Operating System: -

An operating system is like an interface that act as intermediate for user to communicate with hardware
and to perform the task user requires .

Example :-

Mac os

Linux

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Computer System Structure:-

The computer structure is the base of the pc that have following parts

I/O

System

Storage

CPU

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I/O:-

I/O component of the pc is used to communicate between the user and the hardware.It is also used to
enter data into the pc or display the

result of the processing

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OS is a resource allocater:-

Os is a resource allocater this means that the os allocates resource for program to run smoothly .

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OS is a control program :-

Os is a control program this means that the os controls the functioning of program so that the program
can run smoothly .

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Kernal:-

A kernal is the important part of the pc .It starts when the computer starts and stops when the
computer stops .The kernals main function is to manage I/O and requests from the software and the
translate it for the cpu so that cpu can perform its task properly.
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Bootstrap program:-

A bootstrap program is program that is used to load the os to boot up the pc and it also executes the
kernal at the start of boot .

Generally it is stored in EROM or EPROM.

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Computer System organization:-

Computer system organization means thah the parts of the computer are interconnected with on
another and they act as an organization

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Interupt:-

An interrupt is a signal that a hardware or software generates when it has completed the task given to it
or when an error has occurred or it mainly generates the interrupt when then the immediate CPU
interaction is required.

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Interrupt Vector:-

Interrupt are stored in a place called interrupt vector it contains the address of all the interrupts that
arrived at the moment. The computer deals with one interrupt at a time in order to prevent a lost
interrupt.

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Trap:-

A trap is an interrupt generated by an error from hardware or software or it is either generated by the
user itself.

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Interrupt Handling:-

When a interrupt occurs it is put into the interrupt vector .The interrupt can be caused by the
software/hardware. In order to deal with the interrupt the CPU saves the state of the computer like
saving the registers, program counter and then deals with the interrupt with the help of its ISR
instructions which is a built in routine designed to handle the interrupt.

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Storage Structure: -

Main Memory:
Main memory is also known as random access memory it is volatile memory that disappears when
computer is turned off. It is generally is faster than ROM .Whenever a program runs it load its data into
the RAM then executes.

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Secondary Storage:

It is a non-volatile memory it means that the data is remained even when the power is turned off. It is
used for permanent storage.

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Magnetic disks:-

Magnetic disks uses the disk on which data is written magnetically/electronically.

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Storage hierarchy: -

The storage hierarchy involves

Speed

Cost

Volatility

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The levels of storage heirarchy is:

Registors

Cache

Main memory

Electronic Disk

Magnetic Disk

Optical Disk

Magnetic Tapes

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Caching:-

Caching is the process of storing data in faster memory . Cache is generally more faster than main
memory because cache is closer to CPU. There are three types of cache

L1
L2

L3

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Multiprogramming:-

Multiprogramming is the process in which the computer deals with multiple task as a single user can not
use all the resources all the time. Multiprogramming allows efficient usage of resources.

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Timesharing (Multi tasking):-

Timesharing otherwise also known as multi-tasking is the process of performing multiple task on the
computer at a same time like playing music while make a document

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DUAL MODE:-

Dual mode operation in an OS is used to protect the computer and its component.

Dual mode involves

1:User Mode

2:Kernal Mode

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User Mode: -

User mode allows the user to perform task and other program with limited privileges

kernel Mode: -

Kernel mode allows complete access to the computer resources. It can execute program with complete
privileges.

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Mode Bit:-

Mode bit is a functionality provided by computer hardware it helps the computer distinguish between
user mode and kernel mode

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Process Management :-
When an instruction or task is in execution it is called a process. The process is a active entity while the
program is passive entity.

The termination of a process requires the reclaim of resources

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Protection :-

Any mechanism for controlling access of processes or users to resources defined by the OS

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Security: –

Defense of the system against internal and external attacks

CHAPTER # 02:
Operating system services: -
Operating system services are the services that the computer
provides that are helpful to the user. The OS involves following
services

1:-User Interface: -
Almost all the os have user interface that helps the user to
interact with the os. There are two types of user interface
1:-CLI
2:-GUI

2:-Program Execution:-
The os have a very important task that is that os must be able to
load the program into the memory and execute it .
3:-I/O operations:-
Another important task that the os must be able to perform is
that it must be able to take input from the user and use it where
it is required and must be able to display output

4:-File-System Manipulation:-
Another important service that the os provides is that it allows
file manipulation it mean that os can perform various data
manipulation on file like delete, edit, store it into the memory.

5:-Error detection:-
The primary purpose of error detection in an operating system is
to identify and report issues in the system's operation.

6:-Communication:-
Communication is also done by the os between different
components of the computer like I/O communication with the
processor .

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Another set of the operations that the os performs are following
1:-Resource Allocation:-
OS is a resource allocator which means it assigns resources to
the programs that are running it can be multiple.

2:-Accounting:-
Accounting is used to check that how much time and the
resources that a user is spending on the task or program.

3:-Protection & Security:-

Protection & Security various security measures to defend
against threats and ensure that only authorized users can access
and manipulate sensitive information.
1:-Protection:-
It refers to protecting data from unauthorized manipulation
2:-Security:-
It refers to protecting the os from unauthorized access
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User Operating System CLI:-

CLI stands for command line interface it is used for direct entry
of commands into the os system. The CLI has multiple Flavors
like shell & command prompt. The shell in os is an interface that
presents multiple functions to the user. It means it allows the
user more privileged access. The main function of cli is to fetch
commands from the user and execute it.

User Operating System GUI:-

GUI stands for graphical user interface. It is more like graphical
representation of the os. With GUI you can perform many tasks
without writing commands. There are icons which allows direct
access to the files. Now Microsoft windows is an os that allows
both CLI & GUI.
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System Call:-
System call is a like a service request made by user or
program .Then the os sends the request to kernal .Than the
kernal translates the request so that the CPU can process it
Example:-
Acquire input file name
Write prompt to screen
Accept input
Acquire output file name
Write prompt to screen
Accept input
Open the input file
if file doesn't exist, abort
Create output file
if file exists, abort
Loop
Read from input file
Write to output file
Until read fails
Close output file
Write completion message to screen
Terminate normally
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Types of system call:-
*Process control
*File management
*Device management
*Information maintenance
*Communications
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Layered Approach:-
The os follows layered approach that means that each layer is
present on top of the other layers. The bottom layer is (layer 0)
which is hardware while the top most layer is (layer 1) which is
user interface.
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Micro-kernal System:-
Micro-kernal system is a type of system which is based on
simple core and performs simple operations like file
Manipulation other operations are performed in isolated parts of
the core.
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Virtual Machine:-
Virtual machine follows layered approach. Virtual machine is a
software that follows the approach of emulating the hardware .It
creates an isolated environment in which an operating system
and its associated applications can run.
The virtual-machine concept provides complete protection of
system resources since each virtual machine is isolated from all
other virtual machines. This isolation, however, permits no
direct sharing of resources.
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System Boot:-
Operating system must be made available to hardware so
hardware can start it there is small piece of code known as
bootstrap loader that locates the kernel loads it into memory, and
starts it.