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/ 100
INTRODUCTION TO
DIGITAL SIGNAL
1 side this Chapter
> Introduction
> Applications of Digital Signal
Processing (DSP)
> Introduction to signals
> Standard Discrete Time Signals
(Sequences)
> Signal Processing Systems
> Symbols Used to Represent a
Discrete-Time System
> Concept of Signal Processing
> Basic Elements of Digital. Signal
Processing (DSP)
> Comparison Between DSP and
‘Analog Signal Processing
> Technology used for DSP
> Historical Survey of Digital Signal
Processing (DSP)
PROCESSING (DSP)
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Digital Signal Processing (DSP) is an area of Science
and Engineering which has developed very rapidly over
the past few decades. As a matter of fact, the techniques
and applications of Digital Signal Processing (DSP)
are as old as Newton and Gauss and also as new as
today’s digital computers and Integrated Circuits (ICs).
‘These rapid development of Digital Signal Processing
(DSP) has been a result of the significant advances in
digital computer technology and IC fabrication
techniques.
Signal processing is a method of extracting
information from the signal which, in turn, depends
upon the type of signal and the nature of information
it carries. Thus, signal processing is concerned with
representing signals in mathematical terms and
extracting the information by carrying out algorithmic
operations on the signal. Mathematically, a signal can
be represented in terms of basic functions in the domain
of the original independent variable or it can be
represented in terms of basic functions ina transformed
domain. Similarly, the information contained in the
signal can also be extracted either in the original domain
or in the transformed domain.
Digital signal processing techniques origin in the
seventeenth century when finite difference methods,
numerical integration methods, and numerical
interpolation methods were developed to solve physical
problems involving continuous variables and functions.
‘There has been a tremendous growth since then and
today Digital Signal Processing (DSP) techniques are
= ‘Anonymous % DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING
in almost overy field. The main rensons for
auntie appientions mre’ de tothe “numerous
advantages of Digital Si cessing (DSP)
techniques,
Asa matter of fact, digital circuits do not depend
upon precise values of the digital signals for their
operation. Also, digital cireuits are
to changes in component values. They are also lese
sensitive to the variations in temperature, ageing
and other exteynal parameters, In a digital processor
the signals and systoms co-efficients are represented
as binary words. This enables us to choose any
accuracy by increasing or decreasing the number
of bits in the binary words. Michelson
Digital processing of a signal facilitates the
sharing of a single processor among a number or bert Michelnon (of Michelson-Morley
signals by time-sharing. This reduces the processing | {€) Was an intense, Dractidal man #Hp
cost per signal, developed ingenious physical instruments
Digital implementation of a system allows easy of extraordinary precision, mostly in the
adjustment of the processor characteristics during | field of optics, harmonic analyser,
Processing. The adjustments in the processor developed in 1898, could compute the first
cparacteristics can be easily done by periodically | 80 co-efficient, of the Fourier series of a
changing. the co-efficients of the algorithiy signal x(t) specified by any graphical
characteristics. Such type | gescription. ©
eeded in adaptive filter:
fignals also has a major advantage which is not possible with the
digital filters, linear phase characteristics can be achiowea. Also, the
less sensitive
Pioneer in Signal Processing : Albert
The digital processing of
analog techniques. With
Also, for processing ver;
luctors and capacitors of a
type of applications.
y low frequency signals like seismic signals,
analog circuits require
is more suited for such
very large size whereas, digital processing
1.2 APPLICATIONS OF DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING (DSP)
Expected)
As a matter of fact, there are various application areas of Digital Signal Processing (DSP) due
to the availability of high resolution spe:
ctral analysis. It requires high speed processor to implement
the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). Some of these areas can be listed as under: ~_
1. Speech processing.
2. Image processing.
8. Radar signal processing.
4. Digital communications.
5. Spectral analysis,
6. Sonar signal processing.
‘Woniake'a living by what we get, wo make a life by Ghat we give) "Sir Winston Churchill. _fL- Few other applications of Digital gi,
1
im
TRODUCTION TO DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING (osP)
qeanstnission Lines 'snal Processing (DSP) can be listed as under:
Advanced optical fiber communication,
. Analysis of sound and vibration signals,
. Implementation of speech recognition algorithm:
. Very Large Scale Integration (VLSD 7
Telecommunication networks,
. Microprocessor systems.
. Satellite communications,
. Telephony transmission,
10. Aviation,
LL. Astronomy
12. Industrial noise control
) technology,
SOraaeey
Now, let us discuss few major applications in brief:
1, Speech Processing
Speech is a one-dimensional signal. Digital processing of speech is applied to a wide range of
speech problems such as speech spectrum analysis, channel vocoders (voice coders) ete. DSP is
applied to speech coding, speech enhancement, speech analysis and synthesis, speech recognition
and speaker recognition.
2. Image Processing
Any two-dimensional pattern is called an image. Digital processing of images requires two-
dimensional DSP tools such as Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT), Fast Fourier Transform
(FT) algorithms and z-transforms. Processing of electrical signals extracted from images by
digital techniques include image formation and recording, image compression, image restoration,
image reconstruction and image enhancement.
3, Radar Signal Processing
Radar stands for “Radio Detection and Ranging”. Improvement in signal processing is possible
by digital technology. Development of DSP has led to greater sophistication of radar tracking
algorithms. Radar systems consist of transmit-receive antenna, digital processing system and
control unit.
4, Digital Communications
Application of DSP in digital communication specially telecommunications comprises of
digital transmission using PCM, digital switching using Time Division Multiplexing (TDM),
echo control and digital tape-recorders. DSP in telecommunication systems are found to be cost
effective due to availability of medium and large scale digital ICs. These ICs have desirable
Properties such as small size, low cost, low power, immunity to noise and reliability.
5. Spectral Analysis ,
Frequency-domain analysis is easily and effectively possible in digital signal processing
using Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithms. These algorithms reduce computational complexity
and also reduce the computational time.
6. Sonar Signal Processing
termine the range,
Sonar stands for “Sound Navigation and Ranging”. Sonar is used to de
velocity and direction of targets that are remote from the observer. Sonar uses sound waves at INTRODUCTION les
| OEM SeM recess WEE
ay DiGmTAL Sica PROCESSING
- 7 ae signals, for () Engine contrat
(0) Motor con te,
lower frequencies to detect objects under water. DSP can be used to process sonar
the purpose of navigation and ranging. rn
Major areas of DSP applications and corresponding fields are given in Table 1.1.
engineering Gi) Ultrasound equipment
| aT aieoatiead X-ray storage and enhancement
Gi. CT scanning eauipments
TABLE 1.1. NjorAreao! OSP Apptcatons and Corespondng Fes | ) ECG ana,
i) ECO analya
S.No. [ “Applications ofDSP_| Applications Fields where itis Used | (9) EEG brain mappers
(i) Hearing aids
i) Patient monitoring systems
1. | Speech processing (© Speech analysie
nostic tools ete.
A. Speech synthesis
(Gi) Speech compression
(Gs) Speech recognition
(©) Speech identifi
(ci) Equalisation
(sii) Speech coding
(ii) Speech enhancement
7, | Mitieary/defonce () Radar signal processing
om (recognition) applications (i) Sonar signal processing
Navigation
(is) Missile guidance
() RF modems
(Gx) Channel veers : (6) Secure communications ee.
mt toepeecnconverson
@ Test ton | & | Consumer applications | @ Digital audio
2 | tmagepromecine (Paterno ‘ Gi) Digital ideo
G2 lnnprenhancamest Gi) Television
Gi) Image cempresion (iy) Music systems
(i) Anisation (0) Music symthesier
0) Robeieiion | (electronic toys.
3 | Taswmmunication |G Data communion
ial epplieations Robotics
(8) Speed pero (CNO) machines
(© Calla phone Gi) Security acess
coceee (i) Fomer line meitore ete
(si) Packet onching Vibration analysis
(sii Bane i 30. | Automotive (i) Voce comands
(a) ADPCM srnsoders
i) Digital
(© Channel mpeg (i) Bngie contol
3) MODEM. (@) Antakid rakes
(ai) Data encryption f (oi) Noise cancelation
(3i)Lie repeaters (vi)_Adaptive rie conto ete
Tesraeniation Spectra analais i
i) Pewe @ CDIGDIDVD players
tcnewee (i Pesan, ! = ope Bea er and and veo
to rene i eee Bonar
(io) Digital erg iI applications pene
(0) Phase lake ope Lt) (i) Phone communications
(i) Seismic ignal prcesiog
Pee cine ooo
it) Nese reduce,
5 | Gelato | oe 4.3 SIGNAL PROCESSING S) a epee)
(5) Rabon - se reoponds to parila signals By rodcsng oer She 02)
contra Basically, a syste ‘sgnals processing system
Lf (3) Laser printer cnt having some desired behaviour. SYA
a ee type of signal to be processed :
a ———— Z pI SIGNAL PROCESSING
7 ee
@ Continuous-time systems.
(i) Diseretetine systems.
1:1 Continuous Time Syste
‘Contnuous-time systems are those st
time signal. Hi) isthe transfer function of
the block diagram of a continuous-time system.
oth input and output are continuous
ems fr which bot inp put are continuous
gre fer inuous time systems. Figure 1.
continuo tine
contrite Contes ‘Ouput San8!
rewso se fo
a0 se
Fig 14. Bockdapameteninunsinesysten es
‘An example of continuows time eyste is an analog iter which i used to reduce th
corrupting a message signal or information signal
432 Diseretesime Systems
Diseretetime eyatems are those systems for
Aiseretetime signals, Hie) is the transfer function o
the block diagram ofa discretotime system,
hich tothe ipa and output senals are
ie earn, Figure 2 utraten
dace Dacensne aetna
So San Sea Sra
“or tes m0
Fig. 12 Bockdegamoldsoutetne yen
‘An example of a diseretetime aystemn i a digital computer
1.4 SYMBOLS USED TO REPRESENT A DISCRETE-TIME SYSTEM
‘The operation ofa dscretetime aystem may be described -—
simply by drawing a block schematic, We use different
Dulldng blocks to form 2 complete block schematic.
‘These building blocks can be listed as under:
DOYOUKNOW?.
‘A-system is a combination and
interconnection of several
eamponents to porform a dosired
Adder
a task. Systems may be inter-
2 See mi Gente with eachother toform
Son her tens In such case, the
67 Ua ‘Sntgitaems reed
Adder 0
‘A ae lock sued to perform adton "
spray Rim Stor ieyttenatar eet
3) and) are to ipo quence ig oe
iven as noted)
a Fata
a 113 Symbotetan adder
at ERB Fatima
EET aaa
——————
ee yt0)
It may be noted that somtimes in place of ations
(19, sigma sign inuned to repre aa
Broce, Further, «subtraction operation which means op
ett 20) an be reoresented ae showin igure TCA
ted that in case of addition oF —
‘sibiraction operation, iis not required to store anyone of S+14-Atubracion perton
Guerution Ue memory. Thus, we can say that an addition or subtraction is a memoryless
Gi) Constant atulti
A-constant multiplier operation is used to mul
constant ed to multiply input sequence by some constant (633)
thi {hat this operation is used to change the amplitude of input sample This ic sce ¢
memoryless operation, Figure 1.5 shows a constant multi operation
x00) 3 — yin) =a x0)
Fig. 15.Acorstntmaipir
nal Multiplier x0)
al multiplier is used to multiply two input sequences.
Here, muliplicaon takes pace on sample onan ey oexitasn
Further, this is also a memoryless operation. Figure 1.6 od
Shwe signal malpir gel x
(i) Uae Delay Fe16 Seine
‘An unit delay block is used to delay input sequence by one
‘sample. An unit delay can be represented as shown in igure 1.7.
[v0 =x0-1)
x9 |
Fig. 17.Untelay
‘Thus, here, input sequence x(n) is delayed by one sample and the output is y(n) =x(n—1). Tis
shows that the calculation of output at a particular instant requires the previous input. Here (0)
is present input and x(n ~ 1) is previous input,
Further, if we want to delay input al
‘sequence by two samples, then two unit. x() z ZL eyin=x-2)
delay blocks must be connected in series
as depicted in figure 1.8, Fig 1.8.Delayby wo samples
(%) Unit Advance i
‘An unit advance block is used to advance input sequence by one sample, This block can be
figure 1.9. The output
represented an show
eatin is Esa ery ooo
0) = x04)
Tn this operation, to eaeslate output (0, & Fig t9.Umtadorce
future input sample is needed.
4.8 CONCEPT OF SIGNAL PROCESSING
1.5 CONCEPT OF SIGNAL PROCESSING
put signal is known as
Changing basie nature of signal to get the desired shaping of the in INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING (05P)
154 Realtime and Non-realtime Processing
sient processing, Sigal proesing i coereed DOYOUKNOW?T
Sie Pom, and manipulation o€ oF continuot
Baamples fF Jectrie networks
the representation,
nals and the information they’ contain. Sa
a prosesng canbe classified depending upon the | Sao of restart, enpalr™
type of signal to be processed as under: cereductors that aro driven by
{@ Analog Signal Processing (ASP) [ satiaowtine ores J
Gi) Digital Signal Processing (DSP)
,) are processed.
analog gn reo gt the edule cai ie aera pod
eee pecs a na ee 8
Glapram of an Analog Signal Processing (ASP) ersten
a = a
‘Output Signal
sano
ee z
Fe. 1. lokesgram ot Anton SpalProcosting ASP) SYS
ignals on a digital computer
52 Digital Signal Processing
lock diagram of a Digital
numerical processing of
revssng SP) i 8
ee sng matin igre ste fe
Signal Proseing SP) system.
eceine Dena acing
esos! ey Omasora
Py spn ro
Fig 111. Bock oga of ptt Sonal Processing syst
‘Agta ystem such as digital computer takes signal in discrete-time sequence form and
converts it in discrete-time output sequence.
1.53 Disadvantages of Analog Signal Processing (ASP)
‘Analog Signal Processing (ASP) have the following disadvantages:
1. Limited accuracy 9
2. Limited dynamic range
43, Limited repeatability du to temperature or age
4, Limited processing speeds
5. Lack of sibility
6 Die i iplemeting wel operations such a5 nonlinear operations and time:
7. High cost
8, Accuracy limitation of storage and retrieval,
(© Weakineo Onine ewes
When the data is processed as i
vt te rents ated atin prae
sheen fo oy aa ri pang, Penge
Silt heptane, Tae
Ghats apelin eae soeech elgnal Processing, cellular phones, television ete. In all
selena alld onlin ereennng. Te meme mam a
Gi Nansen or one Feces
spear
seating ee sha pnd, ea
BeNieh run non reales zs stared and they ae callectively analysed ater. Other appliceions
inlet ed ae
4.6 BASIC ELEMENTS OF DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING (DSP)
Figure 1.12 shows the bai lens of gta signa proeasing system Now ofthe pal
generated are analog in nature. For example, sound, video, tomperature pressure, ow, setae
Sul oma sea ts Woah nae ave posed yelp eg
: ost be digzed, Hence, input ven through tale
converter and output is obtained through digital tansy converte, t= PECO-SENAL
oa ger
Raa a
feat mee | seat | oa | Strat | Oigiahn coal
3 —*! Converter ‘Signal — Analog
Sone (00) Processor bers Sona
Fig, 1.12. Basi eements ig! signal processing
Analog to Digital Converter
‘The AID converter converts analog input to digital input. This signal is processed by a
DSP system. The A/D converter determines sampling rate and quantisation error in digitising
operation.
Digital Signal Processor
It is also called DSP processor. It performs amplification, attenuation, filtering, spectral
analysis, feature extraction ete, operations on digital data. The digital signal processor consists
Of ALU, shifter, serial ports, interrupts, address goncrators etc. for its functioning. The DSP
processor has special architectural features due to which DSP operations are implemented
fast on it compared to general purpose microprocessors.
Digital to Analog Converter
‘Some of the processed signals are required back in their analog form. For example, sound,
red in analog form, Hence, the DSP processor output is ven to
maverts digital output of DSP processor to its
image video signals are rea
digital to analog converter. The D/A converter co
analog equivalent. Such analog output is processed signal.
Most of the DSP systems use the three basic elements discussed above since majority of
applications have analog signals.
_ essing
signal PO signal
re A antag over analog sigal processing. Thea,
Th tal sen
advantages ae 8 ©
_Flesbill
1 a iol
a-rhesytten ca Be FC0nFE8P6d for song
x ae el TM Pram, For example, the high pt
eh a Tengen the stare
ecg fier pal signal processing systems ge?
sible in analog system. An analg’,
sty epiead to oat Tonal
are sible
var ogee ot es
sina
eet canes
eee Bet. hs 0
el hich ere
fer operation .
Acie
sua of
aig tens il
alto atin
{dt pete ae aie!
alton of AD ome
ee ete Bt the os a
topet ig sur
3. Ew Storage
To digtal inal xn
dissec heres the anal.
fence gta sigeals ree
ocesiag figs pestle
4. Mathematieal Processing
Methentia operate an be suse permed on digital signals compared to analo
Su Hc astemate Sal resin loins ean be routinely implemented a
tl sls pceng stems Whereas, sch slgorithme are dficul to
iia ale prosening sick algorithms ae dificult to implement en
5. Cost
hen threis large comple
penser ls nth aplation then digital signal processing aystems
Ar Bete stn aaa stan The sofvae conta lgrithm can be compo
ieeacies is wtb es efit plex,
vis much igher than a0a1g ssL0me,
in il cig sens i akdown et, probloms. Hoc
tonne ft inl Sena PrOsesing rate
ect liga processing eveteme i decided py
ig ae ial eel Procenng syle
te easily stored onthe storage media such as magnetic tapes,
Suse sufer rom the storage problems like noise, distortion
iy ransprtable compared to analog signals, Thus, remote
pared to analog signals.
1. Adaptabi
ty
The digitale
‘ented. Bat
&. Universal Cos
The digital
Doctors ts the
gl pacers
fl Beng eteme ae ea
eration i a panty WPEEAGabe since
inal process '
ir hardeare
in ystems se
Imo all the
dia
computers
aoplnasgnPUters or standard digital signal
atone we thea sand adoce
___wtnooucrion 0 DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING (OSP) aia
with minor modifications. ‘The operation of the di ded mainly
operation of the digital ing is decided mai
by software program. Honce universal compatiblity ix posible in digital signal processing
aystoms Whereas, it is not possible in analog systems. Since a simple analog low Pa
filter ean be implemented by large number of wa
9, Size and Reliability
‘The digital signal procossing aystema ara amall in size, more reliable and less expe
compared to the analog systems. " eee
2 Disadvantages of Digital Signal Processing Systems
ven though the digital signal processing eystems have all the above advantages, th
pave fow drawbacks a8 Under: a eraereiiae en. eaeeTe sar
(@ When the analog signals have wide bandwidth, then high speed A/D
le bandwidth, then high spect
required. Such high speeds of A/D conversion are difficult to achieve for same signals.
For such applications, analog systems must be used.
Gi) The digital signal processing systems are expensive for small applications. Hence,
the selection is done on the basis of cost complexity and performance,
‘The advantages of digital communication systems outweigh the above drawbacks,
1.8 TECHNOLOGY USED FOR DSP
‘A DSP system for particular application can be implemented
{@) Dedicated processor based DSP
(ii) General purpose processor based DSP
(i) Dedicated Processor based DSP
In these systems, the DSP processors are used. Name of DSP chip manufacturing companies
and their ehip series is given in table 1.2
mnverters are
TABLET2.
["S.No. ‘Name of DSP Chip Manufacturer Chip Series.
1 | _ Analog devices "ADSP-21XK se
2 “Texaa instruments, USA "TMS.220KXX series
3 Motorola corporation, USA ‘M.BBXXX series
‘These DSP chips are commonly used but TMS-320XXX series chips are much more popular.
‘specially for array operations and multiply accumulate
‘These DSP processors are designed
Gperations, The DSP processors based systems are stand alone, These systems have low cost,
portable and suitable for real-time applications.
General Purpose Processor Based DSP
‘Such systems use general purpose microprocessors or comput
to perform DSP operations on computers. For example, programs developed in C-software
Ianguage for digital filtering, Z-transform. Discrete Fourier Transform (DF), Fast-Fourier
Transform (PPT) algorithms etc. which run on computer. The utility of computer can be
jnorensed. Such systems are flexible and easily upgradable. The technologies of computers
aaa eaae setworking, storage, display, printing etc. can be shared. But such systems are
Computationally inefficient. If only DSP operations are to be performed, then iti better to
use dedicated processor based systems.
ters. The softwares developed on
ear a ee
emieienesromerraesiom | Sate
Seamer | 10a
ea
—__ Gold ond Rader —] 1968
[Ceri eal Shublorand sail] 1973
Fano aT
Tarinreoplnets
From
Try sprains of DSP for implementations ine
of data modes
Sonne el |
=] Fie
p als,
Fe aaa geal aloe
ig ph itn Core Di
Gobel de pat wrD) dtl rion
frat
Fully dtl assis supa
GSM, UNTS ce
DSP applications ia nary eve eld.
Summary
ig Sigal Pring SP ican ares Sean gineering which has developed very ray
sete ade Asami can and applets of Digital Sigal Proc ine
(GSP pamaslesNern ol Gund eoutev tay ial computersand Integrated Circuits
Dialysate te tng ge proce ,
Decrees al ect tesa ad peor among nmbercfsignaleby tne,
r
malo
From 1980
till Today
#8 Deuls
apa DSP helen vats ee Ace Sigal Prcssng (ASP).
ing (ASP) :
chased ctangig the programme in digital programmable :
Short Questions wi ith Answers
teat
‘sence
Sette
ed
X Rodarelgnal proctaing
b. Spectral anata
2. Weteromeathar aplleaonsat Ds
‘Ane ow ther plication of Dit signal Posing DS canbelisted as under
2 Advanced opis fbr communication
‘3. Analysis of eound and vibration signals
4 Imolmentton foe ecpton grit.
ory Large Seale Integration (VSD tec
6 Telowommunicationnetworka,
2 Microprosetoreytens,
8: Satlivo communication,
8 Telephony teanamiasion
10, Aviation
11 Astronomy
12, Industrial nae conta,
{@3: What do you mean by signal processing systems? Explain.
‘Ra Bosiealy a ayer respond to prtcularsgoalsby preduring ober signal
‘desired behaviour.
Signala processing cystoms an be classified depending onthe typeof signal tobe processed as under:
output) having some
1) Continuous:-time systems
(i) Disereto-time ystems.
Q4. What are discrete-time systems? Explain.
‘Ans. Diserete-time systems ar thore systems for which both the input and output signals are discrete-time
ime yates Figure -13iMuateates the block dingram of
‘signals. H(a) isthe transfer function ofa disc
‘a discrete-time system.
Disretotie
Diseratotmo Discetetme
Input Signal System Ha) Saou Sorat
xa)
Fig. 113, Blckelagram of discrete-time systam
digital eomputer.
al processing?
1 processing of signals on a digital computer or some other
the Block diagram ofa Digital Signal Processing DSE)
Anexample ofa diserete-time systems
Q5. Explain the concept of digital sign
‘Ans. Digital Signal Processing (DSP) is a numerical
‘data processing machine. Figure 1.14 illustrates t
system,
Disrttime Dita Sytem Discrete tne
tr
x0) Ssgal Processor ve)
Fig 1.44, lock dlagram of dtl signal processing system
in discrete-time sequence form and converts itn
digital system auch as digital computer takes signal
discrete-time output sequence,
ar
tourer ronom som mecesnoosy WS Qa. Wate
(ow arate
sagen Processing ASP,
ng 50) on A rere Sil Presi
nthe procamindistl ogra able
coneatpeniie eo
ttc. al Se at
canbecared
ieee
mogcoura ee
Soares
=
Review Questions
reatina ial? Girone eanltsea
easy tener.
a edb DSP mtd
einen
nse bse eae seat rocesing and ial signal
Foreign
sage ales es ee
a anna Bie acent of
ooo
5 > Multichannel and
Io side this Chapter
> Introduction
> Signals
> (Classification of Signals
> Deterministic and Non-
deterministic. (Random) Signals
Periodic and. Non-Periodie
Signals
> Symmetrical (Even) of
‘Anlsymmetical (Odd) Signals
> Energy and Power Signals
Mult
‘dimensional Signals.
> Some Commonly used Signals :
‘Some Standard Signals
> Representation of Discrete Time
‘Sequences
> [Operations on Continuous-time
‘and Diserete-ime Signals
DISCRETE-TIME
SIGNALS i
24_INTRODUCTION
systems play very vital roles. tis an extraordinary subject
with diverse applications in areas of seience and
technology such as circuit design, seismology,
snerEy
ion and distribution, speech processing etc.
‘Therefore, it is essential that every practising engineer
and designer must have a thorough knowledge of this
subject. Understanding of signals and systems is also
‘must for study of other parts of engineering such as signal
processing and control systems,
2.2 SIGNALS
A signal may be a function of time, temperature, postion,
pressure, distance etc. Some signals in our daily life are
‘music, speech, picture and video signals. Systematically,
wwe ean define a signal as “A function of one or more
independent variables which contains some information is
calleda signal”
In electrical sense, the signal can be voltage or
current. The voltage or current isthe funetin of time as
an independent variable
In daily life, we come across several electric signals
such as Radio Signal, TV. Signal, Computer Signal ete.
Many signals that we come across are naturally
generated signals. However, few signals are also
generated synthetically.
‘The signals can be
smultidimensional
one-dimensional or
6 1. One Dimensional Signals
wd a renee & eth sl id esa dina Sy BG
Beample of one di 1 inal isspesh signal whose amplitude vaca wi eo (89 von and od ignala
(is) Energy ae power slmnals
cxample fa mules {80 0 more variable, th signal ie aid to bo multidimey i 24 DETERMINISTIC AND NON-DETERMINISTIC
he example of a multidimensional cignal ie oy area long, s
ovizntal and vereal ee a Seal es Fecnueii wo dimensional a (RANDOM) SIGNALS
Dotermalotcalale ar those signals whi ean be
2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS completoly specified in time: The patter ct tis {yee of
‘nal ireguls and can becharncerzed marae
| nthe nature nnd amplitudeot niche sicher
athe edict! aa
@) Continuous-time signals i Few examples of determin
© Discrotestime signate }
ox
‘This is @ ramp signal whose amplitude increases
Tinearly with time and the slope ie
a) x)= Asin ot xt Michelson of Michelson Morley
mathesiatial con Q , (° Foci he mpd vse stun [SE Nn Of Meh
defn continual Fa.24. Acontoustine sg | ‘with time andita maximum amplnade oo ldeveloped ingenious physical
satires, i (2 for n20 instruments of extraordinary precision,
ee ee 1 wun Soca
1s, We can say that 0 isk } Janatyzer, developed tn. 1608, cou
is known as a continuow | ‘This ea discrete-time signal whove amplitude ie 2 for fee
signal or an analog signal, lue at every instant of ti a H sapling instante n 0 and for all other sampce the, feompute the Birt 80 cooficients of
signals derived in prom temperate ne, The electrical pling les the VPocrir series of «signal x) specific
ture, pressure sound et, amplitude is oro.
‘by x() where x represenns
ley nay sropnieat Soseription. Tee
! Hone, forall the above signals, itis clear thatthe [BY #8 Braphiesl descripto
! guaplitade at an tne instant ane predicted in advance. [stument could also be 05 harmon
| Therefor, al the above gna acted ipadeane rather ich ald et «fines
‘the shape of the signal and t shows that the variable ie tase”
2. Diserete-time Signals
relierete-time signal is defined only at certain time-instants, For diserat-tin
nth ther hand non detrinnspl race LO swore by somite Bn
nee eres aap randoms atare Teepe [msmeni estes component
enh nts Naneacgacsuayinaatent Frdivicdmamarachamete | Shsaanmalseieieeda Mane ts engi hen hd i liye
dincaete sie 2A disrote time signal is represented by x0). This merce that onset baie putty esti a operation by. soalreer
Sierra tied etd 20 Ts mane a a | Te Rpt enon nm ermine stn forsee mee
independent ‘eeeisis’ Seeysmgeay he sperma erin alae eh ans [eal 20 thie eine
Oe Bon, beaee I Heol fans Probabilistic Behaviour. Figure 2.3 shows |Ficied a clos apprommationofsth
Thus, we can say that if the sional is jj setermini = =
reprosontad oly at aces sutng gna
hen i ore at gene mans fans
ako te neroe ce Seem inal and
sees ree ngs
Tr we tak the bed preasur readings oa
whose:
etait sgt Random signa
wi oAsniog)
patient ater everyone hour and pet ets xcs) io
{en the resultant signal wiles Seca os ate ce
nel
‘Mathomatiealy, a discrete-time signals denoted andr: | i 2 pana ae
30) = (20,0,140.-1, 20,0.) |
t
We may further classify both continuous-time and discrete-time signals as under
() Deterministic and non-deterministic (random) signals
where the arrow indicates the value of x(n) at n= 0. 4 [DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING
ae
ere iced asthe peril fal (nother words signal x) repeats tee an i
pede 8.
vscptsel pra sials arsive wave cosine wave, square wave et. Figure
aso wave which is period because it repeats itself after a period T, igure 24. (a) shows
2. Nomperiodie Signal
“Assad which doe nat repeat ite after fixed tine period or doesnot repeat at alls celled
ere
‘Sometimes it is said that an aperiodic signal has a period T, Fi a
coset tem relents vi
© Het tat on ot por is To =
®
Fig. 24, Pesos and non pero signals
a Pero Diet Tine Sip
sree tie signal, the condition of periodicity i
7 x@)=x(04N) :
s (2.2)
Pee sal
w)ehanon
Pea
pesca 8
(errs pt is
Pero ot
"epson tN)
(0) Dscrta tine pried cignal
te,
scat ri
tity ernst Pi —
yx fanaa Te sal yal
period, value of N for which the condition of
Peri i
signals are
stom fewest”
i
fs =
25, PERIODIC AND NON-PERIODIC SIGNALS.
jelfaera sed tie period iscalled asa periodic signal, 7
a The period
oisty
“
DISCRETE TINE SIONALS c
4. Nonperiodie Signal
‘Agel which des not peat
Ai tsar afi time prado oe nt eps
on pote tee ipa Thea canes noeateancer pee teali
x@e x+y ™ -
and x(n) # x(n +N) 7”
‘Sometimes it is said that non- 4
; at na pri sgnal has
ase T= a hem nig 2h Re
SsJonontal signal having prin T=. Tecan
‘mathematically expressed as *
x=
‘re othr examples of non pero signals ae
ectemuar signal de signa unk stepsizaele.
45, Non-periodic Discrete-Time Signal
Figure 2.7 shows a discrete-time non
periodie signal, for which
x(a)#x(n+N)
6, 1mportant condition for periodicity of
discrete-time signal
“A discrete time sinusoidal signals periodic
nly ita frequency fs rational. This means
only freauencyf should bein theformetratio. “®
Fig. 2.7 Non pero
Teal ore ee pti = =
Fig 26-4 pore gal avin ped, T=
0)
ecseotesime signal
af two integers
Proof
ot the discrete time signal, the ena of perodity
em “fn important, oubelase of
x(atM)= x0 ea) | aperiodic, signals is th
Let ¢(n be the cosine wave Hence it an Be expressed | singularity functions
* a
cos @xhnt®)
Here, ‘A= Amplitude
and Phase shift ; sai
‘ow, the equation of (2+ N) cam be sotnined by replacing nbn +N inesaton 2
‘Therefore, we have a
Seem =Acw est nti tal eel
“According tothe contin sz perniy ieeqsation 2.) wean
as under?
eee ‘sorters tal= ace Onh*S “sig
or ‘Acos (nig nt 286 N+9 cos (nin +0) -
ie ust have rs
‘Tosatisfy this equation, wo mae
" anf
where kis an integer a
‘Therefore, we have 3ITAL SIGNAL PI 7
| oss
te integers. Thus, di
a
coi
ovcieessiewn
jscrote-time signal is periodic if
7 5, (0) +5, (0)
re matinof two discrete time
equences, We eq,
sa andy Ooo ea
jctClate
liseretg
X .
Ter (eine srl integer. The pei 3) wg
lea conncn alle and Ny
Sada etnoas tine signal,
re)
Tix meanest alee nd coespondingo() and), Then the relay
%
a
Sel 0a pnde i is rato of owo integer. The fundamental period of x () willbe leas
coupon nultslee, and
Paci Frove thatthe sae wave sown in figure 25 (a) is aperiodic signal,
‘Seon Tesiemnsn ae er B8 en be abel pecan
; 20s hangt
‘Nose etises the endtion fr pera ie if eS
x@=x¢4T, -
Steutetdecnriatrsts Die ©
en ee
—
2a
DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS
Therefore,
DOYOUKNOW?:
“The sum of bwo or more sinusoids
may or may not be periodic,
dopending on the relationships
meter eg
= xosseor,
Hane, the ponent at chs 2 here 26
a
ence proved.
between their respective periods or
EXAMPLE 23. What is tho fundamental frequency of the
waveform shown in figure 2. in ftand radnced of ™* [frequen
Soliton: One cycle coremponds to 0.2 we
Hence Ty= 02 eee pi
: #
Therefore, FrequeneyT,= = <5 te Ans
Frequency in rade. = 2nf, |
= 2xs14K6
= S14 rade,
Fig.2:
Solution: The fundamental angular frequency or simply fundamental frequency of xn) is given by
where
For the given signal,
‘Therefore,
EXAMPLE25. Determine whether the following discrete-time signals are periodicor not? period,
determine fundamental period.
() €05 (0.01 xn)
Gi) cos (3 xm)
(il) sin 3n
7
é}(3)
() 008(3
(i), sin (2+ 0.20)
| ow eh
(onc — ya
aon: (neta) = 080.01
y Gi cpresion wth x) =c08 260, we have
Cor ge 001
oot tk
« “2 "b0"N
“Her, Fs expressed as ratio of to integers with
Neon)
(Gi Given that x() = 608 Sea
Ganpariagsbove expresion with x0) = cos fh, we have
3xin= Sma
xs
Le, ratio of two integers.
Hence, this signal i periodic with N'=2
i Given that x(a) = sin 3m
CGampating above exprestion with (2) = cos 2a, we have
aia Ba
= os
© Nhe
hich is mo the rato of two integers,
“Hence, this signal is non period.
a
Given tat x0) = 042 cog 22
oping tween ith + 2, have
pen
(9) Given that conf os
ayes
Here, ata= 2
fine g
or es
= Ig Which ont rational
and me
@
i. 1
= 3B which rational
ae
1 and N = 200, Hence, the signa
_x
ncn sais neldaa na
DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS
thon (8) neta
in (e+ 02 2)
expresion with xn) = sin @ n+ 0), we have
On nie, phase shi
and Bxta= 0.20
02.4
Ps te S25 which i not rational
fan wwe
Given that,
Simplifying, we get xa)
Comparing above expression with 2() = cose fn sin 2 fn, we have
intr= &
: md
Hence the piven seal
.§ SYMMETRICAL (EVEN) OR ANTISYMMETRICAL (ODD) SIGNALS
1, Symmetrical Signal (Continuous Ti
‘A signal x (ia said to be symmetrical or even if it satiafies the following condition:
29
Condition for symmetry :x (= x(-0)
x ()= value of signal for postive ¢
and x (C1)= value ofthe signal for negative t
‘An example of symmetrical signal is a cosine wave shown in figure 2.10 (3),
where
2, Antisymmetrical sigual (Continuous time)
‘A signal x (0)is said tobe antisymmetrical or odd if it satisfies the following condition:
Condition for antisymmetry : x (=~ x(-t)
‘An example ofl signal isa sinewave shown in gure 210).
(2) Sine wave x) =f anisymetial or od signal
(@) Cosi wave x = x-) syrmeticaor ven signal
Fig. 2.10, Symmorical and atisyrmetical signals ; cs GNA POSESSNG
als io
eae
5, Even and Odd Diserete Time Sign
() Even (Symmetrie)Discrete-time Signals
"A decree time real valued signal i sd to
‘be symnmetrc (even) iit satisfies the following
condition
‘Condition of symmetry >
x(@)=xC0) e210) i :
‘selena mma even sana
Examples Figures 2.11 (@) and) 87 gig 2,
examples of dscreto-tme even signals.
ii) Oda (Antisymmetric) Discrete-Time Signal sa
oa aan ecignal (said tobe antisymmetric oro iit sai
Condition of antisymmetry x (0) =—* 2)
Figure 212 shows the antisymmetric discrete time
te following eonditon:
signals.
Fig. 212 Anisymmeti (os) discrete-time signals
4. Decomposing 2 Signal into Even and Odd Parts
"Any continuous or diserete time signal canbe expressed asthe summation of even part and odd
par.
1O=x,04%0) Qa)
Hence 1. (0= Bven component of signal ()
and 56 (0= 048 component of inal x()
abetting {= tin equation 2.1, we obtain,
ADR EDEED 212)
{tu now obtain the expressions for the even an odd pat, () and x (0)
5.Expression for the Even Part x, (0)
For the even signal, we have,
2 O= RC
‘And food signal, we have, 219)
HC0=—a (0
i 219)
Suhostituting equations 2.18) and (2.14) n equation (2.12), we obtain
XO9= 2,025)
(2.19)
DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS
‘Adiding equations (2.11) and (2.18), we have
xW4xG0)=24,0)
o xed
sO= FRO +xC) am
Equation (2.16) gives even component of x(t)
‘Now, subtracting equation (2.15) from equation (2.11), we obtain
xO=xE0= 2540)
or =1
2 0= Fe O-xEo) ex
Equation (2.17) gives odd components ofx (t)
17. Bven and Odd Components for a discrete-time Signal x (n)
‘The discrete time signal x (a) can be in terms ofits
ing Ts Haas Sess ‘expressed in terms ofits even and ofd components as
‘Therefore, expression for the even component x, (nis given by
aa
x(0)= 2 bein) +xem) 238
‘Also, equation of odd component is,
1
ro (od= 5 fete) em) 0.19)
uANPLEDE Functions) eshowningee 238 Drwevenandodpers 420
Solution: The even partis given by |
1
frorco
xt
Also, the od part ia given by,
rate OEE
nus riph emben tatt vend e
‘Steps to be Followed:
‘Step: First, we draw tho signal x(
Step 2: Then, we draw tho folded version x 0)
Step Next, we add x (and (-1) or subtract x 1) from x (0).
‘Step: Finally, we divide th addition or subtraction by 2 to et, () andy (0
‘Thete steps are fllowed in Ggure 2.14 tocbtainx, 2) and x, ()-
‘The above definitions of even and od signals assume that the signals are real valved
[the signals are complex valued, then we have to take in terms of conjugate symmetry , wy a PROEESING ScRETE ME Ms
20) figure 2.16 and stato which ofa
SoevenandwitcarenagT te sinale ny ”
Solution: Th ial shown in gure
H D oil tat townin few Snags
‘gral where the onethown infant
neither oven nord MABE 218s
1 EXAMPLE 28. The even and od
J. 7 Y flgnal aro shows in figure ie ® ©
a Banal = 0. Fig.248.
o
°
a)
sup2:Tees mo “40
Semmes
7 5) pet
of
1 l, 4
*
7 : te ea
@ | u *
e xo =x¢0) ae ve
sepanenwe —fstsxCa) | Z
Sernzee |
Fig.216 Fig2t7
: | Solution: The imal x) even by
FO=% 04% 0
ge Pe tee “The adition of, (and x (shown in igure 237
© 7 EXAMPLE. Find and sketch the even and odd components af the fl
1 + ostsr
: wi | $0010) 6) xn) =o ={
spezmen we sso fe exe) be @ 0) QD x= fee isese
coment)
os 8 200= 608) 6 xp =tmtelene
os a Solution: () x(a) =o” w(0)
‘Bron and ol prt fhe sequence x(n ar exprestd as unde:
= “as 1
o o ! ven part, slo= Hov+xe-m)
Fg 216 1
‘Acompex valu signa is said to behaving a conjugate symmetry i itstnis the fllowing condition: and, odd part, elope glee xe-0)
amumiertet EQ Figwe 218 cows th stp tosbiin en an ld art frhe hve xr
ten te complex cong given by,
¥
‘Therefore, the comple value signal x) is conjugate symeti
0
ps! | also dcternie whether the given signal ia power slnal or an energy sgn or enter.
i ‘Eapcted)
Sutin : Figure 226s th pve sg
j Fan ean Sa tt orange and herr) ean nee Se
| Wooo tat energy ofa sigal sexpesed
H p= [sara fara ie /
o ade a2 atl <2atac zea? Ams
“ ing signal |
EXAMPLE 2.12, Sketch the followin st
Sey ses fora>0 ae
‘Also determine whether the signal Is 8 power
an energy signal or neither.
Solution: The given sina is
Tem fred
“Tis ven signal may be expressed !
fe“ fort>o |
AOS fort
sega maybe htced a shown ini 227
Tei Gee cian tt amd ta) 0886-2
herfre M0 eam emery
“Wakao thatthe energy ofa signal is expressed a6
~jemand
Bos} Ane
<< (e frite va), therefre x) i an eneray sina
UMPLED 13, Figure 2.26 shows the signal 3(0. Determine whether the signal is an energy signal
Seeirer signal or neither, Also determine its enerzy OF Power. |
SEMEN piem fgure 2.26, iis obvious that the sigal sq
Setieekingt 0 ae Il >= Hence, the ge seal 6 the
serpy sel J
"Paco Bol hs signals ven a8 !
B= Jrwa = foraefeefa te
428 Ane 4 1
EXAMPLE? 14. Find the power and the rms valueofthe signal
x0) = Acos (ait +9.
Soliton: The given signal x) = Acos (yt + 8) ia periodic signal having period
Putting the value ofa), we pt
p
NG
cn, st OSES
Sy wanes ee aa ————__tevermesons
mT iy ee Hep | Fhe et ro]e
= bint Pat
Pe Hing [SF ltsomaae 20a
« tay
fx eemeiane
ae
Hap J omcones 2m
2 Pekin retin At
Hatt Fomea tana °
= y son,
he send
sino erin 2 ee i rm ner rps a der
Beni i tan spa case ot wala
“Hence thi area multiplied by factor ABR with Ts. wi be er since AY sone
S sont on
‘Therefore, pew
z
‘This means that any snuseid of mpitade A has a power At
wa power A” ieapectiv oth vl oft quency.
(#0) and phase angle 8 . eee
‘We know thatthe power oa signals the square of items val.
Hence, the rms vale ofthe given signal willbe
lA
fs ae Ane
EXAMPLE 2.15. Figure 229 shows the signal x() Determine whether th
‘or a power signal Also determine its energy or power,
Solution From igure229,ticeor thatthe sigs ampitade
docs not as [t}->=andthe signal ip Theefore it
fs power signal
‘The power ofa simnal is expressed as
v7,
pnt [roe
Welknow tht averaging) over an infinitely large time
{interval in identical to averaging it over ene period (ey 2025
in this caso.
‘Therefore, power
P
EXAMPLE 2.16. What is the total energy ofthe rectangular pulse shown in figure 2.30.
ge [toa ojo SIAL PROCESSING
a a) »
te ate
aie ,
hf)
os [2 ( 4 ;
rewtrwotave ES AXTEANT, ABS =,
ca gacaregeponeotivenuaemnve TS
nts fee 23
orn ew pric Hens Iw emsiereme 43
Sacto os
as
loxwwetave P= $ PRO
. . [rre_|T ler i
t
fp tr osxsy
1
|-1 or Tess
for Pes
oe
veffiras Jere] -
EXAMPLE 218, Caleulatethe average power ofthe
{rlangular wave shown in figure 232.
Seluion: This signal is mathematically represented
sender:
fe? 1Oe,] = 3
out flee
Loves for orsts02
Hence, the signal power is given by
ca * 1 aoteate
pe Zftioa = gg [ent-ufats gg Jt-204+ at
Fig. 232
eS ay [oot —wovvnae J famoe-taneso
bl eff
(01930 -02+0.1+09933~18+09)
1
or Pr oaiter 3 Ane
Sanne Pecatniore
fares cri aie eat see
ogra oere ape ean enamse anae
seen Per cttanenngy apa
Tet too arty bo hah power ny
i." ee
ada d Tote sin tte Poor
vated Towra -tntlie Th wor a]
OISCRETE-TME SiGhALs ex
__ ek
Mow ints dapaioavoiooeey oe
‘Thus, we have P ie
Since quantity inside brackets ia, therfre, we have
ick [sn fin 3-9}
‘Thus, Power of energy signa is zero over infin
GD Energy of the power sign
‘Energy ofthe signals piven by the flowing expression
ge [ixmrat
‘Let us change the init of integration ax
expression,
"Thorefore, we have
and take $98. this wil nt change meaning of above,
b= fin Y ncoPat
amine test ea fafed Fara
or B= lim %P (ince quantity inside bracket is F.
o B = = (By taking limite T +=)
[_uma Eee egal infinite over ntti
EXAMPLE 220. Determine whether the following signals are enerzy signals or power signals and
calculate their energy or power.
oxi ($Jx) «0 10=-()
Gan st)=cor'gs Go) x= ret( ronan
(x0)=019) 9) x=Ae*ruar0
Solution: When solving uch examples, we do not know whether the signal ha finite power or finite emery
Hence, we follow the following steps:
Important Steps
(@ First, we observe the given signal carefully. If it is periodic and of infinite duration, the, ian
fo power sgnl esc, we cae ts power dec.
ip Me cls pvc and oie darn, then can be energy sgn: Hen, wv ete
ie
. ty
iy Tr he egnal isnot periodic, then it can be energy signal, Hence, we caulat ts erty
dirty.
x= (Jo
‘This signal ie not periodic. Hence as por step (ii), we calculate its eneray diet. DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING
‘Thus webave
penae 5
‘ eth ans
se tteand ponte herr ts nee wih B= 5
sie nee it =
conoeneft]
‘wetzor tate (3) nin canbe exe der Ls @
a — i
t) _ fr tor-BsesB 3 2
=i) -f, ae 0 ag. 2.38, Arect nation 4
}
stows this action. z
Fee a ee acs can be energy in Therefore, we calculate its eer diet
‘Teer, we ave pe fixofer
z
From igure233,wehave B= fore =,
are wa ao, is esr EST WHEE Te
egw hcp Tare isanbepenc inal. Mean hee |
ieteetoreby inn
nlonwehae pain} [Fa
Puchong et i ai ne tha
P “J fost sh at i
Peg ene eee eee
a
ve gest Jf forternvmntoa
a seraia Basan 1 ¥sonsasts tye
deg Latrdeg {tome tlie, J meme
Repmieense
Seemed
ened a"
Therefore, write
aay = rons Jona
(i) Basically itis power signa,
(8) con tin lpi
Hen the ten a al a,
%
juration ~2bs¢.< 7.
: Betsy
(9) Tei assumed that there are multiple numberof
cv atin wave in Bets,
‘The final signal is periodic but of faite duration.
Hence, ican be energy signal. Therefore wesaleleenny
per step (i its energy directly,
‘ wwe
Be Jota ftoot gata
wits
“wo a Stes
oteoe gt
Fig. 234, Sketchofxt)
signal is period (since u(n) repeats after every sample) and of inte duration. Henc, it may be
power el Teton, poe dey
in at $ oO
‘Thus, wehave Polit aaa, 2, OF
1 Boe
Bar 2,0 since wa) =1 foro <8
for = 0toN. In other words, we have
Hr, 3,0 manne 41414441
#14141 sone (N41) times = (N +1), Therefore, above expression willbe, 1
gen ei te in
pe dagi mene ttaer Arg
ni owe ial wh P=
sr Nene nit ate
‘yoo nite nd
{ a, Therefore, we caloate ite
an infinite duration. It can be enerEy signa
a Neal mn git on of ii
coo ioc Seg
rruneetavete Jlawpare aemrat = afew ated {= x
ergy egnal with E= 3
qos energy finite and non2e0, eee the ven sen
{3 Important Points: s
@ As a> 0, e+ 1, x() becomes unit step and E>
eg 081 20 ee pou nice
02 cee yer el a eg aise
|ANNEL AND MULTIDIMENSIONAL SIGNALS.
kichanne gnale
He ftihanne el ang! sial ae geerated by mle uc or mle
sank a i rtm ea om al chanel.
Eamle
ance imams eam of ular) ent. Bach ead is ating a nial chal
eit en connie oe dy Berm 4 ren of mulichannel signal
0
wy
2. Discrete-Time Unit Step Signal Sheu
‘A dscee tne unit tp sina is denoted by
(a), Its value is unity for all positive values of n.
This means that ite value is one forn20. While for ¥0" 9%!
ther values of, it value is zero.
f forn20 [$+
constant amplitude of unity forthe zero or
ve values oft
#0* 10 feeno
mm O" 1 gei
