STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM

ATOM - The smallest possible amount of matter which still retains its identity as a chemical element, consisting of a
nucleus surrounded by electrons.
PROTONS
 CHARGE: carry a positive electrical charge.
 MASS: Protons have a relatively large mass compared to electrons. The mass of a proton is approximately 1
atomic mass unit (amu).
 LOCATION: Protons are located in the nucleus at the center of the atom.
 ROLE: The number of protons in an atom determines its identity as a particular element. This number is referred
to as the atomic number.
NEUTRONS
 CHARGE: Neutrons have no electrical charge; they are electrically neutral.
 MASS: Similar to protons, neutrons have a mass of approximately 1 amu.
 LOCATION: Neutrons, like protons, are found in the nucleus.
 ROLE: Neutrons contribute to the mass of the atom. Isotopes of an element have the same number of protons
but a different number of neutrons.
ELECTRONS
 CHARGE: Electrons carry a negative electrical charge.
 MASS: Electrons have a much smaller mass compared to protons and neutrons. Their mass is about 1/1836
times the mass of a proton.
 LOCATION: Electrons move in orbitals or shells outside the nucleus. They form an electron cloud around the
nucleus.
 ROLE: The arrangement of electrons in shells determines the chemical behavior and reactivity of an atom.
Electrons are involved in chemical bonding.
EVOLUTION OF MODELS

1. SOLID SPHERE MODEL (1803) – Proposed by John Dalton, this model suggested that atoms are indivisible and
indestructible particles. It stated that all atoms of a given element are identical and that compounds are formed
by combinations of different elements in simple whole-number ratios. While revolutionary at the time, Dalton's
model was later refined as new experimental evidence emerged.
2. PLUM PUDDING MODEL (1897) – J. J.Thomson discovered the electron and proposed a model in which
electrons were embedded in a positively charged "pudding," much like plums in a pudding. This model
suggested that atoms were not indivisible, as Dalton proposed, but had subatomic particles.
3. NUCLEAR MODEL (1911) - Ernest Rutherford conducted the famous gold foil experiment and concluded that
most of an atom's mass and positive charge are concentrated in a small, dense nucleus. Electrons orbit the
nucleus at a distance. This model represented a significant departure from Thomson's model and introduced the
concept of a nuclear structure.
4. PLANETARY MODEL/ BOHR’S MODEL (1913) - Niels Bohr proposed a model in which electrons orbit the nucleus
in specific energy levels or shells. This model explained the spectral lines of hydrogen and introduced the idea
that electrons occupy quantized energy levels. However, it had limitations and was later refined with the advent
of quantum mechanics.
5. QUANTUM MODEL (1926) - The development of quantum mechanics, led by scientists such as Schrödinger and
Heisenberg, provided a more accurate and comprehensive description of atomic behavior. This model
represents electrons as probability clouds or orbitals rather than fixed paths. It incorporates wave-particle
duality and the uncertainty principle.

ISOTOPES - Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons (and thus the same chemical
properties) but different numbers of neutrons.

STABLE ISOTOPES – isotopes that do not undergo radioactive decay and remain unchanged over time. They have a
stable ratio of protons to neutrons.

UNSTABLE ISOTOPES - have an imbalance in the ratio of protons to neutrons, leading to radioactive decay. Over time,
they transform into other elements by emitting radiation.
ISOTONES - are nuclides (nuclei of atoms) that have the same number of neutrons, regardless of the number of protons.
Nitrogen-14 and Oxygen-15 are isotones because they have the same number of neutrons (seven), even though they
have different numbers of protons.

ISOBARS - are nuclides that have the same mass number (sum of protons and neutrons), but different numbers of
protons and neutrons. Potassium-40 and Argon-40 are isobars because they both have a mass number of 40, but
Potassium-40 has 19 protons and 21 neutrons, while Argon-40 has 18 protons and 22 neutrons.

ISOMERS - are nuclides with the same number of protons and neutrons but exist in different energy states, leading to
different nuclear configurations. Isomers can occur when a nucleus is in an excited state. An example is metastable
technetium-99m, used in medical imaging.

PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

Hydrogen (H)The lightest and most abundant element in the universe. It is a diatomic gas and forms compounds with
many other elements.
Helium (He)A noble gas, helium is colorless, odorless, and inert. It is often used in balloons and as a cooling medium in
various applications.
Lithium (Li)A soft, silvery metal, lithium is used in batteries and has properties that make it effective in certain medical
treatments.
Beryllium (Be) lightweight and strong metal. It is often used in aerospace applications and as a component in certain
alloys.
Boron (B) Boron compounds are used in a variety of applications, including as flame retardants and in the production of
glass and ceramics.
Carbon (C) The basis of organic chemistry, carbon is fundamental to life and exists in various forms, including diamonds
and graphite.
Nitrogen (N) A diatomic gas that makes up a significant portion of the Earth's atmosphere. Nitrogen compounds are
crucial in biological processes.
Oxygen (O) An essential element for life, oxygen is a diatomic gas and a key component in many chemical reactions,
including combustion.
Fluorine (F) The most electronegative element. Fluorine compounds are used in various industrial applications, and
fluoridated compounds are added to water for dental health.
Neon (Ne) A noble gas with a distinct reddish-orange glow when used in neon signs. It is inert and does not readily form
compounds.
Sodium (Na) A highly reactive alkali metal. Sodium compounds are used in various industrial processes and in table salt.
Magnesium (Mg) A lightweight metal used in alloys, particularly in the aerospace industry. It is also important for
biological functions.
Aluminum (Al) A lightweight, corrosion-resistant metal widely used in construction, transportation, and packaging.
Silicon (Si) A semiconductor crucial in electronics. Silicon dioxide (silica) is a major component of Earth's crust.
Phosphorus (P) Essential for life, phosphorus is a component of DNA and ATP. It is used in fertilizers and matches.
Sulfur (S) Found in various forms, sulfur is used in the production of sulfuric acid and is a component of amino acids.
Chlorine (Cl) A diatomic gas, chlorine is widely used as a disinfectant and in the production of various chemicals.
Argon (Ar) A noble gas that is colorless and inert. It is commonly used in various applications, such as welding.
Potassium (K) An alkali metal important for biological processes. It is found in many minerals and plays a role in nerve
and muscle function.
Calcium (Ca) An essential element for living organisms, calcium is crucial for bone and teeth formation. It is also used in
various industrial applications.
Scandium (Sc) A transition metal with properties useful in aerospace and electronics. It is relatively rare.
Titanium (Ti) A strong and corrosion-resistant metal widely used in aerospace, medical implants, and sports equipment.
Vanadium (V) A transition metal with applications in the production of steel alloys and as a catalyst.
Chromium (Cr) Known for its shiny appearance when electroplated, chromium is used in the production of stainless
steel and other alloys.
Manganese (Mn) A transition metal important for steel production and other industrial applications.
Iron (Fe) An essential element for living organisms and a key component of steel.
Cobalt (Co) A transition metal used in the production of alloys, magnets, and batteries.
Nickel (Ni) A versatile metal used in various alloys, particularly in the production of stainless steel.
Copper (Cu) A widely used metal with excellent electrical conductivity. It is used in wiring, plumbing, and various alloys.
Zinc (Zn) An essential trace element for living organisms. It is used in the production of alloys, such as brass.
Gallium (Ga) A soft metal with a low melting point. It is used in electronics and some medical applications.
Germanium (Ge) A semiconductor used in electronic devices.
Arsenic (As) Arsenic has both metalloid and non-metal properties. It has applications in electronics and the wood
preservative industry.
Selenium (Se) A trace element with important roles in biology. It is used in some electronic devices and photovoltaic
cells.
Bromine (Br) A halogen that is liquid at room temperature. It is used in flame retardants and certain medical
applications.
Krypton (Kr) A noble gas used in some types of lighting, such as in flash lamps.
Rubidium (Rb) An alkali metal with limited commercial uses. It is used in some specialty glasses and as a component in
atomic clocks.
Strontium (Sr) Used in the production of fireworks, strontium compounds also have some medical applications.
Yttrium (Y) A transition metal used in the production of certain alloys and electronics.
Zirconium (Zr) A corrosion-resistant metal used in nuclear reactors, aerospace applications, and some medical devices.
Niobium (Nb) Used in the production of high-strength, low-alloy steels and in superconductors.
Molybdenum (Mo) An essential trace element for living organisms. It is used in various alloys and as a catalyst.
Technetium (Tc) An artificial element with some medical applications, particularly in nuclear medicine.
Ruthenium (Ru) A transition metal with applications in electronics, catalysis, and jewelry.
Rhodium (Rh) A rare metal often used as a catalyst and in the production of jewelry.
Palladium (Pd) A precious metal used in catalysis, electronics, and jewelry.
Silver (Ag) A valuable metal with a long history of use in currency, jewelry, and photography.
Cadmium (Cd) A soft, bluish-white metal used in batteries, pigments, and some types of solder.
Indium (In) Used in the production of electronics, indium has applications in semiconductors and liquid crystal displays.
Tin (Sn) A metal with a long history of use in alloys, such as bronze. It is also used in the production of tin cans.
Antimony (Sb) A metalloid with applications in flame retardants, batteries, and some types of alloys.
Tellurium (Te) A metalloid with applications in electronics and solar cells.
Iodine (I) A halogen with applications in medicine, particularly as a disinfectant, and in the production of certain dyes.
Xenon (Xe) A noble gas used in various applications, including certain types of lighting and medical imaging.
Cesium (Cs) An alkali metal used in atomic clocks and some medical applications.
Barium (Ba) Used in the production of some types of glass and as a contrast medium in medical imaging.
Lanthanum (La) A rare earth element with applications in the production of certain alloys and electronic devices.
Cerium (Ce) A rare earth element used in the production of catalytic converters and certain types of glass
Praseodymium (Pr) A rare earth element with applications in the production of magnets and certain types of glass.
Neodymium (Nd) A rare earth element crucial for the production of strong permanent magnets.
Promethium (Pm) An artificial element with some limited applications in nuclear batteries and certain types of atomic
devices.
Samarium (Sm) A rare earth element used in the production of certain types of magnets and nuclear reactors.
Europium (Eu) A rare earth element with applications in the production of phosphors for color displays.
Gadolinium (Gd) Used in the production of certain types of magnets and as a contrast agent in medical imaging.
Terbium (Tb) A rare earth element used in the production of phosphors for color displays and some types of magnets.
Dysprosium (Dy) A rare earth element with applications in the production of certain types of magnets.
Holmium (Ho) Used in some types of lasers and as a component in certain types of magnets.
Erbium (Er) Used in some types of lasers and as a component in fiber optics.
Thulium (Tm) Used in some medical imaging devices and lasers.
Ytterbium (Yb) Used in certain types of lasers and as a component in some medical devices.
Lutetium (Lu) Used in some medical imaging devices and as a catalyst in certain chemical reactions.
Hafnium (Hf) Used in the production of some types of alloys, particularly those with a high melting point.
Tantalum (Ta) Used in the production of capacitors, surgical implants, and some types of alloys.
Tungsten (W) Known for its high melting point, tungsten is used in the production of lightbulb filaments, electrical
contacts, and some types of alloys.
Rhenium (Re) Used in the production of high-temperature superalloys and as a catalyst in certain chemical reactions.
Osmium (Os) A dense and hard metal, osmium is used in the production of electrical contacts and some types of alloys.
Iridium (Ir) Known for its corrosion resistance, iridium is used in spark plugs, electrical contacts, and certain types of
jewelry.
Platinum (Pt) A precious metal with applications in jewelry, catalysis, and the production of certain electronic
components.
Gold (Au) A highly valued precious metal with a long history of use in jewelry and currency.
Mercury (Hg) The only metal that is liquid at room temperature, mercury is used in thermometers, barometers, and
some types of electrical switches.
Thallium (Tl) A soft, bluish-white metal with limited commercial applications. It has been used in the past as a
rodenticide.
Lead (Pb) A heavy metal with various industrial applications, including batteries, ammunition, and plumbing.
Bismuth (Bi) A brittle metal with applications in medicine, particularly in certain types of gastrointestinal medications.
Polonium (Po) An artificial and highly radioactive element with limited applications, primarily in scientific research.
Astatine (At) A halogen with very limited known properties due to its extreme rarity and radioactivity.
Radon (Rn) A noble gas that is radioactive. It is used in certain medical treatments and in some types of research.
Francium (Fr) An alkali metal and highly radioactive element. It has very limited commercial applications due to its
scarcity and radioactivity.
Radium (Ra) A highly radioactive element historically used in luminescent paints and some medical treatments.
Actinium (Ac) A radioactive element with some applications in scientific research.
Thorium (Th) A naturally occurring radioactive element used in some types of nuclear reactors.
Protactinium (Pa) A radioactive element with limited commercial applications, primarily in scientific research.
Uranium (U) A radioactive element widely known for its use as fuel in nuclear reactors and in the production of nuclear
weapons.
Neptunium (Np) An artificial and radioactive element with some applications in scientific research.
Plutonium (Pu) An artificial and highly radioactive element known for its use in nuclear weapons and some types of
nuclear reactors.
Americium (Am) An artificial and radioactive element used in smoke detectors and certain types of scientific
instruments.
Curium (Cm) An artificial and radioactive element used in scientific research and some types of nuclear devices.
Berkelium (Bk) An artificial and radioactive element used in scientific research.
Californium (Cf) An artificial and radioactive element used in scientific research and neutron sources.
Einsteinium (Es) An artificial and radioactive element used in scientific research.
Fermium (Fm) An artificial and radioactive element used in scientific research.
Mendelevium (Md) An artificial and radioactive element named in honor of Dmitri Mendeleev, the creator of the
periodic table.
Nobelium (No) An artificial and radioactive element named in honor of Alfred Nobel.
Lawrencium (Lr) An artificial and radioactive element named in honor of Ernest O. Lawrence.
Rutherfordium (Rf) An artificial and radioactive element named in honor of Ernest Rutherford.
Dubnium (Db) An artificial and radioactive element named after the city of Dubna in Russia.
Seaborgium (Sg) An artificial and radioactive element named in honor of Glenn T. Seaborg.
Bohrium (Bh) An artificial and radioactive element named in honor of Niels Bohr.
Hassium (Hs) An artificial and radioactive element named in honor of the German state of Hesse.
Meitnerium (Mt) An artificial and radioactive element named in honor of Lise Meitner.
Darmstadtium (Ds) An artificial and radioactive element named in honor of the city of Darmstadt in Germany.
Roentgenium (Rg) An artificial and radioactive element named in honor of Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen.
Copernicium (Cn) An artificial and radioactive element named in honor of Nicolaus Copernicus.
Nihonium (Nh) An artificial and radioactive element named after the country of Japan.
Flerovium (Fl) An artificial and radioactive element named in honor of the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions.
Moscovium (Mc) An artificial and radioactive element named after the country of Russia.
Livermorium (Lv) Livermorium is a synthetic element, and its most stable isotope is highly radioactive, with a very short
half-life.
Tennessine (Ts) Another synthetic element, tennessine is part of the halogen group and is characterized by its short-
lived and highly radioactive nature.
Oganesson (Og) The heaviest element currently known, oganesson is a synthetic element with a very short half-life, and
its properties are still under investigation.

PROPERTIES OF NUCLEUS
SIZE - The size of a nucleus is extremely small compared to the overall size of the atom. The typical size of a nucleus is
on the order of femtometers (1 femtometer = 10^(-15) meters).
MASS - The majority of an atom's mass is concentrated in the nucleus. Protons and neutrons both contribute to the
mass of the nucleus.
PROTONS AND NEUTRONS - Protons are positively charged particles found in the nucleus.
- Neutrons are electrically neutral particles also located in the nucleus.
- The total number of protons in the nucleus determines the element, and the sum of protons and neutrons gives the
mass number.
DENSITY - Nuclei have an extremely high density. The mass is concentrated in a tiny volume, leading to very high
nuclear density.
BINDING ENERGY - Nucleons (protons and neutrons) are bound together by the strong nuclear force. The energy
required to break the nucleus into individual protons and neutrons is called the binding energy.
CHARGE - The nucleus has a positive charge due to the presence of protons. The number of protons in the nucleus
determines the atom's overall charge.
STABILITY - Stable nuclei have a balanced ratio of protons to neutrons.
- Nuclei with too few or too many neutrons compared to protons may be unstable and undergo radioactive decay.
NUCLEAR FORCES - The strong nuclear force is responsible for binding protons and neutrons together. The
electromagnetic force (repulsion between positively charged protons) tends to push the nucleus apart.
NUCLEAR REACTIONS - Nuclear reactions involve changes in the composition of the nucleus, such as nuclear fission and
nuclear fusion.