BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY

CHAPTER NO 11: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

NOTE:
SECTION A: GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
OF HORMONES AND HORMONAL CONTROL Endocrine systems of the body differs because some
SYSTEM organs are not anatomically connected but they form a
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: the body’s SECOND great system in the functional sense; the organ also
contain cells that secrete hormones (aside from
controlling system which influences metabolic
carrying out their functions)
activities of cells by means of hormones
11.1 HORMONES AND ENDOCRINE GLANDS Example, hypothalamus is in the brain (and yes
nervous system) but it's also part of the endocrine
ENDOCRINE GLANDS EXOCRINE GLANDS system because of its capability to release hormones

ductless, release secrete their products 11.2 HORMONE STRUCTURES AND SYNTHESIS
hormones into the into a duct, from where ● HORMONES:
blood the secretions either exit 1 act on distant target cells
the body or enter the 2 target cells respond to hormones for which they
PURELY ENDOCRINE lumen of another organ have receptors
ORGANS:
3 serves as molecular triggers
● pituitary gland
● pineal gland THREE MAJOR STRUCTURAL CLASSES
● thyroid gland 1 AMINES (modified amino acids)
● parathyroid 2 PEPTIDES (short chains of amino acids) and
gland PROTEINS (long chains of amino acids)
● Adrenal: 2 3 STEROIDS (lipid molecules derived from
glands; Cortex cholesterol)
and Medulla
ENDOCRINE CELLS IN AMINE HORMONES
OTHER ORGANS: ● derivatives of the amino acid TYROSINE
● pancreas ● include the:
● thymus
1 THYROID HORMONES
● gonads
● produced by the thyroid gland
● hypothalamus
2 CATECHOLAMINES: EPINEPHRINE AND
NOREPINEPHRINE
● produced by the adrenal medulla
o modified sympathetic ganglion whose
cell bodies do not have axons
o cretes approximately four times more
epinephrine than norepinephrine (in
humans)
o adrenal medulla expresses high
amounts of an enzyme called
phenylethanolamineN-methyltransfer
ase (PNMT), which catalyzes the
reaction that converts norepinephrine to
epinephrine
3 DOPAMINE
● produced by the hypothalamus
● released into a special circulatory system
called a PORTAL SYSTEM

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 BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 11: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
ocarries the hormone to the ●derived from CHOLESTEROL
pituitary gland; acts to inhibit the ○ which is either taken up from the
activity of certain endocrine cells extracellular fluid by the cells or
● There are TWO ADRENAL GLANDS; one synthesized by intracellular
above each kidney enzymes
o each adrenal gland is composed of: HORMONES OF THE ADRENAL CORTEX
▪ an inner ADRENAL
MEDULLA (secretes ADRENAL CORTEX LAYERS:
catecholamines) 1 ZONA GLOMERULOSA
▪ surrounding ADRENAL ● outer layer
CORTEX (secretes steroid ● express the enzymes required to
hormones) synthesize corticosterone and convert
PEPTIDE AND PROTEIN HORMONES it to aldosterone
● MOST HORMONES are polypeptides ● DO NOT EXPRESS the genes that
code for the enzymes required for the
PEPTIDES PROTEINS formation of cortisol and androgens
● basically, this layer synthesizes and
short polypeptides with a longer polypeptides with secretes aldosterone but not the other
known function tertiary structure and a major adrenocortical hormones
known function 2 ZONA FASCICULATA
● PEPTIDE HORMONES: initially synthesized ● secrete no aldosterone BUT do secrete
on the ribosomes of endocrine cells as larger CORTISOL AND ANDROGENS
molecules known as PRE- ● primarily produces cortisol in humans
PROHORMONES 3 ZONA RETICULARIS
○ then cleaved to PROHORMONES ● secrete no aldosterone BUT do secrete
by proteolytic enzymes in the rough CORTISOL AND ANDROGENS (yes
same with fasciculata)
REM
● primarily produces androgens in
○ prohormone is packaged into
humans
secretory vesicles by golgi
apparatus
● POST-TRANSLATIONAL PROCESSING:
prohormone is cleaved to yield the active
hormone and other peptide chains found in
the prohormone
NOTE:
So basically, its SPSS:
Synthesis: from preprohormone to prohormone
Packaging: prohormone to hormone
Storage: as hormone
Secretion: hormones secreted (and any pro
fragments)

STEROID HORMONES
● primarily produced by the adrenal cortex and
the gonads (testes and ovaries), as well as
the placenta during pregnancy
● VITAMIN D is enzymatically converted in the
body to an active steroid hormones

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BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 11: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
FIVE MAJOR HORMONES SECRETED BY THE HORMONES OF THE GONADS
ADRENAL CORTEX: ● endocrine cells in both the testes and the
1 ALDOSTERONE ovaries do not express the enzymes
● known as mineralocorticoid because required to produce aldosterone and
of the effects are on the salt balance, cortisol
mainly on the kidney’s handling of ● the endocrine cells in the testes express
sodium, potassium, and hydrogen large amounts of an enzyme that
ions converts androstenedione to
● production under the control of another testosterone, which is the major androgen
hormone called ANGIOTENSIN II secreted by the testes
○ binds to plasma membrane
● The ovarian endocrine cells synthesize
receptors in the adrenal
cortex to activate the inositol female sex hormones– collectively known
triphosphate as ESTROGENS (primarily estradiol and
second-messenger pathway estrone)
● enters the circulation and acts on cells ● ESTRADIOL: predominant estrogen present
of the kidneys to stimulate Na+ and during a woman’s lifetime; major steroid
H2O retention, and K+ and H+ hormone secreted by the ovaries
excretion in the urine ● PROGESTERONE: the result from secretion
of endocrine cells of the corpus luteum;
2 &3 CORTISOL, CORTICOSTERONE important for maintaining a pregnancy
● GLUCOCORTICOIDS (less functional
steroid corticosterone)
● they have important effects on the
metabolism of glucose and organic
nutrients
● predominant glucocorticoid in humans
● effects on facilitation of the body's
responses to stress and regulation of
the immune system
4&5 DEHYDROEPIANDROSTERONE (DHEA),
ANDROSTENEDIONE
● belong to the class of steroid
hormones known as ANDROGENS
● includes the major male sex steroid 11.3 HORMONES TRANSPORT IN THE BLOOD
TESTOSTERONE ● Most peptide and all catecholamine
● have functions in the adult female and hormones are water-soluble
in both sexes in the fetus and at ● steroid hormones and thyroid hormones are
puberty poorly soluble; consequently, they circulate
in the blood largely bound to plasma protein
● even though the steroid and thyroid
hormones exist in plasma mainly bound to
large proteins, small concentrations of
these hormones do exist dissolved in the
plasma
○ The dissolved, or free, hormone is
in equilibrium with the bound
hormone

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 BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 11: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
● The total hormone concentration in ● response to a hormone is highly specific,
plasma is the sum of the free and bound involves only the target cells for that
hormones hormone
11.4 HORMONE METABOLISM AND EXCRETION RECEPTORS FOR WATER RECEPTORS FOR
● Once a hormone has been synthesized and SOLUBLE CM LIPID-SOLUBLE CM
secreted into the blood, has acted on a (e.g., peptide hormones, (e.g., steroid and thyroid
target tissue, and its increased activity is no catecholamine) hormones)
longer required, the concentration of the
hormone in the blood usually returns to proteins located IN THE proteins located MAINLY
PLASMA MEMBRANES INSIDE THE TARGET
normal OF THE TARGET CELLS CELLS
○ prevent excessive, possibly
harmful effects from the prolonged ● Target cell activation depends on three
exposure of target cells to factors:
hormones 1 blood levels of the hormone
● A hormone’s concentration in the plasma 2 relative number of receptors on the target cells
depends upon: 3 the affinity of those receptors for the hormone
○ rate of secretion by the endocrine
gland
UP-REGULATION DOWN-REGULATION
○ its rate of removal from the blood
(up= increase) (down= decrease)
● REMOVAL/CLEARANCE: occurs either by
excretion or by metabolic transformation increase in the number decrease in receptor
○ LIVER AND KIDNEY: major organs of a hormone’s receptors number, often from
that metabolize or excrete in a cell, often resulting exposure to high
hormones (but not the only route) from a prolonged concentration of the
● The peptide hormones and catecholamines exposure to a low hormone
are rapidly removed from the blood, concentration of the
whereas the steroid and thyroid hormones hormone
are removed more slowly, mainly because
they circulate bound to plasma proteins effect of increasing temporarily decreases
target-cell target-cell
● After their secretion, some hormones are
responsiveness to the responsiveness to the
metabolized to more active molecules in
hormone hormone, preventing
their target cells or other organs overstimulation
11.5 MECHANISMS OF HORMONE ACTIONS
● Hormones alter target cell activity by one of ● In some cases, hormones can down-regulate
two mechanisms or up-regulate not only their own receptors
○ Second messengers involving: but the receptors for other hormones as well
Regulatory G proteins and amino ● PERMISSIVENESS: hormone may induce
acid-based hormones an increase in number of receptors for a
○ Direct gene activation involving second hormone
steroid hormones ○ hormone A must be present in
● The precise response depends on the type order for hormone B to exert its full
of the target cell effect
HORMONE RECEPTOR ○ A low concentration of hormone A
● because hormones are transported in the is usually all that is needed for this
blood, they can reach all tissues permissive effect, which may be
due to A’s ability to up-regulate B’s
receptor

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 BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 11: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
● Hormones produce one or more of the 11.6 INPUTS THAT CONTROL HORMONE
following cellular changes in target cells: SECRETION
1 after plasma membrane permeability ● Hormone secretion is mainly under the
2 stimulate protein synthesis control of three types of inputs to
endocrine cells:
3 activate or deactivate enzyme systems
1 changes in the plasma concentrations of mineral
4 stimulate mitosis ions or organic nutrients
5 induce secretory activity 2 neurotransmitters released from neurons ending
on the endocrine cell
THREE TYPES OF HORMONE INTERACTION 3 another hormone (or in some cases, a paracrine
1 PERMISSIVENESS substance) acting on the endocrine cell
● one hormone cannot exert its effects
without another hormone being present
2 SYNERGISM
● more than one hormone produces the
same effects on a target cell
3 ANTAGONISM
● one or more hormones opposes the ● REMEMBER: MORE THAN ONE INPUT
action of another hormone may influence hormone secretion
● term SECRETION applied to a hormone
EVENTS ELICITED BY HORMONE-RECEPTOR denotes its release by exocytosis from the
BINDING cell
● Receptors activated by peptide hormones ○ hormones such as steroid
and catecholamines utilize one or more of hormones are not secreted, per se,
the signal transduction pathways linked but instead diffuse through the cell’s
to plasma membrane receptors; the result plasma membrane into the
is altered membrane potential or protein extracellular space.
activity in the cell. ○ secretion or release by diffusion is
● Intracellular receptors activated by steroid sometimes accompanied by
and thyroid hormones typically function as increased synthesis of the
transcription factors; the result is hormone
increased synthesis of specific proteins CONTROL BY PLASMA CONCENTRATIONS OF
PHARMACOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF HORMONES MINERAL OR ORGANIC NUTRIENTS
● These pharmacological effects can also ● The secretion of several hormones is directly
occur in diseases involving the secretion of controlled—at least in part—by the plasma
excessive amounts of hormones concentrations of specific mineral ions or
● In pharmacological doses, hormones can organic nutrients
have effects not seen under ordinary ● A major function of the hormone is to
circumstances, some of which may be regulate through negative feedback the
deleterious plasma concentration of the ion or nutrient
controlling its secretion
CONTROL BY NEURONS
● Neural input from the autonomic nervous
system controls the secretion of many
hormones
● Neuron endings from the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous systems
terminate directly on cells within some

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 BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 11: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
endocrine glands, thereby regulating 3 HYPORESPONSIVENESS (decreased
hormone secretion responsiveness of the target cells to hormone)
CONTROL BY OTHER HORMONES ● hormone resistance
● TROPIC HORMONE: hormone that ● target cells do not respond normally to
stimulates the secretion of another hormone the hormone
○ usually stimulate not only by ● can result from deficiency or loss of
secretion but also the growth of the function of receptors for the hormone
stimulated gland 4 HYPERRESPONSIVENESS (increased
11.7 TYPES OF ENDOCRINE DISORDERS responsiveness to target cells to hormone)
● hypersecretion of thyroid hormone
causes, in turn, a hyperresponsiveness
1 HYPOSECRETION (too little hormone) of target cells to epinephrine.
● One result of this is the increased heart
PRIMARY HYPOSECRETION: endocrine gland rate typical of people with increased
may be secreting too little hormone because the plasma concentrations of thyroid
gland is not functioning normally hormone.
● partial destruction of a gland, leading to
decreased hormone secretion
● an enzyme deficiency resulting in SECTION B: HYPOTHALAMUS AND
decreased synthesis of the hormone PITUITARY GLAND
● dietary deficiency of IODINE, ● The nervous system modifies the stimulation
specifically leading to decreased of endocrine glands and their feedback
secretion of thyroid hormones mechanisms
● The nervous system can override normal
SECONDARY HYPOSECRETION: endocrine endocrine controls
gland is not damaged (at least at first) but is 11.8 CONTROL SYSTEMS INVOLVING THE
receiving too little stimulation by its tropic HYPOTHALAMUS AND PITUITARY GLAND
hormone PITUITARY GLAND:
● tropic hormone was being synthesized ● also known as hypophysis
and released at an abnormally low rate ● lies in a pocket (called the sella turcica) of
the sphenoid bone at the base of the brain
To distinguish between primary and secondary just below the hypothalamus
hyposecretion: one measures the ● connected to the hypothalamus by the
concentration of the tropic hormone in the
INFUNDIBULUM
blood.
● If increased, the cause is primary; ○ pituitary stalk
● if not increased or lower than ○ containing axons from neurons in
normal, the cause is secondary. they hypothalamus and small blood
2 HYPERSECRETION (too much hormone) vessels
● primarily composed of TWO ADJACENT
PRIMARY HYPERSECRETION: the gland is LOBES
secreting too much of the hormone on its own
ANTERIOR LOBE POSTERIOR LOBE
SECONDARY HYPERSECRETION: excessive
stimulation of the gland by its tropic hormone
● anterior pituitary gland ● posterior pituitary
● adenohypophysis ● neurohypophysis
CAUSE: presence of hormone-secreting,
● arises embryologically ● not actually a gland; but
endocrine-cell tumor
from an INVAGINATION an extension of the
● tend to produce hormones continually
OF PHARYNX called neural components of
at a high rate w/ or w/o negative
RATHKE’S POUCH the hypothalamus
feedback

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 BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 11: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
● MEDIAN EMINENCE: junction of the ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND HORMONES AND
hypothalamus and the infundibulum THE HYPOTHALAMUS
○ Capillaries in the median eminence ● The hypothalamic hormones that regulate
recombine to form anterior pituitary gland function are
HYPOTHALAMO-HYPOPHYSEAL collectively termed HYPOPHYSIOTROPIC
PORTAL VESSELS (portal veins) HORMONES
POSTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES ○ commonly called hypothalamic
● The hormones are synthesized not in the releasing or inhibiting hormones
posterior pituitary itself but in the ● each of the hypophysiotropic hormones is
hypothalamus—specifically, in the cell the first in a three-hormone sequence
bodies of the supraoptic and ○ A hypophysiotropic hormone
paraventricular nuclei, whose axons pass controls the secretion of
down the infundibulum and terminate in the ○ an anterior pituitary gland hormone,
posterior pituitary which controls the secretion of
● TWO POSTERIOR PITUITARY ○ a hormone from some other
HORMONES endocrine gland
● the hypothalamus sends a chemical stimulus
to the anterior pituitary
OXYTOCIN VASOPRESSIN
○ releasing hormones stimulate the
strong stimulant of acts on smooth muscle synthesis and release of hormones
uterine contraction cells around blood ○ inhibiting hormones shut off
vessels to cause their synthesis and release of hormones
regulated by a positive contraction, which ● The anterior pituitary gland secretes at least
feedback mechanism to constricts the blood six hormones that have well-established
oxytocin in the blood vessels and thereby functions in humans
increases blood 1 THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE (TSH)
leads to increased pressure ● also known as thyrotropin
intensity of uterine ● tropic hormone that stimulates the normal
contractions, ending in acts within the kidneys development and secretory activity of the
birth to decrease water thyroid gland
excretion in the urine, ● triggered by the hypothalamic peptide
synthetic and natural thereby retaining fluid in THYROTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE
oxytocic drugs are used the body to maintain (TRH)
to induce or hasten blood volume ● rising blood levels of thyroid hormones
labor acts on the pituitary and hypothalamus to
also known as block the release of TSH
ANTIDIURETIC 2 ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE (ACTH)
HORMONE (ADH) ● also known as corticotropin
● ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH): helps to ● stimulates the adrenal cortex to release
avoid dehydration corticosteroids
○ with high solutes, ADH is ● triggered by the hypothalamic
synthesized and released, thus corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) in
a daily rhythm
preserving water
● Internal and external factors such as fever,
○ with low solutes, ADH is not
hypoglycemia, and stressors can trigger
released, thus causing water loss the release of CRH
from the body 3 FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH)
○ alcohol inhibits ADH release and
4 LUTEINIZING HORMONE (LH)
causes copious urine output

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BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 11: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
5 PROLACTIN known as INSULIN-LIKE GROWTH
● In females, STIMULATES MILK FACTOR 1 (IGF-1)
PRODUCTION by the breasts ● The secretion of each hypophysiotropic
● blood levels rise toward the end of the hormone is controlled by neuronal and
pregnancy hormonal input to the hypothalamic neurons
● suckling stimulates PRH release and producing it
encourages continued milk production
6 GROWTH HORMONE (GH) LONG-LOOP SHORT-LOOP
● also known as somatropin NEGATIVE NEGATIVE
FEEDBACK FEEDBACK

hormone secreted by The influence of an

the third endocrine anterior pituitary
gland in a sequence gland hormone on the
exerts a negative hypothalamus
feedback effect over
the anterior pituitary
gland and/ or
● GH, TSH, PROLACTIN, AND ACTH is hypothalamus
secreted by a distinct cell type in the anterior ● Hormones not in a particular sequence can
pituitary gland also influence secretion of the hypothalamic
and/or anterior pituitary gland hormones in
FSH AND LH– collectively termed GONADOTROPIC that sequence
HORMONES/ GONADOTROPINS because they SECTION C: THE THYROID GLAND
stimulate the gonads, are often secreted by the ● largest endocrine gland located in the
same cells anterior neck and consists of two lateral
● In females: lobes connected by a median tissue mass
○ LH works with FSH to cause called ISTHMUS
maturation of the ovarian follicle ● composed of follicles that produce the
○ LH works alone to trigger ovulation glycoprotein THYROGLOBULIN
(expulsion of the egg from the ○ each composed of an enclosed
follicle) sphere of epithelial cells
○ LH promotes synthesis and release surrounding a core containing a
of estrogens and progesterone protein-rich material called the
● In males: COLLOID
○ LH stimulates the interstitial cells of ● COLLOID: feels the lumen of the follicles;
the testes to produce testosterone precursor of thyroid hormone
○ LH is also referred to as ● PENDRIN: sodium-independent
INTERSTITIAL chloride/iodide transport
CELL-STIMULATING HORMONE SYNTHESIS OF THYROID HORMONE
(ICSH) ● THYROID HORMONE: the body’s major
● BETA-LIPOTROPIN AND metabolic hormone
BETA-ENDORPHIN– peptides; both ● Consists of two closely related
derived from the same prohormone as iodine-containing compounds
ACTH, but their physiological roles in 1 T4
humans are unclear ● THYROXINE
● Growth hormone stimulates the liver to ● has two tyrosine molecules plus four
secrete a growth promoting peptide hormone bound iodine atoms

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 BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 11: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
2 T3
● TRIIODOTHYRONINE EFFECTS OF THYROID HORMONE
● has two tyrosines with three bound
iodine atoms
TH IS CONCERNED WITH TH PLAYS A ROLE IN
●T3 and T4 are synthesized by sequential ● glucose oxidation ● maintaining blood
iodination of thyroglobulin in the thyroid ● increasing pressure
follicle lumen, or colloid. metabolic rate ● regulating tissue
● Iodinated tyrosines on thyroglobulin are ● heat production growth
coupled to produce either T3 or T4. Whereas ● developing skeletal
T4 is the main secretory product of the and nervous
thyroid gland, T3 (produced from T4 in target systems
tissue) is the active hormone. ● maturation and
● The enzyme responsible for T3 and T4 reproductive
synthesis is THYROID PEROXIDASE capabilities
CONTROL OF THYROID FUNCTION
● All of the synthetic steps involved in T3 and SECTION D: THE ENDOCRINE RESPONSE TO
T4 synthesis are stimulated by TSH. TSH STRESS
also stimulates uptake of iodide, where it is
trapped in the follicle. PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF CORTISOL
● TSH causes growth (hypertrophy) of thyroid ● cortisol is always produced by the adrenal
tissue. Excessive exposure of the thyroid cortex and exerts many important actions
gland to TSH can cause GOITER even in non stress situations
ACTIONS OF THYROID HORMONE ● Cortisol is released from the adrenal cortex
● T3 increases the metabolic rate and upon stimulation with ACTH.
therefore promotes consumption of calories ○ ACTH, in turn, is stimulated by the
(calorigenic effect). This results in heat release of corticotropin-releasing
production. hormone (CRH) from the
● The actions of the sympathetic nervous hypothalamus.
system are potentiated by T3. This is called PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF CORTISOL:
the permissive action of T3. 1 maintain the responsiveness of target cells to
● Thyroid hormone is essential for normal epinephrine and norepinephrine
growth and development—particularly of the 2 provide a check on the immune system
nervous system—during fetal life and 3 participate in energy homeostasis
childhood 4 promote normal differentiation of tissues
during fetal life
HYPOTHYROIDISM HYPERTHYROIDISM
ADRENAL GLANDS: paired,
●
most commonly results from typically the result of an pyramid-shaped organs atop the kidneys
autoimmune attack of the autoimmune disorder. ○ structurally and functionally, they
thyroid gland. It is characterized by are two glands in one
It is characterized by weight weight loss, heat ○ ADRENAL MEDULLA: nervous
gain, fatigue, cold intolerance, intolerance, irritability tissue that acts as a part of the SNS
and changes in skin tone and and anxiety, and often
○ ADRENAL CORTEX: glandular
cognition. It may also result in goiter.
tissue derived from embryonic
goiter.
mesoderm
FUNCTIONS OF CORTISOL IN STRESS

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 BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 11: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
● A stimulus that activates the
cortisol in the blood.
CRH-ACTH-cortisol pathway is stress, which
encompasses a wide array of sensory and ●Cushing’s syndrome is associated with
physical inputs that disrupt, or potentially hypertension, high blood sugar, redistribution
disrupt, homeostasis. of body fat, obesity, and muscle and bone
● In response to stress, the usual physiological weakness.
functions of cortisol are enhanced as cortisol ○ If untreated, it can also lead to
concentrations in the plasma increase. immunosuppression.
○ Thus, gluconeogenesis, lipolysis, OTHER HORMONES RELEASED DURING
and inhibition of insulin actions STRESS
increase. ● Beta-endorphin is coreleased with ACTH
○ This results in increased blood and may act to reduce pain.
concentrations of energy sources ● Vasopressin stimulates ACTH secretion and
(glucose, fatty acids) required to also acts on the kidney to increase water
cope with stressful situations. retention.
● High cortisol concentrations also inhibit ○ Other hormones that are increased
“nonessential” processes, such as in the blood by stress are
reproduction, during stressful situations and aldosterone, growth hormone, and
inhibit immune function glucagon. Insulin secretion, by
ADRENAL INSUFFICIENCY AND CUSHING’S contrast, decreases during stress.
SYNDROME ● Epinephrine is secreted from the adrenal
● ADRENAL INSUFFICIENCY: general term medulla in response to stimulation from the
for any situation in which plasma sympathetic nervous system.
concentrations of cortisol are chronically ○ The norepinephrine from
lower than normal sympathetic neuron terminals,
combined with the circulating
PRIMARY ADRENAL SECONDARY epinephrine, prepare the body for
INSUFFICIENCY ADRENAL
stress in several ways.
INSUFFICIENCY
○ These include increased heart rate
due to loss of adrenocortical result from and heart pumping strength,
function hyposecretion of increased ventilation, increased
ACTH shunting of blood to skeletal
result from adrenal destruction muscle, and increased generation
primary adrenal insufficiency arise from of energy sources that are released
can be also known as pituitary disease into the blood.
Addison’s disease
FOUR MECHANISMS OF ALDOSTERONE
SECRETION:
CUSHING’S CUSHING’S DISEASE
1 GLUCOCORTICOIDS (CORTISOL)
SYNDROME
● keeping the blood sugar levels relatively
is the result of cause of the increased constant
chronically increased cortisol is secondary to ● maintaining blood volume and
plasma cortisol an ACTH-secreting preventing water shift into tissue
concentration pituitary tumor ● Cortisol provokes:
○ GLUCONEOGENESIS:
even the non stressed formation of glucose from
individual has excess noncarbohydrates

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 BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 11: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Rises in blood glucose, fatty
○ cartilage to bone while new cartilage is
acids, and amino acids simultaneously being laid down in the plates.
2 GONADOCORTICOIDS (SEX HORMONES) ● Growth ceases when the plates are
● most gonadocorticoids secreted are completely converted to bone
androgens (male sex hormones) and the ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS INFLUENCING
most important one is TESTOSTERONE GROWTH
● Androgens contribute to: ● The major environmental factors influencing
○ onset of puberty growth are nutrition and disease
○ appearance of secondary sex ● Maternal malnutrition during pregnancy may
characteristics produce irreversible growth stunting and
○ sex drive in females mental deficiency in offspring
● Androgens can be converted into ● CATCH-UP GROWTH: remarkable growth
estrogens after menopause
spurt; brings the child to within the range of
3 ADRENAL MEDULLA
normal heights expected for his or her age
● made of chromaffin cells that secrete
epinephrine and norepinephrine HORMONAL INFLUENCES ON GROWTH
● secretion of these hormones causes: MAJOR EFFECTS OF GROWTH HORMONE:
○ blood glucose to rise ● PROMOTES GROWTH: Induces precursor
○ blood vessels to constrict cells in bone and other tissues to
○ the heart to beat faster differentiate and secrete insulin-like growth
○ blood to be diverted to the factor 1 (IGF-1), which stimulates cell
brain, heart and skeletal division. Also stimulates the liver to secrete
muscle IGF-1.
4 EXCESSIVE LEVELS OF GLUCOCORTICOIDS ● Stimulates protein synthesis,
● depress cartilage and bone formation predominantly in muscle.
● inhibit inflammation ● Anti-insulin effects (particularly at high
● depress the immune system concentrations):
● promotes changes in cardiovascular, ○ Renders adipocytes more
neural, and gastrointestinal function
responsive to stimuli that induce
breakdown of triglycerides,
SECTION E: ENDOCRINE CONTROL OF GROWTH
releasing fatty acids into the blood.
○ Stimulates gluconeogenesis.
BONE GROWTH
● BONE: living, metabolically active tissue ○ Reduces the ability of insulin to
consisting of a protein (collagen) matrix upon stimulate glucose uptake by
which calcium salts, particularly calcium adipose and muscle cells, resulting
phosphates, are deposited. in higher blood glucose
○ EPHIPHYSES: bone’s ends concentrations
○ SHAFT: remainder SECTION F: ENDOCRINE CONTROL OF Ca2+
HOMEOSTASIS
● EPIPHYSEAL GROWTH PLATE: The
portion of each epiphysis in contact with the
BONE
shaft is a plate of actively proliferating ● Approximately 99% of total-body calcium is
cartilage (connective tissue composed of contained in the bone
collagen and other fibrous proteins) ● Bone is a connective tissue made up of
● OSTEOBLASTS: bone forming cells at the several cell types surrounded by a collagen
shaft edge of the epiphyseal growth plate matrix called OSTEOID
● A bone lengthens as osteoblasts at the shaft ○ upon which deposited minerals,
edge of the epiphyseal growth plates convert particularly the crystals of calcium,

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 BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 11: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
phosphate, and hydroxyl ions radiation from sunlight on a cholesterol
known as HYDROXYAPATITE derivative
● They secret collagen to form a surrounding ● VITAMIN D2 (ERGOCALCIFEROL):
matrix, which then becomes calcified, a derived from plants
process called MINERALIZATION ● which stimulates Ca2+ absorption by the
○ Once surrounded by a calcified intestine.
matrix, the osteoblasts are called ● Vitamin D is formed in the skin or ingested
and then undergoes hydroxylations in the
osteocytes.
liver and kidneys. The kidneys express
■ have long cytoplasmic the enzyme that catalyzes the production
processes that extend of the active form, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin
throughout the bone and D. This process is greatly stimulated by
form tight junctions with PTH.
other osteocytes 3 CALCITONIN
○ OSTEOCLASTS: large, ● A peptide hormone produced by the
multinucleated cells that break parafollicular or C cells
down (resorb) previously formed ● lowes blood calcium levels to children
bone by secreting hydrogen ions, ● antagonist to parathyroid hormone (PTH)
which dissolve the crystals, and ● regulated by a humoral (calcium ion
hydrolytic enzymes, which digest concentration in the blood) negative
the osteoid. feedback mechanism
KIDNEYS
● the kidneys filter the blood and eliminate METABOLIC BONE DISEASES
soluble wastes 1 OSTEOMALACIA (adults) and RICKETS
● cells in the tubules that make up the (children)
functional units of the kidneys recapture ● diseases in which the mineralization of
bone is deficient—usually due to
(reabsorb) most of the necessary solutes
inadequate vitamin D intake, absorption, or
that were filtered, which minimizes their loss activation.
in the urine. 2 OSTEOPOROSIS
GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT ● loss of bone density (loss of matrix and
● The absorption of solutes such as Na+ and minerals)
K+ from the gastrointestinal tract into the ● Bone resorption exceeds formation. b. It is
blood is normally about 100% most common in postmenopausal
● a considerable amount of ingested Ca2+ is (estrogen-deficient) women.
not absorbed from the small intestine and ● It can be prevented by exercise, adequate
leaves the body along with the feces Ca2+ and vitamin D intake, and
medications (such as bisphosphonates).
HORMONAL CONTROLS: 3 HYPERCALCEMIA
1 PARATHYROID HORMONE ● chronically decreased plasma Ca2+
● bone, kidneys, and the gastrointestinal concentrations
tract are subject, directly or indirectly, to TRACED TO SEVERAL CAUSES:
control by a protein hormone called ● Low PTH concentrations from primary
PARATHYROID HORMONE (PTH) hypoparathyroidism (loss of parathyroid
● produced by the parathyroid gland function) lead to hypocalcemia by
2 1,25– DIHYDROXYVITAMIN D decreasing bone resorption of Ca2+,
● VITAMIN D: group of closely related decreasing urinary reabsorption of Ca2+,
compounds and decreasing renal production of
● VITAMIN D3 (CHOLECALCIFEROL): 1,25-(OH)2D.
formed by the action of ultraviolet

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BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 11: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
● Pseudohypoparathyroidism is caused by
target-organ resistance to the action of
PTH.
● Secondary hyperparathyroidism is caused
by vitamin D deficiency due to inadequate
intake, absorption, or activation in the
kidney (e.g., in kidney disease)

Transes made by Tumale (2022)

Please do not reproduce and spread without my permission.