 = N
• Quotient as set: G/N = {aN | a ∈ G}
• Product:
(aN ) ∗ (bN ) = (ab)N
This works well since

(aN )(bN ) = a(N b)N = abN N = abN

Note that the left (resp.) right cosets partition G. If G is finite:

|G/N | = |G|/|N |

/ department of mathematics and computer science July 2009

 Further examples
9/18

• Z, Q, R,... with addition

• Z/nZ (or Zn) with addition
• Z∗, Q∗,... the invertible elements wrt multiplication
• Likewise: Z∗8 = {1, 3, 5, 7}
• Matrix groups, such as
– The general linear group over a field K

GLn (K) : n × n invertible matrices

wrt to multiplication
– The special linear group over a field K

SLn (K) = {A ∈ GLn (K) | det(A) = 1}

– The orthogonal group over K

On (K) = {A ∈ GLn (K) | A · A> = I}

SOn (K): subgroup with extra condition det(A) = 1

/ department of mathematics and computer science July 2009

 Details and examples: groups
10/18

Presentations: Groups given by generators and relations/relators

G = hS | Ri
G is the quotient of the free group on S by the normal closure of hRi
• Cyclic group presented in such a way:

G = hx | x5 i

Compute with element x, but x5 can be simplified to the unit element e. In particular, the
elements are e, x, x2 , x3 , x4 , so a cyclic group of order 5
• Coxeter group:
G = hx, y | x2 , y 2 , (xy)3 i
A ‘concrete’ version of it:
x reflection in the x1√-axis
y reflection in x2 = 3 x1
Based on the observation that the product of these two reflections is a rotation over 120◦ .
Or take permutations: x = (1, 2), y = (2, 3), xy = (1, 3, 2)
• Icosahedral rotation group: hs, t | s2 , t3 , (st)5 i

/ department of mathematics and computer science July 2009

 Permutation groups
11/18

• Symmetric group Sym(Ω), where Ω is a set: all permutations/bijections

of Ω. For Ω = {1, 2, . . . , n}: Sn
• Special case: Sn
– Disjoint cycle notation:
(1, 3, 4)(2, 5) ∈ S5
– Product of transpositions:
(1, 3)(2, 3)(3, 5) ∈ S5
– The sign of a permutation: parity (±1) of the number of pairs i < j s.t. σ(i) > σ(j)
– The sign is multiplicative:
sgn(στ ) = sgn(σ) · sgn(τ )
So a surjective morphism sgn : Sn → {±1}
– The sign of a (single) transposition is −1
– An : the normal subgroup of even permutations, of index 2 in Sn

• Permutation group: subgroup of some Sym(Ω)

These occur e.g. in symmetries of discrete structures

/ department of mathematics and computer science July 2009

 Group actions
12/18

Group action: group G acts on set X

xg
such that (xg )h = xgh
• Groups of matrices acting on vector subspaces
• On(R) acting on the unit sphere S n−1:
vA

• A group G acting on itself:

g h := g · h
(right multiplication with h)

/ department of mathematics and computer science July 2009

 More on group actions
13/18

For a group G acting on Ω:

• G-orbit of ω ∈ Ω:
ω G = {ω g | g ∈ G}
• Stabilizer Gω : group elements fixing ω .
Example: SO3 (R) acts on S 2
• Orbit of ω ∈ S 2 is S 2 itself
• Stabilizer of (0, 0, 1): rotations around z -axis, which is a S 1.

/ department of mathematics and computer science July 2009

 Some words on GAP 14/18

GAP: Groups, algorithms, programming

• A free system for computational discrete algebra
• Designed for studying groups, rings, vector spaces, algebras, ...
Sample commands
• Introduce permutations:

s:=(1,2); t:=(2,3);

• Action of (1, 2, 3) on 1:

1^(1,2,3);

• Introduce a group:

s3:=Group(s,t);

• Compute the order of an element:

Order(s);

• Compute the order of the group:

Order(s3);
/ department of mathematics and computer science July 2009
 Elementary algorithms: basics on Sn
15/18

Algorithms to compute with basic permutations:

• Write a permutation as a product of disjoint cycles
– If 2, 3, 1, 5, 4 are the images of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, then you
– first trace to what cycle 1 belongs: (1, 2, 3)
– Then look at what happens to 4: (4, 5)
• Write a permutation as a product of transpositions
– For instance using (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) = (ak , ak−1 )(ak−1 , ak−2 ) · · · (a2 , a1 )
• Determine the sign of a permutation
– Use the multiplicative property of the sign

/ department of mathematics and computer science July 2009

 Elementary algorithms: list of elements
16/18

From generator set S to a list of elements

• Start: {e} ∪ S
• Append for each pair (g, h) of elements in list so far: gh if gh not yet in.
Of course, efficiency is an issue.
Improvements:
• Consider only products g ∗ s with g in list and s ∈ S
• Use subgroups Hi = hSi = {s1, . . . , si}i. Then construct elements of Hi
from those of Hi−1 by adding whole cosets:
– Input: G = hSi and list of elements of Hi−1
– Output: list of elements of Hi
– Start: Coset-Reps:={e}
– For each g ∈Coset-Reps, do the following:
– for every generator s ∈ Si : if gs 6∈ list, then append gs to Coset-Reps, and coset Hi−1 gs
to list, etc.

/ department of mathematics and computer science July 2009

 An example: the square
17/18

Elements: e, r, r3 , r3 , s, rs, r2 s, r3 s, G = hs, ri, subgroup H = {e, s}

• The list starts with e, s and coset representative e
• Take the next generator r, not in {e, s}, so add the coset {r, sr = r3 s} to the list:

list : e, s, r, r3 s

The Coset-Rep becomes {e, r}

• Next we check products of elts of Coset-Rep and generators s and r:

e ∗ s = s not new, r ∗ s = new

So add rs and add the coset {rs, srs = r3 }:

list : e, s, r, r3 s, rs, r3

with Coset Rep = {e, r, rs}

• And one more coset to add.
/ department of mathematics and computer science July 2009
 Some exercises 18/18

1) Show that the ‘factors’ G × {eH } and {eG } × H are normal subgroups of
the direct product G × H .
2) If G = hx, y | x2 , y 2 (xy)3 i, show that |G| is at most 6, straight from the
presentation.
3) Use a picture to write down symmetries of an equilateral triangle.
4) For the symmetries of the square G = hs, ri list the elements using the
above algorithm but now with generators r (rotation) and s (reflection) in
that order, and starting from the list of elements of the subgroup hri.

/ department of mathematics and computer science July 2009