Detecting counterfeit integrated circuits without a microscope Page 28 Basics of monitoring vs.

s. testing in current, voltage and power Page 44

JUNE 2020

TEST &
MEASUREMENT
HANDBOOK
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TEST & MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK

Will your Good Samaritanism in

the pandemic buy you a lawsuit?
IF YOU ARE ONE OF THE INDIVIDUALS making ventilators. Suspending the CGMP practices-- which typically
involve a significant amount of procedure documentation and record
voluntarily spending your time on technology to help abate the
keeping--allowed non-medical manufacturers such as Ford and GM
COVID 19 pandemic, consider the experience of the vacuum cleaner to begin ventilator production. The EUA also allowed commercially
company Dyson in the UK. Company founder James Dyson estimates available bag resuscitators and other devices to be modified in ways
that allow them to fill in as ventilators.
his firm spent about $25 million and about 10 days to develop a This isn’t the first time the FDA has relaxed its medical device
respiratory ventilator that would help fill a projected shortage in that regulations. In the past, it has allowed equipment to forego clinical
testing if it could be proved to be “substantially equivalent” to similar
country. While waiting for regulatory approval to produce 10,000 devices already commercially available. But the FDA has taken flak
of the machines, Dyson got word from the UK government that his for these policies because they have occasionally led to approving
equipment for sale that later underwent significant recalls due to
ventilators wouldn’t be needed after all.
various design and production issues.
And when it comes to respiratory ventilators, the evidence is that
Dyson has reportedly said he didn’t mind the expense and time even equipment manufactured under normal conditions can have
put into the project. But he might end up being lucky his hastily problems. That was the reason the UK recently decided not to use
conceived ventilators never reached the market: At least he won’t ventilators obtained from China which, UK officials said, were prone
be sued for his trouble. to providing an unreliable and varying supply of oxygen.
As the smoke clears from the initial pandemic battles, federal All these factors constitute lawsuit fodder if well-intentioned
politicians are now talking about shielding companies from liability manufacturers don’t get legal protection. Absent such protection, we
stemming from their actions during the crisis. But the discussions may see yet-another example of the old adage that no good deed
so far center on workers at U.S. businesses. Employers fear a wave goes unpunished.
of litigation when returning workers start getting sick from the
coronavirus. So there has been a push for legislative immunity forcing
plaintiffs to show that businesses were grossly negligent or reckless in
exposing their workers and customers to the virus.
However, none of these discussions extend to manufacturers
making health care equipment in war-effort conditions. Some states
have proposed expanding liability protections to manufacturers aiding
in the crisis, but there has been no real action on that that front.
On the other side of the issue are plaintiffs’ lawyers who claim
immunity shields remove incentives to keep employees safe. But
there is some dark humor in the legal profession that perhaps
expresses their position more succinctly: Every corpse has a lawyer.
Manufacturers have reason to be concerned about legal
troubles. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration normally requires
that most new medical devices undergo lengthy laboratory and
animal testing to answer basic questions about safety. However, the
medical devices being devised during the coronavirus pandemic
aren’t getting this kind of scrutiny. Late in March, the FDA issued
an Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) that eliminated a need
for manufacturing facilities to follow current good manufacturing
practices (CGMP), including quality system requirements, when
LELAND TESCHLER | EXECUTIVE EDITOR

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 CONTENTS TEST & MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK | JUNE 2020

40
18

32

2 Will your Good Samaritanism in the

pandemic buy you a lawsuit?
25 Testing regimes for the new
frequencies and features of 5G
Measurements taking place in pre-commercial 5G

6 Capabilities of modern data recorders

Fast sampling rates and long recording times make
network trials provide new insights and overcome
uncertainties before the technology’s formal launch.

data recorders useful for documenting signal qualities

that ordinary test equipment can easily miss.
28 Detecting counterfeit integrated
circuits without a microscope
10 Nothing fishy about portable scope apps
Researchers get a charge out of measuring
Curve-trace testing can reveal whether an incoming
batch of ICs are bogus without resorting to destructive
eels with battery powered oscilloscopes. inspection measures.

12 The complexity of wireless receiver tests 32 Work-at-home instrumentation

The rise in social distancing has fostered a need
The crowded spectrum of today’s RF environment
puts a premium on quantifying the performance of for professional-grade test instruments that
radio receivers. function as well at home as in the lab.

15 Verifying 5G with OTA testing 37 Monitoring heart-rate variability

for better athletic performance
The 5G realm puts a new emphasis on making
measurements without hardwired connections. Sensors and sophisticated algorithms together deliver
check heart-rate variability and other exercise metrics.

18 Work-at-home tools: PC-based instruments

address demanding applications 40 Basic test instrumentation
and its role in measurements
Advanced technology now lets budget-priced
instrumentation handle tasks once requiring It can be helpful to understand the differences
specialized and pricey test gear. between common test gear used for bench-top
development tasks.

22 FIPS 140-2 security testing

for wireless medical devices 44 Basics of monitoring vs. testing in
current, voltage and power
Design engineers should be aware of several testing
issues surrounding encryption standards designed to Industrial measurements often must take place via
protect data from bad actors. specialized transducers sized specifically for the
current and voltage swings involved.

eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com 6 • 2020 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 5

TEST & MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK

Capabilities of
modern data recorders JAMIE PEDERSON | B&K PRECISION CORP.

Fast sampling rates and long recording

times make data recorders useful for
Common data recorder inputs
documenting signal qualities that
ordinary test equipment can easily miss.

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DATA RECORDING INSTRUMENTS
have a long history that dates back to the 1800s when Charles
Babbage incorporated an instrument into a rail car to record
over a dozen parameters. Babbage described his prototype as
a roll of paper one-thousand feet in length that slowly unraveled
itself upon a long table. The model had roughly a dozen pens
connected with a bridge crossing the center of the table, each
marking its own independent curve. Technology has since
advanced to the point where we are now capable of storing an
extensive amount of data on a small memory device.

Older data recorders tended to be limited to recording only

signals having values that changed relatively slowly. That was
because they had response times that were limited by the
electromechanical pen and paper system used to archive data.
Today, such limitations are no longer in place, particularly for the
latest generation of recorders. Today’s data recorders feature
fast sampling rates, large internal memory, touch displays, and
a wide range of input capabilities. Data recorders can replace Common signals measured with data recorders
several instruments and provide additional options such as include those from strain gauges and temperature
thermal printing and communication bus analysis. sensors, as well as voltage, current, logic, and
It is not unusual for data recorders to feature the same variable resistance parameters.
kind of triggering mechanisms available on scopes, including
triggers based on the leading and falling edges of the signal
being recorded. Additionally, it is relatively easy to find
recorders providing the same kind of analysis available on
specialized instrumentation such as power line quality monitors.
X-Y displays as long found on oscilloscopes are also available
on data recorders.
Digital multimeters are used primarily for measuring
voltage, resistance and current. Data recorders, on the other
hand, are capable of measuring the same parameters but can
also monitor temperature, humidity, vibration, strain, revolutions

6 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 6 • 2020 eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com

 DATA RECORDERS
Environmental data monitoring
Environmental chamber
Temperature

Barometer A typical configuration for a

Humidity DUT sitting in an environmental
chamber. The data acquisition
system monitors the DUT and
Temperature
environmental sensors.
Current
DUT Voltage
from millivolts to kilovolts. This allows
a single instrument to simultaneously
measure small sensor signals and
high-voltages, greatly simplifying data
acquisition compared to schemes
requiring multiple instruments.
A common application for data
recorders is in environmental testing as
per minute (rpm), to name just a few entities. resolution, and more memory which allows with the monitoring of parameters such as
Unlike typical DMMs, recorders excel in recording and comparing of more signals over temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction,
performing these measurements on multiple a longer period of time. When using a DSO, as well as barometric pressure at a weather
channels simultaneously. The data can be the trigger event might be missed, but a data station. These environmental tests may involve
analyzed on-screen with built-in cursors to recorder will capture it because it is recording monitoring the voltage and current of the device
select specific waveform details, or the data continually. All B&K Precision recorders feature under test placed in an environmental chamber
can be transferred to a computer. Recorders a pre-trigger option to set a percentage of to verify how the DUT responds to changes in
also support more complex operations such time to capture before the trigger event, environmental parameters.
as writing of custom equations for performing ensuring valuable data is not lost. Recorders are also widely used in the
mathematical calculations based on real-time Users who must acquire data for longer automotive industry. Motor vehicles contain
data coming in from two or more channels. periods of time across multiple channels or numerous sensors, electronic controls and
Digital storage oscilloscopes (DSO) have from a variety of input signals will benefit from systems which the instrument can monitor
become a widely used means of capturing using a data recorder. These instruments have simultaneously. Key measurements include
and storing waveform data and have evolved been designed to enable direct input and voltage and current, force, pressure, stress/
to include triggering capabilities along with measurement of a wide variety of voltage, strain, speed, and temperature. Many recorders
fast sampling intervals. In comparison, data current, frequency, temperature, strain gauge, offer the additional capability to monitor and
recorders offer more channels, greater vertical and logic signals with voltage inputs ranging analyze traffic on the CAN or LIN bus, which are
widely used interfaces in this industry.

Data recorders in automotive applications Data recorders are capable of monitoring

systems in industrial settings. Portable
EV charging recorders aid in preventative maintenance.
They can be used to monitor voltage, current,
temperature, strain, and vibration signals of
Current / voltage industrial equipment, to detect abnormalities,

Portable data recorders

often carry out motor vehicle
measurements of exhaust
Vibration / strain temperature, wheel speed,
engine temperature, strain/
vibration levels, and current/
voltage levels associated with
EV charging.

Engine temperature Wheel speed

Exhaust temperature

eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com 6 • 2020 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 7

TEST & MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK

Data recorders can provide many

of the same functions found in
specialized instruments such as
power quality analyzers.

lightweight and portable with built-in batteries

that provide up to 15 hours of continuous
recording from 10 to 200 channels with a
sampling interval of 1 msec, 16-bit vertical
resolution, and 100 Vdc maximum input
voltage. The long battery life makes this
recorder useful for process-control applications
where power sources are unavailable. The
DAS30/50/60 series offers two, four and six
channels, with a built-in battery for up to 9.5
hr of recording time and an optional thermal
printer. This series offers a sampling interval
of 1 µsec in memory mode, built-in SSD up
and to record data that can allow accurate for particular applications. But sampling rate to 64 GB as well as a 500-V maximum input.
predictions of component failures for and memory size require more consideration. A power analysis application included with
scheduling maintenance conveniently rather Although a faster sampling rate may seem this series allows for recording and analysis of
than stopping processes for repairs. desirable, it will reduce maximum recording single or three-phase power networks. This
time, given a fixed memory size. For this series of recorders is a good fit for industrial
IMPORTANT SPECIFICATIONS reason, it is important to well understand the applications that involve high voltages and
When considering data recorders, the high- nature of the signals to be captured when faster sampling rates.
level specifications of interest include: selecting a data recorder. The newest addition is the DAS1700,
Many data acquisition systems have a configurable data acquisition system.
• Number of input channels multiple modes of operation: One mode This instrument features four types of
• Measurement parameter types (i.e. for recording over longer periods of time measurement boards that can be installed
voltage, current, frequency) at a lower sampling rate, another mode for in any combination of up to three in the
• Minimum and/or maximum input recording at a higher sampling rate over a base unit of the recorder or up to six with an
voltage shorter time to capture intermittent events. optional expansion. These boards include a
• Sampling rate Additionally, some recorders provide the ability universal input board with a maximum voltage
• Memory size to synchronize to an external time base such as
• Modes of operation IRIG (Inter-range instrumentation group) time
Data recorders now incorporate
codes or GPS signals.
triggering options that mimic those
The number of channels is a trade-off with It is useful to consider specific recorders
of oscilloscopes. One example
portability. As the number of channels rise, as a way of understanding the range of
is double triggering where the
so does the weight of the unit. The type of equipment available in this area. The DAS220-
recorder can capture the leading
measurements and voltage input ranges are BAT and DAS240-BAT data recorders are
edge or trailing edge of a signal.
generally not flexible – they are what they are

Double triggering
MEMORY
MEMORY

Trigger

Trigger
+ 50%
- 50%
Start of buffering Start of buffering

8 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 6 • 2020 eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com

 HIGH
DATA RECORDERS PERFORMANCE
CONNECTORS
Data monitoring in & CABLE
electric motors SOLUTIONS

Vibration
Temperature

RPM

Data acquisition system

Data acquisition
of up to 500 V and six channels, a high-voltage
systems monitor
board for up to 1,000 V and six channels, a
electric motor
strain gauge board with six channels, and a
parameters that
multiplexed board with 12 channels.
typically include
The DAS1700 is capable of streaming
vibration and
measurement data directly to the internal solid-
temperature as well
state drive at a 1 µsec sampling interval and
as motor speed and
can record continuously for extended periods
acceleration.
of time, with the recording length only limited
by the size of the SSD. This instrument is also
capable of recording two files simultaneously. When recording starts, the
low speed file captures data at a lower sampling rate for a long period
of time. An event trigger starts recording to the high-speed file which
captures data at a high sampling rate for a shorter period of time. This
ensures that not only is the event captured, but the state before and after
are captured as well while maximizing memory space.
The DAS1700 expands the measurement range to a maximum input
of ±1,000 Vdc or 1,000 Vac. It also includes the power analysis tool of the
DAS30/50/60 series along with a function editor. This user interface allows
building custom functions to make calculations on data coming in from
multiple channels. The result is displayed on a separate virtual channel for
easy analysis. Factory options like CAN/LIN and GPS/IRIG timing further
expand the capabilities. This data acquisition system is capable of measuring
signals ranging from small sensors to large electrical systems and used in
aerospace, industrial, automotive, and
energy production applications.
REFERENCES

B&K Precision Corp.,

www.bkprecision.com/
® ®
1-800-444-5366
6 • 2020 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 9 www.lemo.com
TEST & MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK

Crampton and the BBC

film crew look for electric
eels in the Amazon.
| Will Crampton

Nothing fishy about

portable scope apps
Researchers get a charge out NEXT TIME YOU find yourself Crampton’s procedure for measuring
of measuring eels with battery swimming around with electric eels, try
the electricity in eels employs a portable
powered oscilloscopes. oscilloscope (a hand-held Fluke 124B
grabbing one and then put the leads of a industrial ScopeMeter), a small trench,
battery powered oscilloscope on its head and a tarp. Once caught, the eels go into
paddling pools to reduce the shock of
and tail. According to University of Central captivation and help them settle down.
Florida zoology professor Will Crampton, Crampton then prepares the area for the
measurements by digging an eel-sized
you’ll probably measure a voltage in the
trench in the ground that will help hold the
700-V range. eel securely in place. The trench is covered
with a non-conductive plastic tarpaulin,
Crampton and his associates went to the necessary to isolate the eel and remove
rivers of the Amazon to check out eel it from the load of the water to get an
voltages. “Capturing eels out of the wild accurate reading.
takes a lot of patience,” says Crampton. His The portable oscilloscope is set up
technique for finding test subjects consisted for a differential voltage measurement.
of either setting up un-baited traps that eels To get an electrical reaction out of the
can’t easily get out of, or using baited hooks eel, Crampton holds one probe tightly on
to lure the eels from hiding. the tail and uses the other probe to prod

10 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 6 • 2020 eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com

 PORTABLE SCOPE APPS

Voltage
Length
measurement
1.30 m 703 V
1.35 m 710 V

the eel’s snout. With the meter set to triggered Interest in the electrogenic capacities of
acquisition, the oscilloscope captures short electric eels (and their cousins the torpedo/
pulses of electricity. Once the measurements electric rays) dates back to 1800 when
are taken, Crampton uses the cursor function to they became models for the first batteries.
measure the difference between the highest and Understanding more about these animals,
lowest point of the pulses. including voltage measurements, has helped with
The new measurement technique developed medical research leading to amazing discoveries.
by Crampton earned him a Guinness World There are already electric eel organs being
Record for most electric animal; an electric eel used as models for synthetic bio-batteries and
measuring in at 860 V took the title. Previously, future medical applications include powering
the highest voltage output measured was also medical devices like pacemakers or developing
Eel measurement data
from an electric eel but was closer to 650 V. “biotechnology to allow human cells to generate
using a Fluke 124B Industrial
Crampton used the same measurement method sizable electric fields, external electric fields,
Portable Oscilloscope.
to break the world record as he did on a recent which could be used as everlasting batteries,”
| Will Crampton
trip to Guyana. according to Crampton.
Crampton went back to
the Amazon to try and break
the world record again as part
REFERENCES
of filming an episode for a BBC
show called Animal Impossible.
Fluke hand-held 124B
Crampton and a video crew
Industrial ScopeMeter, https://
spent nine days in Guyana
www.fluke-direct.com/product/
looking for and measuring the
fluke-124b-oscilloscope-
voltage of electric eels. They
dual-input-multimeter-and-
recorded measurements from
recorder-with-cursors
two different electric eels—
both were the E. Electricus
species—measuring in at 1.30
and 1.35-m long. Voltage
readings for both eels were
above 700 V, which would have
broken the previous record.

eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com 6 • 2020 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 11

TEST & MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK

The complexity of
wireless receiver tests ERIC HSU | KEYSIGHT TECHNOLOGIES , INC .

The crowded spectrum of today’s THE DEMAND FOR wireless communications now challenges
RF environment puts a premium the physical limitations of today’s wireless communications systems.
on quantifying the performance of
Interference can easily arise when systems operate in a crowded wireless
radio receivers.
environment using a shared spectrum. Signal congestion makes the process

of designing, testing, and isolating system problems more complex.

In the next few years, billions of devices will connect through many different
and emerging wireless technologies. Each device may integrate with two
or more wireless standards. With many wireless standards using the same
unlicensed bands, device manufacturers must verify that neither co-channel
nor adjacent-channel interference will degrade their designs. This situation
presents challenges to device designers as design and verification testing
becomes more complex, time-consuming, and expensive.
For example, consider the most commonly used 2.4-GHz industrial,
scientific, and medical (ISM) band, which includes wireless standards such
as Bluetooth, WI-Fi, and ZigBee. These longtime standards enjoy broad
support in both the integrated circuits (ICs) and integrated modules that are
built into IoT devices.
Co-existence in the unlicensed band comes with a price. Bluetooth
uses the frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) technique, and Wi-Fi
uses direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) and orthogonal frequency-
division multiplexing (OFDM) as a way to increase resistance to interference.
Furthermore, Bluetooth enhanced the FHSS with the adaptive frequency
hopping (AFH) to resist interference in the 2.4-GHz ISM band. Wi-Fi
added the dynamic frequency selection (DFS) to avoid
interference with radar signals in the 5-GHz band.
Designers must take various interfering signals into
account when evaluating the receiver performance of
wireless IoT devices.
Consider a digital radio receiver. First, the receiver
must extract the RF signal in the presence of potential
interference. A preselecting filter, the first component of
the receiver, attenuates out-of-band signals received from
the antenna. A low-noise amplifier (LNA) then boosts the
desired signal level while minimally adding to the noise
of the radio signal. Next, a mixer down-converts the RF

A real-time spectrum analysis at the 2.4 GHz

ISM band illustrates the crowded spectrum in
this band with multiple Bluetooth and Wi-Fi
devices simultaneously enabled.

12 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 6 • 2020 eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com

 RECEIVER TESTING

Typical digital radio receiver setup

Downconverter

IF filter
Preselecting Demodulator Output
filter and decoder data

Low-noise
amplifier A typical digital radio
(with automatic LO receiver block diagram.
gain control)

signal to a lower intermediate frequency (IF) by mixing the RF signal with signal-to-noise ratios, channel selectivity, blocking, receiver intermodulation
a local oscillator (LO) signal. Finally, the IF filter attenuates the unwanted distortion, and receiver spurious emissions. A common wireless receiver
frequency components that the mixer generates along with signals from test is the receiver dynamic range, which includes minimum input sensitivity,
adjacent frequency channels. The variations in the receiver’s design maximum input level, and channel noise. For different wireless standards,
manifest after they pass through the IF filter. the definition of the receiver’s dynamic range might be different — it can be
Receiver design is challenging because the wireless device the range of input levels or signal-to-noise ratios.
manages a wide variety of input signal conditions, and they are difficult A wireless receiver’s dynamic range test is the input power to an
to predict. Also, you need to inject noise and interfering signals to RF receiver at a minimum, and maximum level — the bit-error-rate
characterize the receiver’s performance. (BER) or packet-error-rate (PER) does not exceed specified values.
Wireless standards, such as Bluetooth and Wi-Fi, define wireless receiver
QUANTIFYING RECEIVER PERFORMANCE minimum input sensitivity and maximum input level test cases. The
Several parameters serve to help quantify how receivers behave. The standards determine the upper and lower levels of the wireless receiver’s
most common measurement parameters include receiver dynamic range, dynamic range.

Antenna Typical sources of IM

Pre-selecting Low-noise
filter amplifier Mixer IF filter

How intermodulation LO f1 f2
f1 f2 products may be created
in a typical receiver.
frx1 frx2
frx1 = 2f1 - f2
frx2 = 2f2 - f1
Intermodulation
Interference signals products

eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com 6 • 2020 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 13

TEST & MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK

IoT wireless connectivity performance standards and characteristics

Bandwidth Range
Name Specification Modulation Frequency (MHz)
(MHz) (m)
Bluetooth Bluetooth SIG GFSK, D8PSK 2400 1 50
ZigBee IEEE 802.15.4 O-QPSK, BPSK 780, 868, 915, 920, 2450 2 10
WiSUN IEEE 802.15.4g MR-FSK, MR-OFDM 920 0.2-1.2 1,000
LoRaWAN LoRa Alliance GFSK, CCS 169, 433, 470, 868, 915 0.5 10,000
Z-Wave ITU-T G9959 FSK, GFSK 868, 915, 920 0.2 100
HaLow 802.11ah OFDM 779, 868, 915, 920 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 1,000
DSRC / 802.11p OFDM 5800, 5900 5, 10, 20 1,000
WAVE
Cat-NB2 3GPP Rel-13 BPSK, QPSK, 16-QAM GSM / LTE bands 0.18 1,000
(NB-IoT)
Cat-M1 3GPP Rel-13 OFDM LTE bands 1.4 1,000
C-V2X 3GPP Rel-14, Rel-16 OFDM Bands 3, 7, 8, 39, 41, 47 10 2,000

Another definition of dynamic range is third-order intermodulation products various test scenarios involving interactions
a measure of the capability of the wireless (frx1 = 2 f1 – f2 and frx2 = 2 f2 – f1) may fall of multiple systems. Receiver spurious
receiver to receive a wanted signal in the within the passband of the receiver. emissions and intermodulation tests help
presence of an interfering signal. This Spurious emissions are unwanted to identify potential problems with your
measurement takes place inside the received emissions that emanate from the devices designs to prevent system degradation.
channel bandwidth in the 3GPP standard under test. Receiver spurious emissions are To improve measurement accuracy when
(technical specification 36.104, section 7.3). generated internally by the receiver or result you perform these tests, be aware of port
To simulate realistic channel conditions in a from the interaction of the receiver with termination, signal isolation, and band
repeatable manner, you need to add random the coupling transmitter’s signal. A receiver rejection to improve measurement accuracy.
noise — additive white Gaussian noise spurious emissions power measures the Whether you are working on a single radio
(AWGN) to the wanted signal. power of emissions generated or amplified format or integrating multiple formats into
Channel selectivity is a measure of the in a receiver that appears at the antenna a wireless device, easy access to the right
receiver’s ability to receive a wanted signal connector. The purpose of the test is to limit test signals streamlines validation ensures
in the presence of an interference signal with the interference caused by receiver spurious interoperability.
a specified channel offset. The interference emissions to other devices or systems.
can be co-channel, adjacent-channel, or
alternate-channel signals. This test verifies PERFORMANCE TESTS REFERENCES
that a receiver can establish and hold a For long-distance wireless
White paper: Navigate the Complexity
connection if other channels are in use. communications, the multipath signals
of IoT RF Receiver Testing, https://www.
The blocking characteristic is a measure may add up constructively or destructively
keysight.com/us/en/assets/7119-1036/
of the receiver’s ability to receive a wanted at the receiver. The Doppler effect causes white-papers/5992-4132.pdf
signal in the presence of an unwanted a frequency shift at the receiver. The
interferer. The interferer is a modulated or effects of multipath and Doppler shift White paper: Making Noise in RF
continuous wave interfering signal, typically cause linear distortions that are reducible Receivers, https://www.keysight.
at a high output power level. The modulated with an adaptive equalizer of a receiver. com/us/en/assets/7018-06389/white-
signals simulate co-location with other wireless Also, systems’ channel coding and papers/5992-3446.pdf
devices but in a different wireless format. antenna diversity will reduce the effects.
Third- and higher-order mixing of the Like the receiver test, test specifications Application note: Testing and
two interfering RF signals can produce indicate sensitivity or throughput tests Troubleshooting Digital RF
intermodulation signals in the band of under specific channel conditions. Communications Receiver Designs,
the desired channel at a receiver. The With multiple wireless standards https://www.keysight.com/us/en/
assets/7018-06706/application-
intermodulation signals may degrade the using the same frequency bands, wireless
notes/5968-3579.pdf
receiver’s sensitivity performance. If the device manufacturers need to verify not
interfering signals are f1 and f2, one of the only common receiver test cases but also

14 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 6 • 2020 eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com

 OTA TESTING

Verifying 5G with OTA testing ADNAN KHAN | ANRITSU CO.

The 5G realm puts a new emphasis
on making measurements without
hardwired connections.

5G SYSTEMS are being rolled out globally,

bringing with them throughput speeds of up to 10 Gbps,
higher frequencies that extend into the millimeter wave
(mmWave) spectrum, and devices operating in multiple
radio access technologies (RATs). Engineers are faced
with considerable design challenges in 5G. Among
these challenges is the stringent testing associated with
chipsets, devices, and systems.

Over-the-air (OTA) testing approaches are becoming the

norm for testing 5G New Radio (5G NR) user equipment
(UE) and base stations, especially in mmWave. The move
to higher frequencies, including sub-6 GHz Frequency
Range 1 (FR1) and mmWave Frequency Range 2 (FR2),
arises in large part to the crowding of the RF spectrum.
For these reasons, 5G NR networks and UE devices
require advanced technologies and OTA measurements
to characterize performance accurately. station and UE will establish the An example of test equipment for
For a given transmit power level, mmWave signals coordinates for directed energy 5G UE device testing that provides
do not travel as far as lower-frequency RF/microwave beams formed by antenna performance levels exceeding those
signals. The free space propagation loss is a square arrays in the base station and expected of DUTs in terms of frequency
function of the frequency and distance. device. As such, there can be range, frequency accuracy, signal
For maximum signal propagation distances, a communication beam in the sensitivity, and dynamic range.
5G NR systems must direct signal energy between Uplink (UL) and a separate one in
network nodes and UE devices, using active antenna the Downlink (DL).
systems (AAS), beamforming, and high-speed signaling A 5G base station is two subsystems – a baseband controller unit and a remote
techniques. 4G LTE and earlier wireless generations radio head (RRH) – that are connected by a fiber-optic cable. The RRH contains a
transmitted signal energy in all directions, for a 360° highly integrated transceiver (TRX) and AAS. 5G NR base stations are smaller and have
signal around a base station at relatively high transmit lower power compared to 4G LTE towers.
power levels compared to 5G NR systems. Operating at The size of the antenna is also inversely proportional to the operation frequency.
mmWave frequencies with lower transmit power levels, As such, at 28 GHz or 39 GHz, an 8x8 patch antenna array may be 5 cm or smaller. It’s
5G networks have considerably more base stations for physically not possible to have a connectivity port on the antenna in mmWave. Also, the
proper coverage. loss if a cable is connected will be significant. Neither the Base Transceiver Station (BTS) or
UE can have a test connectivity port at mmWave. Hence, testing in an OTA environment
ANTENNA ARRAYS becomes a necessity for proper RF characterization and performance analysis.
Directional signal beams in 5G NR systems are Advanced AAS circuits in 5G radio equipment try to maximize propagation
transmitted and received using antenna arrays. Rather distances at mmWave frequencies where signal energy is limited (and more expensive
than the omnidirectional signal energy transmitted in than at lower frequencies). 4G LTE leverages multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO)
a 4G LTE system, a 5G NR device will locate a 5G NR antenna approaches to overcome signal path losses and enhance throughput and
base station within range by receiving an identifying capacity. 5G NR networks use multiple AAS units in massive MIMO configurations to
signal from the base station. Signaling between the base direct mmWave energy through space as efficiently as possible.

eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com 6 • 2020 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 15

TEST & MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK

Typical 5G antenna array setup

Directional signal beams in 5G
Analog IF NR systems are transmitted and
Up/down conv
received using antenna arrays.
DAC/ADC
Rather than the omnidirectional
signal energy transmitted in a 4G
Base Up/down conv
band LTE system, a 5G NR device will
Up/down conv locate a 5G NR base station within
DAC/ADC range by receiving an identifying
signal from the base station.
Up/down conv

An AAS consolidates separate antenna precisely. 5G systems have multiple arrays in Fortunately, by OTA testing in the far field of
elements, such as an 8×8 array with 64 massive-MIMO configurations for peak use of a 5G UE device’s antenna, a 5G UE device can
elements. Each element has controllable available signal power at mmWave frequencies. be fully characterized.
amplitude and phase adjustments. Because Using advanced signaling techniques, a A typical OTA measurement environment
each element is individually controllable, it 5G network node provides a beacon signal places the 5G UE device in an EM-shielded
becomes increasingly important for testing to for a 5G device in range to identify and chamber to eliminate outside interference.
calibrate and characterize the antenna array synchronize. There are different techniques, Measurements of the DUT’s antenna radiation
elements so they properly align with frequency such as analog beamforming, digital pattern take place in the test chamber using
and time. This ensures the contributions of the beamforming, and hybrid beamforming, that an antenna with enough frequency range and
many antenna elements combine to form and are utilized depending on the applications. performance capabilities.
“steer” an energy beam in a desired direction Significant digital processing is applied Because measurements of 5G devices
in 5G NR signal switching to find the optimum take place on antenna arrays, multiple radiation
signal path between a base station and a UE beams are formed close to the individual
Propagation at the to save energy. Signal processing is particularly elements, combining to configure a directed

5G range important at mmWave frequencies where the

smaller-wavelength signals suffer reflections
beam further from the array structure. Closer
to an antenna (near-field region), the radiation
from solid objects, such as building walls. pattern has a spherical shape. Moving further
There are other losses that the system must from the antenna (far-field region), the
be designed to mitigate or handle, such as radiation pattern has more of a planar shape.
4πϝ2Ae penetration, reflection, diffraction, foliage, and Within the far field is a “quiet zone” where the
G= atmospheric losses. radiation pattern is most stable and consistent.
c2 Reflection, free-space loss and diffraction It is the best location for a test antenna.
(e.g., the bending of rays around building The distances of near fields and far fields
corners/roofs) loss rises with frequency. from different antennas and arrays are a
Smaller objects, like lamp post surfaces, are function of many variables. Some of the more
more reflective as frequencies rise but seem notable are antenna size, array element size,
to make up for loss in diffraction in outdoor and spacing between elements, frequency
ϝ = frequency environments. Lower frequencies, such as and wavelength.
Ae= Antenna area 3.5 GHz, are used for high-coverage lower To prevent the test antenna within a
c = speed of light data rate, while 24 GHz, 28 GHz, and 39 GHz shielded enclosure from contributing its own
frequencies are allocated for low-latency, smaller characteristics to the measurement of a DUT’s
coverage, and high-speed data transfers. radiation patterns, OTA measurements are
performed in the far fields of both antennas.
For a given transmit power MEASUREMENT CHALLENGES Ideally, for access to the highest amplitude levels
level, mmWave signals do not Although these advanced antenna techniques from a DUT, the test antenna is placed as close as
travel as far as lower-frequency make high-speed communications practical for possible to the beginning of the DUT’s far field.
RF/microwave signals. The 5G systems at mmWave frequencies, they add Choosing an OTA measurement
free space propagation loss complexity to testing. Antennas designed into approach involves understanding
is a square function of the devices are miniature and tightly integrated measurement conditions. A DUT’s far field
frequency and distance. with TRx circuitry, making RF probing at points needs to fit within the test chamber. It must
between TRx and antenna circuits impractical. also feature a test setup that can perform

16 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 6 • 2020 eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com

 OTA TESTING

Near field and far field A visualization of near-field

area and far-field area.

D3 2D2
R > 0.62 R>
λ λ
UE
MP A MP B MP C MC D
D
R : Distance

Near field area Far field area

MP : measurement point

measurements with enough range, accuracy, and speed to make include a signaling tester that can act as a 5G NR network node
5G UE measurements practical. The most common OTA test (5G nGB) when testing a UE device within the test chamber.
approaches are indirect-far-field (IFF), direct-far-field (DFF), and OTA measurements on 5G devices pose new test challenges,
near-field-to-far-field (NFTF) configurations. including evaluating DUTs with multiple RATs, multiple frequency
IFF – Also known as a compact antenna test range (CATR), ranges, and advanced AAS architectures. Because of the
IFF uses a shaped reflector to collimate beams from a DUT and complexity of beam forming and signal switching in 5G systems, a
effectively shorten the distance to the far field. It has less path loss measurement system must also serve as a 5G nGB.
than the longer distance to the far field in a DFF setup. The trade-off The test solution must provide control of signal frequency and
is that it can only measure one signal at a time as it has a single feed power and evaluate how a 5G UE DUT responds to different signal
antenna. IFF typically has a positioner to move the azimuth and and beam-switching environments. Because some conformance
elevation of the DUT to create a 3D radiation pattern for testing. tests for 5G UE are still in development, the 5G NR test
DFF – Like IFF, DFF uses a positioner to adjust the DUT environment is still changing and will benefit from a test solution
azimuth and elevation to create a 3D radiation pattern for testing. that can efficiently evolve as standards advance.
Unlike IFF, this chamber can have multiple feed antennas, hence, Test equipment for 5G UE device testing should provide
enabling multiple measurements with different angle of arrivals. performance levels that exceed those expected of a DUT, in
This method can result in significant savings in terms of OTA terms of frequency range, frequency accuracy, signal sensitivity,
chamber capital cost, as it does not use the reflector. and dynamic range. The measurement uncertainty of the
NFTF – With this approach, measurements are first made in test equipment should be well within the limits of applicable
the DUT’s near field. Fast-Fourier-transform (FFT) calculations then measurement standards and the performance limits of the DUT.
predict far-field data from the near-field measurements. This is Engineers must consider that uncertainty is impacted by the test
the slowest of the three OTA approaches because of the test and antenna calibration, DUT positioner, and the frequency accuracy of
computation times required. the test system’s reference oscillator.
OTA testing helps to ensure 5G UE are in compliance with In a nutshell, the integration of mmWave frequencies, coupled
Third Generation Partnership Program (3GPP) standards. Among the with the exponential increases in bandwidth and latency associated
critical measurements for 3GPP acceptance are effective isotropic with 5G, have made OTA testing an essential part of the verification
radiated power (EIRP), total radiated power (TRP), effective isotropic process. Selecting the proper test solutions and OTA approaches
sensitivity (EIS), and total isotropic sensitivity (TIS). can improve product design and speed time-to-market.
EIRP determines how much power an omnidirectional antenna
needs to transmit in all directions to match the signal strength of
a directional antenna in one direction. EIS measures the sensitivity
of an antenna to detect signal energy in one direction. EIRP and
EIS measurements can provide details on locating the beam peak REFERENCES
transmitted by a UE device and its sensitivity to detecting the
identifying beam transmitted by a 5G network node, base station, Anritsu Co.,
or “hot spot.” https://www.anritsu.com/en-US
OTA measurements require a test chamber based on a
designated OTA test method. The reference antenna and test
equipment must measure frequency, power, spurious emissions,
and error vector magnitude (EVM) of in-phase/quadrature (I/Q)
modulated signals in FR1 and FR2 frequency bands to capture
higher-order harmonic interference. The proper test setup will

eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com 6 • 2020 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 17

TEST & MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK

Work-at-home tools:
PC-based instruments
address demanding applications
TREVOR SMITH | PICO TECHNOLOGY TEST & MEASUREMENT

Advanced technology now lets budget-

priced instrumentation handle tasks once
requiring specialized and pricey test gear.

WITH A LARGE SEGMENT of engineers and

researchers working at home or away from their lab during
the pandemic, there is a large incentive to troubleshoot
designs and validate performance using systems that are
both precise and that stay within a limited budget. That
is one reason why there is growing interest in PC-based
systems such as PicoScopes that are able to capture and
display complex waveforms that are the heartbeat of next-
generation electrical and electronic technologies. They
address many challenges with mathematical waveform
analysis tools, decoding of popular serial communication With dimensions of 245x192x62 mm (9.7x7.6x2.5 in), the
protocols, and mixed-signal capabilities that span analog/ 6000E Series oscilloscopes Pico PC-based instruments
fit easily on any workbench.
digital, serial/parallel, high-speed (to 1 GHz) and high-
resolution (to 16-bit) technologies.

Total cost of ownership of PicoScope PC-based instruments

compares favorably with conventional benchtop instruments
through free software updates provided throughout the
lifetime of the products. Further, an advantage of the PC-
based approach is that new PC and display technologies
can be swapped in as they become available, upgrading
instrument performance.
It is useful to review what kind of accuracy this sort of
equipment can provide. Pico data loggers enable multi-
channel recording of scientific and engineering parameters
such as temperature (to 0.015°C accuracy), voltage (to
0.1% accuracy and 24-bit resolution), current, force, strain,

18 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 6 • 2020 eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com

 PC-BASED INSTRUMENTS

Pico data loggers enable multi-channel

recording of scientific and engineering
parameters such as temperature (to 0.015°C
accuracy), voltage (to 0.1% accuracy and 24-bit
resolution), current, force, strain, vibration and
many others. Alarms can be set to warn or take
action on measurements that are out of limits.
Annotations can be made during recordings to
aid documentation of the results.

vibration and many others. Alarms can be set to Pico Test & Measurement products are PC- the PicoScope 6000E Series oscilloscope
warn or take action on measurements that are based, connecting to and employing industry- encompassing eight and four-channel models,
out of limits. Annotations can be made during standard computer hardware and software for each of which can be configured with 16
recordings to aid documentation of the results. control, display and results analysis. The benefit optional digital channels. These products
Pico radio frequency (RF) products of this approach is that the instruments are sport bandwidths of 300 or 500 MHz, 8-bit
include a vector network analyzer (VNA) more compact and less costly than traditional or 8/10/12-bit flexible resolution and up to
that is invaluable for characterization of benchtop instruments. It also means that users 4 GS deep capture memory. Pico PC-based
high-frequency communications networks can upgrade their computer at any time to instruments fit easily on any workbench and
and numerous other applications including take advantage of processor performance are increasingly being selected by engineers
materials and life sciences research. Pico improvements. Pico also provide free-of-charge working in a laboratory or at home who need
sampling scopes offer bandwidth to 25 GHz for updates to the application software throughout professional test equipment that fits in limited
characterization of high-speed data networks the lifetime of the instrument. available space and within budget.
and transmission lines. A recent development in this area is The PicoScope 6000E Series addresses

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TEST & MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK

The PicoScope 6000E Series,

coupled with PicoScope 6
application software, provides
advanced debugging tools
to accelerate development of
high-end embedded systems,
signal processing, power
electronics, mechatronics, and
automotive designs.

mainstream test engineering requirements Partner with extensive in-house MATLAB

faced by engineers developing next-generation developer experience.
embedded systems. The PicoScope 6000E Full capabilities of the PicoScope 6000E
Series, coupled with PicoScope 6 application hardware are exposed to the programmer via
software, provides advanced debugging tools to the API, which enables development of custom
accelerate development of high-end embedded and OEM applications in scientific, research,
systems, signal processing, power electronics, industrial, automotive and power applications.
mechatronics, and automotive designs.
The PicoScope 6000E Series incorporates
many features as standard, such as 21 serial REFERENCES
protocol decoder/analyzers, spectrum analysis
capability, a 50-MHz arbitrary waveform Pico Technology,
generator, and user-defined math and alarm https://www.picotech.com/
functions for in-depth analysis and long-term
unattended testing. With dimensions of
245x192x62 mm (9.7x7.6x2.5 in), the 6000E
Series oscilloscopes Pico PC-based instruments
fit easily on any workbench.
A free software development kit (SDK)
available by download enables users to write
their own applications around the PicoScope
6000E hardware. The SDK includes instrument
drivers for Windows, macOS and Linux, and
code examples in C, C#, C++ and Python.
Drivers are also provided to interface with
widely used third-party software packages
such as Microsoft Excel, National Instruments
LabVIEW and MathWorks MATLAB. Pico is an
approved MathWorks Connections Program

20 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 6 • 2020 eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com

5G TECHNOLOGY WORLD
Delivers the Latest 5G
Technology Trends

5G Technology World is EEWorldOnline’s newest site covering 5G technology,

systems, infrastructure, and wireless design and development.
Get caught up on critical 5G information, check out the following articles on 5GTechnologyWorld.com:

Massive MIMO performance testing: 5G is hot, keep your components and systems cool
Emulate the channel 5G’s antennas and the devices that drive them generate
Performing MIMO testing using real-world conditions is more heat than their LTE predecessors. That creates new
critical for successful 5G deployments. cooling problems for wireless devices and systems.
www.5gtechnologyworld.com/massive-mimo- www.5gtechnologyworld.com/5g-is-hot-keep-your-
performance-testing-emulate-the-channel components-and-systems-cool

5G moves into production, causes test issues IEEE 1588 adds timing performance while reducing
5G Technology World talks with Teradyne’s Jeorge cost and risk
Hurtarte, who explains components and over-the-air GPS and GNSS have been the standards for network
production test of 5G components. timing, but they have security issues. A Master clock and
www.5gtechnologyworld.com/5g-moves-into- IEEE 1588 reduces the risk and lowers installation costs.
production-causes-test-issues www.5gtechnologyworld.com/ieee-1588-adds-timing-
performance-while-reducing-cost-and-risk

For additional content, go to: www.5gtechnologyworld.com

TEST & MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK

FIPS 140-2 security testing

for wireless medical devices JAY WHITE | LAIRD CONNECTIVITY
Design engineers should be aware of several
testing issues surrounding encryption standards
designed to protect data from bad actors.

THE BAD GUYS DON’T CARE about your social is not only being sent back and forth between devices and healthcare
IT systems, but also residing on medical devices. FIPS 140-2 may not
security number and credit card numbers as much as you might think. have been designed with healthcare in mind, but it’s become the
Stolen security numbers are almost literally a dime a dozen on the dark gold standard for securing patient information and is being rapidly
adopted by healthcare companies and device manufacturers. For those
web: You can buy them for less than a dollar apiece. And credit card
wanting a deeper dive into how FIPS 140-2 protects healthcare data,
numbers aren’t much more valuable: They often just fetch $5 a card. my colleagues recently published a white paper, “Understanding Data
If you sold both to a hacker, you would barely have enough to pay for Encryption and FIPS 140-2 Within the Healthcare Environment,” that
is an excellent resource. It explains how this data encryption is useful
a latte and leave a decent tip for the barista. These price tags might for healthcare and provides practical guidance about how it fits into a
seem surprising, given how much effort people and companies put into broader security strategy for healthcare companies.
The industry is moving toward broad adoption of this security
trying to keep SS#s and CC#s secret. But clearly that’s not what online
standard in a way that will make FIPS 140-2 compliance and certification
criminals are shelling out their ill-begotten dollars and rubles for. a critical requirement for engineering teams bringing wirelessly-
connected medical devices to market. There are a number of key
But hackers and fraudsters are willing to pay for medical health takeaways from my own team’s experience that can be instructive. We
records. Those are where the action is at on the dark web. Becker’s, hope this serves as a practical checklist that will help your FIPS 140-2
the influential healthcare publication, reports those fetch $1,000 on the compliance and certification processes be successful.
dark web. It’s no wonder, then, that hackers have their eyes on the IT
systems of hospitals, clinics and other healthcare organizations. That • FIPS-Compliant is no longer enough – FIPS certification is complex,
includes wirelessly-connected medical devices, which may be viewed as so most companies in the industry made the practical choice
a way to gain access to IT systems and to gain visibility into confidential to have “FIPS-compliant” status as their target. Encryption was
patient information. To counter this threat, regulators and the healthcare implemented through FIPS-validated software such as Open
industry have focused on the security of these devices, and FIPS 140-2 is SSL, and that was seen as meeting the necessary threshold for
critical to the next wave of security measures. compliance. As the healthcare industry has put a stronger focus
FIPS 140-2 didn’t originate in healthcare. It is a security standard the on preventing breaches, their expectations about FIPS adoption
U.S. government uses for protecting sensitive but unclassified information has shifted as well. Increasingly, the healthcare buyers of medical
in IT devices and systems. FIPS stands for Federal Information Processing devices are requiring official FIPS certification. Devices that are
Standard, and encryption is at the heart of how it protects data both in only FIPS-compliant are increasingly a deal breaker, which puts the
motion and at rest. Encryption for information that is in transit has been responsibility on design engineers to make device-level certification
a common element of security protocols for quite some time. Before a mandatory element of their project plans.
data is sent from point A to point B, it is encrypted at the beginning of
the journey and then decrypted at the other side. This type of encryption • CMVP is the gatekeeper for being FIPS-certified – To achieve device-
even pre-dates the computer age. The Romans used a version of this level FIPS certification, you must successfully navigate CMVP, the
technique to deliver secret messages to military commanders. The same Cryptographic Module Validation Program. This is the certification
principles are behind the encryption of data in transit today, but with 256- program created jointly by the U.S. and Canadian governments to
bit encryption rather than an alphabet cipher that Julius Caesar used. The provide a uniform certification process for manufacturers in both
other key kind of encryption is for data at rest, which is about protecting countries. This might be a new acronym for design engineers familiar
it anywhere it is stored. This is particularly important for wirelessly- with agencies regulating wireless products and medical devices, but it’s
connected devices, used to hold confidential information. a critical one. CMVP has accredited independent labs in both countries
Those two types of protection are both vitally important for that specialize in cryptographic and security testing to ensure products
healthcare, where electronic health records and confidential patient data meet the standards and can get the FIPS-Certified seal of approval.

22 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 6 • 2020 eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com

 SECURITY TESTING

General flow of FIPS 140-2 testing and validation

Vendor selects a lab;
Submits module for testing;
Module IUT
NVLAP accredited Cryptographic
FIPS 140-2 CMT Lab module vendor
1
Lab submits questions
for guidance and
clarification
Test for conformance NIST / CSE issue
Issue validation
To FIPS 140-2;
Writes test report
1a testing and
Implementation
certificate
(via lab to the
Guidance
vendor)

4 Module 5a
Coordination
Cost recovery fee
Module's received prior to
test report validation

NIST / CSE
2 CMT Test report to NIST / CSE for
validation; module review pending
3
Reviewer assigned
module under review
How FIPS 140-2 List of validated 5 Finalization;
testing and validation
procedures take place
FIPS 140-2 NIST adds module to
for the general case. modules validated modules list at
www.nist.gov/cmvp

• All cryptography is not the same – One of

the most important things to know about FIPS 140-2 security levels
the CMVP testing process is that there
is specific criteria for how cryptography Level 1 Examines the cryptographic Level 4 The highest level of security which
components of your module’s software. provides complete protection around the
is implemented. Engineers who have
Requires production-grade components but module. Beneficial for modules located in
utilized cryptographic capabilities in the
no specific physical security mechanisms. physically unprotected environments or
past likely haven’t faced the specificity of
for modules that risk security compromises
CMVP’s standards for encryption, so it’s
Level 2 Adds physical security to the due to environmental conditions such as
important to understand what is permitted
software component. Requires physical temperature fluctuations. Adds physical
and what is not. To be approved, sensitive tamper-resistance (such as tamper-evident security to the software component. Requires
patient data must be encrypted with an coatings or seals or pick-resistant locks) and that the physical security mechanisms are
approved algorithm. For that reason, the role-based authentication. “tamper-active” meaning that the contents
safest route is to choose an FIPS-validated of the module are deleted or destroyed
encryption module, which already checks Level 3 Adds physical security to the software if it detects an environmental attack or is
the box for passing this part of the component. Requires a tamper-proof container physically compromised.
certification process. to protect the code to prevent intruders from
gaining access to the CSPs (critical security
• Know your boundaries – CMVP parameters) located within the module.
prescribes encryption technology with

eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com 6 • 2020 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 23

 TEST & MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK

no flexibility: Either the crypto module is paths in our own FIPS 140-2 design I hope this article serves as a practical road
approved or it will be rejected. But design strategy and certification plan. What we map for your team as you proceed with projects
engineers have more flexibility in setting found, though, is that the do-it-yourself that must achieve FIPS 140-2. Note also that
the boundaries of how encryption is used route is slow, complex and expensive. there is a new version of FIPS on the horizon –
in their product. The lesson here is similar to FIPS 140-3. That said, FIPS 140-2 will be around
There is the option of setting a broad that from wireless certifications with for quite a while until 140-3 becomes the
boundary that encompasses the entire regulatory agencies like the FCC. Yes, dominant protocol. Knowing how to successfully
device, or you can set the boundary more it’s possible to design something from implement FIPS 140-2 will be a vital skill for
narrowly to only focus on the cryptography- scratch that will get FCC approval, but it design projects for the foreseeable future.
relevant components. As an example, one usually makes more sense to use a pre- Even small mistakes with FIPS 140-2
of the key decisions designers will need certified module. Using a FIPS-validated can have major consequences in time to
to think through are the concepts of Data module will similarly streamline the market. Doing the right up-front planning
in Motion and Data at Rest and how they process by checking many of the boxes and architecting for FIPS 140-2 can help
relate to your boundary. the CMVP labs will look for. engineers avoid long delays and high costs
Data at Rest means the FIPS boundary This approach is particularly impactful that would interfere with a successful product
includes data that is stored on the device for the first step in the certification development timeline.
(hard drive or similar). Data in Motion process (step 1 where the certification lab
means the data-path that is transmitting does a design review, boundary review
the data is encrypted using a FIPS- and architecture review), potentially
validated crypto-module. Your team should accelerating that phase of the process
REFERENCES
be thinking as early as possible about the because the lab will have immediate
boundary you will present to the CMVP- clarity into and confirmation of the
Laird Connectivity,
accredited labs because that will steer the device’s adherence to many FIPs criteria.
https://www.lairdconnect.com/
entire testing process later on.
• Know your level and set your calendar –
White paper, Understanding Data
• Start as early as possible because there There are a couple of additional pieces
Encryption and FIPS 140-2 Within the
are two steps – For early planning, it is of advice useful for effective FIPS 140-2
Healthcare Environment,
important to think about FIPS 140-2. Every planning. First, FIPS 140-2 has four
https://www.lairdconnect.com/
engineering team knows that certification is different levels, and picking the correct
resources/white-papers/understanding-
time consuming, but many may not realize one is a critical early step in your design
data-encryption-and-fips-140-2-within-
how long FIPS certification takes. The project. The white paper mentioned
healthcare-environment
process commonly requires 12-14 months previously has a detailed discussion of
– and that’s when things go smoothly. It can the four levels and for which devices
take far longer if there are setbacks. each one is relevant.
The process takes that long because Most devices only need Level 1,
it’s actually two processes: In the first step the simplest level to achieve. Other
the certification lab does a design review, devices, however, may require Levels
boundary review and architecture review. 2, 3 or 4 – each of which are more
In the second step the lab submits the involved. Not looking closely at the four
data to NIST in the U.S. or its Canadian levels and selecting the wrong one will
counterpart for review. Engineering teams likely guarantee major setbacks later in
must build this into their project timelines the certification process. So be sure to
as well as begin steps in the FIPS process examine the four paths at the beginning
as early as possible to avoid delays in of the design process.
getting products to market. The other caveat is about the
requirement that FIPS certification be
• The fastest route may be a validated renewed every five years. Unlike some
module – It is possible to tackle these other certifications, it does not last for the
projects using a combination of software life of the product. Your organization will
packages and other components to build- need to map out a strategy for scheduling
out all of the elements that will achieve and conducting certification future
FIPS 140-2 certification. Those tools are renewals to ensure products retain their
readily available. My team worked with certification and can stay on the market.
many of them as we explored various

24 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 6 • 2020 eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com

 5G TESTING

Testing regimes for the new

frequencies and features of 5G
ROHDE AND SCHWARZ
Measurements taking place in pre-commercial 5G
network trials provide new insights and overcome
uncertainties before the technology’s formal launch.

How 5G is evolving
THE 3RD GENERATION • NTN
Partnership Project (3GPP) defined fifth- • Frequency bands
• IAB • NR light
generation (5G) cellular technology in • NR-U
Release 15, which updated mission-critical • eV2X
• URLLC and IIoT
(MC) communications and MC service • NR • SEAL
• SBA
functions, to meet the International
• NG-RAN and NGC
Telecommunication Union’s IMT-2020 • Networking slicing
• EDge computing Release 17
performance requirements. IMT-2020
laid out the basic requirements for 5G
networks, devices and services. Release 15 Release 16
also enabled a variety of services associated
December 2021
with usage scenarios such as enhanced
Release 15
mobile broadband (eMBB), ultra-reliable low-
latency communications (URLLC), and massive June 2020 The evolutionary
(5G Phase 2) path of 5G.
machine type communications (mMTC).

Some of the 5G performance requirements 2018 (5G Phase 1)

spelled out are a 20 Gbps peak data rate,
1 msec radio network latency, 10 Mbps/m2
area throughput, and 1 million (low-rate) IoT provides a solid framework for enhanced 3GPP also defined the next phase
devices per square kilometer. Key building network performance and mass offering of of 5G, also called 5G Phase 2, in Release
blocks for 5G are the New Radio (NR) air amazing services, 3GPP is actively working on 16. Planned features for Release 16 (R16)
interface, new radio and core network further enhancing the framework. include NR unlicensed (NR-U), basically a
architectures, virtualization and automation way for devices to share unlicensed spectra
technologies, and new types of devices. RELEASE 15 by incorporating some kind of coordination
These building blocks enable 5G to offer 3GPP defined the initial ideas for 5G, called mechanism; integrated access and backhaul
targeted 5G services. 5G Phase 1, in Release 15 (R15). Example (IAB), basically an alternative to fiber backhaul
Operators worldwide continue to features of R15 include the New Radio (NR) air that extends NR to support wireless backhaul;
evaluate pre-commercial network trials to interface, new radio network architecture called enhanced vehicle-to-everything (eV2X), Ultra-
ensure a smooth 5G NR network roll-out. next- generation radio access network (NG- Reliable Low-Latency Communication (URLLC)
The aim is to overcome the challenge of a RAN), new core network architecture called features that provide low latency and ultra-high
more demanding and complex air interface next generation core (NGC) or 5G core (5GC), reliability for mission critical applications such
and deliver the commercial and technical service based architecture (SBA), network as industrial internet, smart grids, and remote
benefits offered by 5G. While Release 15 slicing and edge computing. surgery; and industrial IoT (IIoT) enhancements

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TEST & MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK

5G apps waiting to happen

and a service enabler architecture layer (SEAL), basically a way for

common services to be used across different vertical industries.
There is also a Release 17. Potential Release 17 (R17) features Satellite access
include non-terrestrial networks (NTN) (i.e. those using satellites), new
5G LAN Critical
frequency bands (e.g. 7 GHz to 24 GHz and > 53 GHz), as well as medical apps
enhancements to NR sidelink (direct communication between devices
without going through a base station) and NR light, basically NR Haptic
extended to simple devices such as low-end wearables or industrial services
sensor networks. Verticals for V2X
positioning
Some features may initially be introduced in one release, but
use cases
defined in an elaborated fashion in a future release. The 3GPP
work in R16 and R17 is classified into the following categories: (i)
Positioning UAV
service expansions, (ii) NR enhancements, (iii) network architecture
enhancements and (iv) miscellaneous enhancements.
Like LTE, NR uses orthogonal frequency division multiplexing but
Cyber-physical Audio-visual
makes it highly flexible. For example, it introduces variable subcarrier control apps production
spacing, flexible radio frame structure including a self-contained
slot, and carrier bandwidth parts. Both sub-7-GHz spectrum (called
frequency range 1 or FR1) and millimeter wave spectrum (called
frequency range 2 or FR2) are supported. The new high-performance
channel coding techniques of low-density parity check coding (a type The applications envisioned
of linear error-correcting code) and polar coding (a linear block error design and deployment of the for new 5G infrastructure.
correcting code) are defined. Spatial multiplexing techniques used 5G system using virtualization
in LTE, SU-MIMO and MU-MIMO (single and multi-user MIMO), are and automation technologies such as network functions virtualization
enhanced in 5G. NR is a beamformed air interface with fewer beams (NFV), software defined networking (SDN), OpenStack (a cloud
at low-frequency bands and more beams at high frequency bands. operating system that manages and controls resources through APIs
5G supports hybrid beamforming where both digital beamforming with common authentication mechanisms) and Orchestration.
(available in LTE) and analog beamforming are combined. Massive R15 fully defines two deployment options for the network
MIMO in 5G enables enhanced combining of beamforming methods architecture: non-standalone (NSA) NR and standalone (SA) NR.
with spatial multiplexing. Non-standalone NR with the EPC (Evolved Packet Core) uses the
While NR provides a flexible air interface, it is advantageous in LTE eNB (Evolved Node B) as the master node and makes use of a
transitioning from 4G to 5G to use dynamic spectrum sharing (DSS) gNB’s additional NR radio resources when possible. Standalone NR
to dynamically allocate 4G and 5G subcarriers in the same channel. with the NGC does not rely on the LTE eNB at all and allows direct
Basically, DSS dynamically allocates spectrum resources between 4G communications between the UE and the gNB.
LTE and 5G NR based on user demand. With DSS, mobile operators 3GPP introduces the concept of network slicing, where different
can simultaneously support 4G LTE, 5G NSA and 5G SA devices. DSS logical networks are created using the same physical network to cater
was introduced in R15, further refined in R16 and R17 and will probably to different services and different customer requirements for a given
continue to be refined in future releases, especially to improve the service. Three standard slices for eMBB (Enhanced mobile broadband,
scheduling of resources between and within 4G and 5G subcarriers and an extension of services first enabled by 4G LTE networks that allows for
across multiple cells. While the transition from one wireless generation a high data rate across a wide coverage area), URLLC (Ultra-reliable low-
to another in a specific band has been a painful experience in the past, latency communication) and massive IoT are defined with support for
it will be much easier with 5G thanks to DSS. numerous operator defined network slices.
3GPP supports edge computing where the applications reside close
NG-RAN, NGC AND SBA to the UE. More specifically, 3GPP allows the selection of a gateway that
NG-RAN (next-generation radio access network) includes NR-based is close to the gNB. Because user traffic passes through a local gateway
5G base stations called next generation node Bs or gNBs. A gNB can instead of a remote gateway located deep inside the core network, both
be decomposed or disaggregated into a central unit and a distributed the end-to-end latency and transport requirements are reduced.
unit. Such a gNB architecture reduces infrastructure and transport
costs and provides scalability. While LTE uses a limited number of 5G NR TESTING AND DATA ANALYTICS
nodes in the evolved packet core (EPC), 5G defines more network Networks are growing more complex with the emergence of new
functions (NF) that have fewer responsibilities. The overall 5G system cellular use cases and more demanding subscriber and machine quality
is based on SBA (service-based architecture), where NFs communicate of experience (QoE), enabled by the roll out of technologies such as
with each other using service-based interfaces. SBA facilitates the 5G and internet of things (IoT). Therefore, it becomes more critical to

26 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 6 • 2020 eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com

 5G TESTING

understand the current network situation and pinpoint the need for separate test platforms, removes
areas for development that will efficiently deliver the compatibility issues and provides a seamless interface
required performance. Delivering excellent QoS (quality across each stage of the network testing lifecycle. This
of service) to end users is a primary objective for mobile provides capital and operating expenditure efficiencies in
network operators to retain subscribers, attract new test resources, equipment and execution.
customers and competitively position themselves. A 5G In a nutshell, the mobile communications industry
NR measurement solution should provide accurate and undertook a paradigm shift in defining the next
reliable data collection with coverage measurements, generation of mobile communications. 5G Phase 1, or
application QoE measurements, and verification of the R15, provides a strong foundation for enhancements
device interaction with a real 5G NR network. in future releases by defining a high-performance NR
The data analytics of this solution should comprise air interface and flexible network architecture. R16 and
the entire network testing lifecycle, from network later releases focus on new verticals to significantly
engineering and optimization to benchmarking and expand the applications of wireless communications.
monitoring, and have the following objectives: The introduction of new frequencies and features, such
as 3.7 GHz and beamforming respectively, make testing
• To effectively store, process and visualize big data particularly important and challenging, despite numerous
• To gain deep network insights simulations executed by industry players. Conducting
• To ultimately build intelligence for investment measurements in pre-commercial network trials is the
prioritization based on the most critical factors only way to gain new insights and to overcome doubts
influencing network performance and QoE and uncertainties before the technology’s launch.

To measure and analyze pre-commercial 5G NR trials

and early deployments, a real-time analysis tool, such REFERENCES
as R&S ROMES4 from Rohde & Schwarz, is sufficient.
Network measurements in commercial 5G NR networks Rohde&Schwarz,
require a sophisticated post-processing tool for data https://www.rohde-schwarz.com/us/
analytics. products/test-and-measurement/overview/
For accurate network engineering, benchmarking, test-measurement_229579.html
monitoring and optimization, it is necessary to process a
large quantity of complex data and produce clear, easy-
to-understand intelligence in a network to make better
decisions. Correct decisions can only be made when
they are based on reliable and accurate data, processed
quickly and appropriately.
By processing data acquired from the end-user
perspective, the Rohde & Schwarz data analytics tool
SmartAnalytics provides a precise and clear assessment of
an operator’s own network quality (QoE from the end-user
perspective) and its competitive position in the market.
Analytical tools must provide visibility of the main
factors influencing network performance and QoE status,
its context, development trends, problems and possible
degradation causes. Thanks to the network performance
score integrated in SmartAnalytics, a software suite that
analyzes and post-processes measurement files collected
with R&S Mobile Network Testing solutions, network
operators can identify strategic areas for investment. As
a result, mobile operators can efficiently deliver optimal
end-user QoE.
SmartAnalytics is a flexible tool that encompasses
different mobile network testing use cases such as
engineering, optimization, monitoring and benchmarking,
using the same user interface and platform. It eliminates

eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com 6 • 2020 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 27

TEST & MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK

Detecting counterfeit integrated

circuits without a microscope
Curve-trace testing can reveal whether an incoming batch of ICs
ALAN LOWNE | SAELIG
are bogus without resorting to destructive inspection measures.

MAKING FAKE “lookalike” integrated circuits which resemble can unknowingly induce major reliability hazards such as cracking or
delamination of the package.
real ones takes minimal skill. It may simply require finding cheap
Conversely, counterfeiters may mark lead-free packages as lead-
parts in the same package and applying new markings. This problem bearing to meet demands for legacy lead-bearing packages. This
has arisen due to the high value of electronics parts, and the whole may cause tin whiskers to form between adjacent pins and solder
balls on ICs.
manufacturing chain from assembly house to end-user is vulnerable. To better mimic original parts, counterfeiters now largely mark IC
packages with lasers rather than ink. The problem is that counterfeiters
There are several methods the counterfeiters use to produce their usually do not know the depth of bond wires in plastic packages,
fake goods. Consider just one means, salvaging ICs from old circuit especially when they have thinned these packages by chemically or
boards. ICs recycled from old PCBs are often so old that they mechanically removing the original package markings. So the fake
contain lead or other materials now banned by RoHS. Moreover, laser-marking process sometimes partially melts bond wires.
those built to use tin-lead solder were built to use relatively low Bad laser marking can also compromise hermetic packages. In one
peak solder reflow temperatures (typically below 235°C). Today’s case, counterfeiters laser-marked iron-based IC lids plated with nickel
lead-free IC packages now see peak reflow temperatures as high as and gold. The laser fully removed both layers of plating to expose the
260°C. Manufacturers that mount what they believe are lead-free ICs underlying iron. Prolonged exposure to moisture would corrode away
the iron, allowing moisture ingression.
Also in attempting to make old
components look new, counterfeiters typically
can use acids on package pins and solder
balls. These acids may be incompatible

SENTRY contains all the hardware required

to analyze the electrical characteristics of ICs
with up to 256 pins. 256 pins+ devices can also
be tested by rotating the device (BGA, QFP)
to allow all pins to be learned and compared.
SENTRY contains four 48-pin dual-in-line (DIL)
zero-insertion-force (ZIF) sockets; these can be
used directly for older DIP components but
can also be used to accommodate a variety
of additional socket adapters available for
different package types. The socket adapter
can contain multiple IC sockets to allow testing
several ICs simultaneously or comparing one IC
with another. An expansion connector allows
custom socket adapters with up to 256 pins to
be attached.

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 COUNTERFEIT ICs

Chip package markings can be made to look

almost identical to the uncritical observer. Here the
second package is fake. An examination of the die
it contained revealed an Intel chip rather than the
programmable peripheral interface from NEC that
was supposed to be present.

with the package materials, and sometimes These companies offer techniques such as x-ray, These types of tests can detect defects such as
counterfeiters don’t wash them off completely. x-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF), decapsulation, missing or broken bond wires, cracked die, and
Particularly if the counterfeiters cause package heated solvent testing, visual inspection, damage to hermetically sealed chip packages.
delamination with their antics, acid residues and solderability testing. These tests result in Instruments that carry out curve-trace
can corrode active die circuitry after months detailed reports – when all that is often required tests of this sort were originally used to check
or years of use. Some of the same problems is an answer to the question, “Is it a good part?” out discrete transistors and diodes. But these
can arise when ICs are new but have been In reality, this approach is only viable for military first curve tracers generally could only test
rebadged, remarking cheap ICs to look like or large volume production runs. one discrete semiconductor device at a time.
more expensive versions. Another approach for detecting counterfeits Their modern counterparts are designed with
Technical measures to detect counterfeits is to perform a functional test on a sample of multiple channels to simultaneously stimulate
have previously included visual inspection the ICs; logic I/O conforming to a truth table all or most of the pins on a modern IC.
of devices for marking errors – which needs is an example. This technique is faster and An example of one such device in this
a trained eye for all possible variations in less expensive than typical destructive and category is the ABI Sentry Counterfeit IC
marking. The x-raying of incoming parts is inspection tests. It will detect gross problems, Detector. Sentry is PC-driven and checks
another technique. Non-destructive imaging such as a incorrect logical function, or no the validity of parts in seconds. The product
techniques such as radiography can generate function at all, but will miss the subtle ‘out is designed to be used by personnel in a
2D images showing internal chip features, and of tolerance’ issues – tell-tale signs that a receiving department. The analysis takes place
computational tomography can generate 3D component is counterfeit. With older-technology in the background and the operator only sees a
representations from multiple 2D projections. IC families, different speed variants are available. simple “Good Device,, “Blank Device,” or “Fail
More sophisticated non-destructive techniques Conventional testing equipment with this level of Device” message, with the option to produce a
include energy disruptive spectroscopy, which speed test capability is extremely expensive. detailed report to send to the supplier.
involves high-energy x-rays, and terahertz There is a different kind of non-destructive The ABI Sentry is a benchtop device
time-domain spectroscopy. There are also electrical test used to detect counterfeits. that uses an advanced form of VI testing to
destructive methods that destroy the IC. For Called a curve-trace test, the idea is to apply a determine an IC’s electrical characteristics or
example, a complex decapsulation system can voltage and current to pairs of pins on the IC to signature. The Sentry’s VI Matrix Test exercises
be used to visually inspect IC die samples. gauge the V-I behavior. The stimulus signal can every possible pin combination on the IC under
However, all these procedures are expensive be a sine wave, a triangle wave, a ramp, and investigation. This provides great insight, more
and time consuming. They require skilled so forth. The stimulus is applied to all pins on a than simple systems that are restricted to testing
operators and expensive equipment. known-good part, then the resulting responses between pins and ground. The Sentry’s Matrix VI
Some distributors have advertised serve as a template for what to expect from ICs Test can reveal differences between devices with
screening services for verifying components that aren’t counterfeit. This response is directly different functionality but similar technology.
with a turnaround time of “as little as two days.” related to the device characteristic, its internal For example, it can detect a relabeled chip with
That time frame is unacceptable in many cases. structure, and its manufacturing processes. the same input/output pinout. So the Matrix VI

eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com 6 • 2020 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 29

TEST & MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK

VI curves used for verifying the identity

of an IC. VI testing applies a voltage
waveform between two IC pins and
measures how the current drawn
changes as the applied voltage varies.
This response is directly related to
the device characteristic, its internal
structure and manufacturing
processes. These curves were taken
using an ABI Sentry.

Test yields much more useful data than the more characteristics of known components and with
limited pin-to-ground test. suspect components. The testing between
The VI characteristics captured by Sentry every possible pin combination maximizes the
are called PinPrints and are the unique signature chances of capturing internal fault conditions.
for a device. In operation, technicians would Sentry can quickly detect missing or incorrect
first use Sentry to test a known-good device dies, lack of bond wires, inaccurate pin outs
and obtain its “gold standard” signature. They and pin impedance variations. Simple pass or
would then compare subsequent signatures fail results are returned after testing.
of incoming, unknown chips with the known- Controlled via USB using PC software,
good version to check for discrepancies. Small Sentry’s device library can be built up by
variations are likely to indicate that the chips adding specific known good devices. The
are from different manufacturers, or possibly device database can include documents such
different batches from the same manufacturer. as photos of device markings, data sheets,
Larger differences, however, suggest that the and other documentation to further help in
chips are faulty or counterfeit. confirming the integrity of a device. In the same
Sentry can be customized for each IC type vein, Sentry can improve quality assurance
by setting tolerances that define the point at programs via detailed reports saved to provide
which a tested device is deemed bad. If no quality control traceability.
reference devices are available there are two There are efforts afoot to curb various
alternatives. Reference data can be imported forms of IC counterfeiting. For example, the
into the Sentry database from other machines IEEE P1735 standard spells out ways to encrypt
or libraries. Alternatively, and not quite as good, electronic-design intellectual property in the
testing can be done across a batch; if there is IC hardware and software so chip designers
any variance then the whole batch becomes can protect their IP and prevent nefarious
suspect and should be rejected. manufacturers from copying the chip design.
A package with no internal die is easily But vulnerabilities have been uncovered in
detected - all pins will show the straight line the standard itself. Indications are that the
‘null response’ of an open-circuit. Sentry uses cat-and-mouse game between counterfeiters
a comparative technique to rapidly analyze and manufacturers will be with us for a long
and learn new components, and then test the time to come. Thus it’s likely that counterfeit
unknown parts. A known-good component is detection measures such as electronic testing
locked into a ZIF socket while a test pattern and package inspection will be necessary for a
is applied across all its pins. The component’s long time to come.
response to this test pattern is automatically
measured and stored as a benchmark.
Sentry uses a combination of electronic REFERENCES
parameter settings (voltage, frequency, source
resistance and waveform) to generate the ABI Sentry, http://www.saelig.com/
“signature” for each pin of the IC it checks. product/TSTEQICT001.htm
It then compares the unique electrical

30 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 6 • 2020 eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com

 CALL FOR NOMINATIONS:
THE 2020
R&D 100 AWARDS
What is the R&D 100 awards program? SUBMIT YOUR ENTRY TODAY!

Established in 1962, the R&D 100 Awards is the only S&T (science and Deadline for submissions
technology) awards competition that recognizes new commercial products, June 26th, 2020
technologies and materials for their technological significance that are
available for sale or license. Late deadline for submissions
July 15th, 2020
There are six categories in the R&D 100, listed below. There are also four
special recognition categories, which follow. A given innovation can be
To be eligible for R&D 100 Awards consideration,
entered in both a regular category and any of the special recognition your product or service must have been made
categories — but please note that a separate entry fee is required for each available to the marketplace between January 1,
nomination. Special recognition categories are awarded separately from the 2019 and March 31, 2020.
100 winners that comprise the R&D 100.

In addition, the judging panel will award finalist designations to selected THE R&D 100 AWARD WINNERS
top nominations. This announcement of finalists is made first, followed by WILL BE ANNOUNCED ON OR
the actual R&D 100 winners several weeks later. This allows all finalists and
winners plenty of time to make arrangements to attend the awards banquet
ABOUT SEPTEMBER 15, 2020
and/or conference.

Categories include:
Analytical/Test • IT/Electrical • Mechanical/Materials • Process/Prototyping • Software/Services • Other
Special Recognitions: Corporate Social Responsibility • Green Tech • Market Disruptor – Products • Market Disruptor – Service

FOR MORE INFORMATION OR TO SUBMIT YOUR ENTRY, GO TO:

WWW.RD100CONFERENCE.COM/SUBMISSIONS-FOR-2020
TEST & MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK

The Eclypse Z7 board looks

like an FPGA board but
harnesses the open I/O
standard called SYZYGY.

Work-at-home instrumentation DAVID HORN | DIGILENT

The rise in social distancing has fostered a need for professional-
grade test instruments that function as well at home as in the lab.

THE EVENTS that have unfolded As engineers and students are reluctantly and academics to make more out of less. One
being asked to move those workspaces to of the most sought-after resource needs in
across the world since the beginning of 2020 their homes, the question remains: Is this a engineering, besides time, is laboratory space,
have turned the global marketplace upside temporary solution or something that can be which happens to be an advantage of Digilent’s
permanent? The truth is, innovations in at- portable test and measurement devices. The
down. Few industries have felt this seismic shift
home labs for engineering, flipped classrooms, introduction of portable test and measurement
as much as engineering, where companies and and online work capacity in recent years have devices has added engineering to the list of
added the ability to serve more engineers, jobs that can be done fully or partially remote.
their employees have traditionally spent much
novice and experienced, without increasing Scenes of engineers having to take
of their time working in a hands-on capacity the lab space. Whether or not they are having their turns in a secured laboratory for every
with numerous pieces of equipment in curated a consistent experience with their test and measurement are becoming less and less
measurement equipment remains a separate frequent. Engineers are constantly asked
lab spaces and workbenches. The same is true question altogether. to produce more, faster, requiring them to
for those electrical engineering students and Even before COVID-19 and its resulting adapt and innovate to minimize their design
fallout, engineering companies and universities cycle time, all while still meeting strict design
professors that are being forced out of their
were increasingly asked to support more while requirements. Devices on the desk that could
comfort zones as well. remaining under budget, tasking engineers, allow engineers to work from home or remotely

32 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 6 • 2020 eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com

 HOME INSTRUMENTATION
A platform for home instrumentation

Oscilloscope

Waveform Generator
Logic Analyzer

Network Analyzer Pattern Generator

Impedance Analyzer
Power Supply

Protocol Analyzer
Data Logger

The Analog Discovery 2

provides the basis for a Spectrum Analyzer
number of general-purpose Voltmeter
benchtop instruments.

Static I/O

just starting to creep into the engineering workplace when COVID-19 USB AND VIRTUAL INSTRUMENTS
hit. These portable test and measurement devices, and what they can It is useful to explore the difference between a USB-connected
offer, will become critical pieces of the puzzle in the coming months of, instrumentation device and a related approach called a virtual
“What now?” instrument. A virtual instrument consists of a PC equipped with software
Of course, a USB connected device cannot solve all the problems and hardware such as cards and drivers that together perform the
engineers face right now, but until we can get back into the lab, can functions of a traditional instrument. Software is the main element of a
it solve a lot of them? And once we’re all back in the office, can these virtual instrument; traditional instruments are hardware focused. A virtual
devices continue to provide convenience, valuable and accurate instrument performs three basic functions of a traditional instrument:
measurements when a trip to the lab is just not fast enough? acquisition, analysis, and data presentation.

eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com 6 • 2020 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 33

 The two-channel oscilloscope on the
AD2 can measure single-ended signals
with industry standard BNC oscilloscope
probes or differential signals with MTE
cables provided with the device.

Programs made in the instrumentation USB-based instruments can work with the VI oscilloscope can measure single-ended signals
and control program LabVIEW are called programs created by LabVIEW. with industry standard BNC oscilloscope
virtual instruments, VIs. VIs consist of two One example is the Analog Discovery 2 probes or differential signals with MTE cables
fundamental parts, a front panel and a block (AD2). It contains 12 instruments typically found provided with the device. For tests that require
diagram. Within the interface of the software, in an engineering laboratory and provides stimulation as well as analysis, AD2 includes
there is a table of utilities or set of pallets the ability to write custom tests and analyze a two-channel waveform generator that can
that contain all the functions with which data with the power of a computer. Many provide any number of predefined or custom
modifications to the VI can be made. USB instruments focus on one specific set of waveforms for stimulus. The software interface
While a VI can run on a PC, it differs from measurements or tests, useful in one scenario – called WaveForms - also provides a network
the approach used USB-based instruments but not for the broader range of measurements analyzer with the ability to generate Bode,
that connect with PCs and use the PC for and tests needed throughout stages of Nichols, and Nyquist plots, among others, so
computational and display purposes. USB- design. The AD2 includes analog and digital designs can be analyzed and characterized
based instrumentation software can take instruments in the time and frequency domain. across a wide sweep of frequencies.
a variety of forms and doesn’t particularly Standard on any engineer’s benchtop Long-term measurements can be taken
conform to the front-panel/block-diagram is the oscilloscope, which is provided on the in the data logger, or in a record mode in
structure used with a VI. However, some AD2, with a useful twist. The two-channel the oscilloscope. No benchtop would be

A network analyzer
function on the AD2 has
the ability to generate
Bode, Nichols, and
Nyquist plots, among
others, for characterizing
designs across a wide
sweep of frequencies.

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 HOME INSTRUMENTATION

An impedance analyzer
function on the AD2 can
quantify inductive and
capacitive circuit elements.

complete without a power supply, so there is also a provided positive the spectrum analyzer can display signals in the frequency domain with
and negative supply on the device. For quick measurements there is a two available channels. Also recently added is an impedance analyzer.
simpler voltmeter interface as well. When a design or load needs characterization, the impedance analyzer
The AD2 also provides more advanced instrumentation. When the can quantify the inductive and capacitive elements.
need arises to quickly determine the frequency components in a signal, Almost no engineer faces a modern design challenge involving
only analog signals. While digital signals can be viewed and analyzed
in the oscilloscope, the AD2 also provides a logic analyzer to
automatically decode data, and a protocol analyzer to communicate
with a variety of protocols including SPI, I2C, HDMI, and more. When
the logic analyzer and oscilloscope are combined this way, both
instruments can work in unison to run a real use case stress test.
For example, a designer of consumer electronics might have
to test a motor and motor driver under real-world conditions.
When compared to a traditional lab bench the AD2 provides all the
instruments an engineer might need plus some not available in a
typical lab.
The AD2 user interface is designed to be familiar to those having
experience with traditional benchtop instruments. Additionally, it
provides the ability to script or write custom applications. The simple
script editor in WaveForms allows the AD2 instruments to run a
custom test, or a custom decoder. For example, this facility might
be used in generating an image from VGA signals or for comparing
analog data to converted digital data as when examining the
expected and actual result from a DAC under design.
The AD2 works with ordinary Mac, Windows, or Linux-based
computers. Consequently, software updates can add features and
even new instruments. To solve problems, engineers can talk directly
to the developers of the products themselves on the Digilent Forum.

Users of the AD2 can a simple script editor to

implement tasks such as running a custom test.

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TEST & MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK

Among the instrument functions available on the

AD2 is a logic analyzer that will automatically decode
data and a protocol analyzer to communicate with
protocols that include SPI, I2C, HDMI, and more.

Taking up about as much desk space as a count that economizes available FPGA I/O, and
typical mousepad, the AD2 can be expanded with low-cost cable options.
a variety of adapters and accessories. Another Its software environment helps connect
product, Analog Discovery Studio, provides software languages (C++, etc.) to hardware in a
the same functions as AD2 but also contains way that allows programming by non-hardware
integrated BNC connectors, a more powerful engineers. The 500 MHz data rates of the SYZYGY
power supply, and a convenient, bread-boardable connectors allow for a concept versatile enough
interface. For jobs focusing primarily in the world to cover a range of high-speed instrumentation
of digital signals, a product called the Digital and test applications.
Discovery provides 32 channels at 800 MS/sec Looking forward, we expect demand for
and features like selectable logic levels, slew more portable and mobile devices to bring a
rates, and more. need for higher-precision and higher-speed
Finally, a similar approach yields the Eclypse converters that are also energy efficient. We also
Z7, a high-speed analog I/O designed for expect the rising need for RF communications,
developing demanding test systems but which is test, and software-defined radio (SDR) will push
small enough to be used at home,. Many modern more devices to incorporate high-speed analog
electronic systems--including RF, instrumentation, circuitry. Semiconductor companies are already
imaging, and test devices--require high-speed pushing the speed and bit-depth or precision
and/or high-precision analog inputs. These sub- of their ADCs and DACs, so the bandwidths
systems may be characterized by a complex mix needed to communicate with those devices are
of analog, digital, and power-supply circuitry. being pushed as well. FPGAs are a good match
These design specialties are often difficult to to interface with these devices, providing both
find and can slow down and raise the cost of parallel and high-speed transceiver interfaces and
developing and prototyping cutting-edge systems. the specialized compute resources often required
The Eclypse platform drastically simplifies the task for in-line signal processing and/or control.
of adding instrumentation-grade analog I/O to
FPGA-based systems, speeding the development
and prototyping process. REFERENCES
The Eclypse Z7 may look like an FPGA board,
but it harnesses the open I/O standard called Digilent Inc.,
SYZYGY. This standard for high-performance https://store.digilentinc.com/
peripheral connectivity includes low-cost,
compact, high-performance connectors, a pin

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 MONITORING HEART RATE

Monitoring heart-rate variability

for better athletic performance
Sensors and sophisticated FROM WEEKEND WARRIORS • Our relaxation response (the parasympathetic
nervous system) is the opposite. This is what
algorithms together deliver to professional athletes, most people who engage turns us toward a rest and recovery mode.
check heart-rate variability
in regular sports activity take note of various
and other exercise metrics. HRV tends to be low when we’re in a fight-or-flight
factors that influence their performance. Some
mode and high when we’re more relaxed. High HRV
ALISHER KHOLMATOV, meticulously track certain metrics from game to is generally associated with greater cardiovascular
RECEP OZGUN game to assess their progression (or lack thereof). fitness. The electrocardiogram test is the gold
standard for assessing HRV. However, wearable
MICROS, SECURITY & Others are diligent about every aspect of their devices with sophisticated algorithms are now
SOFTWARE BUSINESS UNIT, making this data more accessible to more people.
training and practice regimen. The emergence of
MAXIM INTEGRATED
sophisticated wearable devices like smartwatches
ANALYZING HRV FOR HEALTH INSIGHTS
and fitness trackers is bringing to light another Because HRV provides insights into our ANS, it
can be considered as the most important general
important indicator of athletic performance: heart-
wellness parameter. In the sports world, there’s a
rate variability (HRV). growing body of evidence pointing to the role of
HRV in setting optimal training loads to enhance
HRV provides a measure of the time difference athletic performance. For example, a study of
between successive heartbeats; the variation is cyclists by university researchers in Spain and South
controlled by the autonomic nervous system (ANS). Africa found that HRV-guided training led to better
This is the system that regulates our heartbeat, performance results.
blood pressure, and breathing. Our ANS consists HRV gives us some clues about potential
of two main components: cardiac conditions. Over time, higher HRV can
indicate increased resilience, while lower HRV
• Our “fight-or-flight mechanism” (the can point to chronic stress. HRV can be increased
sympathetic nervous system) is our by changes in behavior: quitting smoking, losing
response to external stress factors. This is weight if needed, exercising, and managing stress,
what makes us energized and ready to face for example. HRV analysis techniques that fall into
challenges. three categories provide useful health insights:

Autonomic nervous system in action

VAGUS NERVE BARORECEPTORS

How the autonomic nervous

system regulates heart rate
REST AND through parasympathetic
RECOVER and sympathetic influences.
LONG TERM: HRV
REST PARASYMPATHETIC INCREASED RESILIENCE

AUTONOMIC
FIGHT OR
NERVOUS
FLIGHT LONG TERM: HRV
SYSTEM
STRESS SYMPATHETIC CHRONIC STRESS

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TEST & MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK

Role of HRV
• Time-domain analysis, like
standard deviation and root mean
FITNESS &
square (RMS), provides powerful
ENDURANCE
differentiators of stressed versus
relaxed conditions. Some examples
include SDNN (the standard
deviation of NN (or R-R) intervals),
BEAT TO STRESS &
which provides a measure of HRV
changes in heart rate stemming BEAT HR RECOVERY
from cycles longer than five
minutes, and NN50, which notes
the number of pairs of successive
NN intervals that differ by more CARDIAC
than 50 msec. HEALTH
HRV provides an indicator of
• Frequency domain analysis potential cardiac conditions.
shows the ratio of parasympathetic and
sympathetic activity.
High frequency pertains to UNDERSTANDING EXERCISE METRICS (VO2 max) and remain there as long as possible
the parasympathetic system and Let’s now take a look at exercise physiology and to continuing burning fat post-exercise.
the vagus nerve, which controls the associated metrics. According to the American Zone 5 (more than 90% of max HR) is not
parasympathetic nervous system Heart Association, cardiorespiratory fitness is a recommended, as this is not at a healthy level and
Low frequency pertains to better indicator of mortality than any other risk can trigger long-term health effects.
sympathetic activity factors, including smoking, hypertension, and Recovery time after exercise depends
Very low frequency pertains high cholesterol. The current gold standard on the total O2 deficit. EPOC refers to the
to the sympathetic nervous system, to determine cardiorespiratory fitness is the amount of extra oxygen needed to recover
chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors, VO2 max test, which tests for the maximum after exercise. This extra oxygen consumption
and the renin-angiotensin system (i.e., amount of oxygen that one can use during actually burns additional calories after exercise.
hormones) intense exercise. VO2 max is related to peak The recovery itself has a fast and a slow
endurance. The test is generally administered in component. During the fast component, the
• Non-linear analysis can point to underlying a medical facility using a treadmill and an oxygen muscles return back to their normal state.
cardiac conditions and includes: mask. Other important exercise metrics include During the slow component, the lactic acid
Detrended fluctuation analysis measurements of HR and recovery and of excess that is generated during exercise (as glucose
(DFA), which looks for self-similar post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC). is burned to generate energy) is removed
patterns by analyzing the power spectral Based on the energy expended during from the muscles. EPOC lasts up to 48 hours
density (PSD). Peaks in PSD indicate exercise, HR goes up to deliver the oxygen depending on duration and intensity of the
repetitive patterns. needed for energy production. Max HR is the exercise.
Entropy analysis, a measure of upper limit. The max HR scale is divided into Besides the gold-standard VO2 max test,
randomness over time. Decreased HRV five zones, based on exercise strength or the there are other well-defined protocols that
and increased randomness of HR are exercise goal. The target heart rates are age- can guide exercise. Some are geared toward
independently associated with high-risk dependent. Zone 1 is the very low intensity zone establishing optimal training processes, while
conditions. (50-60% of max HR). Training at this intensity others are for improving the oxygen consumption
Poincaré plot analysis utilizes scatter will boost recovery and get you ready for higher rate and still others are aimed at increasing
plots of consecutive pulse interval points. zones. Zone 2 is essential for a runner’s program post-exercise energy consumption. During the
Consecutive pulses that vary by large (60-70% of max HR). Exercising at this zone exercise, VO2 increases as the workload increases.
amounts will have larger scattering around will improve general endurance. The last three However, at some point, despite an increase in
the diagonal. Low HRV will shrink and zones, however, are the most interesting: workload, an individual will reach his or her VO2
cluster around the diagonal. Unbalanced Zone 3 is the aerobic level (70-80% of max max. VO2 can be improved with training. Cross-
HR behaviors such as fast acceleration HR). This is a comfort zone, where oxygen is country skiers, runners, and swimmers tend to
and slow deceleration will generate readily available, and energy is generated mostly have the largest VO2 max.
asymmetric plots. Large off-diagonals from burning fat.
show skipped heartbeats, which usually Zone 4 is the anaerobic level (80-90% of max HRV-GUIDED TRAINING
indicate an arrhythmia problem. HR). This is out of the comfort zone, where the According to Market Reports Hub, the smart
goal is to hit the maximum oxygen consumption sports and fitness wearables market is projected

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 MONITORING HEART RATE

to reach $14.9 billion worldwide by 2021. These 1. Optical noise. Algorithms with Algorithms must be smart enough to
are the very devices, the analysts note, that are capabilities like ambient light rejection differentiate between motion and HR
about delivering meaningful data that can turn and “picket fence” detect-and-replace modulation.
into actionable information that helps people can, respectively, reduce the undesirable
improve athletic performance or manage overall noise and changes in ambient light HRV is an important indicator of health,
personal fitness. Indeed, there are now several conditions that hamper accuracy. well-being, and general fitness. In addition
wrist-worn and even in-ear devices on the to aiding in sports coaching and athletic
market that measure HRV as well as the exercise 2. Impact of sensor location on the training, HRV monitoring also has applications
metrics previously discussed. body. Muscle, tendon, bone, and in areas including stress maintenance and
While their HR measurement accuracy may overall arm and wrist movement can sleep analysis. Health-monitoring wearables
not be as precise as measurements collected generate optical noise that impacts equipped with sensors and sophisticated
via an ECG based chest-strap device, they measurements. Another factor is algorithms that together deliver HRV and other
provide an indication of VO2 max as well as the signal response at different exercise metric insights are enabling us to
of parameters like HRV and EPOC. A variety wavelengths. Designing a system that understand, in real time, how we can adjust our
of HRV-based guided exercise applications is consists of multiple sensors and light training regimens, optimize performance, and
also now available. All of these tools provide sources is key to overcoming these manage our fitness goals.
guidance to help users optimize daily stress load challenges. Also, while HR can be
and recovery, personalize training plans based tracked during exercise, the best REFERENCES
on the individual’s response to stress, plan for VO2 and recovery estimates can be
periods of rest between activity, and make made at resting states before and High HRV and cardiovascular fitness,
adjustments to enhance athletic performance. after exercise. From an algorithm https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/
Wearables rely on these key components standpoint, effective algorithms heart-rate-variability-new-way-track-
to deliver accuracy in measuring HRV: proper are designed with the ability to well-2017112212789
optical and industrial design, high signal-to- utilize the specificity of the sensor
noise ratio (SNR) optical bio-sensors, and, of location on the body and to HRV-guided training in cyclists, https://www.
course, advanced algorithms. From an optical compensate for any related optical trainingpeaks.com/coach-blog/new-study-
design perspective, because measurements are noise as necessary. widens-hrv-evidence-for-more-athletes/
based on the interaction of light with skin, it is
important to consider factors such as crosstalk 3. The effects of skin tone. Biological HRV analysis techniques, https://www.ncbi.
suppression, separation distance between the factors such as the darkness of nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5624990/
device’s LEDs and the photodiode, and opto- skin, the presence of body hair,
mechanical integration. and even the presence of tattoos Cardiorespiratory fitness, https://
As HRV is mainly dependent on small can make it more challenging www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/
beat-to-beat changes in HR periodicity, the to capture HR measurements cir.0000000000000461
most important input here comes from a reliable optically because they impact
HR reporting device. The signal quality of this light absorption and, thus, signal Market Reports Hub, https://www.
device, whether based on electrocardiogram quality. Algorithms that account for prnewswire.com/news-releases/smart-
(ECG), photophlethysmography (PPG), or poor signal quality are needed. sports-and-fitness-wearables-market-to-hit-
an acoustic approach, is a limiting factor 149-billion-by-2021-528461241.html
on accuracy. Bad HR readings can derail 4. The effects of low perfusion,
HRV measurements and subsequent VO2 which is an indication of pulse Optical design considerations, https://www.
max, recovery, and EPOC estimations. The strength and can also be triggered maximintegrated.com/en/design/technical-
robustness and high signal-to-noise ratio of during measurement by low body documents/app-notes/6/6768.html
ECG and PPG sensors used in the reporting temperature at the sensor location.
device can alleviate the impacts of optical noise Algorithms that account for poor ECG and PPG sensors, https://www.
on accuracy. Industrial design must factor in signal quality are needed to cover maximintegrated.com/en/design/technical-
where the HR readings will be captured—even these cases. documents/app-notes/6/6410.html
elasticity of the wrist strap is crucial.
Let’s now spend more time discussing the 5. Motion compensation, which Challenges that impact accuracy of
algorithms. To support HRV-guided training, the includes the “crossover” problem, optical HR measurements, https://
algorithms in these wearables must overcome where pulse rate and motion www.edn.com/electronics-blogs/about-
five foundational challenges that impact frequency cross over each other embedded/4440217/Optical-heart-rate-
accuracy of optical HR measurements: when the subject is in motion, measurement-s-top-5-challenges
negating one of the measurements.

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TEST & MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK

Basic test instrumentation

and its role in measurements DAVID HERRES | CONTRIBUTING EDITOR

It can be helpful to HERE’S A QUICK REVIEW OF VOLTMETER

understand the differences some basic instrumentation common to most
Unlike the ammeter, which is a series instrument,
between common test the voltmeter is placed in parallel across
engineering work benches. a component, conductor, circuit or power
gear used for bench-top
source. The full current does not pass through
development tasks. AMMETER the instrument, only a small fraction of it. The
The ammeter is the basis for many other exact amount depends upon the voltage being
electrical measuring instruments. Whether you measured and the impedance of the voltmeter.
are measuring volts or ohms, essentially inside The input impedance rating of the instrument is
the instrument you are measuring current. all-important and determines how accurately a
Measurement of current in a circuit is somewhat given circuit can be measured. A low-impedance
problematic because all the electrical energy to meter places a heavy load on the circuit under
be measured must pass through the meter, so investigation. Used beyond its rating, or with a
there is the inconvenience of cutting open and high-impedance circuit, the large voltage drop
later re-terminating the circuit. Another problem can damage the circuit.
is that conventional ammeters, as incorporated in A high-impedance voltmeter is (relatively)
the ubiquitous multimeter, cannot dissipate heat invisible to the circuit under investigation.
that is greater than just a few amps. Nevertheless, it should not be used at voltages
The clamp-on ammeter is a work-around. exceeding its rating. CAT ratings, which vary with
It solves both problems by measuring the precisely-defined electrical environments, must
magnetic field that surrounds any current- be observed. These ratings are
carrying conductor. The generally printed adjacent to
instrument is calibrated to read the inputs.
amps. The user closes the jaws A low-impedance
around an insulated current- instrument, such as the
carrying conductor. It doesn’t solenoid voltmeter
matter whether the conductor (tradename Wiggy) is
is centered within the jaws, useful in checking for
and it may pass through presence or absence
at an angle. For low-amp of voltage and the
measurements, the conductor approximate level
may be coiled, multiple turns (120 or 240 V) in
passing through the jaws in the residential, commercial
same direction, and then the and industrial branch
total reading divided by the
number of turns. A hand-held
A solenoid voltmeter (tradename
clamp-on ammeter (trade name
Wiggy) useful in checking for
Amprobe) can be rated as
presence or absence of voltage and
high as 600 A, making it useful
the approximate level (120 or 240 V) in
Typical clamp-on for large three-phase motor
residential, commercial and industrial
ammeters. work. Specialized Hall-effect
branch circuits and load centers.
instruments can read dc amps.

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 BASIC INSTRUMENTATION

circuits and load centers. The loud buzz for horizontal X-axis. Fractional units such as milli- waveform trace on the phosphor coating on
ac and single click for dc means you needn’t and micro-volts and seconds automatically the inside of the glass screen, through which it
keep an eye on the readout, and the distinct appear when appropriate. could be viewed as visible light.
vibration is useful in noisy locations. This low- Through the miracle of triggered sweep, Today’s digital instruments achieve the
impedance meter is useful for checking GFCI a rapidly oscillating periodic signal can be same effect with many more functions and
(ground fault circuit interruption) protection displayed as a single stable waveform. Two analytic capabilities. The signal from each
downstream from the device. Placing one external or internally-generated signals can analog input, after preconditioning including
probe on the neutral wire (white) and the other be displayed in separate channels and in the amplification or attenuation as needed, goes to
on the equipment ground (green or bare) or Math mode they can be added, subtracted, a separate analog to digital converter (ADC) in
on the equipment chassis will cause the device multiplied and divided. Other functions, which sampling occurs. The digital output goes
to trip out if it is receiving power and working. applicable to single waveforms, include to processor, memory and display.
The instrument is not to be left connected to a square root, integration, differentiation and The display is a reliable, user-friendly
power source for long, or it will overheat. logarithmic displays. flat screen with no high-voltage deflection
Besides seeing displays in the time needed. The most common liquid crystal
OHMMETER domain, the user by pressing a button can displays (LCDs) now found in these instruments
The most common type of ohmmeter for instantly see the Fast Fourier Transform of typically have LED backlighting.
general use is incorporated in the digital the same signal, displayed in the Frequency The mixed-domain oscilloscope (MDO)
multimeter. Analog meters, with moving Domain, where amplitude as power is plotted displays the same signal in split-screen format
needles rather than digital readouts, are also on the Y-axis (linear or logarithmic scale) in time and frequency format. The mixed-
available, and they are preferred by some old and frequency on the X-axis. This is used signal oscilloscope does the same for two
timers. They have the advantage of being for viewing harmonics and calculating total separate signals. This is a great diagnostic
more accurate outdoors in cold weather. A harmonic distortion. Additionally, in the X-Y tool because it correlates in real time digital
reflective surface behind the needle aids in mode, Lissajous figures are displayed for one glitches with intermittent power-supply or
eliminating error by facilitating straight-on signal triggered by a second signal applied other anomalies.
alignment. Digital multimeters are far more to a second channel. These figures change
widely used. depending upon the amplitude and frequency SPECTRUM ANALYZER
Bench-type multimeters incorporate the relations and phase angles. The spectrum analyzer resembles its close
four-wire (Kelvin) option, which is essential Early analog oscilloscopes applied the relative, the oscilloscope, the principal
for precise low-resistance measurements. external signal more or less directly to the differences being:
Four separate probes, with alligator clip vertical deflection plates, and an adjustable Model for model, the spectrum analyzer is
attachments, plug into four dedicated ports, time base to the horizontal deflection plates. In significantly more expensive.
and they are connected to the resistance under response, the electron beam wrote the uniform The spectrum analyzer generally displays
investigation. The four-wire setup substantially
reduces the effect of cumulative resistance due
to measuring leads, contact resistances and
electrical paths within the meter. One pair of
leads carries the test current from the meter
and the other pair measures the voltage drop
across the resistance under investigation. This
arrangement excludes the unwanted
cumulative resistance.

OSCILLOSCOPE
The oscilloscope is by far the most versatile
and frequently used (with the possible
exception of the multimeter) of our many
electrical instruments. It is essentially a
voltmeter, although equipped with a current
probe it can read amps, and in conjunction
with another probe reading volts, it can be
configured to graph power.
In its most widely-used mode, the time
domain, the oscilloscope displays a graph A Tektronix MDO3104 oscilloscope,
of amplitude in volts along its vertical Y-axis, frequently used for general-purpose work.
plotted against time in seconds along its

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TEST & MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK

ingenious arrangement is that during the time testing a bipolar junction transistor, rather than
required for the sweep to be completed, short voltage, a stepped current is applied at the
duration events are sometimes lost. input terminals.
The vector signal analyzer is a variation Two devices under test can be connected
of the spectrum analyzer that displays the simultaneously to the curve tester, and as the
amplitude and phase of a signal at a single user toggles a switch, their separate I-V curves
frequency, rather than showing the larger are displayed and can be compared. The test
spectral context. The principal application is valuable in evaluating proposed devices for
is determining modulation quality in design differential amplifiers, where close matching is
A Tektronix RSA5000 Real-Time prototypes, using superheterodyne techniques. required.
Spectrum Analyzer. The real-time spectrum analyzer samples the The curve tracer is widely used by
entire received RF spectrum in the time domain photovoltaic array designers and technicians
and uses Fast Fourier Transform algorithms to to test the performance of a prototype or
waveforms in the frequency domain only, while create overlapping spectra so there are no gaps existing installation where the effect of ambient
the oscilloscope displays waveforms in the and no missed short-term events. conditions must be distinguished from design
time domain and the frequency domain. or installation faults. As an example, partial
The spectrum analyzer has more features, CURVE TRACER shading of an array reduces maximum power
greater analytic capabilities and potentially The curve tracer is a member of the output at various times during the day. The
higher bandwidth and advanced specifications oscilloscope family of measuring instruments. curve tracer facilitates PV array diagnosis.
compared to the oscilloscope. In its CRT or flat screen display, the user sees Without re-arranging electrical connections,
Experienced technicians and engineers an I-V graph characterizing (typically) a discrete individual panels can be masked to block light,
often find themselves turning away from the semiconductor. This display differs from a time- aiding in efficient troubleshooting.
oscilloscope in favor of the spectrum analyzer domain or frequency-domain display in that
for the most advanced work. current is plotted against voltage. The curve POWER FACTOR METER
The spectrum analyzer front panel has tracer applies this voltage or current to the The Power factor meter, also known as the
numerous controls that are less intuitive and device under test, which can be an IC, discrete Cos Phi Meter, is a type of dynamometer
self-evident than those of the oscilloscope, transistor, motor or solar array, among others. wattmeter. The basic principle is that when the
but a lot of initial difficulties are resolved by In testing a field-effect transistor, for field associated with a moving system comes
consulting user manuals, available for free example, test voltage from the curve tracer into juxtaposition with the field associated with
download at the manufacturers’ websites. is applied to one input terminal and the a fixed coil, the pointer attached to the moving
As with the oscilloscope, the immediate common terminal. This voltage is swept and system, properly calibrated, quantifies the
challenge is obtaining a meaningful display. the amount of current at the output is shown deflecting torque in terms of power factor.
For the oscilloscope, the answer is to press in the instrument’s screen, plotted against A dynamometer-type power factor meter
Default Setup and Autoset. For the spectrum the applied voltage. This is the I-V curve. In consists of two series-connected fixed coils
analyzer, to display a non-sinusoidal signal in
the frequency domain and see the full range
or harmonics, it is necessary to first display A power factor meter.
the Frequency/Span drop-down menu. Typical
menu items are Center Frequency, Span, Start
Frequency and Stop Frequency. (R to Center
can be temporarily ignored. It has to do with
positioning a reference marker at the center of
the screen.)
Spectrum analyzers fall into three basic
categories, swept-tuned spectrum analyzer,
vector signal analyzer and real-time spectrum
analyzer.
The swept-tuned spectrum analyzer
incorporates a superheterodyne receiver,
which makes use of a local oscillator to down-
convert progressive portions of the signal
under investigation to display its frequency
spectrum as a function of time. You can watch
this sweeping action as it moves across the
screen. The only disadvantage in this otherwise

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 BASIC INSTRUMENTATION

applications, an external frequency reference is coupled with a

GPS-regulated rubidium oscillator. Resolution can be enhanced by
oversampling and averaging, particularly when the signal under
investigation is subject to jitter.

SIGNAL GENERATOR
Signal generator is a generic term describing various instruments,
A Tektronix MCA3000 all sharing a single rationale, which is that a device under test (DUT)
frequency counter. requires a periodic analog or digital signal applied at its input. The
input may be swept, stepped or modulated. Controls on the front
carrying a specific fraction of the load current. Two nearby identical panel permit the user to vary the signal’s amplitude and frequency in
moving coils mounted 90° apart, deflect the needle. This indicator order to evaluate the DUT’s response.
reads power factor 1 at the center of the dial, 0.7 lag at the left and Signal generators were used extensively by the first generation
0.7 lead at the right. of TV service technicians in the great post World War II consumer
When the supplied power is sinusoidal and the load is purely electronics boom. Early tube-type CRT TVs were complex energy
resistive, with neither inductive nor capacitive components, power hogs that required periodic repair. A common procedure was to inject
factor is 1, which is ideal. A load that has inductive or capacitive appropriate signals at various stages starting downstream from the
components is characterized by a lower power factor, falling between tuner, and methodically probing stage, circuit and component inputs
-1 (worst) and 1 (best). Most loads having a power factor other than 1 and outputs to isolate the fault. Similar procedures were used for
are inductive, and can be corrected by adding power-factor correction radar and other electronic equipment.
capacitors to the mix. They are usually brought on and off line Today, the basic signal generator has evolved into a number
automatically to correct for intermittent inductive loading. of related instruments with expanded capabilities, which lend
The problem with a power factor less than 1 is that it indicates themselves to extensive analytics on the receiving end.
voltage and current are not in phase, so the average product of the Types of signal generators include but are not limited to:
two is less than if they were in phase. A load with a poor (less than Function generators, which produce periodic waveforms,
1) power factor generates power that then flows back to the source individually selected by the user. (Electronics engineers say
without performing useful work. To prevent overheating in this case, “waveform” while mathematicians say “function.” They are essentially
larger conductors and distribution equipment are required. Moreover, the same.) These waveform/functions may include Sine wave,
there is excessive drag on the generator. Pulse, Ramp, dc, Noise, Sinx/x, Gaussian, Lorentz, Exponential rise,
Using a power factor meter, utility workers measure the power Exponential decay, Haversine and Cardiac among others. Drop-
factor at industrial facilities, which receive a bill for a power factor down menus allow the user to vary over a wide range of frequencies/
penalty in negative territory. Therefore, it is in the interest of plant periods, amplitudes and offsets. In instruments having two or more
owners to install power factor correction capacitors as needed. output channels, phase relations can be set. Modern digital storage
oscilloscopes usually contain internal function generators. Free-
FREQUENCY COUNTER standing bench function generators have enhanced capabilities such
Reasonably accurate frequency counters are incorporated in high- as sweep, burst, modulation and others. Function generators contain
end multimeters such as the Fluke 287 and oscilloscopes such as the electronic oscillators or, in newer models, digital signal processing
Tektronix MDO3000 Series instruments. For laboratory applications, circuitry to synthesize waveforms, with a digital-to-analog converter
there are the Tektronix MCA3000 Series Frequency Counters, selling (DAC) to produce the analog output.
for $11,200 to $16,500. The arbitrary function generator also contains a library of
This is a true microwave counter, capable of measuring up to 40 standard waveforms. Additionally, it allows the user to create simple
GHz. It includes an integrated power meter and two additional timer/ or highly complex waveforms. They may be constructed by altering
counter channels capable of capturing very small frequency and time existing waveforms, drawing traces on the touch screen and then
changes. Analysis modes include measurement statistics, histograms manipulating them, or typing in numerical parameters.
and trend plots, enabling the user to analyze a very wide range of RF signal generators and microwave signal generators are similar,
signals. Frequency resolution is 12 digit/s. PC connectivity is enabled but they operate at higher frequencies. At the lower end, their ranges
by the included copy of NI LabVIEW SignalExpress software. overlap those of the function generators. Microwave signal generators
Frequency counters generally operate by counting the number are capable of generating frequencies as high as 70 GHz over coaxial
of events within a specific time interval. When that gate time has cable and up to hundreds of gigahertz over waveguide media.
elapsed, the number of events per second is calculated and it is Vector signal generator – These instruments generate digitally-
displayed in the digital readout. The counter is then reset to zero. modulated radio signals using digital modulation formats such
To obtain an accurate reading, the time base must be stable, as QAM, QPSK, FSK, BPSK and OFDM. Users may test these
irrespective of power supply and temperature fluctuations and communication systems by creating custom waveforms and
the effects of aging. Often a quartz crystal oscillator is used. It is downloading them into the vector signal generator.
located within a sealed temperature-controlled “oven”. For critical

eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com 6 • 2020 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 43

TEST & MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK

Basics of monitoring vs. testing

in current, voltage and power
WILL DELSMAN | NK TECHNOLOGIES

Industrial measurements often must take place

via specialized transducers sized specifically for
the current and voltage swings involved.
Dealing with distorted waveforms
OLDER AMMETERS worked great when the current
Pure sine wave
flowed at a steady 50 or 60 Hz. Consider the antique GE model
8AK1A1AF. I have one that remains accurate after decades of use and
misuse. The nameplate shows “60 Hertz,” denoting its limited scope IP
of applications. Try to get an accurate reading when there is much
distortion to the current sine wave shape or if the frequency is anything
IP
other than 60 hertz and you are in for a frustrating experience.
I=
Back in the dark ages, test equipment like this old beast utilized
2
a current transformer design based on a toroid. The metal jaws
surrounding the conductor were wrapped with many turns of thin
Actual VFD waveform
copper wire. The magnetic field produced by the ac current caused
a voltage to be generated in the wraps, and this small voltage would
drive the pointer to display the amount of current present.
IP i
There was no simple method to detect or measure dc current
beyond current shunts.
Present-day ammeters are most often now designed to use
hall-effect elements rather than toroids and can accurately measure I= Avg (i2)
ac or dc current. The output from the hall element is conditioned to
produce an output proportional to the RMS current regardless of the
amount of distortion or harmonic component in the monitored circuit.
Average responding transducers are adequate
for the measurement of pure sine waves. But the
TEST VS . PERMANENT MONITORING
accurate measurement of distorted waveforms
Test equipment like handheld ammeters and voltmeters are essential
as, for example, from variable-frequency motor
tools, but few have the ability to transmit the readings to a remote
drives, requires a true RMS transducer.
location or to store the measurement data for later review. And these
abilities are usually necessary for industrial data collection. Usually it is
a permanently installed device, known to the trade as a transducer or
transmitter, that monitors industrial parameters and produces an output
which can be stored at the site or uploaded to a cloud service. These
sensors produce an output which is typically connected to and read by a
panel meter, HMI, programmable controller, or data acquisition system.
Generally, industrial transducers must be installed in a cabinet
for protection against the surrounding environment conditions while
also providing a degree of safety against electrical shock and arc flash.
These transducers are designed to be as compact as possible and have

44 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 6 • 2020 eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com

 MONITORING VS. TESTING

mounting options that include snapping onto a by a device like a chart recorder--required a measurement data can be read on a display
DIN rail or mounting with screws to a panel. high-accuracy ratiometric potential transformer immediately, and the chart can be printed for a
The current levels involved in many (PT) and a separate “tin can” signal conditioner. permanent physical record. There are no errors
industrial settings are high enough to make The lower voltage from the PT (usually 120 from vibration or improper pen installation, and
the use of current-sensing resistors impractical Vac) rose and fell with the line voltage, and the pixels do not run out of ink. In addition, there
or ill advised because of thermal issues. signal conditioner converted the PT secondary are fewer components, fewer connections, and
Instead, industrial current-measurement to dc milliamps or low-voltage dc. The resulting less labor to install and calibrate.
sensors typically use induction or Hall effect signal from the conditioner would go to the Current measurements have followed
devices that entail no direct connection to chart recorder. The resulting changes in the a similar progression. In times past, a
the circuit. These types of devices must have line voltage were graphed by colored ink from current transformer (CT) was installed and
an aperture or sensing window large enough pens mounted over a revolving paper circle or its secondary connected to the conditioner.
to allow the monitored conductor to pass long strip of paper. Set up took a steady hand The signal conditioner would mount a short
through easily, and be approved by a third for positioning the pens so they just touch the distance from the installation point to keep
party test lab to be safe when used with the paper, and the chart recorder had to be well the burden on the CT secondary at a minimum
relatively high current and voltage levels that isolated from vibration or the lines could be for better accuracy. A shorting block would
characterize industrial processes. shaky and inaccurate. be installed between the CT and signal
Today, voltage transducers are quite small, conditioner. In the event the conditioner had to
CONTINUOUS VOLTAGE even those designed to measure up to 1,500 be taken out of service, this extra step allowed
MEASUREMENT V. But potentials exceeding this level still need the CT secondary to stay closed while the
Use of one-piece current and voltage the PT/conditioner approach. Updated designs monitored circuit current continued to power
transducers helps keep the necessary panel require two wires for measuring potential, a low- its load. The shorting block was necessary
space at a minimum. In the not too distant voltage power supply, and two wires carrying because a CT should never be energized if the
past, the production of a signal representing the output signal to a data acquisition system, secondary is open, with no load connected, as
the line-to-line ac voltage--which could be read essentially an electronic chart recorder. The doing so is quite dangerous.

Proven integrity AND

industry know-how
Electrocube is one of the most respected design manufacturers
of passive electrical component products for a wide range of
standard and custom applications – from aerospace and audio
to elevators and heavy equipment – as a capacitor supplier,
resistor-capacitor distributor, and more.

Bishop Electronics, Seacor, Southern Electronics, F-Dyne

ELECTROCUBE.COM | 800.515.1112 | [email protected]

TEST & MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK

Current sensor basics In the same physical space as the transducer produces 10 Vdc when
ancient CT, a modern one-piece current current rises to 50 A. Divide the
transducer eliminates the issue of CT-to- output (10 Vdc) by the range: 10/50
conditioner distance, as the two pieces or 1/5. So there is 1 V of output
PLC
are fractions of an inch apart inside the signal for every 5 A used. Thus 25 A
Analog input
sensor housing. There is no need for will create a 5-Vdc output. Another
Centrifugal pump
a shorting block as it would be highly way to arrive at the correct answer:
M or
unlikely that the CT could separate from Take the reading from the hand
Gear pump
its printed circuit boards. There are also ammeter and divide it by the range,
Motor
no dangerous voltages present between 25/50 = 0.50. Then use that result
starter APS power the sensor terminals when there is no load to show the transducer output: 10
monitor

connected to the transducer. The present- x 0.5 = 5 Vdc. Half the range value
day approach is extremely simple, uses will produce half the output value.
two leads for power and either the same Thus if the current measured is
pair or two other wires to carry the output 37.50 A, multiply by 0.20 and verify
Charging
system Load signal. This approach is much safer and that the transducer output is 7.5 V.
reduces the number of connection points
Discharge significantly. Simplicity can be counted on The same approach is used when the
to improve overall reliability. transducer has the “live-zero” output, but
And of course, it is safer to use test the output signal when there is zero current
equipment for troubleshooting the data (or voltage, or whatever you are measuring)
Charge
acquisition system than for testing the must be included in the calculation. This is
primary, measured circuit. The sensor referred to as signal offset.
- + outputs are at a much lower voltage, but With any analog signal produced by
testing must still take place while the a transducer or transmitter, the device
monitored circuit is energized to confirm receiving the output (data acquisition
the accuracy of sensor output. system, panel display, PLC, etc.) must be
An RMS-responding current sensor will When the transducer output produces set up so it understands what the output
produce a signal directly proportional to a “live zero” as with a 4-20 mA output, the means. For example, a 4-20 mA transducer
the current that an industrial load uses. DC 4 mA can be read with many multi-meters signal produces a range of 16 mA (20-4).
current transducers generally employ Hall on the low dc current setting by simply Since the example above describes a 0-50
effect sensors to detect dc currents and disconnecting the transducer output at range, the relationship is 16/50 or 0.32
cover ranges from 0–5 to 0–2,000 A, with the load (panel meter, PLC, etc.), and mA/A. A load of 37.50 A causes a change
a variety of outputs available to interface connecting the test leads in series between in the transducer output of 12 mA (0.32
with panel meters, programmable the output and the load. The sensor x 37.50). So, with the signal offset value
logic controllers or building energy output will still read 4 mA if the rest of the added, the transducer output should be 12
management systems. Such sensors can connections remain in place, including the mA + 4 mA = 16 mA.
be used to monitor any dc signal to 600 V power supply to the sensor. If the need is for benchtop
and carry the UL logo. measurements, there are many choices
SCALING TEST available for ac or dc circuits, current and
When troubleshooting a transducer, voltage. If, on the other hand, the need is
regardless of what property the transducer to store and analyze these measurements,
will measure, make sure to understand a more permanently installed transducer
what the output should be for a given set will be the best solution.
amount of the measured property. We will
use a current transducer as an example:
REFERENCES
1. Use an ammeter to see how much
current gets delivered to the load. NK Technologies, https://www.
2. Check the current transducer range nktechnologies.com/
to ascertain how much current
constitutes the maximum output
from the transducer.
3. Calculate the expected sensor
output. For example, suppose a

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