MECHANICAL AND PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT

EE 422 DC AND AC MACHINERY

Electromagnetic Induction Principles

Name: _____________________ Section: ____________

Sr. Code: ______________ MODULE 1.0

Prepared By:

Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME

Guest Lecturer II, EE/CpE

EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY

2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
Introduction
Electromagnetic induction is the process of generating electric current with a
magnetic field. It occurs whenever a magnetic field and an electric conductor, such as a
coil of wire, move relative to one another. As long as the conductor is part of a closed
circuit, current will flow through it whenever it crosses lines of force in the magnetic field.
The sketch shows a magnet moving through a wire coil.

Objectives
➢ Identify the concept of magnetism and electromagnetism.
➢ Relate the effects of electricity to magnetism and how it is being produced
➢ Determine the direction of magnetic lines of magnetic field
➢ Distinguish the differences of magnetic field between like and unlike poles

MAGNETISM AND ELECROMAGNETISM

Magnetic attract magnetic materials but not non-magnetic materials. Magnetism is a

non-contact force (acts at a distance)

MAGNETISM

- The ability to attract iron and steel. The knowledge of magnetism goes back to
the Ancient Greeks who realized that a certain rock (Iodestone) attracted pieces
of iron. When the hang a piece of this material, it rotates until it is pointing in a
north-south direction of the earth.

- Magnets are named after the town magnesia (a district in Thessaly) in Lydia,
Asia Minor where the Iodestone was mined in ancient times. Natural permanents
were called Lodestone (magnetic, 𝐹𝑒3 𝑂4) after Iodestar (or guiding star).
Lodestone was first permanent magnetic material to be identified and studied.
The regions near the ends of a magnet are called its poles.

Magnetite Magnetic Lodestone Rock - 2 Unpolished Mineral Specimens

EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY

2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
Magnetic Materials:

➢ Iron
➢ Steel
➢ Nickel
➢ Cobalt

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER ACCORDING TO THE MAGNETIC

PROPERTY

1. Ferromagnetic
- If materials such as cobalt, nickel or iron are put near a magnet they begin to act
like another magnet.
- Ferromagnetic materials are characterized by spontaneous magnetism that
exists in the absence of a magnetic field. They can retain the ability to attract
metals (particularly those belonging to ferrous family) even after the magnetic
field that induced magnetism to it has been removed. Iron is a soft ferromagnetic
material. This means it will become magnetized very easily, but quickly loses its
magnetic properties if the magnetized force is removed. Steel is more difficult to
magnetize, but once it is magnetized, it retains its magnetic properties for a long
time. Steel is called a “hard” ferromagnetic material.
- If the alignment of unpaired electrons persists without the application of an external
magnetic field or electric current, it produces a permanent magnet. Permanent magnets
are the result of ferromagnetism. The prefix “ferro” refers to iron because permanent
magnetism was first observed in a form of natural iron ore called magnetite, Fe3O4.
Pieces of magnetite can be found scattered on or near the surface of the earth, and
occasionally, one will be magnetized. These naturally occurring magnets are called
lodestones. “We still are not certain as to their origin, but most scientists believe that
lodestone is magnetite that has been hit by lightning,” according to the University of
Arizona.
- Magnetism takes many other forms, but except for ferromagnetism, they are usually too
weak to be observed except by sensitive laboratory instruments or at very low
temperatures.
2. Diamagnetic
- Have the ability to slightly repel magnetic field. Faraday discovers these
materials in 1845. He found that bismuth and glass are repelled from magnetic
fields.
- Diamagnetism was first discovered in 1778 by Anton Brugnams, who was using
permanent magnets in his search for materials containing iron. According to Gerald
Küstler, a widely published independent German researcher and inventor, in his
paper, “Diamagnetic Levitation — Historical Milestones,” published in the Romanian
Journal of Technical Sciences, Brugnams observed, “Only the dark and almost violet-
colored bismuth displayed a particular phenomenon in the study; for when I laid a piece
of it upon a round sheet of paper floating atop water, it was repelled by both poles of the
magnet.”
- Bismuth has been determined to have the strongest diamagnetism of all elements, but
as Michael Faraday discovered in 1845, it is a property of all matter to be repelled by a
magnetic field.

EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY

2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
 - Diamagnetism is caused by the orbital motion of electrons creating tiny current loops,
which produce weak magnetic fields, according to HyperPhysics. When an external
magnetic field is applied to a material, these current loops tend to align in such a way as
to oppose the applied field. This causes all materials to be repelled by a permanent
magnet; however, the resulting force is usually too weak to be noticeable. There are,
however, some notable exceptions.
- Pyrolytic carbon, a substance similar to graphite, shows even stronger diamagnetism
than bismuth, albeit only along one axis, and can actually be levitated above a super-
strong rare earth magnet. Certain superconducting materials show even stronger
diamagnetism below their critical temperature and so rare-earth magnets can be
levitated above them. (In theory, because of their mutual repulsion, one can be levitated
above the other.)

3. Paramagnetic
- Also discovered by Faraday. He noted that some substances clearly not
permanent magnets are nevertheless attracted by magnetic fields and these
materials are named paramagnetic.
- occurs when a material becomes magnetic temporarily when placed in a magnetic field
and reverts to its nonmagnetic state as soon as the external field is removed. When a
magnetic field is applied, some of the unpaired electron spins align themselves with the
field and overwhelm the opposite force produced by diamagnetism. However, the effect
is only noticeable at very low temperatures, according to Daniel Marsh, a professor of
physics at Missouri Southern State University.

*Other, more complex, forms include antiferromagnetism, in which the magnetic fields of atoms
or molecules align next to each other; and spin glass behavior, which involve both ferromagnetic
and antiferromagnetic interactions. Additionally, ferrimagnetism can be thought of as a
combination of ferromagnetism and antiferromagnetism due to many similarities shared among
them, but it still has its own uniqueness, according to the University of California, Davis.

MAGNET

A magnet is any object that has a magnetic field. It attracts ferrous objects like pieces of iron,
steel, nickel and cobalt. One of the most common magnets - the bar magnet - is a long,
rectangular bar of uniform cross-section that attracts pieces of ferrous objects. The magnetic
compass needle is also commonly used. The compass needle is a tiny magnet which is free to
move horizontally on a pivot. One end of the compass needle points in the North direction and
the other end points in the South direction.

The end of a freely pivoted magnet will always point in the North-South direction. The end that
points in the North is called the North Pole of the magnet and the end that points South is called
the South Pole of the magnet. It has been proven by experiments that like magnetic poles repel
each other whereas unlike poles attract each other.

EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY

2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
The region around a magnet where a magnetic force can be felt is called the magnetic
field.

The magnet field is strongest at the poles of a magnet.

EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY

2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
Why Is Earth a Magnet?
The idea that Earth is a magnet is far from new. It was first proposed in 1600 by a
British physician named William Gilbert. However, explaining why Earth acts like a
magnet is a relatively recent discovery. It had to wait until the development of
technologies such as seismographs, which detect and measure earthquake waves.
Then scientists could learn about Earth’s inner structure (see Figure below). They
discovered that Earth has an inner and outer core and that the outer core consists of
liquid metals, mainly iron and nickel. Scientists think that Earth’s magnetic field is
generated by the movement of charged particles through the molten metals in the outer
core. The particles move as Earth spins on its axis. The video at the URL below takes a
closer look at how this occurs.

MAGNETIC FIELD

Magnetic field is the space surrounding a magnet, in which magnetic force is exerted.
If a bar magnet is placed in such a field, it will experience magnetic force. However, the
field will continue to exist even if the magnet is removed. The direction of magnetic field
at a point is the direction of the resultant force acting on a hypothetical North Pole
placed at that point.

A magnetic field around a bar magnet has a shape and direction.

The magnetic field is represented using magnetic field lines (lines of force , flux lines)
that show the shape, direction and strength of the field.

EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY

2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
HOW IS A MAGNETIC FIELD CREATED?

When current flows in a wire, a magnetic field is created around the wire. From this it
has been inferred that magnetic fields are produced by the motion of electrical charges.
A magnetic field of a bar magnet thus results from the motion of negatively charged
electrons in the magnet.

Magnetic fields are produced by electric currents, which can be macroscopic currents
in wires, or microscopic currents associated with electrons in atomic orbits. The
magnetic field (β) is defined in terms of force on moving charge in the Lorentz force
law. The interaction of magnetic field with charge leads to many practical applications.
Magnetic field sources are essentially dipolar in nature, having a north and south
magnetic pole.

Basic to magnetism are magnetic fields and their effects on matter, as, for instance, the
deflection of moving charges and torques on other magnetic objects. Evidence for the
presence of a magnetic field is the magnetic force on charges moving in that field;
the force is at right angles to both the field and the velocity of the charge. This force
deflects the particles without changing their speed. The deflection can be observed in
the torque on a compass needle that acts to align the needle with the magnetic field of
Earth. The needle is a thin piece of ironthat has been magnetized—i.e., a small
bar magnet. One end of the magnet is called a north pole and the other end a south
pole. The force between a north and a south pole is attractive, whereas the force
between like poles is repulsive. The magnetic field is sometimes referred to as
magnetic induction or magnetic flux density; it is always symbolized by B. Magnetic
fields are measured in units of tesla (T). (Another unit of measure commonly used
for B is the gauss, though it is no longer considered a standard unit. One gauss equals
10−4 tesla.)
A fundamental property of a magnetic field is that its flux through any closed surface
vanishes. (A closed surface is one that completely surrounds a volume.) This is
expressed mathematically by div B = 0 and can be understood physically in terms of the
field lines representing B. These lines always close on themselves, so that if they enter
a certain volume at some point, they must also leave that volume. In this respect, a
magnetic field is quite different from an electric field. Electric field lines can begin and
end on a charge, but no equivalent magnetic charge has been found in spite of many
searches for so-called magnetic monopoles.
The most common source of magnetic fields is the electric current loop. It may be an
electric current in a circular conductor or the motion of an orbiting electron in an atom.
Associated with both these types of current loops is a magnetic dipole moment, the
value of which is iA, the product of the current i and the area of the loop A. In addition,
electrons, protons, and neutrons in atoms have a magnetic dipole moment associated
with their intrinsic spin; such magnetic dipole moments represent another important
source of magnetic fields. A particle with a magnetic dipole moment is often referred to
as a magnetic dipole. (A magnetic dipole may be thought of as a tiny bar magnet. It has
the same magnetic field as such a magnet and behaves the same way in external
magnetic fields.) When placed in an external magnetic field, a magnetic dipole can be
subjected to a torque that tends to align it with the field; if the external field is not
uniform, the dipole also can be subjected to a force.

EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY

2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
All matter exhibits magnetic properties to some degree. When placed in an
inhomogeneous field, matter is either attracted or repelled in the direction of the
gradient of the field. This property is described by the magnetic susceptibility of the
matter and depends on the degree of magnetization of the matter in the field.
Magnetization depends on the size of the dipole moments of the atoms in a substance
and the degree to which the dipole moments are aligned with respect to each other.
Certain materials, such as iron, exhibit very strong magnetic properties because of the
alignment of the magnetic moments of their atoms within certain small regions
called domains. Under normal conditions, the various domains have fields that cancel,
but they can be aligned with each other to produce extremely large magnetic fields.
Various alloys, like NdFeB (an alloy of neodymium, iron, and boron), keep their domains
aligned and are used to make permanent magnets. The strong magnetic field produced
by a typical three-millimetre-thick magnet of this material is comparable to
an electromagnet made of a copper loop carrying a current of several
thousand amperes. In comparison, the current in a typical light bulb is 0.5 ampere.
Since aligning the domains of a material produces a magnet, disorganizing the orderly
alignment destroys the magnetic properties of the material. Thermal agitation that
results from heating a magnet to a high temperature destroys its magnetic properties.

Magnetic fields vary widely in strength. Some representative values are given in
the Table.

Magnetic Field of Steady Currents

Magnetic fields produced by electric currents can be calculated for any shape
of circuit using the law of Biot and Savart, named for the early 19th-century French
physicists Jean-Baptiste Biot and Félix Savart. A few magnetic field lines produced by
a current in a loop are shown in Figure 1. These lines of B form loops around the
current. The Biot–Savart lawexpresses the partial contribution dB from a small segment
of conductor to the total B field of a current in the conductor. For a segment of length
and orientation dl that carries a current i,

EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY

2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
Figure 1: Some lines of the magnetic field B for an electric current i in a loop. Courtesy
of the Department of Physics and Astronomy, Michigan State University

In this equation, μ0 is the permeability of free space and has the value of 4π ×
10−7 newton per square ampere. This equation is illustrated in Figure 2 for a small
segment of a wire that carries a current so that, at the origin of the coordinate system,
the small segment of length dl of the wire lies along the x axis.

Figure 2: A magnetic field produced by a small section of wire with electric current i

Comparing dB at points 1 and 2 shows the inverse square dependence of the

magnitude of the field with distance. The vectors at points 1, 3, and 4, which are all at
the same distance from dl, show the direction of dB in a circle around the wire. In
position 1, the contribution to the field, dB1, is perpendicular both to the current direction
and to the vector r1. Finally, the vectors at 1, 5, 6, and 7 illustrate the angular
dependence of the magnitude of dB at a point. The magnitude of dB varies as the sine
of the angle between dl and r̂ , where r̂ is in the direction from dl to the point. It is
strongest at 90° to dl and decreases to zero for locations directly in line with dl. The
magnetic field of a current in a loop or coil is obtained by summing the individual partial
EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY
2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
contributions of all the segments of the circuits, taking into account the vector nature of
the field. While simple mathematical expressions for the magnetic field can be derived
for a few current configurations, most practical applications require the use of high-
speed computers.

The expression for the magnetic field B a distance r from a long straight wire with
current i is

where θ is a unit vector pointing in a circle around the wire. The B field near a long
straight wire with current i can be seen in Figure 3. The magnetic field at a
distance r from a magnetic dipole with moment m is given by

Figure 3: Magnetic field of a long straight wire. (A) An end view, with the current flowing
toward the reader. (B) A three-dimensional view.

The size of the magnetic dipole moment is m in ampere times square metre (A · m2),
and the angle between the direction of m and of r is θ. Both r̂ and θ are unit vectors in
the direction of r and θ. It is apparent that the magnetic field decreases rapidly as the
cube of the distance from the dipole. Equation (3) is also valid for a small current loop
with current i, when the distance r is much greater than the size of the current loop. A
loop of area A has a magnetic dipole moment with a magnitude m = iA; its direction is
perpendicular to the plane of the loop, along the direction of B inside the loop. If the
fingers of the right hand are curled and held in the direction of the current in the loop,
the extended thumb points in the direction of m. In Figure 1, the dipole moment of the
current in the loop points up; in Figure 4, m points down because the current flows in a
clockwise direction when viewed from above.

EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY

2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
Figure 4: Some of the lines of the magnetic field B from the small current loop in the centre. The current
in the loop flows in a clockwise direction when viewed from above.

The magnetic field of the current loop in Figure 4 at points far from the loop has the
same shape as the electric field of an electric dipole; the latter consists of two equal
charges of opposite sign separated by a small distance. Magnetic dipoles, like electric
dipoles, occur in a variety of situations. Electrons in atoms have a magnetic dipole
moment that corresponds to the current of their orbital motion around the nucleus. In
addition, the electrons have a magnetic dipole moment associated with
their spin. Earth’s magnetic field is thought to be the result of currents related to the
planet’s rotation. The magnetic field far from a small bar magnet is well represented by
the field of a magnetic dipole. In most of these cases, moving charge produces a
magnetic field B. Inside a long solenoid with current i and away from its ends, the
magnetic field is uniform and directed along the axis of the solenoid. A solenoid of this
kind can be made by wrapping some conducting wire tightly around a long hollow
cylinder. The value of the field is

where n is the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid.

FLUX DENSITY (β)

It is given by the flux passing per unit area through a plane at right angles to the
flux. It is measured in Wb/𝑚2
𝜱
β= = µH = µ𝟎 µ𝒓 H
𝑨

Direction of the magnetic field at any point is defined as the direction of motion of a
change particle on which the magnetic field would not exert force.

EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY

2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
Magnitude of the magnetic field vector is proportional to the force acting on the
moving charge, the magnitude of its velocity and the angle between velocity and
magnetic field. Unit is the Tesla or Gauss

SI CGS ENG

Wb/𝑚2 (Tesla) Max/𝑐𝑚2 (Gauss) lines/𝑖𝑛2

FLUX PER UNIT POLE (Φ ) OR MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE

Just as an electric field is described by drawing the electric lines of force, in the same
way, a magnetic field is described by drawing the magnetic lines of force. When a small
north magnetic pole is placed in the magnetic field created by a magnet, it will
experience a force. And if the North Pole is free, it will move under the influence of
magnetic field. The path traced by a North magnetic pole free to move under the
influence of a magnetic field is called a magnetic line of force. In other words, the
magnetic lines of force are the lines drawn in a magnetic field along which a north
magnetic pole would move.

The direction of a magnetic line of force at any point gives the direction of the magnetic
force on a north pole placed at that point. Since the direction of magnetic line of force is
the direction of force on a North Pole, so the magnetic lines of force always begin on the
N-pole of a magnet and end on the S-pole of the magnet. A small magnetic compass
when moved along a line of force always sets itself along the line tangential to it. So, a
line drawn from the South Pole of the compass to its North Pole indicates the direction
of the magnetic field.

Properties of the magnetic lines of force

➢ The magnetic lines of force originate from the North Pole of a magnet and end at
its South Pole.
➢ The magnetic lines of force come closer to one another near the poles of a
magnet but they are widely separated at other places.
➢ The magnetic lines of force do not intersect (or cross) one another.

When a magnetic compass is placed at different points on a magnetic line of force, it

aligns itself along the tangent to the line of force at that point.

Magnetic Flux (φ) - It is the number of magnetic lines of forces in a magnetic field.

-Maxwell-unit of magnetic flux equal to one line of force.

- Weber- SI unit of magnetic flux equal to 108 lines or Maxwell. 1Wb = 1x108
Maxwell

Conversion

q = 1.602x10−19 C 1 𝑘𝑔𝑓 = 9.81 N 1 N = 105 Dynes

1 𝑙𝑏𝑓 = 4.4484 N 1 Tesla = 104 Gauss

EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY

2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
 Absolute and Relative Permeability of a medium

Permeability - the ability of a material to conduct magnetic flux through it.

Relative Permeability- ration of the permeability of material to the permeability of air or

vacuum.

The phenomena of magnetism and electromagnetism are dependent upon a certain

property of the medium called its permeability. Every medium is supposed to possess
two permeabilities:

➢ Absolute permeability, µ𝑜
➢ Relative permeability, µ𝑟
For measuring relative permeability, vacuum or free space is chose as the
reference medium. It is allotted an absolute permeability of vacuum with
reference to itself is unity. Hence, for free space,
Absolute permeability, µ𝑜 = 4πx107 Henry/meter, constant 33
Relative permeability, µ𝑟 = 1
Now, take any medium other than vacuum. If its relative permeability, as
compared to vacuum is µ𝑟 , then its abs. permeability is µ = µ𝑜 = µ𝑟

MAGNETISING FIELD STRENGTH/FORCE/MAGNETIC INTENSITY (H)

- Field strength at any point within a magnetic field is numerically equal to the force
experienced by a N-pole of one Weber placed at that point.
- It should be noted that the field strength is a vector quantity having both magnitude and
direction.
- mmf (magnetomotiveforce) per unit length of path of the magnetic flux. It is also called as the
magnetizing force or the magnetic gradient
OERSTED- cgs unit of magnetic field strength equal to gilbert per centimeter.
AT/m – SI unit for H
1 oersted = 79.577 AT/m

a. Long Straight Wire

𝑵𝑰
H= where: r – distance
𝟐𝝅𝒓
N- Number of turns

I – Current in Amperes (A)

b. Long Solenoid
𝑵𝑰
H= 𝒍

c. Circular Coil
𝑵𝑰
H = 𝟐𝒓 where: r – radius

d. Square Coil

√𝟐𝑵𝑰
H= where: a – distance from the side
𝝅𝒂
EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY
2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. A solenoid 30cm long is wound with 300turns. What is the value of its field
strength inside the solenoid, when the coil is carrying a current of 2 Amperes?

2. If a current of 5A flows through a long wire of radius 0.004 meter, what is the
intensity of magnetic field produced 0.02 meter away from the surface of the
wire?

3. A flat circular coil with 40 loops of wire has a diameter of 32 cm. What current
must flow in its wires to produce a field of 3.0x 10−4 Wb/𝑚2 ?

EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY

2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
MAGNETIC FORCES

FORCE ON A CHARGE

➢ The amount of attraction or repulsion between charged objects can be put in

quantitative terms by the introduction of the electric force. The simplest case to
consider is the force between two points charges (charges with a negligible size)

F = qvβsinƟ (N) where: q – charge in Coulomb

Ɵ – angle between wire and magnetic field

v – velocity in m/s

β – flux density in Tesla

FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR LYING IN A

MAGNETIC FIELD

• The magnetic force on a charged particle depends on the relative orientation of

the particle's velocity and the magnetic field.
• A magnetic force cannot change the speed of a charged particle, only its
direction.
• When a charged particle enters a uniform magnetic field in a direction
perpendicular to that field, its motion is continuously changed by the magnetic
force
• A current consists of many small charged particles running through a wire. If
immersed in a magnetic field, the particles will be experience a force; they can
transmit this force to the wire through which they travel.
• The force on a section of wire of length L carrying a current I through a magnetic
field B is

F = βILsinƟ (N) where: β – Tesla

I – Current in Ampere (A)

L – length in meter (m)

𝛃𝐈𝐋𝐬𝐢𝐧Ɵ
F= (Dynes) where: β – Gauss
𝟏𝟎

I – Current in Ampere (A)

L – length in centimeter (cm)

𝛃𝐈𝐋𝐬𝐢𝐧Ɵ
F= (𝒍𝒃𝒇 ) where: β – lines
𝟏𝟏.𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔

I – Current in Ampere (A)

L – length in in/ft

Because forces are easy to measure, it is the force exerted on a current-carrying wire
which is used to define the SI unit of current, the ampere.

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ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CONDUCTORS

➢ Current in the same direction. The field strength in the space between the
conductors is decreased due to the two fields there being in the opposition to
each other. Hence, the two conductors are attached towards each other.
➢ Current in the opposite direction. The field strength is increased in the space
between the two conductors due to the two fields being in the same direction
there. Because of the lateral repulsion of the lines of force, the two conductors
expensive a mutual force of repulsion.

µ 𝟎 µ 𝒓 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 𝒍
F= where: µ𝟎 - constant permeability, const 33
𝟐𝝅𝒅
µ𝒓 - relative permeability
𝑙 - length in meter (m)
𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟕 µ𝒓 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 𝒍
F= I – current in amperes (A)
𝒅
d – distance between two conductors

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. An armature conductor 12cm long moves right angle to the magnetic flux of 1.20
Tesla and carrying 5A. What is the force experienced by the conductor?

2. Two straight parallel wires 2m long and 3mm apart carries a current of 8A in
opposite direction. Calculate the force between these conductors?

3. A coil of moving instrument is wound with 250 turns of wire. The flux density in
the gap is 0.085 Tesla and the effective length of the coil side in the air gap is
5cm. Find the force doing acting on each coil side when carrying current of
60mA? In Dynes.

EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY

2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
LORENTZ RIGHT HAND RULE

The Lorentz Force Law can be used to describe the effects of a charged particle moving
in a constant magnetic field.

In an open right hand, the direction of the four fingers points to the direction of the
magnetic field, the thumb pointing perpendicular to the four fingers points to the
direction of the magnetic force in a positive charge is in the direction in which your open
palm would push.

The implications of this expression include:

1. The force is perpendicular to both the velocity (v) of the charge (q) and the
magnetic field (B)
2. The magnitude of the force F=qvBsinθ where θ is the angle<180 degrees
between the velocity and the magnetic field. This implies that the magnetic force
on a stationary charge or a charge moving parallel to the magnetic field is zero.
3. The direction of the force is given by the right hand rule. The force relationship
above is in the form of a vector product.

B – Magnetic field (Wb/𝑚2 (Tesla) Max/𝑐𝑚2 (Gauss) lines/𝑖𝑛2

F – Force N Dynes 𝑙𝑏𝑓

v- velocity/speed m/s cm/s in/s,ft/s

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2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
FLEMING LEFT AND RIGHT HAND RULE

Whenever, a current carrying conductor comes under a magnetic field, there will be
force acting on the conductor and on the other hand, if a conductor is forcefully brought
under a magnetic field, there will be an induced current in that conductor. In both of the
phenomenons, there is a relation between magnetic field, current and force. This
relation is directionally determined by Fleming Left Hand rule and Fleming Right
Hand rule respectively. 'Directionally' means these rules do not show the magnitude but
show the direction of any of the three parameters (magnetic field, current, force) if the
direction of other two are known. Fleming Left Hand rule is mainly applicable for
electric motor and Fleming Right Hand rule is mainly applicable for electric generator.
In late 19th century, John Ambrose Fleming introduced both these rules and as per his
name, the rules are well known as Fleming left and right hand rule

Fleming Left Hand rule

It is found that whenever a current carrying conductor is placed inside a magnetic field,
a force acts on the conductor, in a direction perpendicular to both the directions of the
current and the magnetic field. In the figure it is shown that, a portion of a conductor of
length L placed vertically in a uniform horizontal magnetic field strength H, produced by
two magnetic poles N and S. If i is the current flowing through this conductor, the
magnitude of the force acts on the conductor is, F = BIL

EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY

2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
Fleming Right Hand rule

As per Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor moves inside

a magnetic field, there will be an induced current in it. If this conductor gets forcefully
moved inside the magnetic field, there will be a relation between the direction of applied
force, magnetic field and the current. This relation among these three directions is
determined by Fleming Right Hand Rule This rule states "Hold out the right hand with
the first finger, second finger and thumb at right angle to each other. If forefinger
represents the direction of the line of force, the thumb points in the direction of motion or
applied force, then second finger points in the direction of the induced current.

Difference Between Fleming’s Left-Hand and Right-Hand Rule

Left-Hand Rule Right-Hand Rule

It was invented by John Ambrose It was invented by John Ambrose Fleming

Fleming

It is used for electric motors It is used for electric generators

The purpose of the rule is to find the The purpose of the rule is to find the direction of
direction of motion in an electric induced current when a conductor moves in a
motor magnetic field.

The thumb represents the direction of The thumb represents the direction of motion of the
the thrust on the conductor conductor

The index finger represents the The index finger represents the direction of the
direction of the Magnetic Field Magnetic Field

The middle finger represents the The middle finger represents the direction of the
direction of the current induced current

EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY

2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Using the right hand rule, find the direction of the missing information in the
diagram

2. In the magnetic field shown in the picture, what is the magnitude and direction of
force on the 3 m conductor carrying I = 2A.

3. Each of the lettered dots shown in the figure represents an electric charge of 5µC
moving at speed 3x10^6 m/s in the direction shown. Determine the magnetic
force (magnitude and direction) acting one each charges due to the 0.15 Tesla
magnetic fields that points in the positive y-direction?

EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY

2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
TORQUE ON A FLAT COIL IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD

When a current carrying loop is placed across a magnetic field, it has the
tendency to be rotated either clockwise or counter-clockwise dependent on the direction
of the magnetic field and the current. Its direction of rotation is determined using the
right hand rule.

Before considering the mathematical nature of the forces on currents in magnetic fields
it is worth just looking at the simple magnetic field diagrams that give rise to these
effects. These are shown in Figure 1. (a) is the field between two magnets, (b) the field
due to a current in a straight wire and (c) the resulting field if they are put together. This
last field is known as the "catapult" field because it tends to catapult the wire out of the
field in the direction shown by the arrow.

T = INAβsinƟ (N-m) where: N- turns

I – current in amperes (A)

A – area of the coil

Ɵ – angle between magnetic field and a perpendicular to the

plane of the coil

SAMPLE PROBLEM

1. Find the maximum torque on a 100-turn square loop of a wire of 10.0 cm on a

side that carries 15.0 A of current in a 2.00-T field.

2. A rectangular loop 10cm high and 5cm wide is placed in magnetic field of
0.01 Tesla. If the loop contains turns and carries a current of 50mA. What is
the torque on it? Assume that the face of the loop is parallel to the field?
Given 250 turns.

EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY

2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

- A closed path in which magnetic induction or flux flows.

- A system of magnetic conductors which magnetism maybe established
upon the application of magnetomotive force (mmf)

MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE (mmf)

- A force that sets up or tends to set up magnetic flux in a magnetic

circuit. By an electric current through a number of turns of a wire
produces it

mmf = NI (if the unit is in AT)

= 0.4πNI (if the unit is in Gilberts)

RELUCTANCE (R)

- Property of material that opposes flux flow. It is equal to the ration of

the mmf in a magnetic circuit to the magnetic flux through any cross
section of the magnetic circuit.
𝒍 𝒍
R=µ = v𝑨 units: AT/Wb; Gilbert/Max
𝒐 µ𝒓 𝑨

Where:

𝑙 − Mean length of the magnetic path (m)

µ𝑜 - Free space of permeability

µ𝑜 − Relative permeability

A – Cross sectional area of the magnetic path (sq. m)

1
v – reluctivity ; the reciprocal of permeability = µ

𝑙 - mean length / circumference

𝑙 − πd ; where d = mean diameter

𝑙 − 2πr; where r = radius

𝑅𝑐𝑔𝑠 = 79.577𝑥 106 𝑅𝑚𝑘𝑠

Permeance (P) – reciprocal of reluctance

- Implies the ease or readiness with which magnetic flux is developed.

𝟏 µ𝟎 µ𝒓 𝑨
P= =
𝑹 𝒍

EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY

2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
FLUX ( 𝜱)

- Used to indicate the apparent stress in the space surrounding an

energized coil or magnet.

𝒎𝒎𝒇 𝑵𝑰 𝟎.𝟒𝝅𝑵𝑰
𝜱= = =
𝑹 𝑹 𝑹

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. A certain laminated steel core has a permeability of 3000. The length is 5cm and
the cross sectional area is 2sq.cm. What is the reluctance?

2. A magnetic circuit consists of silicon steel of 3000 permeability and air gap. The
length of the steel core is 10cm and the air gap is 2cm. Both have the same
cross section of 1.5 sq.cm. A current of ½ Ampere flows through the windings to
produce 2351 Maxwell flux. How many turns are there in the coil?

2.2 A magnetic circuit consists of silicon steel of 3000 permeability, of 10cm length
and cross section of 1.5 cm2 and an air gap of the same cross section of is 2cm
lenght. A current of ½ Ampere current flows 5000 – turn coil. What is the field
intensity at the air gap?

EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY

2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
3. A solenoid has 250 turns. What is the magnetomotive force (mmf) in Gilbert
when the current is 0.12 Amp?

4. A coil with 900 turns is wound over a magnetic core with a reluctance of 10000
AT/Wb. If a current of 2A is passed through the coil, how much is the magnetic
flux that the coil generates?

UNITS
SYMBOL MKS CGS
β Wb/𝑚2 (Tesla) Max/𝑐𝑚2 ( Gauss)
𝛷 Wb ( Weber) Max (Maxwell)
A 𝑚2 𝑐𝑚2
µ0 Const 33 1
µ𝑟 - -
H AT/m Oersted
R AT/Wb Gilbert/Max
mmf AT Gilberts

EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY

2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
ENERGY STORED IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

The energy stored in a magnetic field is equal to the work needed to produce
a current through the inductor.

When a conductor carries a current, a magnetic field surrounding the conductor is

produced. The resulting magnetic flux is proportional to the current. If the current
changes, the change in magnetic flux is proportional to the time-rate of change in
current by a factor called inductance (L). Since nature abhors rapid change,
a voltage (electromotive force, EMF) produced in the conductor opposes the change in
current, which is also proportional to the change in magnetic flux. Thus, inductors
oppose change in current by producing a voltage that,in turn, creates a current to
oppose the change in magnetic flux; the voltage is proportional to the change in current.

Due to energy conservation, the energy needed to drive the original current must have
an outlet. For an inductor, that outlet is the magnetic field—the energy stored by an
inductor is equal to the work needed to produce a current through the inductor.

𝟏 𝟏 𝜷𝟐 𝟏
W = R𝜱𝟐 W = (LA) [ ] W = 𝑳𝑰𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 µ 𝟐

Where: w – energy stored in Joules (J) 𝛷 - Flux

µ - permeability of core 𝛽 – Magnetic flux density

R – Reluctance

L – Inductance

I – Current

FARADAY’S LAW

A law that states an electrical field is induced in any system in which a magnetic
field is changing with time.

➢ FARADAY’S FIRST LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION. Whenever

the flux linking a coil or current changes, an emf is induced in it.
➢ FARADAY’S SECOND LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION. The
magnitude of the induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of flux
linkages.

EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY

2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
INDUCED EMF – it is the voltage generated by a conductor or coil moving in magnetic
field.
𝒅𝜱
e=N 𝒅𝒕
where: e – induced emf (Volt)
N – number of turns
𝑑𝛷
- rate of change of flux (Weber per second)
𝑑𝑡

INDUCED EMF

A voltage can be developed in a wire by moving the wire across a magnetic field
so that flux cutting results (Faraday’s Principle)

e = βLv sin Ɵ

where: e – induced emf (volt)

β – flux density at the location of the conductor (Tesla)

L – length of the conductor (meter)

v – relative velocity (meter per second)

𝒅𝒊
e=L
𝒅𝒕

where: e – self- induced emf (volt)

L – self inductance (Henry)

di/dt – rate of change of current ( Ampere per second)

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Find the electromotive force in a conductor of length 50cm moving

perpendicular at a velocity 590m/s to a region of flux density 1 Tesla?

EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY

2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
 2. A magnetic coil produces 100,000 Maxwells with 2000 turns and with a
current of 2 Amp. The current is cut-off and the flux collapses in 0.01sec.
What is the average voltage that will appear across the coil?

3. The flux density emanating from a pole of a generator is 20,000 Gauss. A

conductor one meter long cuts the flux perpendicularly at a speed of 40m per
second. What voltage is developed?

INDUCTANCE

A property of an electric circuit by which emf is induced in it as the result

of changing magnetic flux. it is also a circuit element, typically a conducting coil,
in which emf is generated by electromagnetic induction.

Self Inductance – the ratio of emf produced in a circuit by self induction to the
rate of change of current producing it, expressed in Henries (H)

𝑵𝜱 µ𝟎 µ𝒓 𝑨𝑵𝟐 𝑵𝟐
L= L= L=
𝑰 𝒍 𝑹

EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY

2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
 Where: L – inductance (Henry)
µ0 - permeability of free space (const 33, 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 Henry per meter
µ𝑟 - relative permeability of the core used
A – cross sectional are of the magnetic path( square meter)
N – number of turns
φ – flux (Weber)
I – Current (Ampere)
𝑙 - mean length of the magnetic path (meter)
R – reluctance of the magnetic path (AT/Weber)

Mutual Inductance – the ratio of emf in a circuit to the corresponding change of

current in a neighboring circuit. Measures the mutual induction between two
magnetically linked circuits, given as the ratio of the induced emf to the rate of
charge of current producing it, measured in Henries (H)

𝑵𝜱 µ𝟎 µ𝒓 𝑨𝑵𝟏 𝑵𝟐
M= M=
𝑰 𝒍

Series Coil with mutual inductance

Series aiding – sources of electromotive force (emf) which give the ability to the
current to flow in the same direction.

𝐿𝑇𝐴 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2M

Series opposing – sources of electromotive force (emf) which give the ability to
the current to flow in opposite direction.

𝐿𝑇𝑂 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 - 2M

Parallel Coil with mutual inductance

Parallel aiding – this is where connected coils increasing the total equivalent
inductance.
𝐿 𝐿 − 𝑀2
𝐿𝑇𝐴 = 𝐿 1+ 2𝐿
1 2 − 2𝑀

Parallel opposing – this is where connected coils decreasing the total

equivalent inductance compared to coils that have zero mutual inductance.
𝐿 𝐿 − 𝑀2
𝐿𝑇𝐴 = 𝐿 1+ 2𝐿
1 2 + 2𝑀

Where: 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 - self inductance in H (Henry)

M – Mutual inductance
𝑳𝑻𝑨 − 𝑳𝑻𝟎
M= 𝟒

EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY

2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME
Coupling Factor/ Coefficient of coupling
𝑴
k=
√𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Two coils in a network are positioned such that there is 80% coupling between
them. If the inductance of one coil is 20mH and the inductance of the other coil is
16mH. Find the mutual inductance?

2. A current of 2 Amp through a coil sets up flux linkages of 4Wb-turns. What is the
inductance of the coil?

3. Two coils of inductance 𝐿1 = 1.16 mH, 𝐿2 = 2 mH are connected in series. Find

the total energy stored when the steady current is 2 Amp?

EE – 422 DC & AC MACHINERY

2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
ENGR. DARWIN M. MARASIGAN, REE, RME