chapter 1

Ibn Abī Isḥāq (d. ca. 125/743) and His Scholarly

Network

Monique Bernards

1 Introduction

The field of Arabic linguistics started in the second half of the first Islamic cen-
tury with the study of the Arabic language (ʿArabiyya) in close connection with
qurʾānic studies, and gradually developed into a technical, scientific endeav-
our of its own, covering Arabic grammar (naḥw), lexicography (lugha), as well
as elaborate studies of poetry.1
Three main hypotheses regarding the early development of Arabic grammar
as a distinct specialisation have been espoused over the years. The traditional
account tags the beginning of the study of Arabic grammar to Abū al-Aswad
al-Duʾalī (d. ca. 69/688–689), a Basran judge (qadi) who “invented” the dis-
cipline at the instigation of the fourth caliph ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib (r. 35–40/656–
661): the influx of non-Arab Muslims, speaking Arabic, caused corruption of
the language of the Qurʾān. Moreover, those who knew the text, the Prophet’s
Companions, were passing away. Not only did the qurʾānic text require pre-
servation, the do’s and don’ts of the Arabic language needed to be set down.2
Abū al-Aswad al-Duʾalī reportedly had written a few chapters on Arabic gram-
mar.3 A second theory is that Arabic grammar was an innate Islamic special-
isation that co-jointly evolved with Islamic law. Finally, a third thesis suggests

1 At a later stage, naḥw would additionally come to include the connotation of syntax set apart
from taṣrīf, morphology (see Joyce Åkesson, “Ṣarf,” in Encyclopaedia of Arabic Language and
Linguistics, ed. Kees Versteegh, 5 vols. (Leiden: Brill, 2006–2009), 4:118–122). The period I cover
in this article precedes this shift in meaning.
2 See Monique Bernards, “Abū l-Aswad al-Duʾalī,” in Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE, Yearbook
2012 (Leiden: Brill, 2019), 62–64.
3 Abū Saʿīd al-Ḥasan b. ʿAbd Allāh al-Sīrāfī, Akhbār al-naḥwiyyīn al-Baṣriyyīn, ed. Fritz Kren-
kow (Paris: Paul Geuthner and Beirut: Imprimerie Catholique, 1936), 18; ʿAbd al-Waḥīd b. ʿAlī
Abū al-Ṭayyib, Marātib al-naḥwiyyīn, ed. Muḥammad Abū al-Faḍl Ibrāhīm (Cairo: Maktabat
Nahḍa, 1955), 6; Jamāl al-Dīn Abū al-Ḥasan ʿAlī b. Yūsuf al-Qifṭī, Inbāh al-ruwāt ʿalā anbāh al-
nuḥāt, ed. Muḥammad Abū al-Faḍl Ibrāhīm, 4 vols. (Cairo: Dār al-Fikr and Beirut: Muʾassasat
al-Kutub, 1986), 51.

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that the Greek philosophical tradition, through the translation of philosoph-

ical works and/or owing to direct contact between the Arabs and Hellenistic
culture, contributed to the emergence of grammar as a field of systematic
inquiry.4
Sībawayhi’s (d. ca. 180/796) al-Kitāb (The Book) is considered the crowning
achievement in the field of Arabic grammar. But how Sībawayhi got there is
still unknown due to the lack of extant grammatical works dating from before
his time. This leaves us with a gap in the development of this specialisation.
One way to fill this gap is to use a method that does not need such extant
works, like Social Network Analysis. In what follows, an analysis of the social
and intellectual contacts of one particular scholar—the Basran scholar Ibn Abī
Isḥāq—who lived decades before Sībawayhi, sheds light on the otherwise dark
early period of Arabic grammar.
I first discuss the rationale for examining Ibn Abī Isḥāq and his intellectual
circle, which is followed by a short biography of the scholar. I then describe how
information was collected and formatted for Social Network Analysis, concen-
trating on one approach to network analysis, the “sociogram,” after which we
go directly to the sociogram I put together, that of Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s network—
the main subject of this article. After summarising the results, I will discuss
what they tell us about the development of Arabic linguistics in general and
Arabic grammar (naḥw) in particular. As we will see, we will be able to fill in
some details about the “dark age” from which no grammatical works survive by
studying the contacts of Ibn Abī Isḥāq.

2 Why Ibn Abī Isḥāq?

Ibn Abī Isḥāq (d. ca. 125/743) belongs to a group of early scholars identified by
“awāʾil” as pioneers in the field of Arabic language studies. Awāʾil are narrat-
ives beginning with the expression awwalu man, “the first person who …,” or
awwalu mā, “the first time something …,” and tell in retrospect about novelties,
about someone doing something for the first time (awwalu man) or something

4 Michael Carter is an advocate of the grammar/law thesis. The possibility of Greek influence
on Arabic grammar was first suggested by A. Merx (Historia artis grammaticae apud syros) at
the end of the nineteenth century and further elaborated on by Kees Versteegh who offers
an overview of the diverse viewpoints on this subject. See Michael G. Carter, “Les origines
de la grammaire Arabe,” Revue des études islamiques 40 (1972): 69–97; Kees Versteegh, Greek
Elements in Arabic Linguistic Thinking (Leiden: Brill, 1977); Kees Versteegh, Arabic Grammar
and Qurʾānic Exegesis in Early Islam (Leiden: Brill, 1993), 20–36.

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ibn abī isḥāq (d. ca. 125/743) and his scholarly network 11

having been done for the first time (awwalu mā). Awāʾil narratives cover a wide
range of subjects—from theological and legal themes, to historical, political
and cultural topics. Awāʾil about historical events of the Islamic era from the
Prophet’s time onwards typically refer back to authoritative individuals who
did something for the first time that had a long lasting effect, introducing some
new tool or being the originator of a science, for instance.5 An investigation of
awāʾil reports traditionally ascribed to Arabic language scholars from the first
four centuries of Islam suggests that Ibn Abī Isḥāq was the first “real gram-
marian” in the Arabic tradition.6 At any rate, it is evident that Ibn Abī Isḥāq
played an important role at the very outset of grammatical activities and as
such serves as the focus of our investigation here.
Ibn Abī Isḥāq was a mawlā from Ḥaḍramawt and a specialist in hadith and
qurʾānic reading (qirāʾa), but his heart was apparently in Arabic language stud-
ies.7 He is amongst the earliest individuals active in the field of grammar men-

5 See Monique Bernards, “Awāʾil,” in Encyclopaedia of Islam THREE, Yearbook 2014 (Leiden:
Brill, 2019), 120–127.
6 For a study of how the early Arabic grammatical tradition marked the highlights of its own
development through awāʾil stories, see Monique Bernards, “Pioneers of Arabic Linguistic
Studies,” in In the shadow of Arabic: The Centrality of Language to Arabic Culture. Studies
Presented to Ramzi Baalbaki on the Occasion of his Sixtieth Birthday, ed. Bilal Orfali (Leiden:
Brill, 2011), 197–220. Rafael Talmon, “Naḥwiyyūn in Sībawayhi’s Kitāb,” Zeitschift für Arabische
Liguistik 8 (1982): 12–38, using biographical material as well, also concludes that Ibn Abī Isḥāq
was the first real grammarian; cf. Henri Fleisch, Préliminaires, phonétique, morphologie nom-
inale, vol. 1, Traité de philologie Arabe (Beirut: Imprimerie Catholique, 1961), 27–28; George
Bohas, Jean-Patrick Guillaume and Djamel Kouloughli, The Arabic Linguistic Tradition (Lon-
don and New York: Routledge, 1990), 1–2. Michael Carter, Sībawayhi (Oxford: I.B. Tauris, 2004),
18–19 (cf. Carter, “Les origines de la grammaire”) remarks, however, that “[F]rom the meagre
material in the Kitāb it would not be possible to deduce anything useful about what kind of
‘grammarian’ he might have been.”
7 Biographies of Ibn Abī Isḥāq in: Abū Ḥāmid Aḥmad b. Muḥammad b. Shaybān al-Tirmidhī,
(Makhṭūṭ farīd nafīs ʿan) Marātib al-naḥwiyyīn, ed. Hāshim al-Ṭaʿʿān, al-Mawrid 3, no. 2 (1974):
139; Abū al-Ṭayyib, Marātib, 12–13; Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad b. ʿAlī Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī, Kitāb
Tahdhīb al-tahdhīb, 14 vols. (Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, 1984), 5:148; Muḥammad b. Ḥibbān b. Aḥmad
Abī Ḥātim, Kitāb al-Thiqāt, 7 vols. (Hyderabad, 1973), 5:61; Shams al-Dīn Abū al-Khayr Muḥam-
mad b. Muḥammad al-Jazarī, Ghāyat al-nihāya fī ṭabaqāt al-qurrāʾ, ed. Gotthelf Bergsträsser, 2
vols. (Cairo: Maktabat al-Khānjī, 1932–1935), 1:410; Jamāl al-Dīn Abū al-Ḥajjāj Yūsuf al-Mizzī,
Tahdhīb al-kamāl fī asmāʾ al-rijāl, ed. Bashshār ʿAwwād Maʿrūf, 35 vols. (Beirut: Muʾassasat
al-Risāla, 1993), 14:305–308; al-Qifṭī, Inbāh, 2:104–108; Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn Khalīl b. Aybak al-Ṣafadī,
Kitāb al-wāfī bi-l-wafayāt, eds. various editors, 30 vols. (Beirut/Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner
Verlag, 1962–2010), 17:186; al-Sīrāfī, Akhbār, 25–28; Jalāl al-Dīn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Suyūṭī,
Bughyat al-wuʿāt fī ṭabaqāt al-lughawiyyīn wa-l-nuḥāt, ed. Muḥammad Abū al-Faḍl Ibrāhīm,
2 vols. (Cairo: Dār al-Fikr, 1979), 2:42; Abū al-Maḥāsin al-Mufaḍḍal b. Muḥammad al-Maʿarrī
al-Tanūkhī, Taʾrīkh al-ʿulamāʾ al-naḥwiyyīn min al-Baṣriyyīn wa-l-Kūfiyyīn wa-ghayrihim, ed.

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tioned in Sībawayhi’s Kitāb.8 Ibn Abī Isḥāq was fervently anti-Arab (ṭaʿana l-
ʿArab), we are told, and openly disgraced anyone—specifically the famous Arab
poet al-Farazdaq (d. ca. 114/732) whose poetry he nevertheless transmitted—
who committed laḥn (solecism).9 He died in Basra at the age of 88 around the
year 125/743 and was buried there. This is more or less all that we know about
his life.
As to Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s scholarly activities, he reportedly systematised the
study of the Arabic language and, furthermore, laid the foundations for what
would later become explanatory—as opposed to descriptive—grammar. Bio-
graphical reports credit Ibn Abī Isḥāq with three awāʾil—baʿaja l-naḥw (1) wa-
madda l-qiyās (2) wa-sharaḥa l-ʿilal (3), “he made grammar known, extended
qiyās, and explained the causes”—which do not directly concern real innov-
ations in the strictest sense, but they do imply a consolidation of particular
technical devices conceived before his time. Indeed, following the chronology
of these reports, general interest in the study of the Arabic language and an
exploration of ways to do so had led to a delineation of grammar and the intro-
duction of qiyās, the use of analogy to formulate grammatical rules.10 With Ibn
Abī Isḥāq’s contribution to the field, it seems that a crucial point in the develop-
ment of the Arabic linguistic tradition had been reached—hence the rationale
for focusing on him here and accepting the awāʾil reports that also make this
claim.
But Ibn Abī Isḥāq did not operate in a vacuum: The biographical tradition of
grammarians identifies nine people who were active in grammar in the period
up to Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s death in the year 125/743. Moreover, if we take the period
up to 166/785 into account—a period that includes Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s students—
forty grammarians in all are mentioned by the grammatical biographical dic-
tionaries. These numbers indicate that Ibn Abī Isḥāq was part of a larger social
and intellectual environment that offered various opportunities to contribute
to the development of scholarly activities in the study of the Arabic language.

ʿAbd al-Fattāḥ Muḥammad al-Ḥulw (Riyad: Dār al-Hilāl, 1981), 152–154; Abū Bakr Muḥam-
mad b. al-Ḥasan al-Zubaydī, Ṭabaqāt al-naḥwiyyīn wa-l-lughawiyyīn, ed. Muḥammad Abū
al-Faḍl Ibrāhīm (Cairo: Dār al-Maʿārif, 1973), 31–33.
8 He is mentioned seven times in Kitāb Sībawayhi (according to Carter, Sībawayhi, 18–19, as
an indirect informant).
9 See, e.g., al-Qifṭī, Inbāh, 2, 106; Talmon, “Naḥwiyyūn in Sībawayhi’s Kitāb,” 30, suggests that
Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s and ʿĪsā b. ʿUmar’s attacking the Arabs is to be interpreted “as reluct-
ance to accept the usages of native speakers as authoritative for their linguistic stud-
ies.”
10 Bernards, “Pioneers of Arabic,” 208–209.

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ibn abī isḥāq (d. ca. 125/743) and his scholarly network 13

Stated differently, Ibn Abī Isḥāq belonged to a group of people who related to
each other and, as such, constituted a social network. Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s position
in the Arabic linguistic tradition will shortly be studied through an analysis of
his broader social and scholarly network. Information taken from biographical
dictionaries of grammarians is used in this article to reconstruct, in a diagram,
all of Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s social contacts.11

3 Selection of Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s Network and the Method of Social

Network Analysis

The first step to be taken in order to establish a person’s social relationships

with others is to collect as much biographical data as possible about the per-
son involved—in this case Ibn Abī Isḥāq—as well as information about those
who we are told had a relationship with him. I systematically went through the
classical Arabic biographical dictionaries and identified the following group-
ings: (1) Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s teachers and students; (2) the teachers and students
of Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s teachers and students; and, to further canvass the network,
(3) Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s contacts outside grammarians’ circles. In all, I discovered
thirteen direct contacts and twelve indirect contacts. These are listed below in
Table 1.1 (chronologically ordered within each grouping).
A methodological approach to examine Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s relations is Social
Network Analysis. A way to visualise relationships within a network is by draw-
•
ing a diagram that depicts people as dots ( )—technically called the “nodes” of
the network. These “nodes” are connected by lines that represent the relations
between people. Such a diagram is called a “sociogram.” The number of nodes

11 The data for this study are derived from the grammarians’ database of the Ulama Pro-
ject containing information on all known grammarians who were active prior to the
year 400/1000 and identified by their inclusion in one of the biographical dictionaries
of grammarians (e.g., al-Tirmidhī (d. ca. 250/864), Marātib al-naḥwiyyīn; Abū Ṭayyib al-
Lughawī (d. 351/962), Marātib al-naḥwiyyīn; al-Sīrāfī (d. 368/979), Akhbār al-naḥwiyyīn
al-Baṣriyyīn; al-Zubaydī (d. 379/989), Ṭabaqāt al-naḥwiyyīn wa-l-lughawiyyīn). The total
number of grammarians active during this entire period is around seven hundred. This
database also includes information on teacher-student relationships as well as the lines
of transmission of grammatical works. For a general description of the Ulama Project, see
Monique Bernards and John Nawas, “A Preliminary Report of the Netherlands Ulama Pro-
ject (NUP): The Evolution of the Class of ʿUlamāʾ in Islam with Special Emphasis on the
Non-Arab Converts (Mawālī) from the First Through Fourth Century A.H.,” in Law, Chris-
tianity and Modernism in Islamic Society, eds. Urbain Vermeulen and Jan M.F. van Reeth
(Leuven: Peeters, 1998), 97–107.

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table 1.1 List of contacts of Ibn Abī Isḥāq

Direct contacts: His teachers

1 Naṣr b. ʿĀṣim d. 89/708
2 Maymūn al-Aqran d. ca. 99/717–718
3 Yaḥyā b. Yaʿmar d. ca. 106/724–725

Direct contacts: His students

4 ʿĪsā b. ʿUmar d. 149/766
5 Abū ʿAmr b. al-ʿAlāʾ d. ca. 157/774
6 Maslama b. ʿAbd Allāh d. ca. 159/775–776
7 Bakr b. Ḥabīb d. ca. 159/775–776
8 Ḥammād b. Salama d. 167/783–784

Direct contacts: Outside grammarians’ circles

9 Zayd b. al-Ḥārith d. ca. 90/709
10 Ibn Sīrīn d. 110/728
11 al-Farazdaq d. 114/732
12 Qatāda d. ca. 117/735
13 Bilāl b. Abī Burda d. 122/740

Indirect contacts: Ṭabaqa of teachers

14 Abū Hurayra d. 58/679
15 Ibn ʿAbbās d. 68/687–688
16 Abū al-Aswad d. ca. 69/688–689
17 ʿAnbasa al-Fīl d. ca. 99/717–718
18 Ibn Hurmuz d. 117/735

Indirect contacts: Ṭabaqa of students

19 Khalīl b. Aḥmad d. ca. 170/786
20 Sībawayhi d. ca. 180/796
21 Yūnus b. Ḥabīb d. 182/798
22 al-Kisāʾī d. 183/799
23 Abū ʿUbayda d. ca. 210/825
24 al-Aṣmaʿī d. 213/829
25 al-Anṣārī d. 215/830

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ibn abī isḥāq (d. ca. 125/743) and his scholarly network 15

and the frequency of lines which connect the nodes in a sociogram show us the
relational fabric of the group.12
Additionally, Social Network Analysis uses several measures to analyse vari-
ous aspects of a network. For instance, from patterns in the configuration of
the nodes and the connecting lines, one can detect “centrality” versus “isola-
tion.” Centrality is when one node has a central position and is connected to
several other nodes which may or may not be directly related to each other.
However, when many nodes are interrelated and connected to one node in
a central position, we speak of a “block.” Isolation is a situation in which
one single node is connected to another node that is embedded in the net-
work. “Paths,” another facet of a network, indirectly connect nodes to each
other through a distinct sequence of lines within the network. There are other
measures as well in Social Network Analysis, but for this particular study,
only the four just mentioned—centrality, blocks, isolation, and paths—are
required.13

4 Sociogram of Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s Network

Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s direct contacts are displayed in a sociogram (Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1 depicts, for obvious reasons, the perfect centrality of an egocentric
network. Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s network spans the lifetime of Naṣr b. ʿĀṣim (d. 89/708),
at the top of the sociogram, up to Ḥammād b. Salama (d. 167/783–784), at the
bottom. If one takes into account that the dates mentioned are death dates,
Figure 1.1 shows about 120 years of intellectual life, ranging from ca. 49/669 to
167/783–784.
Figure 1.2 is the sociogram of Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s complete network, including his
indirect contacts as well. The time span is thus expanded by another 70 years,
from around 18/639 to 215/830.

12 On the method of Social Network Analysis in general, see John Scott, Social Network Ana-
lysis: A Handbook. 2nd edition (Beverley Hills and London, 2000); Stanley Wasserman and
Katherine Faust, Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications, Structural Analysis in
the Social Sciences 8 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). For Social Network
Analysis in historical research, see B.H. Erickson, “Social Networks and History: A Review
Essay,” Historical Methods 30 (1997): 149–157. For the use of Social Network Analysis in
the study of the Arabic linguistic tradition, see Monique Bernards, “Grammarians’ Circles
of Learning: A Social Network Analysis,” in ʿAbbasid Studies II, ed. John Nawas (Leuven:
Peeters, 2010), 143–164.
13 For other measures, see Bernards, “Grammarians’ Circles of Learning.”

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figure 1.1 Sociogram of Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s direct contacts

A first general inspection of the sociogram shows that Ibn Abī Isḥāq is firmly
embedded in a large network. His position is one of centrality and it has links
to three different blocks (marked by circles in the sociogram of Figure 1.2)
in which the positions of Yaḥyā b. Yaʿmar, ʿĪsā b. ʿUmar, and Abū ʿAmr b. al-
ʿAlāʾ show centrality as well—their nodes are connected to many other nodes
which, in turn, relate to each other. Only one out of the thirteen lines directly
linked to Ibn Abī Isḥāq ends in a single node. This is an example of isolation:
the node of Zayd b. al-Ḥārith.14
At the top of the sociogram we find three well-known figures: Abū al-Aswad
al-Duʾalī (d. 69/688–689), poet, littérateur, and traditionist (muḥaddith), judge
in Basra; the alleged founder of Arabic grammar as we have already men-
tioned above; Abū Hurayra (d. ca. 58/679), a famous Companion of the Prophet,
celebrated for passing on more traditions (hadiths) than any other Compan-

14 For the sake of clarity, the network depicted in Figure 1.2 leaves out relations between
lexicographers like al-Khalīl, Yūnus and Abū ʿAmr. Fuat Sezgin, Geschichte der arabischen
Schrifttums: Band IX Grammatik bis ca. 430 H. (Leiden: Brill, 1984), 36, 43, 48, identifies addi-
tional relations between Ibn Abī Isḥāq on the one hand, and Hārūn b. Mūsā (d. 170/786)
and al-Akhfash al-Akbar (d. 177/793) on the other, which are not mentioned in the sources
used for this article.

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ibn abī isḥāq (d. ca. 125/743) and his scholarly network 17

figure 1.2 Sociogram of Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s complete network (showing blocks)

ion;15 and ʿAbbās (d. 68/686–688), paternal cousin and Companion of the
Prophet, traditionally considered one of the greatest scholars of the first gener-
ation of Muslims, having excelled in almost all fields of knowledge, especially
in qurʾānic studies.16
These three men personify Islamic sciences-to-be, later known as grammar
(naḥw), hadith, and qurʾānic reading (qirāʾa). They have two students in com-
mon: The first one, located at the right hand side of the sociogram, is the rather
isolated Ibn Hurmuz (d. 117/735), a Medinan traditionist who was reportedly
the first to practice the study of Arabic grammar in Medina. Towards the end
of his life, he moved to Alexandria where he died.17 The second common stu-

15 Gautier H.A. Juynboll, “Abū Hurayra,” in Encyclopaedia of Islam THREE, Yearbook 2007
(Leiden: Brill, 2019), 133–136.
16 Claude Gilliot, “ʿAbdallāh Ibn ʿAbbās,” in Encyclopaedia of Islam THREE, Yearbook 2012
(Leiden: Brill, 2019), 41–55.
17 ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. Hurmuz al Madanī: al-Suyūṭī, Bughya, 2, 91; al-Sīrāfī, Akhbār, 21–22;
al-Zubaydī, Ṭabaqāt, 26; al-Qifṭī, Inbāh, 2:172–173. See Rafael Talmon, “An Eighth-Century
Grammatical School in Medina: The Collection and Evaluation of the Available Material,”

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18 bernards

dent of this threesome is Yaḥyā b. Yaʿmar (d. 106/724–725), generally praised

for his excellent command of Arabic. He was a traditionist and jurist ( faqīh)
who worked as a judge in Basra, but after having aggravated al-Ḥajjāj b. Yūsuf
(d. 95/714), the special military deputy of the Umayyad caliph ʿAbd al-Malik (r.
65–86/685–705), he was sent to become secretary (kātib) in Khurasan where
he died.18
Yaḥyā b. Yaʿmar has a firm place in the network of Abū al-Aswad’s other stu-
dents: ʿAnbasa al-Fīl (d. ca. 99/717–718), who was specialised in poetry (shiʿr)
and was furthermore noted for his eloquence and personal charm.19 ʿAnbasa
had no direct connection with Ibn Abī Isḥāq, but, like Ibn Abī Isḥāq, he trans-
mitted poetry from al-Farazdaq (d. 114/732), who was, together with Jarīr and
al-Akhṭal, one of the best Arab poets of all time.20 ʿAnbasa’s friend Maymūn al-
Aqran (d. ca. 99/717–718) was a less famous teacher of Ibn Abī Isḥāq.21 Naṣr b.
ʿĀṣim al-Laythī (d. 89/708), on the other hand, was a well-known traditionist,
qurʾānic reader and jurist.22
The sociogram of Figure 1.2 has a direct line connecting Naṣr b. ʿĀṣim with
Ibn Abī Isḥāq as well as one that goes through Yaḥyā b. Yaʿmar. Both Naṣr b.
ʿĀṣim and Yaḥyā b. Yaʿmar turn out to be influential teachers of Ibn Abī Isḥāq.
Ibn Abī Isḥāq is also scholarly connected to his own father, Zayd b. al-
Ḥārith (d. ca. 90/709)—in isolation located top left in the sociogram—from
whom he transmitted hadith.23 He also transmitted hadith from Ibn Sīrīn
(d. 110/728), a famous traditionist and jurist, son of a slave of Anas b. Mālik
(d. 93/712) and a cloth merchant who became the first renowned Muslim inter-

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 48 (1985): 224–236, for a hypothesis
on the existence of a Medinan center of grammar, founded by Ibn Hurmuz.
18 The sources mention several possibilities for Yaḥyā b. Yaʿmar’s date of death ranging from
83/702 to 129/746–747; see al-Suyūṭī, Bughya, 2:345; al-Sīrāfī, Akhbār, 22–23; al-Zubaydī,
Ṭabaqāt, 27–29; al-Qifṭī, Inbāh, 4:24–27.
19 ʿAnbasa reportedly obtained the nickname al-Fīl, “the Elephant,” from his father who
apparently made a fortune from taking care of the elephant of the Umayyad governor
of Basra, Ziyād b. Abīhi (d. 55/673). Biographical information is found in al-Suyūṭī, Bugh-
ya, 2:233; al-Sīrāfī, Akhbār, 23–24; al-Zubaydī, Ṭabaqāt, 29–30; al-Qifṭī, Inbāh, 2:381–
382.
20 See Nefeli Papoutsakis, “al-Farazdaq,” in Encyclopaedia of Islam THREE, Yearbook 2012
(Leiden: Brill, 2019), 467–471.
21 Abū ʿAbd Allāh Maymūn al-Aqran: al-Suyūṭī, Bughya, 2:309; al-Sīrāfī, Akhbār, 25; al-Zubay-
dī, Ṭabaqāt, 30; al-Qifṭī, Inbāh, 3:337–338.
22 Naṣr b. ʿĀṣim al-Laythī, see al-Suyūṭī, Bughya, 2:313; al-Sīrāfī, Akhbār, 21; al-Zubaydī, Ṭaba-
qāt, 27; al-Qifṭī, Inbāh, 3:343–344.
23 No biographical details were found on Zayd b. al-Ḥārith (the date of his death is estimated
on the basis of his position in the network of his son Ibn Abī Abī Isḥāq).

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ibn abī isḥāq (d. ca. 125/743) and his scholarly network 19

preter of dreams.24 From Ibn Sīrīn’s student, the traditionist Qatāda b. Diʿāma
al-Sadūsī (d. ca. 120/738)—who was known for his knowledge about genealo-
gies, lexicography, historical traditions, and qurʾānic readings—Ibn Abī Isḥāq
transmitted hadith as well.25
Ibn Abī Isḥāq reportedly also had contact with Bilāl b. Abī Burda (d. 122/740),
grandson of the Prophet’s Companion Abū Mūsā al-Ashʿarī (d. ca. 48/668); like
his grandfather, he was governor of Basra, and celebrated at the time for gath-
ering poets and littérateurs in his salon26—as shown by the lines in Figure 1.2
that connect him with al-Farazdaq and Abū ʿAmr b. al-ʿAlāʾ.
Five lines connect Ibn Abī Isḥāq with his five students. Not much is known
about Bakr b. Ḥabīb al-Sahmī (d. ca. 159/775–776), except that he hailed from
an Arab family of traditionists. Maslama b. ʿAbd Allāh (d. ca. 159/775–776) was
a nephew of Ibn Abī Isḥāq, a traditionist who lived in Basra until the end of his
life when he moved to Mosul to become the educator of caliph al-Manṣūr’s (r.
136–158/754–775) son.27 Bakr b. Ḥabīb and Maslama b. ʿAbd Allāh are the lesser
known students of Ibn Abī Isḥāq.
ʿĪsā b. ʿUmar (d. 149/766), on the other hand, studied qurʾānic reading under
Ibn Abī Isḥāq and became very influential in the study of Arabic grammar.
Some say that his book entitled al-Jāmiʿ (literally, “comprehensive, extensive”)
served as a basis for Sībawayhi’s Kitāb. He reportedly wrote many books, none
of which has survived. ʿĪsā b. ʿUmar was as fiercely anti-Arab as was his teacher
Ibn Abī Isḥāq, and the sources note several occasions on which he discussed the
use of ungrammatical Arabic (laḥn, solecism). It is recounted that ʿĪsā b. ʿUmar
had a serious speech impediment and sounded like an Indian.28 Abū ʿAmr b.

24 See Toufic Fahd, “Ibn Sirīn,” in Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed. (Leiden: Brill, 1971), 3:947–
948.
25 See Charles Pellat, “Ḳatāda b. Diʿāma,” in Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed. (Leiden: Brill,
1978), 4:748. According to al-Qifṭī (Inbāh, 2, 107–108), Qatāda and Ibn Abī Isḥāq died on
the same day and all nobles (ashrāf ) and specialists of adab attended Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s
funeral while the pious people and the legal scholars ( fuqahāʾ) went to bury Qatāda. Inas-
much as the sources have alternative years of death for Ibn Abī Isḥāq—he died between
120/738 and 129/747–748—his and Qatāda’s dates mentioned in the sociogram are not the
same.
26 Cf. Charles Pellat, Le milieu baṣrien et la formation de Ğāḥiẓ (Paris: Adrien-Maisonneuve,
1953), 157, 275, 288.
27 Bakr b. Ḥabīb al-Sahmī: al-Suyūṭī, Bughya, 1:462–463; al-Zubaydī, Ṭabaqāt, 46; al-Qifṭī,
Inbāh, 1:279–280. Maslama b. ʿAbd Allāh al-Fihrī: al-Suyūṭī, Bughya, 2:287; al-Zubaydī,
Ṭabaqāt, 45; al-Qifṭī, Inbāh, 3:262.
28 ʿĪsā b. ʿUmar al-Thaqafī: al-Suyūṭī, Bughya, 2:237–238; al-Sīrāfī, Akhbār, 31–33; al-Zubaydī,
Ṭabaqāt, 40–45; al-Qifṭī, Inbāh, 3:373–377.

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al-ʿAlāʾ (d. 157/774), a famous qurʾānic reader, was a versatile scholar involved
in many fields of endeavour. Reports on Abū ʿAmr include a good many dis-
cussions about mawālī and Arabs and who knows the best Arabic.29 Finally,
Ḥammād b. Salama (d. 167/783–784), an illustrious traditionist and jurist who
acted as mufti in Basra, was also trained by Ibn Abī Isḥāq.30
Moving on to the bottom part of the sociogram of Figure 1.2, we see con-
necting lines to famous and influential scholars of the next generation. One
line goes from Ibn Abī Isḥāq through ʿĪsā b. ʿUmar to al-Khalīl b. Aḥmad (d.
ca. 170/786), author of the first Arabic dictionary (Kitāb al-ʿAyn), and further-
more specialised in prosody and astrology, who is said to have deciphered
Greek on his own.31 Al-Kisāʾī (d. 183/799), of Persian descent, is reckoned
amongst the proponents of the Kufan school of grammar—he is the only rep-
resentative of the Kufans in Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s overall Basran network.32 Al-Kisāʾī
was also active in qurʾānic studies: his qirāʾa is one of the seven canonical Read-
ings of the Qurʾān.33 The line ends at Sībawayhi (d. ca. 180/796), Persian author
of the first full-fledged grammar of Arabic, the famous Kitāb.34
Another line connects Ibn Abī Isḥāq through Abū ʿAmr b. al-ʿAlāʾ to Yūnus
b. Ḥabīb (d. 182/798), from Jubbal in present-day India, who specialised in
poetry alongside qurʾānic studies.35 He is also connected to Abū ʿUbayda (d.
ca. 210/825) who hailed from a Jewish family originating in Bajarwan (located
in Shirvan, a region in the eastern Caucasus) and who is said to have fiercely
hated the Arabs.36 Another line goes to al-Aṣmaʿī (d. 213/829), a stingy Arab

29 Abū ʿAmr b. al-ʿAlāʾ: al-Suyuṭī, Bughya, 2:231–232; al-Sīrāfī, Akhbār, 28–31; al-Zubaydī,
Ṭabaqāt, 35–40; al-Qifṭī, Inbāh, 4:131–139.
30 Ḥammād b. Salama: al-Suyuṭī, Bughya, 1:548–549; al-Sīrāfī, Akhbār, 42–44; al-Zubaydī,
Ṭabaqāt, 51; al-Qifṭī, Inbāh, 1:364–365.
31 al-Khalīl b. Aḥmad: al-Suyūṭī, Bughya, 1:557–560; al-Sīrāfī, Akhbār, 38–40; al-Zubaydī,
Ṭabaqāt, 47–51; al-Qifṭī, Inbāh, 1:376–382.
32 The development of Arabic language studies is traditionally and, probably in retrospect,
characterised by the formation of two schools of grammar, a Basran and a Kufan school.
Not presented in the sociogram of Figure 1.2 is the Basran imprint of Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s net-
work.
33 ʿAlī b. Ḥamza al-Kisāʾī: al-Suyuṭī, Bughya, 2:162–164; al-Zubaydī, Ṭabaqāt, 127–130; al-Qifṭī,
Inbāh, 2:256–274.
34 Sībawayhi: al-Suyūṭī, Bughya, 2:229–230; al-Sīrāfī, Akhbār, 48–50; al-Zubaydī, Ṭabaqāt, 66–
72; al-Qifṭī, Inbāh, 2:346–360.
35 Yūnus b. Ḥabīb: al-Suyūṭī, Bughya, 2:365; al-Sīrāfī, Akhbār, 33–37; al-Zubaydī, Ṭabaqāt, 51–
53; al-Qifṭī, Inbāh, 4:74–78.
36 Abū ʿUbayda Maʿmar b. al-Muthannā: al-Suyūṭī, Bughya, 2:294–296; al-Sīrāfī, Akhbār, 67–
71; al-Zubaydī, Ṭabaqāt, 175–178; al-Qifṭī, Inbāh, 3:276–288, calling him a “shuʿūbī.”

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ibn abī isḥāq (d. ca. 125/743) and his scholarly network 21

and polymath, we are told, who specialised in a broad range of studies.37 Finally,
Abū Zayd al-Anṣārī (d. 215/830), a Shiite and an all-round scholar, like al-Aṣmaʿī,
who is said to have been very handsome.38

With Sībawayhi at the bottom of the sociogram, we are on solid ground: we have
his extant work that marks a fully developed and distinct scholarly discipline—
Arabic grammar. Let us now try and trace back the paths of the various dis-
ciplines in Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s network. This analysis will provide us with insight
into how these disciplines have emerged. Tracing back sheds light on otherwise
“dark” paths.

5 Intellectual Specialisations

Biographical dictionaries of grammarians offer information about intellec-

tual endeavours pursued by the individual scholar besides language studies.
Table 1.2 lists all these endeavours in a matrix for the group of scholars that
operated within Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s network.
For the sake of clarity, the specialisations in the table are classified into three
broad categories—religious, linguistic, and secular:

“Religious” (left hand side of the table):

– Hadith, collection and transmission of traditions
– Qirāʾa, reading of the qurʾānic text
– Tafsīr, qurʾānic exegesis
– Fiqh, Islamic jurisprudence

“Linguistic” (in the middle columns):

– ʿArabiyya, study of the Arabic language
– Naḥw, grammar, grammatical studies of Arabic
– Lugha, Arabic lexicography (including the subfield gharīb, about rare and
uncommon words and expressions)39

37 al-Aṣmaʿī ʿAbd al-Malik b. Qurayb: al-Suyūṭī, Bughya, 2:112–113; al-Sīrāfī, Akhbār, 58–67; al-
Zubaydī, Ṭabaqāt, 167–174; al-Qifṭī, Inbāh, 2:197–205.
38 Abū Zayd al-Anṣārī Saʿīd b. Aws: al-Suyūṭī, Bughya, 1:582–583; al-Sīrāfī, Akhbār, 52–57; al-
Zubaydī, Ṭabaqāt, 165–166; al-Qifṭī, Inbāh, 2:30–35.
39 Notably the study of uncommon words and expressions in the Qurʾān (gharīb al-qurʾān)
and hadith (gharīb al-ḥadīth).

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table 1.2 Specialisations within Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s network

Hadith Qirāʾa Tafsīr Fiqh ʿArabiyya Naḥw Lugha Shiʿr Nawādir Ayyām Nasab Akhbār Adab
1 Abū Hurayra 58/679 ×
2 Ibn ʿAbbās 68/687–688 × × × × × ×
3 Abū al-Aswad ca. 69/688–689 × × × × ×
4 Naṣr b. ʿĀṣim 89/708 × × × × ×
5 Zayd b. al-Ḥārith ca. 90/709 ×
6 ʿAnbasa al-Fīl ca. 99/717–718 × × ×
7 Maymūn al-Aqran ca. 99/717–718 × ×
8 Yaḥyā b. Yaʿmar ca. 106/724–725 × × × × × ×
9 Ibn Sirīn 110/728 × ×
10 al-Farazdaq 114/732 ×
11 Ibn Hurmuz 117/735 × × × ×
12 Qatāda ca. 117/735 × × × × ×
13 Bilāl b. Abī Burda 122/740
14 Ibn Abī Isḥāq ca. 125/743 × × × ×
15 ʿĪsā b. ʿUmar 149/766 × × × × ×
16 Abū ʿAmr b. al-ʿAlāʾ ca. 157/774 × × × × × ×
17 Maslama b. ʿAbd Allāh ca. 159/775–776 × × × ×
18 Bakr b. Ḥabīb ca. 159/775–776 × × ×
19 Ḥammād b. Salama 166/782–783 × × × × ×
20 Khalīl b. Aḥmad ca. 170/786 × × × × ×
22 Yūnus b. Ḥabīb 182/798 × × × × ×
21 Sībawayhi 180/796 × × × ×
23 al-Kisāʾī 183/799 × × × ×
24 Abū ʿUbayda ca. 210/825 × × × × × ×
25 al-Aṣmaʿī 213/829 × × × × × × × × × ×
26 al-Anṣārī 215/830 × × × × ×
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ibn abī isḥāq (d. ca. 125/743) and his scholarly network 23

“Secular” (right hand side of the table):

– Shiʿr, either composing or collecting, transmitting, explaining poetry
– Nawādir, collection and transmission of entertaining stories
– Ayyām al-ʿArab, collection and transmission of Bedouin (heroic) stories
– Nasab, genealogy
– Akhbār, collection and transmission of historical stories40
– Adab, body of secular knowledge that can be transmitted by someone qual-
ified as muʾaddib41

A bird’s eye view of Table 1.2 offers some remarkable general observations.
First, the left hand side of Table 1.2 immediately shows that almost all schol-
ars were in one way or another involved in the collection and/or transmission
of hadiths. Qurʾānic exegesis (tafsīr), on the other hand, is a late phenomenon
and Islamic jurisprudence ( fiqh) only sporadically appears in the table cov-
ering this period.42 We also discern that the emergence and development of
the study of the reading(s) of the qurʾānic text (qirāʾa) went hand in hand
with Arabic language studies (ʿArabiyya, naḥw, lugha). All scholars from Ibn
Abī Isḥāq onwards were involved in Arabic grammar (naḥw), while the more
general study of Arabic (ʿArabiyya) has almost disappeared by the end of the
period. Arabic lexicography (lugha) and the study of rare words or expressions
(gharīb) seem to follow the pattern of the secular fields of endeavour (on the
right hand side of Table 1.2), gradually filling in the matrix as we move toward
the end of the period. In all, four scholars were specialised in adab; they are
found in the last column of Table 1.2: Yaḥyā b. Yaʿmar (teacher of Ibn Abī Isḥāq),
Abū ʿAmr b. al-ʿAlāʾ (student of Ibn Abī Isḥāq), Yūnus b. Ḥabīb and al-Aṣmaʿī
(two students of Abū ʿAmr b. al-ʿAlāʾ).
Combining now data from Table 1.2 with a more detailed scrutiny of the
sociogram of Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s network (Figure 1.2), we see two clear paths (i.e.,
connecting lines that are directional and here represent causal sequences)
between the four major blocks we identified earlier. Figure 1.3 zooms in on
these two paths or lines of transmission, showing directional relations of the
nucleus of Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s network with a focus on “linguistic” specialisations
as defined above. Additionally, for reasons that will be explained later, adab is
added to the listing of specialisations for each individual where appropriate.

40 See Roberto Tottoli’s contribution in this volume.

41 I thank James Montgomery for providing me with this working definition of adab (per-
sonal conversation, Istanbul, August 14, 2014).
42 For the co-development of grammar and jurisprudence, see Carter, “Les origines de la
grammaire.”

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24 bernards

figure 1.3 Detail of Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s network (showing paths )

The three blocks, in which the positions of Ibn Abī Isḥāq, Yaḥyā b. Yaʿmar, and
ʿĪsā b. ʿUmar are central, are all connected to Abū ʿAmr b. al-ʿAlāʾ who incor-
porated all specialisations received from his teachers: naḥw, lugha, and adab.
If we now extend this diagram to include the following two generations, the
importance of the blocks and paths becomes evident.
On the one hand, we see a clear path of three steps leading from Yaḥyā b.
Yaʿmar, through Ibn Abī Isḥāq and ʿĪsā b. ʿUmar, to Sībawayhi, the grammar
specialist par excellence. On the other hand, an adab path leads in two steps as
well from Yaḥyā b. Yaʿmar (and Ibn Abī Isḥāq) through Abū ʿAmr b. al-ʿAlāʾ and
al-Aṣmaʿī to the preeminent adab writer, al-Jāḥiẓ (d. 255/869). With Sībawayhi’s
book on grammar and the adab works of al-Jāḥiẓ, we have reached solid ground
in terms of extant works in the two distinct disciplines.

6 Discussion of the Findings

Language studies in general and Arabic grammar in particular are early devel-
opments in the context of Arabic-Islamic scholarly activities. The need for a
good understanding of the Arabic text of the Qurʾān and an awareness of a rad-
ically changing use of Arabic due to a rapidly expanding empire and a growing
number of non-native speakers led to an interest in language studies and sped
up the development of grammar as a discipline. Within two centuries from the
beginning of the Islamic era, a fully-fledged grammar of Arabic came into exist-
ence, Kitāb Sībawayhi.
How grammar emerged and developed as a field within the context of Arabic
language studies and how the earliest “professionals” in this discipline inter-
connected, has been studied here by using Social Network Analysis—a widely

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ibn abī isḥāq (d. ca. 125/743) and his scholarly network 25

figure 1.4 Detail of Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s network extended (showing paths )

used method in the social sciences, but hardly applied in our field. More spe-
cifically, the method was used to identify and further clarify the relations within
the network of one particular scholar, Ibn Abī Isḥāq, who died around the year
125/743. Based on our initial assumption that Ibn Abī Isḥāq played a pivotal
role in the beginning of Arabic grammar, we selected him for a detailed scru-
tiny of his social and intellectual environment. From the biographical literat-
ure, information was collected on Ibn Abī Isḥāq’s teachers and students and
their respective contacts. Subsequently, these people were mapped in socio-
grams.
Inspection of the sociograms revealed that Ibn Abī Isḥāq indeed held a cent-
ral position in a network that was furthermore characterised by the existence of
several blocks. These findings indicate a tightly interrelated network and lively
social surroundings. We were able to identify two important paths or lines of
transmission within the network revealing that both paths start with Yaḥyā b.
Yaʿmar, a scholar of the previous generation who died around the year 106/724–
725. One path leads in three steps from Yaḥyā b. Yaʿmar via Ibn Abī Isḥāq and
ʿĪsā b. ʿUmar to Sībawayhi who elaborately consolidated Arabic grammar in his

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26 bernards

Kitāb, while the other is a bridge, consisting of three steps as well, via Abū ʿAmr
b. al-ʿAlāʾ and al-Aṣmaʿī, to the further development of adab culminating in the
works of the foremost adab writer of the classical period, al-Jāḥiẓ (d. 255/869).
In other words, we have waded through unknown and uncharted territories
to arrive at well-established disciplines which we are familiar with thanks to
the fact that their writings are extant—unlike the earlier period. The applica-
tion of Social Network Analysis using biographical information thus affords us
insights that we miss relying solely on extant works. Suddenly and quite unex-
pectedly, scholars appear in central positions, assuming important roles in the
development of certain fields. In the network of Ibn Abī Isḥāq it is Yaḥyā b.
Yaʿmar who holds a key position at the passageway for two distinct paths in the
network leading to the crystallisation of grammar on the one hand and adab
on the other.43
However, the lack of extant works prevents us from knowing exactly what
kind of grammar or adab was pursued at the time—we only know the outcome
at the end of the paths. Before that time, they probably were not autonomous
fields or part of a standard curriculum—that was to come later—but they did
constitute the kernel of grammar as a later discipline, just like the kernel of
adab existed at the time.44 For an attempt to reconstruct the development from
kernel to outcome, we have used information from the biographical dictionar-
ies.
In our discussion of the intellectual specialisations pursued by the scholars
in our network, we have seen that the more general study of Arabic (ʿArabiyya)
gradually disappears and that from Ibn Abī Isḥāq onwards all scholars were
involved in naḥw, which I have called “grammar proper.” By the time we reach
Sībawayhi, naḥw, literally “way of speaking,” had come to denote syntax as
opposed to taṣrīf, morphology.45 Moreover, as the awāʾil sources tell us, Ibn Abī
Isḥāq apparently laid down the foundations for a much later development of

43 In a different study (Bernards, “Grammarians’ Circles of Learning,” 163), I have already

shown that the scholar al-Shaybānī (d. 209/824), fairly unknown as a grammarian, held a
prominent position amongst the Kufan grammarians of the early third/ninth century.
44 See Wolfhardt Heinrichs, “The Classification of the Sciences and the Consolidation of
Philology in Classical Islam,” in Centres of Learning: Learning and Location in Pre-Modern
Europe and The Near East, eds. Jan Willem Drijvers and Alasdair A. MacDonald (Leiden:
Brill, 1995), 119–139. Heinrichs used original texts, i.e., list-literature from the fourth/tenth
century that reflects the manner in which thinking about one’s own specialisations was
reconstructed. Regarding adab, he concludes that one has to go to later centuries for a
more systematic description of adab as autonomous field.
45 Åkesson, “Ṣarf.”

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ibn abī isḥāq (d. ca. 125/743) and his scholarly network 27

rationalisation of language by introducing the concepts of qiyās (analogy), and

ʿilal (causes), to explain hierarchical relations between grammatical categor-
ies.46
The concept of adab, literally “good behaviour, good custom,” is much harder
to grasp. Adab is not only associated with a large variety of concepts and mater-
ials, but its meaning changes greatly over time as well. However, my work-
ing definition here—a body of secular knowledge that can be transmitted by
someone qualified as muʾaddib—incorporates two aspects that have been part
and parcel of adab from the very beginning. Adab has an element of education
(implied in the term muʾaddib, “educator”) and it is set apart from ʿilm, religious
knowledge. This is more or less in accordance with the use of the term in canon-
ical hadith where the books of adab treat rules for good social behaviour and
correct usage of Arabic contrasted with laḥn (solecism).47 Al-Jāḥiẓ, situated at
the end of the adab path in our network, is included in the kind of adab that is
first and foremost characterised by eloquence in writing, particularly of letters
and essays (rasāʾil).48
In the context of intellectual history—based on data taken from biograph-
ical sources—Yaḥyā b. Yaʿmar is a key figure in the emergence and development
of both grammar and adab. He is a pioneer of grammatical studies, considered
the best grammarian of his time and reportedly elaborated Abū al-Aswad’s
initial notes on grammar. As for adab, his excellent command of the Arabic lan-
guage and his eloquence were praised. He is mentioned amongst the fuṣaḥāʾ
al-ʿArab, those skilled in the use of Arabic prose which he had learned from his
father. Yaḥyā’s style and wit were recognised in particular by al-Ḥajjāj b. Yūsuf
based on the letters he wrote to him in his capacity as secretary (kātib) on behalf
of the Umayyad governor of Khurasan. As such, Yaḥyā b. Yaʿmar was a prede-
cessor of al-Jāḥiẓ and a contemporary of the famous kuttāb, ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd (d.
ca. 132/750) and Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ (d. ca. 139/756).49 Finally, the strong intercon-

46 This manner of rationalising language by using qiyās as opposed to mainly relying on

transmitted data (samāʿ) demarcates, in retrospect, the traditional Basra/Kufa dichotomy.
47 Cf. al-Bukhārī, book 78 (Adab); Muslim, book 38 (Ādāb) and book 40 (Alfāẓ min al-adab);
Abū Dāʾūd, book 40 (Adab); al-Tirmidhī, book 40 (al-Istiʾdhān wa-l-ādāb) and book 41
(Adab); al-Nasāʾī, book 49 (Ādāb al-quḍāt); Ibn Mājā, book 33 (Adab).
48 Jaakko Hämeen-Anttila, “Adab a) Arabic, early developments,” in Encyclopaedia of Islam
THREE, Yearbook, 2014 (Leiden: Brill, 2019), 26–35.
49 The kuttāb ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd b. Yaḥyā and ʿAbd Allāh b. al-Muqaffaʿ were important con-
tributors to the development of Arabic literary prose in general and amongst the earliest
epistolographers in Arabic; see Wadād al-Qāḍī, “ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd b. Yaḥyā al-Kātib,” in Encyc-
lopaedia of Islam THREE, Yearbook 2009 (Leiden: Brill, 2019), 14–17; Francesco Gabrieli,
“Ibn al-Muḳaffaʿ,” in Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed. (Leiden: Brill, 1971), 3:883–885.

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28 bernards

nection between grammar and adab—in the sense of the study of language
and literature, as we know it from al-Mubarrad’s (d. 285/898) introduction to
his Kāmil—is confirmed by this study.50

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