Advance Biology Notes

Parts of Microscope:

The three structural parts of a microscope are as follows:

1. Head: It is also referred to as the body. The head of the microscope contains
optical components.
2. Base: It serves as a support for microscopes. Microscope illuminators are also
carried by it.
3. Arm: It joins the base to the head and the eyepiece tube to the base. It supports
the microscope’s head and is also used for carrying the instrument.
1. Eyepiece: It is also referred to as the ocular. This area is used to view objects
through the microscope. It is located at the tip of the microscope.
2. Eyepiece holder: It is often known as the eyepiece tube. The eyepiece is mounted
directly over the objective lens. Some microscopes, like binoculars, have flexible
eyepiece tubes that may be turned for optimal visualisation and to account for
differences in distance.
3. Objective lenses: These are the primary lenses employed for specimen
visualisation. They have a 40x–100x magnification range. One microscope has one
to four objective lenses, some of which are forward-facing and others rear-facing.
The magnification power of each lens varies.
4. Nose piece: It is referred to as the revolving turret. It retains objective lenses.
Because it is mobile, the objective lenses can rotate according to the lens’s
magnification.
5. Adjustment knobs: They are utilised to focus the microscope. There are two
different kinds of adjustment knobs: coarse adjustment knobs and fine
adjustment knobs.
6. Stage: The specimen is displayed here. The specimen slides are kept in place by
stage clips. The most popular stage is a mechanical stage, which enables control
of the slides by allowing them to be moved mechanically on the stage rather than
manually.
7. Aperture: A hole in the microscope stage via which transmitted light from the
source enters the stage.
8. Microscopic illuminator: It is located at the microscope’s base, providing its light
source. It collects light from an outside source using a low voltage of only 100 volts.
It is utilised in place of a mirror.
9. Condenser: The lenses used to gather and concentrate light from the illuminator
into the sample. They are located near the microscope’s diaphragm under the
stage. They are essential for producing clear, bright images at high
magnifications of 400X and more. Image clarity increases with increasing
condenser magnification.
10. Diaphragm: It is also called the iris. It can be found under the microscope’s stage,
and its primary function is to regulate how much light gets to the specimen. The
light intensity and size of the beam that reaches the specimen are controlled by
this adjustable device.
11. Condenser focus knob: It controls the focus of light on the specimen by raising or
lowering the condenser.
12. Abbe condenser: It is a condenser mainly created for high-quality microscopes. It
allows for extremely high magnification of over 400X.
 13. The rack stop: It controls how far the stages should move to keep the objective
lens from going closer to the specimen slide, which could harm the specimen. It
guards against the specimen slide rising too high and colliding with the objective
lens.

Robert Hooke discovered the cell in 1665. Robert Hooke observed a piece of
bottle cork under a compound microscope and noticed minuscule structures
that reminded him of small rooms. Consequently, he named these “rooms” as
cells. However, his compound microscope had limited magnification, and
hence, he could not see any details in the structure. Owing to this limitation,
Hooke concluded that these were non-living entities.

Later Anton Van Leeuwenhoek observed cells under another compound

microscope with higher magnification. This time, he had noted that the cells
exhibited some form of movement (motility). As a result, Leeuwenhoek
concluded that these microscopic entities were “alive.” Eventually, after a host
of other observations, these entities were named as animalcules.

In 1883, Robert Brown, a Scottish botanist, provided the very first insights into
the cell structure. He was able to describe the nucleus present in the cells of
orchids.
Cell Structure
The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions
essential to carry out life’s processes. These components include- cell wall,
cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and cell organelles. Read on to explore
more insights on cell structure and function.

Cell Membrane

• The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of
substances in and out of the cells. It separates the cell from the external
environment. The cell membrane is present in all the cells.
• The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles,
such as the cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred to as the
plasma membrane.
• By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permits the movement
of selective substances in and out of the cell. Besides this, the cell membrane also
protects the cellular component from damage and leakage.
• It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell and
its surroundings.
• Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are well-adapted to protect them
from external factors. The cell wall helps to reinforce this function.

Cell Wall

• The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is made up
of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
• The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma membrane
and other cellular components. The cell wall is also the outermost layer of plant
cells.
• It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.
• It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from mechanical
shocks and injuries.

Cytoplasm

• The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell
membrane.
 • Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.
• The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria,
ribosomes, are suspended in this cytoplasm.

Nucleus

• The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.
• It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.
• The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA from
the rest of the cell.
• The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral component of a plant’s cell
structure.

Cell Organelles
Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform certain specific
functions to carry out life’s processes. The different cell organelles, along with
its principal functions, are as follows:

Cell Organelles and their Functions

Nucleolus

The nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in controlling cellular activities
and cellular reproduction.

Nuclear membrane

The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a boundary between the nucleus and
other cell organelles.

Chromosomes

Chromosomes play a crucial role in determining the sex of an individual. Each human cells
contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.
 Endoplasmic reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of substances throughout the cell. It
plays a primary role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids, steroids and
proteins.

Golgi Bodies

Golgi bodies are called the cell’s post office as it is involved in the transportation of materials
within the cell.

Ribosome

Ribosomes are the protein synthesisers of the cell.

Mitochondria

The mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so because it produces ATP
– the cell’s energy currency.

Lysosomes

Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell and help in cell
renewal. Therefore, they are known as the cell’s suicide bags.

Chloroplast

Chloroplasts are the primary organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the pigment called
chlorophyll.

Vacuoles

Vacuoles store food, water, and other waste materials in the cell.
Cell Theory
Cell Theory was proposed by the German scientists, Theodor Schwann,
Matthias Schleiden, and Rudolf Virchow. The cell theory states that:

• All living species on Earth are composed of cells.

• A cell is the basic unit of life.
• All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

A modern version of the cell theory was eventually formulated, and it

contains the following postulates:

• Energy flows within the cells.

• Genetic information is passed on from one cell to the other.
• The chemical composition of all the cells is the same.

Functions of Cell
A cell performs major functions essential for the growth and development of
an organism. Important functions of cell are as follows:

Provides Support and Structure

All the organisms are made up of cells. They form the structural basis of all
the organisms. The cell wall and the cell membrane are the main
components that function to provide support and structure to the organism.
For eg., the skin is made up of a large number of cells. Xylem present in the
vascular plants is made of cells that provide structural support to the plants.

Facilitate Growth Mitosis

In the process of mitosis, the parent cell divides into the daughter cells. Thus,
the cells multiply and facilitate the growth in an organism.

Allows Transport of Substances

Various nutrients are imported by the cells to carry out various chemical
processes going on inside the cells. The waste produced by the chemical
processes is eliminated from the cells by active and passive transport. Small
molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethanol diffuse across the cell
membrane along the concentration gradient. This is known as passive
transport. The larger molecules diffuse across the cell membrane through
active transport where the cells require a lot of energy to transport the
substances.

Eukaryotic Cell

What is a Eukaryotic Cell?

Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus enclosed within the nuclear membrane and
form large and complex organisms. Protozoa, fungi, plants, and animals all
have eukaryotic cells. They are classified under the kingdom Eukaryota.

They can maintain different environments in a single cell that allows them to
carry out various metabolic reactions. This helps them grow many times
larger than the prokaryotic cells.

Also refer: Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells

The features of eukaryotic cells are as follows:

1. Eukaryotic cells have the nucleus enclosed within the nuclear

membrane.

2. The cell has mitochondria.

3. Flagella and cilia are the locomotory organs in a eukaryotic cell.

4. A cell wall is the outermost layer of the eukaryotic cells.

5. The cells divide by a process called mitosis.

6. The eukaryotic cells contain a cytoskeletal structure.

7. The nucleus contains a single, linear DNA, which carries all the genetic
information.

Structure Of Eukaryotic Cell

The eukaryotic cell structure comprises the following:

Plasma Membrane

• The plasma membrane separates the cell from the outside environment.
• It comprises specific embedded proteins, which help in the exchange of
substances in and out of the cell.

Cell Wall

• A cell wall is a rigid structure present outside the plant cell. It is, however, absent in
animal cells.
• It provides shape to the cell and helps in cell-to-cell interaction.
• It is a protective layer that protects the cell from any injury or pathogen attacks.
• It is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins, proteins, etc.

Also refer: Cell Wall

Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is present inside the cytoplasm, which consists of
microfilaments, microtubules, and fibers to provide perfect shape to the cell,
anchor the organelles, and stimulate the cell movement.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
It is a network of small, tubular structures that divides the cell surface into two
parts: luminal and extraluminal.

Endoplasmic Reticulum is of two types:

• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum contains ribosomes.

• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum that lacks ribosomes and is therefore

smooth.

Nucleus

• The nucleoplasm enclosed within the nucleus contains DNA and proteins.
• The nuclear envelop consists of two layers- the outer membrane and the inner
membrane. Both the membranes are permeable to ions, molecules, and RNA
material.
• Ribosome production also takes place inside the nucleus.

Golgi Apparatus

• It is made up of flat disc-shaped structures called cisternae.

• It is absent in red blood cells of humans and sieve cells of plants.
• They are arranged parallel and concentrically near the nucleus.
• It is an important site for the formation of glycoproteins and glycolipids.

Also read: Golgi Apparatus

Ribosomes
These are the main site for protein synthesis and are composed of proteins
and ribonucleic acids.

Mitochondria
 • These are also known as “powerhouse of cells” because they produce energy.
• It consists of an outer membrane and an inner membrane. The inner membrane
is divided into folds called cristae.
• They help in the regulation of cell metabolism.

Lysosomes
They are known as “suicidal bags” because they possess hydrolytic enzymes
to digest protein, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.

Plastids
These are double-membraned structures and are found only in plant cells.
These are of three types:

• Chloroplast that contains chlorophyll and is involved in photosynthesis.

• Chromoplast that contains a pigment called carotene that provides

the plants yellow, red, or orange colors.

• Leucoplasts that are colorless and store oil, fats, carbohydrates, or

proteins.

Eukaryotic Cell Diagram

Eukaryotic cell diagram mentioned below depicts different cell organelles
present in eukaryotic cells. The nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, cytoplasm,
mitochondria, ribosomes, lysosomes are clearly mentioned in the diagram.
 Prokaryotic Cell

What is a Prokaryotic Cell?

Prokaryotic cells are single-celled microorganisms known to be the earliest
on earth. Prokaryotes include Bacteria and Archaea. The photosynthetic
prokaryotes include cyanobacteria that perform photosynthesis.

A prokaryotic cell consists of a single membrane and therefore, all the

reactions occur within the cytoplasm. They can be free-living or parasites.

Prokaryotic Cell Structure

A prokaryotic cell does not have a nuclear membrane. However, the genetic
material is present in a region in the cytoplasm known as the nucleoid. They
may be spherical, rod-shaped, or spiral. A prokaryotic cell structure is as
follows:

1. Capsule– It is an outer protective covering found in the bacterial cells,

in addition to the cell wall. It helps in moisture retention, protects the cell
 when engulfed, and helps in the attachment of cells to nutrients and
surfaces.

2. Cell Wall– It is the outermost layer of the cell which gives shape to the
cell.

3. Cytoplasm– The cytoplasm is mainly composed of enzymes, salts, cell

organelles and is a gel-like component.

4. Cell Membrane– This layer surrounds the cytoplasm and regulates the
entry and exit of substances in the cells.

5. Pili– These are hair-like outgrowths that attach to the surface of other
bacterial cells.

6. Flagella– These are long structures in the form of a whip, that help in
the locomotion of a cell.

7. Ribosomes– These are involved in protein synthesis.

8. Plasmids– Plasmids are non-chromosomal DNA structures. These are

not involved in reproduction.

9. Nucleoid Region– It is the region in the cytoplasm where the genetic

material is present.

A prokaryotic cell lacks certain organelles like mitochondria, endoplasmic

reticulum, and Golgi bodies.

Components of Prokaryotic Cells

The prokaryotic cells have four main components:

Plasma Membrane- It is an outer protective covering of phospholipid

molecules which separates the cell from the surrounding environment.

Cytoplasm- It is a jelly-like substance present inside the cell. All the cell
organelles are suspended in it.

DNA- It is the genetic material of the cell. All the prokaryotes possess a
circular DNA. It directs what proteins the cell creates. It also regulates the
actions of the cell.
Ribosomes- Protein synthesis occurs here.

Some prokaryotic cells possess cilia and flagella which helps in locomotion.
 Mitosis
Meiosis is the type of cell division that creates egg and sperm cells.
Mitosis is a fundamental process for life. During mitosis, a cell duplicates all of
its contents, including its chromosomes, and splits to form two identical
daughter cells.
Meiosis is a process where a single cell divides twice to produce four cells
containing half the original amount of genetic information. These cells are our
sex cells – sperm in males, eggs in females.