Department: Electronics & Communications

Level: 2

Course Name: Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics

Course Code: EMAT 211

Student Name: Abdallah Taha Ali Ahmed

Student ID: 18194142

Research Project Title

 Modern physics, Blank’s theory ad quantization of
radiation. Photo electric effect. X-ray and Compton’s effect.
Wave properties of matter and wave function.

Research Evaluation:

Introduction Subject, Enclosed References Total

and Theoretical and marks
description analysis summary
of research and
problem [10] [100]
Module [20]
[10] [60]

Pass
Fail and need another
research
 (1) Introduction and description of research problem.

Modern physics:

Is an attempt to understand the underlying interaction processes with matter

through science and engineering instruments? In general, the term refers to any
physical branch established at and after the early 20th century, or to any branch
influenced strongly by physics at the beginning of the 20th century.
Classical physics, the modern model of physics and theory physics including
quantum physics, relativity, etc. can be known as modern physics.

Some physicists faced problems that can no longer be understood as part of

classical physics at the time when classical physics were at the heart of their
achievements. Among them were I explanations on the spectrum of lines provided
by gas (ii) when subjected to high frequent radiation by metals, electron emissions
(ii) photoelectric effect, and (iii) energy distribution in a black body's spectrum.
The understanding of these phenomena undoubtedly revealed another aspect of
radiation's existence.

This is a profound shift in our assumptions of radiation and the structure of matter
to the perception of phenomena connected with the interplay between radiation and
matter. In this chapter, we will concentrate on studying the phenomena directly
influencing the nature of light.
(2) Theoretical analysis and module.

Modern physics
Definition:
it`s science that is interested in studying the structure of matter and the interactions
between its basic elements, namely the science of energy matter and movement
and includes all aspects of nature at both levels, whatever we see with the naked
eyes or the microscope and it also interested in studying nature, gravitational
forces, electromagnetics and nuclear forces, and the physics is the foundation of
science.
Quantum Mechanics:
It`s a theory that interested in studying the behavior of matter and light at the
atomic level and the atomic without, quantum mechanics attempts to interpret the
behavior of atoms and their basic components (protons, neutrons) and their
components of their core components (Quarks) combined or separately.

Blank’s theory and quantization of radiation:

In general, the thermal radiation released by a hot body depends on the body's
composition and temperature. There is however a class, called Black Bodies, that
emit thermal radiation that depends solely on its temperature in quantity and
quality. For this reason, thermal radiation is known as the radiation emanating
from such bodies. These bodies are called black bodies, because all the radiation
they absorb is absorbed. Black lamp and black gold are the nearest to black skin.
The radiation is considered black body radiation when a black body is kept
continuously at a high temperature.

Radiant Emittance:
Ray emitting power is referred to as radiant emission in all directions (under the
limits of a solid angle 2π) by a unit area of the black corpus. Waves with different
frequencies (wavelengths) consist of the emission of the radiation. In the interval d
a range (wavelength interval d a da) the power emitted by the unit area of a black
body is called spectral radiance E or Eʎ and is defined to mean that

= = ʎ dʎ

The spectral emissions E ( , T) or E (ʎ, T) depend on the frequency and

temperature of the wavelength and the composition of the thermal radiation in
spectrum.
The spectral density of energy u ( , T), u (ʎ, T), is the black body radiation,
defined such that a total energy density u (T) is defined at the T temperature for all
frequencies.
Is given by

( )= ( , ) = ( ʎ, T) dʎ
The radiant emission of a Schwarz body can be shown to be related to energy
density u
R = (1/ 4) cu ( , T)

This relation holds for all frequencies. Hence

= ( , ) = (ʎ, ) ʎ
4 4

PLANCK’S RADIATION LAW:

Since the failure of the Rayleigh-Jeans theorem, Planck assumed that a valid
radiation right in the classical physics could not be obtained. Planck assumed to
include microscopic oscillators in the cavity walls. Thermal balance by these
oscillators is equally absorbed and emissions of radiation. According to Planck's
hypothesis the radiation is emission and absorbed by an oscillator in the form of
distinct energy packs called photons, the energy of which is proportional to the
radiation frequency. The energy of a frequency photon is daily

ε = ℏω
Where ℏ= h/2, h = 6.625 × 10^– 34Js
, is now known as Planck’s constant. Since an oscillator can
Absorb whole number of photons, the allowed values of energy of oscillator are
0, , 2 , 3 , … … … … . .
0, ℏω, 2ℏω, 3ℏω, … … … … . . ℏω

Let N0 , N1 , N2 , N3 , ..........,Nn , .........., be the number of oscillators with energy

0, , 2 , 3 , ........., n , .......... Obviously, the total number of oscillators N and the
total energy E of the system
Are given by

N = N0 + N1 + N2 + N3 + ……+ Nn + ….. =∑#$ "

E = 0 N0 + N 1 + 2 N2 + 3 N3 + .........+n N n +........ =∑#$ "

The number of standing wave modes in the cavity equals oscillators in the walls,
while the average energy per standing wave mode is equal to that of an oscillator.
In fact, the oscillator numbers with energy / c are proportional with factor exp (–
/ kT), according to Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics. The number of oscillators with
energy n digit is therefore defined
 " = %& '#(/*+
Where C is a constant.

Comparison of Planck’s law and the Rayleigh-Jeans equation with experimental

Data at T = 1600 K obtained by W. W. Coblenz in about 1915. The u (ʎ) axis is
linear. [Adapted

Photo electric effect:

The first of three observations that cannot be explained by the wave theory of light
will now be discussed. Electrons may be released from the surface when a metal
surface is illuminated by light. Heinrich Hertz, during his work in electromagnetic
radiation in 1887, discovered this phenomenon, known as the photoelectric-effect.
The electrons released are known as photoelectrons.

Figure shows a sample experimental arrangement to control the photoelectric

effect. Electrons that travel to the collector can release light that falls on a metal
surface (the emitter). The experiment should be conducted in an evacuated tube to
prevent the electrons from losing energy in air molecules collisions. The rate of
emissions of electrons and the average kinetic energy of the photoelectrons are
among the properties that can be determined. AND the rate of emission of
electrons is measured in the external circuit as an electric current by an ammeter.
The electrons' full film energy
The negative potential of a collector which is sufficient to repel the most energy-
efficient electrons can be determined, but which then don't have sufficient energy
for "climbing" a possible energy hill. If, in other words, the potential difference
between the transmitter und the collector is ~V (a negative amount), then electrons
from the transmitter to the collector gain potential energy from
∆U = q ∆V = −e ∆V, V (a favorable number) and the same number of kinetic
energy will be lost. The Electron can't hit the collector and the emitter is forced
back into the emitter with kinetic energy that is less than this one.
Also the most energized electrons have not enough kinetic energy to get to the
collector at any point when the size of the potential difference increases.
This potential is measured by increasing the volume of the ammeter until the
current decreases to zero. This potential, called the stopping potential Vs. The
kinetic energy average Kmax of the electrons as they exit the transmitter is almost
as much as the kinetic energy eVs that the electrons lose in their "climbing" the
hill: Kmax = eV

Where e is the magnitude of the electric charge of the electron. Typical values of
Vs are a few volts.∗
The metal surface is illuminated in the classical picture with an electro-talenting
magnet wave I. The surface absorbs energy from the wave until the energy reaches
the electron's binding energy to the metal, which releases the electron. For the
removal of an electron, the minimum quantity of energy needed is the work
function μ. Table 3.1 lists some values of the different materials' work method. The
values are normally a couple of electron volts you can see.

X-Ray:
Like any other form of electromagnetic radiation, X-rays are. They can, just like
light, be generated in energy plots called photons. Two atomic processes can
produce X-ray photons. There are the first is called braking irradiation and the
other is called K-shell emission. The second is a German word for "braking
radiation." These can happen in tungsten’s heavy atoms. The material chosen for
the purpose or anode of the x-ray tube is tungsten.

X-ray tubing produces x-ray photons speeding the electron stream into several
hundred kilovolts of intense target energy at velocity of a few hundred kilometers
per hour. Bremsstrahlung photons are created by sudden acceleration of charged
particles (electrons). The energy spectrum from a few KeVs to a maximum of
energy of the electron beam is produced with X-ray radiation with a continuous
spectrum of energies. Industrial tubes target materials are typically tungsten, which
means the wave functions of the connected tungsten electrons are necessary
Bremsstrahlung Radiation:

In the target material, the brake-radiation

photons produced are attenuated as the target material passes through typically 50
microns. The aluminum or beryllium vacuum window also attenuates the beam.
The effects are the removal of low-energy photons, 1 keV through l5, and a
noticeable decrease in the spectrum portion of 15 keV to 50 keV. The filtration
triggered by choosing the filters in the configuration further change the spectrum
of the x-ray tube.
K-shell Emission Radiation:

Recall, atoms in a closed "shell" with various

energies arranged their electrons. The K-shell is
an atom's lowest energy condition. An incoming
electron can provide sufficient energy for a K-
shell electron to detach it from its energy state.
Around 0.1% of electrons create vacancies on the
K-shell; most generate heat. Then a higher
energy tungsten electron (from an external shell)
can drop into the K-shell. For an emissive x-ray
photon, the energy lost by the falling electron appears. Meanwhile, more power
electrons in the outer shell collapse into the empty energy state, etc. The emission
of the K-shells produces more x-rays than the brake radiation, and the x-ray photon
is emitted in one.

When electrons from the outer

shell drop into inner shells, they
emit a "characteristic"
quantized photon from the
product. The energy of the
types of X-rays emitted depends
only very slightly on the
chemical structure in which the
atom is bound, which indicates
that the non-related atom shells
are the x-ray source. As the
graphs below show, the
resulting function spectrum is superposed to the continuum. An atom remains
ionized very shortly (10^-14 seconds approximately) and thus the electrons that
occur every 10^-12 seconds that ionize an atom repeatedly.

Compton’s effect:
Another way to deal with radiation is with the Compton`s effect, in which radiation
disperses from almost free, loosely bound electrons. The electron absorbs half of
the radiation energy; the remainder of the energy is radiated as electromagnetic
radiation. According to the picture of the wave, the scattered radiation is not as
energy-efficient as the incident radiation, but it has the same wavelength. The
definition of photons leads to very different predictions for the propagation of
radiation, as we shall see.
The dispersion mechanism is defined simply as an interaction between a single
photon and an electron (a "collimation" in the classic sense of the particles),
Which we consider to be at rest. The cycle is shown in Figure. The photon initially
has energy E and linear momentum p
ℎ
= ℎ/ = 0 1=
ʎ
 2
The electron has rest energy me initially. After the
34
dispersion, the photon has energy E and momentum
ʎ
5
P = , traveling in an angle-litter ̈ with respect to the path
4
of the photon. The electron has total final energy Ee and
momentum Pe and travels in an angle θ relation to the
original photon. (The conservation rules for total
relativistic energy and momentum then apply: (To compensate for the possibility
of high-energy photons that supply energetic scattered electrons, we use the
relativistic electron films.)
As photons of the incident radiation collide with the target atom's closely bound
electrons, the energy and momentum are shared with the entire atom. Since the
mass of an atom much exceeds that of an electron, in this case the Compton change
is insignificant and ʎ corresponds virtually with ʎ. That is why unchanged radiation
occurs at all dispersion angles.
Wave properties of matter and wave function:
A central element of the quantum mechanics theory is a wave-particle duality
example. The wave-like action of all matter. For example, an electron beam like a
light beam or water wave can be diffracted. However, in most situations the
wavelength is too short to affect everyday practices in nature. Therefore, material
waves are not important in our everyday routine with artifacts of the size of tennis
balls or men.
Louis de Broglie suggested in 1924 the idea that matter behaves as a wave. It is
also known as the theory of de Broglie. Matter waves are referred to as de Broglie
waves.
The Wavelength of de Broglie is the Wavelength, λ, associated with a massive
particle (that is, a particle with a mass as opposed to a massless particle).
3 3
λ= =
8 9:

The thin metal diffraction experiment by George Paget Thomson and the
experiment in Davisson – Germer, both using electrons, demonstrated wavelike
behavior of matter for the first time experimenting; other elementary particles,
neutral atoms, and even molecules have also been confirmed.
The de Broglie equations relate the wavelength λ to the momentum p, and
frequency f to the total energy E of a free particle
λ=h/p, F=E/h
Where h is the Planck constant. The equations can also be written as
P=;k E=;ω Where ; = h/2π is the reduced Planck constant.
Wave function:
A mathematical explanation of the quantic state of an isolated quantum system is
given in quantum physics. The wave function is a high-probability amplitude,
which can be derived from the probabilities of potential device outcomes. The
Greek letters ψ and Ψ, respectively (lower-case and capital psi) are the most
common symbols for a wave function.
Ψ(x, t) where x is position and t is time. This is a complex-valued function of
two real variables x and t.
For 1 spineless particle in 1d the square module of the wave function, the positive
real number, is interpreted as the probability amplitude.
|Ψ(x, t)|^2=Ψ(x, t)* Ψ(x, t) =ρ(x, t)
Ψ = A sin (kx ->t)
Ψ1 = A sin (k1x − ω1t)
Ψ2 = A sin (k2x − ω2t)
Where
k2 = k1 + ∆k
And
ω2 = ω1 + ∆ω
The addition of these two waves gives
Ψ = Ψ1 + Ψ2
= A sin (k1x − ω1t) + A sin (k2x − ω2t)
 (2) Enclosed and summary.

Classical physics, the basic model of physics and theoretical physics including
quantity physics, relativity, and more can be called modern physics.
In classical physics, low speeds and regular distances are generally considered.
The Standard Physics Model is founded on laboratory observations from
laboratories such as CERN and from other laboratories and contains no theory on
theoretical or other gravitational gravity, such as relativity.
To me, the progress of a major field of modern science is modern physics.
Comprehension of atomic chemistry includes quantic mechanics, and thus there is
a significant overlap in atomic and chemical physics. Modern physics has had a
significant impact on technologies such as transistors and GPS, which without
modern physics would probably not be possible. Quantum mechanics, which is
crucial for accurate GPS co-ordinates computation, is vital to the understanding of
semiconductor behaviors, magnetic resonance (used in MRIs). Microwave
transmitters, transformers and cars.
All use magnets are reported magnetically, and thus the physics of magnetic
materials is to be understood, including a certain quantic mechanics (though not
necessarily much quantum mechanics is required). There are certainly several other
causes, but those are the ones I have not mentioned.
Where some physicist challenged the light wave theory in 1890. His victories
against the ancient corpuscular theory appeared final and complete in particular
following Hertz's brilliant 1887 experiments, in which Maxwell's electromagnetic
light theory was, without any doubt, central. But still ... These very Hertz
experiments revealed a new photoelectrical effect that played an important part in
the establishment of quantum theory. The second theory ... Is diametrically
opposed to light wave theory; yes, the reconciliation ... It was a major issue in the
twentieth century in the first quarter.
4-Reference:

I. Fundamentals of modern Physics

First edition
Peter J. Nolan state
University of New York – Farmingdale
2014

II. [Paul_A._Tipler_Ralph_Llewellyn]_Modern_Physics_6t(Book
Fi.org)

III. Introduction to Modern Physics

2nd Edition John Mcgervey

mprint: Academic Press

Published Date: 28th October 1983