Applied Physics

Electrostatics: -
Electro means charge and static means at rest, “The study of charges at rest is called electrostatics”.
Charge: -
The access and deficiency of electron is called charge.
Positive charge is due to the deficiency of electron.
Negative charge is due to the access of electron.
Note! Like charges repel each other, while unlike charges attract each other. (Why unlike charges attract?)
Point Charge: -
Such charges which is very small as compare to the distance of observer is known as the point charge.
Test Charge: -
Such charge which is very small in size so that even its presence does not disturb the field of original charge,
which, we are willing to measure or detect by this test charge.
Charge Distribution: -
When charges are continuously spread over a line, surface, or volume, the distribution is called continuous
charge distribution. Charge density represents how crowded charges are at a specific point.
i. Linear charge distribution
ii. Surface charge distribution
iii. Volume charge distribution
i. Linear Uniform Charge Distribution: -
The charge distributed equally along length of an object/rod is known as linear uniform distribution of charge.
It is represented by µ or λ.
C h arge Q
Its formula is as λ= =
lengt h l
Its SI unit is coulomb per meter (C/m).
For example, distribution of charge is along a rod.
ii. Surface Uniform charge Distribution: -
The charge distributed equally along surface area of an object is known as Surface uniform/continuous
distribution of charge.
It is represented by σ.
C h arge Q
Its formula is as σ= =
area A
-2
Its SI unit is coulomb per square-meter (Cm ).
For example, distribution of charge is along a hollow sphere, sheet, or any plane area.
iii. Volume Uniform Charge Distribution: -
The charge distributed equally per unit volume of an object is known as volume uniform/continuous
distribution of charge.
It is represented by ρ.
C h arge Q
Its formula is as ρ= =
volume V
Its SI unit is coulomb per cubic-meter (Cm-3).
For example, distribution of charge is along solid sphere, or any three-dimensional object.
Charge distribution over conductors: -
The distribution of charge is the result of electron movement. Since conductors allow for electrons to be
transported from particle to particle, a charged object will always distribute its charge until the overall repulsive
forces between excess electrons is minimized. Hence the charge distribution over a conductor is always uniform.
Charge distribution over insulators: -
The distribution of charge is the result of electron movement. Since all the electrons are tightly bound to their
nuclei in an insulator, unlike the conduction electrons in a conductor. The electrons in an insulator are not free to
move from one atom to another. Hence the charge distribution over an insulator is not always uniform.

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Electrostatic force: -
The force of attraction or repulsion between two charges is known as electrostatic force.
It is a vector quantity.
It is represented by Fc or Fe.
q1 q2
Its formula is as Fe = K 2
r
Here K is proportionality constant or Coulomb’s constant or dielectric constant.
Its SI unit is newton (N).
It depends upon three factors
 Magnitude of point charges
 Distance between the point charges
 The material medium between the point charges
Law of electrostatic force: - (Coulomb’s Law)
Introduction: -
The first measurement of force between electric charges was made in 1874AD by Charles coulomb, a French military
engineer. On the basis of those measurements he deduced a law called coulomb’s law.
Statement: -
The electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between any two point charges is directly proportional to the
product of charges and inversely proportional to the square of distance between them.
Derivation: -
Let two point charges q1 and q2 are separated by a distance ‘r’, then the force of attraction or repulsion ‘F’ between
them is as
F∝ q1q2 ---------- (1)
1
F∝ 2 ---------- (2)
r
Combining both equations we get,
q1 q2
F∝ 2
r
By using constant of proportionality, we can write in equation as
q1 q2
F=K 2
r
Here k is the constant of proportionality, known as “dielectric constant” and its value depends on system of units
used and the nature of material medium between the two charges.
Its value can be calculated for SI units in the presence of free space is
1
K= = 9 x 109 Nm2C-2
4 π εo
Where εo is the permittivity of free space its value is
εo = 8.85 x10-12 C2N-1 m-2
Fr2
The SI unit of K can be determined as k= Unit of k is (Nm2 C-2)
q1 q2
1 q1 q2
Thus the equation becomes as F=
4 π ε o r2
Permittivity: - (Permittivity of medium)
The ability of a medium to oppose/react charges to interact through it is known as permittivity.
It is a scalar quantity.
It is represented by ε med, ε.
The value of permittivity for every medium is different.
Permittivity of free space: -

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 The ability of free space to oppose/react charges to interact through it is known as permittivity of free space, it
is the minimum value of permittivity.
It is a scalar quantity.
It is represented by εo.
The value of permittivity of free space is εo = 8.85 x10-12 C2N-1 m-2

Absolute permittivity: -
The ability of a medium to oppose/react charges to interact through it is known as permittivity.
It is a scalar quantity. Its formula is as εmed = εr εo
It is represented by ε, ε med.
Relative permittivity: -
The comparative value of permittivity with respect to the free space is called relative permittivity.
ε med
Relation for the permittivity of medium and relative permittivity is defined as ε r =
εo
Effect of medium: -
When any of medium other than free space is present between the charges then the force will be reduced with a factor
equal to permittivity of medium as
1 q1 q 2
F=
4 π ε o εr r2
Here εr is the relative permittivity of that medium, how much is it greater of smaller than the space.
For the direct permittivity of that medium we can write
1 q 1 q2
F=
4 π εm r2
Here εm is the absolute permittivity of that medium placed between the charges. It will be ε o if free space is present
between the charges so it is the general relation for the coulomb’s law.
Vector form: -
To represent the direction of these forces we introduce unit vectors,
If r^ 12 is the unit vector directed from q1 to q2 and
If r^ 21 is the unit vector directed from q2 to q1
⃗ 1 q1 q2 ^
Then F 12 = r 12 (Force by charge 2 on 1)
4 π ε o r2

⃗ 1 q1 q2 ^
F 21 = r 21 (Force by charge 1 on 2)
4 π ε o r2
Description: -
It is stated that coulomb’s force is a mutual force, it means that if q 1 exerts a force on q2 then q2 also exerts an equal
and opposite force on q1. If we denote the force, on q2 by q1, by F21 and force on q1 by q2 is denoted by F12. Then
⃗
F 12 = - ⃗
F 21
Limitations: -
This law is applicable only for charges at rest.
This is applicable only for point charges.

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Electric Field of Force: - (Electric Field)
The region or area around a charged particle in which another charge can detect its presence is known as the
electric field/ field of force.
Description: -
The concept of electric field was introduced by the Michal faraday. He suggested
that the force between two charged particles is in the form of field which is present even
there is no charge present around it. But the field can only be detected by the other test
charge. So, the interaction can be accomplished in two steps.
(a) The source charge produces a field around it.
(b) The field interacts with the test charge to produce a force on test charge.
The electric field of a charge can be drawn in the form of a map on the page by using dot;
the density of dots represents the value of field. The region where the electric field is
week the number of dots is very small and near a charge the density of dots is large which means the field is stronger.
As shown in the figure
Electric Field lines: -
Imaginary lines of force represent direction and strength of electric field around a charge (charge distribution)
is known as the electric field lines
Description: -
As the electric field is invisible to us so scientist has introduced the idea of “electric lines of force” like a map
around a charged particle, which are imaginary lines used to represent the direction and strength of electric field at
any point. These lines start from the positive charge and terminate at the negative charge. The region around a charge
where the gap between the lines is large the field is week while the greater number density of lines shows a strong
electric field region. If we release a positive test charge in electric field, then it keep on moving in the direction of
electric field. If a negative charge is released in an electric field, then it moves against the electric field. The electric
lines of force always originate from positive charge and ends at negative charge.
The field of two oppositely charged particles is shown in figure

Properties of electric field lines: -

The electric field lines have the following properties
i. The electric lines of force originate from positive charge and terminate at the negative charge.
ii. The direction of electric field line can be determined by drawing a simple tangent at any point on the
electric lines of force.

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 iii. The lines are closer to each other where the field is strong and the distance between lines increase where
the value of field decreases.
iv. Electric lines of force never cross each other, because electric lines of force has only one direction at a
given point.

Electric Field Strength / Intensity: -

The value of electric field at any point in electric field is measured by unit
positive charge is known as the electric field strength or electric field
intensity.
It is a vector quantity.
It is represented by E.
F
Its formula is as E=
qo
Its SI unit is newton per coulomb (NC-1).
Its dimension is as [MLT-2A-1]

Electric Field Intensity due to point charge: -

Let a charge q have an electric field around it its strength at any point P can be defined as E, and it applies a force F
on test charge qo then from the definition of field strength we can write it as
F
E=
qo
E = F ÷ qo
From coulomb’s law we can write the force as
1 q qo
F=
4 π ε o εr r2
Now the expression for electric field intensity becomes as
1 q qo
E= ÷ qo
4 π ε o r2
1 q qo 1
E= x
4 π ε o r2 qo
1 q
E=
4 π εo r2
This expression is used to find the value of electric field strength at any point ‘r’ from the charge.
Vector Form: -
In vector form we can write it as
1 q
E= r^
4 π εo r2
This equation of electric field strength is used to find the field when the source charge and the vertical distance have
been provided.
Conclusion: -
This equation shows that the electric field strength depends upon the field charge and perpendicular distance of test
charge from field charge, and it is directed along the line joining them.
Electric Field Intensity due to many point charges: -
Let a number of charges q1, q2, q3, . . . qn have electric fields around them, the strength of resultant electric
field at any point P can be determined by placing a point charge q o over there, and algebraic sum of the fields of due
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to all of them as E, and all fields cancel the effect of vertical components but add up along horizontal components, so
the resultant field strength we can write as
E = E1x+ E2x+ E3x+ . . . Enx
E = E1cosɵ + E2 cosɵ + E3 cosɵ + . . . En cosɵ
From field due to a point charge we can write as
1 q
E=
4 π εo r2
Now the expression for electric field intensity becomes as
1 q1 1 q2 1 q3 1 qn
E= 2 (cosɵ) + 2 (cosɵ) + 2 (cosɵ) + . . . + (cosɵ)
4 π εo r 4 π εo r 4 π εo r 4 π ε o r2

E=
1
[ q1 q 2 q 3
+ +
4 π ε o r 2 r2 r2
+…+
qn
r ]
2 (cosɵ)

Electric Potential: - (Absolute Electric Potential)

Work done per unit charge against electric field stored in the electric charge is known as electric potential.
OR The work done per unit charge is known as electric potential.
It is a scalar quantity.
It is represented by V.
W
Its formula is as V=
q
r

In integral form we can write it as ∆V = − ∫ E dS

∞

Its unit is joule/coulomb (J/C).

Its SI unit is volt (V).
volt (V): -
If the one joule of work done is done on a unit positive charge against the electric field then the potential is
1 joule
known as the one volt. 1volt =
1coulomb
Electric Potential Difference: - (Relative Electric Potential)
“The work done in carrying a unit positive charge from A to B, against the electric field while keeping the
charge in equilibrium is known as the electric potential difference between A & B”.
It is a scalar quantity.
It is represented by ΔV.
ΔW ΔU
Its formula is as ΔV = = = VA - VB
qo qo
r1

In integral form we can write it as ∆V = − ∫ E dS

r2

Its unit is joule/coulomb (J/C).

Its SI unit is volt (V).
Potential Gradient: -
The directional change in the electric potential with respect to displacement is known as potential gradient.
Proof: -
For Finding E from V, by the definition of V an integral involving the E field implies that the electric field
comes from V by taking derivatives:
ΔW
ΔV =
qo
From definition of work

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 W = F.d = Fd cosɵ
W = Fdcos0
W = Fd
Fd
ΔV =
qo
From definition of electric field
F
E =-
qo
F = - qo E
And d = ∆r
Thus equation becomes as
−q o E ∆ r
ΔV =
qo
ΔV = - E.∆r
∂V
E=− E= − ∇V
∂r
For component form, we can write
∂V ∂V ∂V
Ex = − Ey = − Ez = −
∂x ∂y ∂z
These relations can be written as one equation using the notation for the gradient.

Equipotential Surfaces: -
For a given configuration of charges, a set of points where the electric potential V(r) has a constant value is
called an equipotential surface. It takes no work to move a charged particle from one point to another point on such
surface,
For such surface we have ∆V = 0.
From the relations between E(r) and V(r) it follows that the field lines are perpendicular to the equipotential surfaces
everywhere.
Electrical Potential Energy: -
Amount of work required to move a charge in electric field is equal to the electrical potential energy.
It is a scalar quantity
It is represented by Ue.
B

Its formula is as Ue = ∫ F e . ds
A

Its SI unit is joule (J)

joule (J): -
If a force of one newton acts on a body and it covers a distance of one meter then its energy/work is one joule.
1J = 1N.1m
Derivation: -
Let a charge qo is displaced from one place A to another point, within the electric field by applying a constant
force ‘F’ to keep it in equilibrium until it covers a distance ‘ds’
B

We = ∫ F e . ds
A

To keep the test charge in equilibrium an electric

force is provided by electric field E produced by source
charge q, which can be defined as
Fe
E=
qo
Fe = qoE
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 B

We = ∫ −(q ¿¿ o . E)ds ¿
A
B

We = - qo ∫ E . ds
A
B

We = - qo ∫ E . dr
A

As for electric field due to a point charge we have

1 q
E=
4 π ϵ o r2
B
1 q
We = - qo ∫ .dr
A 4 π ϵ o r2
B
1 1
We = - q qo ∫ . 2 dr
4 π ϵo A r

We = - [
q . qo 1 1
−
4 π ϵo rB rA ]
By definition this work is stored in the form of electrical potential energy Ue, can be defined as
1
If any one point is considered to be at infinity then =0
∞
And the equation of potential energy becomes as

Ue = -
q . qo 1
4 π ϵo rB [ ]
−0

1 q . qo
UB = -
4 π ϵ o rB

Electric Flux: -
The total number of electric lines of force passing through a cross sectional area held perpendicular to it is
known as electric flux.
It is a scalar quantity
It is represented by φ
Its formula is as φ = E.A = ∫ E . dA
Its SI unit is weber (Wb).
Its dimension is as [M L3T-3 A-1]
Gauss’s Law: - (Law of Electric flux)
Total flux through any closed surface is equal to the εo times the total charge enclosed in that close surface.
Equation: -
Let a charge ‘Q’ is placed in closed sphere of surface area ‘A’ with permittivity ε o, then the electric flux
Q
through this surface is φe. φe =
εo
Description: -
Suppose point charges q1, q2, q3 . . . qn are the arbitrary distributed in an arbitrary shaped closed surface as
shown in figure. Using the idea of electric flux through plane surface we can find the flux through this arbitrary
closed surface, as

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 From definition of flux φe = φ1+ φ2 + φ3 . . . + φn
q1 q2 q3 qn
φe = + + ...+
εo εo εo εo
1
φe = (q1 + q2 + q3 . . . +qn)
εo
1
φe = (Total charge enclosed in a closed surface)
εo
Where Q = q1+ q2 + q3 . . . +qn
1
φe = (Q)
εo
Q
φe =
εo
Hence the equation describes the Gauss’s law of electric flux.
Proof: -
Let us calculate the electric flux through closed surface in the shape of a sphere of radius ‘r’ due to a point
charged placed at the center of the sphere as shown in figure. From the definition of flux, the area should be
flat/plane. For this purpose, we have divided the sphere into ‘n’ small patches each of flat cross sectional area ΔA,
thus the total number of patches are ΔA 1, ΔA2, ΔA3, . . . ΔAn. The direction of electric field through each patch is
parallel to the direction of vector area i.e. outward. The electric intensities are E1, E2, E3 . . . En through the patch
areas respectively.
Now the total flux through the sphere is calculated as
φe = φ1+ φ2 + φ3 . . . + φn
From definition of flux
φe = E.A
Thus φe = E1. ΔA1+ E2. ΔA2 + E3. ΔA3 . . . + En. ΔAn

φe = E1 ΔA1 cosө1+ E2 ΔA2 cosө2 + E3 ΔA3 cosө3 . . . +En ΔAn cosөn

The direction of electric intensities and vector area
is same at each patch, so the angle is 0o
φe = E1 ΔA1 cos(0o) + E2 ΔA2 cos(0o) + E3 ΔA3 cos(0o) . . . +En ΔAn cos(0o)
φe = E1 ΔA1 (1) + E2 ΔA2 (1) + E3 ΔA3 (1) . . . +En ΔAn (1)
φe = E1 ΔA1+ E2 ΔA2 + E3 ΔA3 . . . +En ΔAn
As the distance of surface of sphere is equal from
center, so value is same at each patch i.e.
1 q
E1 = E2 = E3 . . . = En = E = F =
4 π εo r2
φe = E (ΔA1+ ΔA2 + ΔA3 . . . + ΔAn)
Here total surface area of sphere is defined as
A = ΔA1+ ΔA2 + ΔA3 . . . + ΔAn = 4 π r 2
φe = E (Total surface area of sphere)
1 q 2
φe = ( )( )
4 π εo r2 4 π r
q
φe =
εo
Conclusion: -
This equation shows that the flux through any closed surface is equal to the ε o times the total charge enclosed
by the surface, and it is independent of the material medium and the shap of the surface.
Generalization: -

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 Now imagine a closed surface ‘S’ is enclosed this sphere. It can be seen that the flux through the closed
surface ‘S’ is the same as that through the sphere. Thus, the equation for irregular shape object is as φe =
q
εo
q
∫ E . dA = εo
it is because the number of lines is same in both the cases, so we have concluded that flux does not change due to the
shape of closed surface.
Conclusion: -
1. So, we had concluded that the total flux through a closed surface does not depend upon the shape or geometry
of the closed surface.
2. But the total flux depends upon the medium of sphere
3. The flux also varies with the total charge enclosed by the surface
NOTE
Where the electric field is uniform the electric lines of force are equally spaced, while the distance/gap between the
electric lines of force varies where electric intensity is non-uniform.
Limitation: -
This law is only applicable for the closed surface.
Applications of Gauss’s Law: -
Gauss’s Law is applied to find the electric intensity at given point due to point charge.
Gauss’s Law is applied to find the value of point charge.
Gaussian Surface: -
To apply Gauss’s Law, we always need an imaginary closed surface which is known as the Gaussian Surface.
OR
An imaginary closed surface used to find the electric flux through a closed surface is known as the Gaussian surface.

Hall Effect: -
The process of development of potential difference across the ends of a conducting material due to applied
magnetic field when current passes through it, due to the transformation of charge particles from one end of material
to other due to Lorentz force. OR
When a magnetic field is applied at right angle to the flow of current in a thin film, where an electric field is
already acting, then a potential difference is created across the ends of film, this phenomenon is known as Hall Effect.
Hall Voltage: -
The measure of potential difference created across the vertical ends of a conductor/semi-conductor due to
flow of current and applied external field is known as Hall voltage.
It is a scalar quantity
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 IB IB
It is represented by VH = VB – VA. or VH = = RH , here ‘h’ is the thickness of slab and RH is “Hall
Nq h h
Coefficient”.
Its SI unit is volt (V).
Hall coefficient: -
A constant number which represents reciprocal of charge density in a material is known as Hall coefficient.
It is a scalar quantity
It is represented by RH
1
Its expression is as RH =
Nq
Its SI unit is per coulomb (C-1)
Derivation: -
From potential gradient
∆V
E=
∆r
∆V = E ∆r
As voltage is created due to Hall Effect so known as hall voltage
∆V = VH
So, equation becomes as
VH = E ∆r
For the equilibrium state the both forces acting on a charged
particle must balance each other i.e.
FB = Fe
qvB=qE
vB=E
Thus, equation becomes as
VH = v B ∆r
Here ∆r represents the width of slab i.e.
∆r = d
Now VH = v B d
From definition of current
Q
I=
t
Putting the value of Q from density and t from velocity
Total charge = charge of one x total particle x volume
Q=NqV
From definition of volume and velocity
V=Ah
Q=qNAh
h
v=
t
h=vt
Q=qNAvt
Thus, the equation of current becomes as
qN Avt
I=
t
I= q N A v
I
v=
N qA
I
VH = Bd
N qA

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 From the definition of area
A = d. h
I
VH = Bd
N qd h
I .B
VH =
N qh
Let the constant factors as
1
RH =
Nq
I .B
VH = RH
h
Conclusion: -
In our discussion we assume the charge carriers are positive. And the potential difference created across the
sheet/foil, the drift velocity of carriers can be measured. The hall voltage basically depends upon the current flowing
through conductor material its thickness across which potential difference is to be created and applied magnetic field.
Biot - Savart Law: - (Law of Magnetostatics)
Introduction: -

Statement: -
The magnetic field at any point near a stead current carrying conductor is directly proportional to the
magnitude of current and inversely proportional to the distance of that point from wire.
Equation: -

B∝I
1
B∝
r
Combining both equations
I
B∝
r
I
B=K
r
μo H
Here K is the proportionality constant and its value is defined as K = , where μo = 4 π x 10-7 permittivity of free
2π m
H
space and if we the value of μo , then we get the K = 2 x 10-7
m
μo I
B=
2π r
Integral form of Biot Savart Law: -
If we consider n number of point around the wire then the total field at all those points is sum of each, as
B = B 1 + B2 + B3 + . . . + B n
μ I μ I μ I μ I
B= o + o + o ...+ o
2 π r1 2 π r2 2 π r3 2 π rn
μ 1 1 1 1
B= o I[ + + +...+ ]
2 π r1 r2 r3 rn
n
μo I
B= I∑
2 π i=1 n r
If we have infinite number of points and adding the length component for all the we can replace this summation by
integration
❑
μo Idl
B= I∫ r^
2 π C |r|
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Ampere’s Law: - (Ampere’s circuital Law)
Introduction: -

Statement: -
The line integral of magnetic field B around a closed path in vacuum is equal to the μo times the total current
flowing through it.
Amperean loop: -
An imaginary loop/circle around a current carrying wire at a point where we are willing to find the magnetic field
strength is known as the Amperean loop/path.
Proof: -
From Biot Savart law
❑
μo Idl
B= I∫ r^
2 π C |r|
❑

B.2 π r = μo ∫ IdI
C

B.2 π r = μo Itotal
Here I is the total current flowing through the conductor
Applications: -
Magnetic Field due to a wire of current: -
As form the equation of ampere’s law
B. Circumference = μo I
B.2 π r = μo I
μ I
We can write is as B= o
2π r
Here 2 π r gives the circumference of imaginary Amperean loop around current carrying
conductor.
Magnetic Field due to a cylindrical conductor of current: -
As form the equation of ampere’s law
B.2 π r = μo Ienclosed
Where from definition of current density we have
J enclosed = J Total
I enclosed I Total
=
enclosing area total area
I e nclosed I Total
2 = 2
πr πR
2
πr
I enclosed = 2 I Total
πR
2
r
I enclosed = 2 ITotal
R
2
r
We can write is as B.2 π r = μo 2 ITotal
R
μo r2
B= ITotal
2 π r R2
μ r
B = o 2 ITotal
2π R
Here R gives the total circumference of cylinder and r is the radius of current
Magnetic Field due to a Solenoid of current: -

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 As form the equation of ampere’s law
❑

∮ B ds = μoIenclosed
❑
b c d a

∫ B.ds + ∫ B.ds + ∫ B.ds +∫ B.ds = μoI enclosed

a b c d

From the integration we get

b b

∫ B.ds = ∫ Bds cosƟ

a a
b

= ∫ B ds cos0
a
b

= ∫ B ds (1)
a

= BL
c c

∫ B.ds = ∫ Bds cosƟ

b b
c

= ∫ B ds cos90
b
c

= ∫ B ds (0)
b

=0
Similarly
d

∫ B.ds = 0
c
a a

∫ B.ds = ∫ 0 .ds = 0
d d

BL + 0 + 0 + 0 = μo Ienclosed
BL = μo Ienclosed
This expression is for the one loop of current carrying wire, Thus for N number of turns expression becomes as
BL = N μo Ienclosed
From definition of number density
N
n=
L
N=nL
Thus BL = n L μo Ienclosed
B = n μo Ienclosed
Force on a charge in a magnetic field: -
Suppose there are 'n' charge carriers per unit volume of the wire, and that each is moving with velocity v. we
will now find how long it takes for all the charge carriers originally in the wire segment shown to exit through the
end A. The volume of the wire segment is AL. because there are n charge carriers per unit volume; the number of
charge carriers in the segment is “nAL”. If the charge on a charge carrier is q, each of it, as it crosses the area,
force on small element of conductor
Force on one particle =
total c h arges∈t h at element
F
F= L
N
Force on that element =FL = I L x B
I Lx B
F=
N

Prepared by: Zeeshan Mahdi Page 14 of 16 0335-zeeshan

 Q
I=
∆t
∆Q Lx B
F=
∆t N
L
As v=
∆t
L
So ∆t =
v
And ∆Q = N q
Nq v (L x B)
F=
L (N )
q v ( L x B)
F=
L
F = q (v x B)
Conclusion: -
This equation shows that the force acting on a charge particle moving a permanent magnetic field is equal to
the cross product of its velocity and the magnetic field strength applied. And the direction of the force acting is
perpendicular to the plane of velocity and magnetic field, which can be determined by the right hand rule.

Prepared by: Zeeshan Mahdi Page 15 of 16 0335-zeeshan

Prepared by: Zeeshan Mahdi Page 16 of 16 0335-zeeshan