6.

The Westley and Maclean Model

Oral Communication in Context Quarter 1
“Who says what to whom with what effect?” C. Transactional models – see communication as a cooperative
Harold D. Lasswell and simultaneous process in which communicators co-create the
process of communication, thereby influencing its outcome and
Communication – effectiveness.
• Definition: Communication is the exchange of ideas and - Communicators create shared meaning in a dynamic process.
emotions through verbal and nonverbal cues. The term
"communication" originates from the Latin word "communis," - Transactional models show that we do not just exchange
which means "common." information during our interactions, but create relationships,
• Purpose: Communication helps individuals adapt to their form cross-cultural bonds, and shape our opinions.
environment and interact effectively with others. - Communication helps us establish our realities.
• The Process of Communication: Communication is a multi- - The transactional communication model emphasizes
step process. It begins with a stimulus or idea that the sender simultaneous interaction between senders and receivers.
wishes to convey. The sender encodes the message into words Feedback involves nonverbal cues, and communicators' diverse
and expresses it in a specific sequence. The receiver then backgrounds shape their responses to the situation.
decodes and interprets the message. Feedback may or may not 7. Barnlund’s Transactional Model
be provided by the receiver. When feedback is given, the roles of 8. Dance’s Helical Model
sender and receiver can reverse.
• Breakdown in Communication: Communication breakdowns
Wilbur Schramm Model
can occur due to obstacles or hindrances known as "noise,"
which obstruct the understanding of the message.
• Example: In our discussion, the provided conversation at a thrift
store illustrates the communication process. Erika's stimulus is
her curiosity about the dress's price. She becomes the sender by
expressing her question to the cashier, who is the receiver. The
cashier decodes the message and provides feedback. However, a
miscommunication occurs when Erika misunderstands the price
initially, but it is eventually resolved.
Schramm is considered the Father of Communication. He was the
Two Types of Nonverbal communication:
first individual o identify himself as a communication scholar. In his
1. Proxemics, which involves the use of space or
distance to convey meaning. model, he explained that communication is a two-way circular
2. Kinesics, which includes body language, gestures, between the sender and the receiver. It emphasizes the encoding
eye contact, and facial expressions. and decoding of messages.
3. Chronemics, which considers the role of time in
communication and its cultural variations. Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver Model
4. Paralanguage, which pertains to tone, speed,
The Shannon-Weaver model has been called the “mother of all
volume, sighs, and gasps in spoken communication.
models.” Social Scientists use the term to refer to an integrated
5. Haptics, involving touch as a means of conveying
messages, influenced by cultural norms. model of the concepts of the information source, message,
transmitter, signal, channel, noise, receiver, information
8 Models of Communication destination, probability of error, encoding, decoding, information
rate, and channel capacity. The model’s primary value is in
A. Linear models - Only look at one-way communication.
explaining how messages are lost and distorted in the
- The sender transmits the message via a channel.
communication process. This model is often called Telephone
- The channel is the medium and changes the message into
Model because it is based on the experience of having the message
speech, writing, or animation.
interfered with by “noise” from the telephone switchboard back in
- The message then reaches the receiver, who decodes it.
1940.
- This model is straightforward and is used mainly in marketing,
sales, and PR, in communication with customers.
1. Aristotle’s Model The Process of Communication
2. Laswell’s Model ® The communication process is the basis for realizing the
3. The Shannon-Weaver Model effectiveness of communication where the sharing of a
4. Berlo’s S-M-C-R model common meaning occurs between the sender and the
receiver.
Aristotle Model ® Effective communication leads to understanding.
® It consists of key components such as encoding, the
medium of transmission, decoding, and feedback.

- A speaker centered model as the speaker has the most

Elements of Communication (Please see below the lists from 2
important role in it. It mainly focused on the speaker, different sources/perspectives.)
speech(message), and audience.
7 Essential Elements of Communication
B. Interactive models – They are more dynamic and they look at
two-way communication with feedback
1. The Speaker is the source of the information and the one who
- However, feedback is not simultaneous, but rather slow and
intends to convey the message with the intention of passing
indirect.
information and ideas to others
- Interactive models are used in internet-based and mediated
2. The Message is what needs to be delivered by the speaker. It is
communication (telephone conversations, letters, etc.).
5. The Osgood-Schramm Model central to the process because it is the point of saying something
based on why, what, and how the speaker wants to say.
 3. The Listener is the one who receives the message. The feedback 5. Systematic/Systemic Barriers
depends on how the listener reacts to the message sent. It has been Systematic barriers to communication happen in a workplace or
said that no matter how great the speaker is and good the Message, structures where there are disorganized or incorrect information
if there is no listener or are not listening, then communication fails. systems and communication channels or a lack of understanding of
4. Channel or medium is the way in which a message is the roles and responsibilities for communication. Individuals in
sent through our senses. such workplace may experience confusions of their role in the
5. The Response is the only way the Speaker knows that the communication process.
message has been received based on how it is interpreted by
the receiver whether it is positive or negative. 6. Attitudinal Barriers
6. Feedback is the result of monitoring the listener’s response. An attitudinal communication barrier is a behavior or perceptions
The positive or negative response depends on how the listener that hinder people from transmitting information effectively.
effectively interpreted the message. Speaker will make sure of Accusing, or thinking someone of having a bad attitude who might
the feedback in continuing his or her message. as well bring attitudinal barrier in your workplace is an example of
7. Noise is any barrier or interference to communication. an attitudinal barrier.

Other Elements of Communication How to Avoid Communication Breakdown?

1. Participants: Communicators can be senders and receivers. To avoid communication breakdown, Padilla et. al. (2016)
Senders transmit information, while receivers decode messages emphasized the following points:
to respond. 1. Become an engaged listener
2. Context: Includes physical, psychological, social, and cultural
2. Focus fully on the speaker. - Apply the techniques of
factors that influence communication.
• Physical context: Relates to location, time, environment, clarification and reflection to confirm what the other person is
and distance. talking to avoid confusion.
• Social context: Concerns the relationship between 3. Do not interrupt. Concentrate on what someone is saying, not
communicators. forming in mind what you’re going to say next.
• Psychological context: Involves the moods and feelings of 4. Try to set aside judgment or bias.
participants. 5. Show your interest in what is being said. Body language is
• Cultural context: Involves beliefs and norms, especially essential in a conversation, like occasionally nodding, smiling, and
when interacting with diverse individuals.
making sure that your appearance is open and inviting. Verbal
comments like “yes” or “uh huh” will also encourage the speaker
Barriers to Effective Communication
to continue.
6. Give feedback. If you get disconnected at some point, try to
1. Language Barriers reflect on what has been said by rephrasing it. You may say, “What
Language and linguistic ability may act as a barrier to I’m hearing is”, or “Sounds like you are saying...”
communication. However, even when communicating in the same 6. Be attentive to nonverbal signals. You send messages through
style, the terminology used in a message may be a barrier if it is not words, gestures, and body language. This includes tone mof voice,
fully understood by the receiver(s). For example, a nurse or a facial expressions, and silence, eye contact, hand, arm and leg
doctor referring to common colds as upper respiratory tract postures. The way you look, listen, move, and react to another
infection may not be understood well by a patient. Language person tell them more about how you’re feeling than words alone
barriers may include different languages, no clarity in speech, using ever could.
jargon, and not being specific.
Tips for Improving How You Read and Understand Non-
2. Psychological Barriers Verbal Communication Source: Bernardo (2016)
The psychological state of the communicators will influence how 1. Be aware of individual differences
the message is sent, received, and perceived. For example, if People come from different countries and cultures that they tend to
someone is stressed, he/she might be very impatient which could use different nonverbal signs in communication. When you read
affect how he sends and receives messages, resulting in body language signals, consider the age, culture, religion, gender,
misunderstanding. Anger is another example of a psychological and emotional state.’
barrier to communication when we are angry. It is easy to say
things that we may later regret and also to misinterpret what 2. Consider nonverbal communication signals as a group.
others are saying. Pay attention to all the nonverbal signals you receive—eye contact,
tone of voice and body language. Consider also the signals as a
3. Physiological Barriers whole to understand better the person.
Physiological barriers may result from the receiver’s physical state.
For example, a receiver with reduced hearing may not grasp a How to Effectively Deliver Non-Verbal Communication
spoken conversation, especially if there is significant background
noise. Your grandmother or grandfather may not hear as clearly as 1. Use nonverbal signals that match up with your words.
your mother or father; thus, they tend to misunderstand your Nonverbal communication should emphasize what you
messages and respond differently. communicated, not a contradiction to it. For example, shaking your
4. Physical Barriers head when you mean to say “yes.”
Physical barrier is the natural and environmental situation that
hinders the sending of the information from the sender to the 2. Adjust nonverbal signals according to the context.
receiver. Defects in media, distractions in the environment, Consider the emotional state and cultural background of
distance and physical disability, technological problems and noise the person you are communicating.
are the parts of physical barriers.
3. Use body language to express positive feelings.
When you are nervous about a situation- a job interview, important door.
presentation, or first date, for example- positive body language to
signal confidence should be applied. Examining the Speaker’s Purpose

4. Keep stress in check 1. To inform – It is evident in lectures where the speaker presents
To communicate effectively, you need to be in control of your factual information. This purpose can be used to communicate
emotions. Stress will lead you to misinterpret other people, routine, repetitive, daily tasks, instructions, codes, steps, and
transmit unclear or unpleasant nonverbal signals and procedures in the workplace. It is also commonplace in ordinary
create unhealthy knee-jerk reactions. conversations. For example:
The president delivers the State of the Nation Address,
Manage Stress and Communicate Effectively Under enumerating the accomplishment of the President’s Office.
Pressure 2. To persuade – It occurs when a person attempts to convince an
1. Give yourself time to think. Clarify a question or a individual or group to take certain specific actions. In other words,
statement before responding; the speakers of this type of speech want their audience to think and
2. Stop to gather your thoughts; feel the way they want them to.
3. Make one point and provide an example or supporting a piece For example: A politician wants to get the voice of his or her target
of information; constituents. He or she should present his or her speech that the
4. Express your ideas clearly; and audience would see the merit of choosing him or her.
5. Sum up your response.
6. Assert 3. To entertain – It is aimed at lightening the mood of the
audience. It needs timing and proper delivery of the entertaining
Remember: piece. Establishing a good rapport with your audience is a must to
Be direct and assertive in expressing your feelings, thoughts, and achieve this purpose.
needs. Being assertive does not mean you have to be aggressive
and demanding. It is not about winning a verbal fight or
imposing your viewpoints on others; it is about understanding the Types of Speech Context
other person and getting what you want in a way that will not
harm the other or label you as disrespectful or impolite. 1. Intrapersonal – This type of communication refers to the
communicator’s internal use of language or thought. It is the
You can improve your assertiveness if you: communication with oneself where the communicator is both the
1. Value yourself and your opinions; sender and the receiver of the message. The channel is your brain,
2. Communicate your needs and wants without violating the which processes what you are thinking and feeling. Talking to
rights of others; yourself is the feedback in this situation (Hybels & Weaver, 2012, p
3. Convey negative ideas positively and respectfully.
16).
4. Accept feedback and compliments positively and favorably.
Examples: A student thought of strategies on how he should do his
Functions of Communication report in class and spent time thinking what his teacher would say
after the report.
1. Regulation or Control – Communication enables the control or 2. Interpersonal – This type of communication occurs between
regulation of behavior in many ways. two or more people who exchange information, feelings, and
For example: Doctor Prescription: Take your medicine three (3) meanings using of verbal and non-verbal messages.
times a day. Types of Interpersonal: Dyad and Small Group
Home Regulation: Wash the dishes now, I won’t allow you to go
3. Public – This type of communication happens when the person
to the party later.
is engaged in a dialogue before or in front of the audience.
2. Social Interaction – Communication fosters social interaction. It 4. Mass Communication – This type of communication uses mass
allows individuals to interact with people in almost all aspects of media to large segments of the population through television, radio,
our life and every communication situation. newspapers, magazines, books, billboards, internet, and other types
For example: Marriage Proposal: Will you marry me? of media (social media).
Invitation: Would you like some coffee, tea, or milk? Types of Speeches and Speech Styles

3. Motivation – Communication motivates or encourages people to A. Types of Speech According to Purpose

live better.
1. Informative Speech - It is where a speaker gives factual
For example: The manager’s award points to each subordinate as a
information by giving definition, description or explanation on a
reward. The subordinate can save the points and cash them in for
certain topic. Classroom discussion, seminars and training can be
prizes, free lunches, or even a day off from work.
considered as an informative speech.
4. Emotional Expression – Communication facilitates people’s 2. Entertainment Speech - The mere purpose of this speech is to
expression of their feeling, satisfaction, frustrations, and needs. give pleasure and amusement to the audience through comic or
For example: Appreciation: I am so glad that you came into my life. humorous experiences. Telling jokes and narrating funny or scary
Express ambition: I want to finish up my studies with experiences can be used in this speech.
good grades to be accepted in a good university. 3. Persuasive Speech - It aims to convince or influence the
Express a need: I need you in my life. audience to change the perspective and look at things the way the
Express prayers: “We pray for those who need healing.” speaker presents the idea or concept. Public forum debate and
Sales presentation are few of its examples.
5. Information Dissemination - Communication functions to
convey information.
For example: Gathering information: Where can I get my license?
Sharing information: You can find the bathroom next to that
 Types of Speech According to Delivery shared by family members, people in a relationship, and a very
close friend. Language • The language used is very private
1. Impromptu - It is a short and concise speech
and does not follow any grammatical structure. Example •
without advanced preparation. The speech is usually unplanned Conversation between parents and children, husband and wife,
and casually delivered in an occasion when you need to give a brief boyfriend and girlfriend, etc.
message or to say a few words. Examples: Oral Recitation, birthday
message and job interview are few of its example. Speech Act - is an utterance performed with consideration of the
Tips: • Take a deep breath and conceptualize your thoughts. • intention of the speaker or the effect of the listener. Speech acts
Maintain eye contact with your listeners and state your main point. could be in the form of promises, warnings, requests, greetings,
• keep it short and simple. apologies, or any form of pronouncement. It can be done through
2. Extemporaneous - The most popular and commonly used type the Direct act or Indirect act.
of speech, You are given limited time to prepare and practice your 1. Direct Act. It is in a declarative form carried out only by means of
speech. • Delivered spontaneously with speaking outline or brief expressing them clearly.
notes Example: A Politician is giving a campaign speech. 2. Indirect Act. It is an interrogative structure that asks a question.
Pros • Detailed and flexible • The speaker looks smart and confident. 3 Types of Speech Acts
Cons • Limited time of preparation may result in insubstantial
1. Locutionary Act. It is “How to Do Things with Words,” according
evidence or proof of one’s main point.
to British Philosopher J.L. Austin in his 1962 book. It is said to be an
Tips: Use SEE structure: Statement, Evidence, Emotion
utterance in the act of speech. It is an act that gives meaning to the
• Make a comprehensible outline.
statement. It consists of a verbal expression such as a word or a
• Practice, Practice and Practice more.
sentence. ex. “Do not go into the light.”
2. Manuscript - The speaker reads verbatim or exactly the written 2. Illocutionary Act. It refers to the use of sentence or expression
speech. • Precisely written and rehearsed prior to the speaking or execution of something specific utterance. A talker’s intention
engagement. Examples: TV and radio anchors with news script whether it is a way of warning, ordering, informing, etc. ex. “I
Pros • Delivered exact and concise information warned you to be careful in choosing the house.”
• Well-structured and guided speech. Cons: It may sound 3. Perlocutionary Act. It is also called a perlocutionary effect,
monotonous and robotic. which is an act resulting
Tips: Practice reading the manuscript as if it is spoken naturally. in an utterance or the response of the receiver to the speaker’s
• Always be mindful of your audience. • Maintain eye contact and intention. ex. “He went out to buy food.”
avoid reading plainly without glancing at your audience.
Classification of Speech Acts
3. Memorized -Delivering a written speech form one’s memory
1. Assertives is a remark of how things are a representation of
• The speech is crafted and practiced in advance. Examples:
reality. One of the classifications of speech acts that provides true
Oration, poem recital & theatrical presentation
or false to the reason, category, description, clarification, and
Tips: Read, Read, and read more the written speech to remember
testimony. The intention is to claim the speaker’s belief. ex. “I am
and memorized the speech easily. • Do not just memorize.
beautiful.”
Understand the concept or the idea of the speech easily. • Deliver
your speech as natural as it can be. 2. Expressives. It shows the speaker’s expression through a
remark. It means how the presenter feels about the condition.
Types of Speech Style ex. “Thank you.” “I am sorry.”
1. Frozen Style - A style that remains to be the same 3. Directives aim to do what the speaker asks. The intention of this
as time passes by. It has been used for a formal and ceremonial is to make the audience member perform what the speaker
setting. It is usually written in paragraphs expresses. It is also known as demanding, encouraging, pleading,
with complex grammatical sentence structure and vocabulary. and warning. ex. “Can you show me the way?”
Example • Prayers, pledges, school creeds, etc.
4. Declaratives serve an act of declaring something. To perform
2. Formal Style - This style is very direct, frank, and the pronouncement, the speaker should have the special privilege
uses formal settings. It usually follows a standard format speaking that allows him to perform a declaration.
and writing. The words are carefully chosen and prepared in ex. “I now declare a Martial Law.”
advance following the standard form of communication, which 5. Commissives show the intention of the speaker, which will be
includes well structured, logical, and grammatically correct made to happen later. An act of committing or pledging.
sentences. Jargon and Slang are discouraged. ex. “I will be there tonight.”
Example • Conferences, SONA, Memorandum,
- SOLI DEO GLORIA -
3. Consultative Style - A speech style used between a speaker and
a listener in professional discourse. The conversation is
unstructured and unplanned. The speaker uses a conversational
style of communication with professionalism and an ethical
approach. Example • A conversation between an employee and
employer, leader and members, Guidance Counselor/Teacher and
student/counselee, etc.
1. Casual Style - The speech style is commonly used between
colleagues, groups, peers, and friends. Language • Informal
languages are used like slang, jargon, vernacular, and even vulgar
words. Example • Chit-chat with friends, text messages, and phone
calls, etc.
2. Intimate- It’s an exclusive or private type of speech style usually