APPLIED CHEMISTRY- CS Stream

I / II SEMESTER (22CHES12/22)

DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Accredited by National Assessment & Accreditation Council (NAAC) with ’A’ Grade
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi
& ISO 9001:2015 Certified)

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
SHAVIGE MALLESWARA HILLS, KUMARASWAMY LAYOUT
BENGALURU-560111

2022-23
 Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering
Department of Chemistry

MODULE 4
Sensors and energy Systems
Introduction
A sensor is a device that receives a signal (i.e. physical, chemical or biological signal) and responds
to the signal in the form of an electrical signal. The output signals correspond to some forms of
electrical signal, such as current or voltage.
Components of a sensor

Figure 1: Function of a sensor

1. Receptor- Receives/ observes and acquires information.
2. Transducer-Converts one form of energy into another form.
3. An actuator-Converts electrical energy into mechanical/ readable energy.

Electrochemical sensors:
Electrochemical sensors are devices that detect and measure the concentration of the analyte by
converting electrochemical reaction between analyte and electrode surface into an electrical signal
(electrical signal may be potential, current or conductance).
In electrochemical sensors the electrode or a set of electrodes is used as transducer element. Hence
these sensors are often called as Electrochemical cells.

Depending on the mode of signal transduction, electrochemical sensors can be classified in to

following types,
1. Potentiometric (measure voltage): Information about the composition of a sample is obtained
from the potential difference between two electrodes.
2. Amperometric (measure current): Current is measured with respect to the potential applied
between a reference and a working electrode which causes the oxidation or reduction of an
electroactive species.
3. Conductometric (measure conductivity): Changes in electrical conductivity/ resistance is
measured with respect to the potential applied between a reference and a working electrode which
causes the oxidation or reduction of an electroactive species.

Construction of electrochemical cell

• Electrochemical sensor consists of a sensing electrode (or working electrode), a counter electrode
and a reference electrode in electrolyte.
• The sensing electrode has a chemically modified surface, facilitating the reduction or oxidation of
the analyte.
• The role of electrolyte is to transport charge within the sensor and contact all electrodes
effectively.

Working Principle of electrochemical cell: These sensors are often called an electrochemical cell.
Electrochemical sensing always requires a closed circuit. Current must flow to make a measurement
In most electrochemical sensors;
• An electrode surface is used as the site of the reaction.
• The electrode will either oxidize or reduce the analyte of interest.

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• The current that is produced from the reaction is monitored and used to calculate important data
such as concentrations from the sample.

Applications of electrochemical sensor:

1. To detect dissolved oxygen in boiler water and to monitor dissolved oxygen concentration in
metal melts and glasses.
2. Used in security and defense applications like detection of toxic gases and warfare agents.
3. Used in water analysis and environmental monitoring like measurements of toxic metal
concentration in water, pH of water and detection of oxides of nitrogen, sulphur and carbon.
4. Used in soil parameter analysis and in agriculture applications to detect pesticides.
5. Clinical chemistry, namely, the determination of blood glucose, Ca2+, Fe2+ and uric acid.
6. Used in the detection of enzymes and hormones to monitor cancer.
Conductometric Sensors:
Conductometric sensors are chemical sensors which measure the electrical conductivity/ resistivity
of a sample between two electrodes. The conductivity is proportional to the concentration of
analyte.
Principle:
The basic principle of conductometric detection is based on the measurement of specific
conductance of an analyte which is dependent on,

 The concentration of ions (number of ions).

 Mobility of ions. Mobility of ion depends on its size. Smaller the size higher is the mobility
and higher is the electrolytic conductance.
Working:

The conductivity is the result of dissociation an electrolyte into ions. The migration of the ions is
induced by an electrical field. When a potential difference is applied to the electrode, there is an
electrical field within the electrolyte, so the positively charged ions move towards cathode and
negatively charged ions move towards anode(Figure).Thus, the current in the electrolyte is caused
by the ion movement towards the electrodes where the ions are neutralized and isolated as neutral
atoms (or molecules). The output is measured using a conductometer.
Applications:
1. Used to estimate acids, bases and their mixtures in the sample.
2. Used to check the amount of ionic impurities in water samples.
3. Used in measuring acidity or alkalinity of sea water and fresh water.
4. Conductometic biosensors are used in biomedicine, environment monitoring, biotechnology
and agriculture related applications.
5. Used in enzyme catalysis to determine analyte concentration and enzyme activity and
selectivity.

Optical Sensors:

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Optical sensors are devices which detect and convert incident light rays into electrical signals.
Example: Colourimetric Sensors
Absorption-based optical sensors-Colourimetric Sensors:
Colorimetric sensors are simple type of optical sensors which use incident light of visible region
(400-800nm) of spectrum and detect and determine the concentration of coloured chemical species
of analyte solutions. The important parts of colorimeter are given below.

Principle: Quantitative analysis by colorimetry is based on Beer-Lambert’s law.

When a beam of monochromatic radiation is passed through a solution of an absorbing
substance. The intensity of incident radiation decreases exponentially with increase in
thickness and concentration of the solution.

log (I0/It) =A= εCl

Io= intensity of the incident light
It = intensity of transmitted light
A= absorbance
ε = molar absorption co-efficient
l = length of light path
C = concentration
The term, log (I0/It) is called the absorbance or optical density of the light absorbing medium. Since
ε is a constant and thickness l is kept constant.
Working:
When analyte solution interacts with an incident light of suitable wavelength, certain quantity of
light is absorbed by the analyte solution, and a transducer such as photo detector converts intensity
of light absorbed by analyte into electrical signal.
A monochromatic light whose wavelength falls in visible region of spectrum is made to pass
through analyte solution where certain quantity of incident light is absorbed and remaining amount
of light is transmitted. Concentration of coloured chemical species in analyte solution is determined
by measuring absorbance or transmittance of light of particular wave length.
Applications of optical sensors:
 Used to detect and measure different types of chemical, biochemical molecules and ions.
Example: Ions in solution (pH, metal ions and anions), gases (CO 2 O2, NH3, SO2, NO2, NO
etc).
 Used in imaging, remote sensing satellite, metrology, medical devices and quality process
control-based applications.
 Breath analyzers: used to detect alcohol consumption.
 Biomedical and healthcare applications (dentistry to measure blood flow in the teeth,
Contactless sanitizer dispensers)
 Industrial and Agricultural applications
 Optical sensors are used in smart phones for adjusting the brightness of the screen, smart
watches to measure the heart beat of the person, as essential parts in devices like Xerox
machines, computers & light fixtures.
 Biometrics applications.

Temperature sensor
It is an instrument designed to detect the level of coolness or hotness of an object which gives
temperature measurement in the readable form via an electrical signal.

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Principle: The sensor is made up of two metals, which generate electrical voltage or resistance once
it notices a change in temperature.
Working: Main component of a thermometric sensor is a small tubular catalytic reactor fitted with a
temperature transducer. Analyte is fed into the reactor where it undergoes reaction, liberating heat
energy. Heat liberated results in change in temperature which is converted to the output voltage by
transducer such as thermocouple, then signal is amplified and fed to the data storage , processing
unit and display.

Applications:
1. Home appliances – kettles, toasters, washing machines, dishwashers and coffee machines
will all contain temperature sensors.
2. Computers and Integrated circuits– within computers or Integrated circuits there are
temperature sensors to ensure the system does not overheat.
3. Medical applications: thermometer to measure the temperature of individuals.
4. Vehicles use temperature sensors within their radiator.
5. Glass manufacturing -relies on temperature measurement for the regulation and
optimization of their production process.
6. Chemical industries -They are required to measure extremely high temperatures to monitor
chemical reactions.

Electrochemical gas sensors:

Gas sensors detect chemicals in the gas phase Operate by reacting with the gas of interest and
producing an electrical signal proportional to the gas concentration. Electrochemical sensors are
used to detect the presence of toxic gases such as H 2S, Cl2, and SO2, and variation of oxygen in the
air.
Similar to other electrochemical sensors, except in this case gases diffuse through a membrane to be
reduced or oxidized at an electrode. Initially; gas passes through a small capillary-type opening and
then diffuses through a hydrophobic barrier, and eventually reaches the electrode surface.
Electrochemical sensors operate by reacting with the analyte and producing an electrical signal.
Most electrochemical gas sensors are amperometric sensors, generating a current that is linearly
proportional to the gas concentration. The current is quantitatively related to the rate of the
electrolytic process at the sensing electrode (also known as working electrode) whose potential
commonly is kept constant using another electrode (the so-called reference electrode).

Working Principle:

 Gas that comes in contact with the sensor first passes through a small capillary-type
opening, filter and then diffuses through a hydrophobic barrier, and finally reaches the
electrode surface. This approach allows the proper amount of gas to react at the sensing
electrode to produce a sufficient electrical signal while preventing the electrolyte from
leaking out of the sensor.
 Adsorption of analyte gas molecule on the surface of sensing electrode.

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 A suitable voltage is applied to the sensing electrode and that makes the sensor specific to
the target gas.
 The analyte gas reacts at the surface of the sensing electrode involving either an oxidation or
reduction mechanism. These reactions are catalyzed by the electrode materials specifically
developed for the analyte gas of interest.
 Current proportional to the gas concentration flows between the anode and the cathode is
measured. Concentration of analyte gas is determined on the basis of current flow.
Electrochemical gas sensors for NOx:
The detection of various gas species with polluting effects as carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide,
nitrogen and sulfur oxide, ozone, in both indoor and outdoor air, is a challenging priority
worldwide, due to their complex and destructive effects on the environment. Even low
concentration values of these species are associated with risks toward human health and generalized
damage to ecosystems. The detection of nitrogen oxide is of crucial importance in the environment
monitoring. Nitrogen oxides, NO and NO2, denoted generally as NOx, are formed during the fuel
burning in stationary sources (energy plants) and in the automotives’ engines, from the elements of
the air, in the harsh conditions (high temperatures, especially in case of Diesel engines).

Working principle: Automotive NOx sensors are primarily of the amperometric type, with two or
three electrochemical cells in adjacent chambers. The development of exhaust gas NOx sensors
started in the 1990s. The detection of nitrogen oxide is of crucial importance in the environment
monitoring. Nitrogen oxides, NO and NO 2, denoted generally as NOx, are formed during the fuel
burning in stationary sources (energy plants) and in the automotives’ engines, from the elements of
the air, in the harsh conditions (high temperatures, especially in case of Diesel engines). The need to
remove O2 allows this type of NOx sensor to serve a dual purpose; it can also detect exhaust
O2 level. Zirconia-based solid electrolyte is used in NOx sensors.

1. In Chamber 1, any oxygen present in the exhaust gas is removed or electrochemically

pumps O2 out of the sample so it does not interfere with the NOx measurement in the second
cell. Au is insensitive to NOx, Pt-Au alloy electrode is used to pump excess oxygen out of
the chamber.
2. In Chamber 1, combustible gases present in the exhaust gas are burned.
3. In Chamber 1, NO2 present in the exhaust gas is replaced with NO.
NO 2 NO + 1/2 O 2
4. In Chamber 2, the NO is decomposed by the reduction catalyst, and the amount of oxygen
generated at the time of decomposition is measures. Pt-Rh alloy electrode can be used to
catalyze the reduction of NOx.
2NO N2 + O 2
Function of NOx sensors
1. Emission reduction
2. Energy efficiency

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3. Environmentally friendly

Analytical Techniques: Introduction

In instrumental analysis, a physical property of a substance is measured to determine its chemical
composition. Instrumental methods of analysis can be classified into two types.

1. Electrical methods
This method of analysis involves the measurement of current, voltage and resistance in relation to
the concentration of a certain species in solution.
Examples: - Conductometry, Potentiometry.

2. Optical methods
This method of analysis involves the measurement of absorption and emission of light by the
substance in solution, which is related to concentration of a certain species in solution.
Examples: - Colorimetry, Flame photometry.

Colorimetric sensors: Estimation of copper

Colorimetric analysis involves measurement of quantity of light absorbed by a colored solution.
Principle: Quantitative analysis by colorimetry is based on Beer-Lambert’s law.

A= εCl
A= absorbance
ε = molar absorption co-efficient
l = length of light path
C = concentration
Light Source – The most common source of light used in colorimeter is a tungsten filament.

Monochromator – To select the particular wavelength filter or monochromators are used to split
the light from the light source.

Fig: Block diagram of photoelectric colorimeter

Sample holder – Test tube or Cuvettes are used to hold the color solutions they are made up of
Glass at the visible wavelength.

Photo Detector System – when light falls on the detector system, an electric current is generated,
this reflects the Galvanometer reading.

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Measuring device (recorder) – The current from the detector is fed to the measuring device, the
Galvanometer, shows the meter reading that is directly proportional to the intensity of light.

Transfer the given copper sulphate solution (stock solution) to a burette and draw out 5, 10,
15, 20 and 25 cm3 of the solution into 50 cm3 volumetric flasks. Add 5 cm3 of ammonia solution to
each of them and dilute up to the mark with ion exchange water. Stopper the flasks and mix. To the
test solution given in a 50 cm3 volumetric flask, add 5 cm3 of ammonia and dilute upto the mark and
mix well. Prepare a blank solution by diluting 5 cm 3 of ammonia solution in a 50 cm 3 volumetric
flask up to the mark with ion exchange water and mix well. Measure the absorbance of the solutions
against blank at 620 nm using photoelectric colorimeter. Draw a calibration curve by plotting
optical density (OD) against volume of copper sulphate (cm 3). Using the calibration curve, find out
the concentration of copper in the test solution and calculate the amount of copper in 50 cm 3 of the
given test solution.
A series of standard solutions containing Cu(II) ions is treated with NH 3 to get dilute solution of the
complex of cuprammonium complex ion
CuSO4 + 4NH3  [Cu(NH3)4]2+ SO42-
Maximum absorbance of these complex ion is 620nm.

The reason for getting a straight line is because it follows, Beers Lamberts Law

CONDUCTOMETRIC TITRATIONS:
Conductometric sensor: Estimation of weak acid

Principle: The electrical conductance depends on the concentration of solution and mobility of
ions.
Analysis based on measurements of conductivity of solution is called conductometric analysis.
The migration of ions is responsible for the conduction of electricity in solutions.
Conductance is defined as the reciprocal of resistance.
C=1/R Where R is resistance
The unit of conductance is ohm-1 or Ω-1. The SI unit is Siemen(S).
Conductivity cells are usually made of quartz, which consist of two electrodes of platinum plates
sealed into glass tubes. The conductivity cell is connected to conductometer.

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Procedure:
The acetic acid is taken in the beaker and immersed conductivity cell into it and NaOH in the
burette. The conductance of the acid will be low because of its poor dissociation. On adding, the
NaOH, highly ionized sodium acetate is formed and hence the conductance begins to increase.
When the acid is completely neutralized, further addition of NaOH introduces excess of fast moving
OH – ions. The conductance of the solution begins to increase sharply. The intersection extrapolated
to X-axis gives the volume of NaOH consumed by acetic acid for neutralization.

NaOH(aq) + CH3COOH(aq) → CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(aq)

Calculation
V1N1 (CH3COOH) =V2N2 (NaOH)
Strength of acetic acid N1 =V2N2/ V1 = a N
Weight of acetic acid = Strength of acetic acid x equivalent weight of acetic acid (60)
= a x 60 = b g/litre.

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Result: The weight of acetic acid present in the given solution is = b g/litre.

Potentiometric titrations
Potentiometric sensors: Estimation of iron

Principle: The potential of an electrode depends on the concentration of the solution.

Potentiometric titrations involve in measurement of electrode potentials with addition of titrant.

The electrode potential is given by Nernst equation

E=E0 + (2.303RT/nF) log[Mn+]

The potentiometric titration requires the selection of the appropriate indicator electrode and
reference electrode is usually a platinum and saturated calomel electrode, respectively.

Fig. Potentiometric titration assembly

Take 25 cm3 of the given FAS solution into a clean beaker and add 2 test tubes of dil. H 2SO4.
Immerse platinum electrode and saturated calomel electrode assembly, connect to a potentiometer
and note down the potential value in milli volts (mV). Fill a micro burette with the given standard
K2Cr2O7 solution. Add K2Cr2O7 solution in increments of 0.5 cm3 to FAS solution in the beaker. Stir
the solution thoroughly and measure the emf after each addition. When the reaction reaches the
equivalence point, there is a maximum increase in the emf value. After the equivalence point, there
will be slight increase in emf on continued addition of K 2Cr2O7. Graph of E/ V against volume of
K2Cr2O7 is plotted. From the graph, volume of K2Cr2O7 at equivalence point is found out.
H+
2+ 6+
3Fe + Cr → 3Fe3+ + Cr3+
At the equivalence point, there will be sudden jump So the increase in the value of Fe 3+/Fe2+ and
change in the electrode from Pt/ Fe3+, Fe2+ (0.77V) to Pt/Cr6+, Cr3+ (1.33V), there is a huge change in
potential at the end point.
E= E° +0.0591 log [ Fe2+]/[Fe3+]
The ∆E/∆V plotted against the volume of K 2Cr2O7 added, the end point where the slope of curve is
maximum.

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Calculation
Normality of K2Cr2O7 = N (will be given) ----- (b)
Normality of FAS = Normality of K2Cr2O7 × Volume of K2Cr2O7 (from graph)/Volume of FAS
N= b×a/ 25 = ------N (z)
Weight of FAS /dm3 = Normality of FAS × Equivalent weight of FAS (392.24)
= z × 392 g = ----------g/litre (w)
Result: Weight of FAS in given solution = ---------------g/litre

Energy Systems
Energy Conversion Devices
Energy conversion is the transformation of one form of energy into another form. More specifically,
the term energy conversion refers to the process through which energy is changed into forms that
are useful to humans.
For hundreds of years, humans have used an array of devices and systems for this purpose. A
familiar example is the early windmill, which transformed the kinetic (moving) energy of wind into
mechanical energy to pump water or grind grain. A modern and more complex extension of this is
the wind turbine, which is part of a system that converts wind energy into mechanical or electrical
energy through a series of intermediate steps.

Battery: A Battery is a combination of two or more cells arranged in series or parallel. A battery is
a device capable of converting the chemical energy, contained in the active materials that compose
it, into electric energy by electrochemical redox reactions

Classification of batteries
1. Primary batteries
1. In primary batteries, the chemical energy is converted into electrical energy as long as the
chemical components are active.
2. These batteries the reaction occurs only once and after that they must be discarded.

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3. These batteries cannot be recharged as the chemical reactions which occur within the
primary batteries are irreversible.
Examples: Zn- air battery, Dry cell, Li- MnO2

2. Secondary batteries
1. Secondary batteries are those which after discharging can be recharged.
2. These batteries chemical reactions taking place are reversible
3. The redox reaction which converts chemical energy into electrical energy can be reversed by
passage of current.
4. The electric energy is stored in the form of chemical energy these batteries are also known a
storage cell.
Example: Lead storage battery, Nickel-cadmium battery, Nickel-metal hydride battery and Lithium-
ion battery.
3. Reserve Batteries
1. These batteries one of the components is isolated and incorporated into the battery when
required.
2. The electrolyte is the component that is isolated, but some water activated batteries contain the
electrolyte solute and water is added for activation.
3. They are used to deliver high power for relatively short periods of time in application such as
radiosondes (air borne instruments to send to meteorological information back to earth by radio).
Examples: Mg batteries activated by water (Mg-AgCl, Mg-CuCl), Zn-Ag2O batteries etc

Components of battery
Typical household battery: container, cathode, separator, anode, electrodes, electrolyte, and
collector.

Fig: Components of battery

Na-ion battery
Sodium-ion batteries are a potential alternative to lithium-based battery technologies, largely due to
sodium's lower cost and greater availability. Na-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery that

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uses sodium ions (Na+) as its charge carriers. Its working principle and cell construction are almost
identical with those of lithium-ion battery types, but replace lithium with sodium.

Construction

Anode: carbon (C6) anode

Cathode: layered transition metal oxide, NaMO2,
Electrolyte: Sodium hexafluorophosphate is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula
Na[PF6].
Separator: poly olefin/polypropylene.

Working
1. During discharging sodium atoms present in the carbon anode undergo oxidation, liberating
Na ions and electrons. Na ions migrate from anode to cathode through electrolyte through
the separator which selectively allows only the Na ion to pass through and block the flow of
electrons inside battery.
2. At cathode, Na ions are reduced to sodium metal and are inserted in to the structures of
metal oxide.
3. During charging of the battery, sodium metal present in the structure of metal oxide get
oxidized liberating Na ions and electrons. The liberated Na ion moves through the separator
towards the carbon electrode (anode).
4. At the anode, Na ions get reduced to sodium metal and gets inserted into the layered
structure of carbon.

Fig: Na-ion battery

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Sodium-ion batteries have several advantages over competing battery technologies. Compared to
lithium-ion batteries, sodium-ion batteries have somewhat lower cost, slightly lower energy density,
better safety characteristics, and similar power delivery characteristics.
Application of sodium ion battery:
1. Sodium-ion batteries have shown great promise for large scale storage of renewable energy.
2. Sodium-ion batteries are cheaper and last longer than cell currently used in gadgets.
3. These factors price, abundance and size, make sodium-ion batteries particularly interesting
for large scale grid storage application.
Advantages of sodium ion battery
1. Rechargeable sodium ion for energy storage.
2. Easier to recycle
3. Low market prices
4. Capable of working at room temperature, good efficiency.
Disadvantages of sodium ion battery.
1. Large ionic size Na+ which require more power to keep energy flowing.
2. It takes seven days to charge in case you forget to charge it.
3. Lower operating voltage.

Li-ion Battery
Construction
It consists of a lithium metal oxide for the positive electrode and lithiated carbon for the negative
electrode. These materials are adhered to a metal foil current collector with a binder, typically
polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) or the copolymer polyvinylidene fluoride hexafluroropropylene
(PVDF-HFP), and a conductive diluent, graphite. The positive and negative electrodes are
electrically isolated by a microporous polyolefine/polypropylene separator. A solution of LiPF 6 in
organic solvent like dimethyl carbonate and ethylene carbonate acts as electrolyte.
Components:
Anode (-ve electrode): Lithiated carbon
Cathode (+ve electrode): Lithiated metal oxide LiMO2 (M=Co, Mn, Ni)
Electrolyte: LiPF6 in dimethyl carbonate and ethylene carbonate.
Separator: poly olefin/polypropylene.
Working

1. The anode and cathode store the lithium. During discharging Li atoms present in the

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graphite layer are oxidized, liberating Li ions and electrons. Li ions migrate from anode to
cathode through electrolyte through the separator which selectively allows only the Li ion to
pass through and block the flow of electrons inside battery.
2. At cathode, Li ions are reduced to Li atoms and are inserted in to the structures of metal
oxide.
3. During charging of the battery, Li atoms present in the structure of metal oxide get oxidized
liberating Li ions and electrons. The liberated Li ion moves through the separator towards
the graphite carbonate electrode (anode).
4. At the graphite electrode, Li ions get reduced to Li atoms and gets inserted into the layered
structure of graphite.

Fig: Li-ion battery

Applications:
It is used in cell phones, laptops, automobiles, defense and aerospace applications.
Li-ion battery has more advantages than traditional rechargeable battery:
i) High voltage: Lithium batteries have voltages up to about 4 V, depending on the cathode
material,
ii) highly stable
iii) wide operating temperature (ie. from -40oC to +70oC)
iv) Flat discharge Characteristics

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v) High specific energy and energy density.

FUEL CELLS
Introduction:
1. The electrochemical conversion of the free energy change of redox reaction into electrical
energy is working principle of any type of cell.
2. The electrode reaction of primary batteries is irreversible and the cell produces EMF as long
as the active materials are present in the cell.
3. Secondary batteries are reversible. It can be changed to give EMF.
4. A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell which can convert the chemical energy contained in a
fuel-oxidant system into electrical energy by an electrochemical process.
5. Fuels cell consists of fuel an oxidant and electrolyte and two electrodes. The reactions that
produce electricity take place at the electrodes. The fuel and the oxidant are supplied
continuously.
Definitions:
A fuel cell is defined as galvanic cell in which the electrical energy is directly derived by the
combustion of chemical fuels supplied continuously. It is a device that oxidizes as fuel.
(Hydrogen, natural gas, Methanol, gasoline etc.) and an oxidant (oxygen) into electricity.
Fuel cell advantages
1. They offer high energy conversions
2. They produce energy as long as fuel and oxidant are supplied.
3. Silent operation.
4. They are eco-friendly as the product of the overall reactions are non-toxic
5. No need of charging.
Fuel cells limitation/ disadvantages
1. The electrodes used are Pt, Ag, or the alloys noble metals which are costly.
2. Fuels and oxidant need to be stored in tanks under high pressure.
3. Power output by a single unit is moderate.
4. These are only energy conversion devices and not energy storage devices.

Difference between conventional battery and a fuel cell

Conventional Batteries Fuel cells

1.Batteries store electrical energy in the form of 1. Fuel cell produce electricity on the spot
chemical energy and supplies it whenever
required
2.Secondary batteries need charging 2. Fuel cells do not need charging. They are not
chargeable in conventional manner.
3.The reactants and products from an internal 3. Reactants are continuously supplied and the
part of batteries products are constantly removed.
4. The products are removed continuously 4. The products are continuously removed from
the cell

Methanol-oxygen fuel cell

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Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC) is a fuel cell that runs directly on methanol (or various liquid
fuels) without having to first convert those fuels into hydrogen gas.
Methanol is preferred as a fuel because it is one of the most electro active organic fuels in low
temperature range due to the following reasons.
1. It has low carbon content
2. It possesses a readily oxidizable – OH group.
3. It has high solubility in aqueous solution.
Components: Electrode: Pt
Fuel: CH3OH (Methanol)
Oxidant: Oxygen
Electrolyte: 3.47 M H2SO4
Separator: proton exchange membrane (PEM)- Nafion
Construction
1. Methanol is a Fuel and O2 is act as Oxidant.
2. Both Anode & Cathode is porous Nickel sheet coated with electro catalyst.
3. Pt-Pd catalyst is deposited on anode and Ag is coated on cathode.
4. Methanol mixed with Water is passed through Anode chamber.
5. Pure Oxygen is passed through Cathode chamber.
6. To prevent the diffusion of Anode reactant Methanol into cathode chamber, a Proton
conducting membrane is placed near Cathode.
7. The PEM only allows Proton’s [H+] to Cathode.

Working
Reactions
Anode reaction -: CH3OH + H2O→ CO2 + 6H+ + 6e- E0 =0.02V
Cathode reaction -: 3/2O2 + 6H+ + 6e- → 3H2O E0 =1.23V
______________________________________________________________________
Overall reaction -: CH3OH + 3/2O2 → CO2 + 3H2O E0 =1.21V

At anode, the methanol is oxidized into carbon dioxide and six protons (as hydronium ions) plus six
electrons. The six protons formed react at the cathode with oxygen to form water. The overall
reaction looks like a combustion reaction and is thus sometimes referred to as cold combustion.
Actually the cell is a mean to control this reaction and use it to produce current directly. The
standard cell voltage for a DMFC at 25ºC is 1.21V. However, this potential is never obtained in
reality. The open circuit potential is usually about 0.6 to 0.8V.

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Fig: Methanol-oxygen fuel cell

Applications
1. Using a liquid fuel for power.
2. The cells find application in military and large-scale power production.
3. A simpler system design, with the potential for low-volume, lightweight packaging.
4. Eliminating the requirement for fuel reforming and/or onboard hydrogen storage.
5. Classification as a zero-emission power system.

Questions.
1. Explain the experimental determination of copper using colorimetery experiment
2. Give an account of principle of colorimeter
3. Briefly explain what is potentiometric titration? and its principle.
4. Explain in detail about the estimation of iron by potentiometric method
5. What is the principle and application of conductometric titration?
6. Explain in detail about the working and how to estimate strength of week acid with a strong base
by conductometeric experiment?

MCQs

1. Name the complex prepared from copper sulphate and ammonia

a. Cuprammonium sulphate b. Ammonium sulphate c. Ammonium hydroxide d. All of these
2. The amount of light absorbed is directly proportional to the concentration of the solute in the
solution is
a) Lambert’s Law b) Beer’s law c) Beer-Lambert’s law d) none of the above
3. The colorimeter is commonly used for the determination of the concentration of a colored
compound by measuring its
a) absorbance b) reflectance c) potential d) all the above
4. The reference electrode used in potentiometer is ______
a) Standard hydrogen electrode b) Sat. calomel electrode
c) Standard silver electrode d) all the above

4. In conductivity cell the electrodes present is/ are

a) Pt b) Pd c) Ag d) calomel

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 Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering
Department of Chemistry

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