Magnet 9

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Chemistry—A European Journal doi.org/10.1002/chem.202003328
& Drug Delivery
Alternating Magnetic Field Controlled Targeted Drug Delivery

Based on Graphene Oxide-Grafted Nanosupramolecules
Bing Zhang,[a, b] Qilin Yu,[c] and Yu Liu*[a, b]
Abstract: Graphene oxide (GO)-grafted nanosupramolecules form supramolecular assemblies during the doxorubicin
have recently emerged as neoteric nano drug carriers in the (Dox) loading process, which not only remarkably enhances
therapy of refractory diseases. Herein, a multicomponent the drug-loading capacity, but also improves the drug-re-
nanosupramolecular drug carrier based on a targeted pep- lease efficiency under AMF stimulus. During co-incubation
tide and magnetic GO is reported, the drug-release behavior with tumor cells, the Dox-loaded assemblies could strongly
of which can be regulated by an alternating magnetic field target the tumor mitochondria and damage both the mito-
(AMF). This multicomponent nanosupramolecular carrier is chondria and the nuclei, owing to Dox release from the as-
composed of b-cyclodextrin (b-CD)/nickel nanoparticle-modi- semblies induced by AMF. This study sheds light on the ex-
fied graphene oxide (GONiCD) and mitochondrial ion-target- ploration of peptide caps for controlled drug loading/release
ing peptide (MitP)-grafted hyaluronic acid (HAMitP). Owing of supramolecular nanocarriers for efficient drug delivery
to the host–guest interaction between b-cyclodextrin and and anticancer therapy.
the cyclohexyl groups on MitP, GONiCD and HAMitP could
Introduction of large surface area, good biocompatibility, and high feasibili-

ty of loading a wide range of drugs, have shown promising ap-
With the rapid development of nanotechnology, abundant plication prospects and attracted more and more attention.[5]
nanocarriers, for example, mesoporous silica nanoparticles, lip- Recently, the combination of GO with supramolecules or other
osomes, and polymeric nanoparticles (NPs), have been de- further modifications also exhibited excellent performance in
signed for drug delivery in cancer therapy.[1] Supramolecular drug delivery.[6] In combination with supramolecular host–
nanocarriers are an emerging kind of nanocarriers that are con- guest components, GOs have been developed as building
structed by host–guest or other interactions.[2] Compared with blocks to construct supramolecular assemblies for targeted
traditional nanocarriers, supramolecular nanocarriers are multi- drug delivery, photothermal killing of tumor cells, and inhibi-
stimuli responsive, highly efficient for drug release, and easy to tion of tumor metastasis.[7] However, in drug-delivery applica-
load with drugs, owing to the dynamic interaction between tions, the drug-loading and stimulus-responsive drug-releasing
the building blocks and drugs.[3] A series of host molecules, efficiency of GO-based two-dimensional nanocarriers remain to
such as cyclodextrins (CDs), pillararenes, and cucurbituril, have be improved. To the best of our knowledge, there is no report
been used in construction of supramolecular nanocarriers for on designing smart stimuli-responsive GO assemblies for en-
stimuli-responsive drug delivery.[4] hancement of their drug-loading and drug-releasing capacity.
On the other hand, graphene oxides (GOs), as the main two- One focus of nanocarrier construction is design of multi-
dimensional nano-assembly matrix, which have the advantages stimuli-responsive caps for controlled release of drugs.[8] Nu-
merous supramolecular caps, which are based on the interac-
[a] Dr. B. Zhang, Prof. Y. Liu tion between macrocyclic hosts (cyclodextrin, cucurbituril, etc.)
College of Chemistry and their corresponding guest molecules, have been devel-
State Key Laboratory of Elemento-Organic Chemistry oped to respond to different environmental stimuli, for exam-
Nankai University, Tianjin 300071 (P.R. China)
ple, heat, light, pH, oxidizing/reducing agents, enzymes, and al-
E-mail: [email protected]
ternating magnetic field (AMF).[9] All of them, except AMF-re-
[b] Dr. B. Zhang, Prof. Y. Liu
Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering sponsive systems, exhibited lots of shortages, such as limited
Tianjin 300072 (P. R. China) penetration and poor adjustment. In contrast, AMF-responsive
[c] Q. Yu supramolecular caps exhibit outstanding advantages, owing to
Key Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology and Technology the properties of noninvasiveness, deep penetration, and easy
Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences
control of the AMF stimulus.[10] In AMF-responsive capping sys-
Nankai University, Tianjin 300071 (P.R. China)
tems, magnetic nanocomposites (e.g., Fe-, Co-, Mn-, or Ni-de-
Supporting information and the ORCID identification number(s) for the au-
thor(s) of this article can be found under: rived materials) may produce heat energy under AMF stimulus,
https://doi.org/10.1002/chem.202003328. leading to the departure of heat-responsive caps from the
Chem. Eur. J. 2020, 26, 13698 – 13703 13698 T 2020 Wiley-VCH GmbH
Full Paper
nanocomposites and consequent drug release. Although sever- Results and Discussion
al AMF-responsive caps, for example, N-(6-aminohexyl)amino-
methyltriethoxysilane stalk-binding cucurbit[6]uril (CB[6]), 4,4’- GO was synthesized by a modified Hummer’s method (Fig-
azobis(4-cyanovaleric acid)-linked CD, and poly(N-isopropyla- ure 1 a).[12] Owing to the presence of metal-ion-chelating car-
crylamide), have been designed,[11] other kinds of AMF-sensitive boxyl and carbonyl groups, Ni2 + was easily adsorbed into GO
caps, especially those capping two-dimensional nanocarriers, and then reduced to NiNPs on the surface by NaBH4, generat-
remain to be developed. ing GONi (Figure 1 a). Mono-6-deoxy-6-ethylenediamino-b-CD
In this study, we developed a peptide-capped GO supra- was further grafted to GONi by the EDC/NHS reaction, to
molecular assembly for drastic enhancement of drug-loading obtain the final GONiCD nanosheets (Figure 1 a). TEM revealed
and drug-releasing capacity to realize efficient drug delivery. that GO, GONi, and GONiCD had membrane/sheetlike mor-
With supramolecular-interaction-mediated peptide capping phology with lateral sizes of 300–500 nm. Compared with GO,
and drug loading of the GO supramolecular assembly, this mul- both GONi and GONiCD had randomly distributed NiNPs with
ticomponent carrier realized both high-efficiency drug loading sizes of 5–10 nm on the surface of GO nanosheets (Figure 1 a,
and AMF-sensitive drug release. The nanoplatform was con- Figure S1 in the Supporting Information). FTIR spectroscopy in-
structed from b-CD-grafted and Ni nanoparticle (NiNP)-decorat- dicated that GO, GONi, and GONiCD have an adsorption peak
ed GO (GONiCD), together with mitochondrion-targeting pep- at 1770–1740 cm@1, indicating COOH in these nanosheets. The
tide (MitP)-grafted hyaluronic acid (HA) specifically binding to presence of COOH in GONi suggested that COOH groups were
tumor cell CD44 receptor (HAMitP; Scheme 1). Owing to the only partially reduced by hydrazine monohydrate during pro-
capping activity of MitP on the HA polymer, the GONiCD + duction of NiNPs. Moreover, the final GONiCD nanosheets had
HAMitP assemblies not only have improved colloidal stability the adsorption peaks at 2850 cm@1 (C@H) and 3440–3300 cm@1
and drug-loading capacity because of the constraining effect (CONH) (Figure 1 b), indicating successful grafting of b-CD on
of HA, but also exhibit higher drug-releasing efficiency com- GONi by amide bonds. A SQUID assay at 300 K showed that
pared with GONiCD alone. Moreover, the doxorubicin (Dox)- GONiCD had a saturation magnetization of 57 emu g@1 with no
loaded assemblies strongly targeted to the mitochondria of obvious hysteresis loop (Figure S2 in the Supporting Informa-
tumor cells, followed by severe damage to both the mitochon- tion), and thus validated the superparamagnetic property of
dria and the nuclei for inducing tumor cell apoptosis through GONiCD. In an AMF (375 kHz, 5 kW), the GONiCD solution
AMF-triggered efficient release of Dox. This study supplies a showed a rapid increase of the temperature, which reached
novel drug-delivery approach that is much better than that of 54 8C after 10 min (Figure S3 in the Supporting Information).
the traditional multicomponent assemblies, and sheds light on The specific loss power of GONiCD was calculated to be 906.5
the exploration of promising peptide caps for controlled drug and 700 W g@1, respectively, indicating excellent heating effi-
release from two dimensional nanoplatforms for cancer thera- ciency of GONiCD for AMF-triggered drug release, which was
py. attributed to the good magnetism-responsive property of
NiNPs.
To synthesize the peptide-modified tumor-targeting polymer
HAMitP, the mitochondrion-targeting peptide MitP was cova-
lently linked to HA by the EDC/NHS reaction (Figure S4 in the
Supporting Information). FTIR spectra revealed the presence of
CH2 and CONH in HAMitP, indicating successful grafting of
Scheme 1. Illustration of construction of the AMF-driven supramolecular

nanocarriers for inducing tumor cell apoptosis. Figure 1. Characterization of GO, GONi, GONiCD, and the GONiCD + HAMitP
supramolecular nanocarriers. a) TEM images of GO, GONi, and GONiCD.
b) FTIR spectra. c) Size distribution of GONiCD and GONiCD + HAMitP. d) Tyn-
dall effect. e) Zeta potential.
Chem. Eur. J. 2020, 26, 13698 – 13703 www.chemeurj.org 13699 T 2020 Wiley-VCH GmbH
Full Paper
MitP onto the HA polymer (Figure S5 in the Supporting Infor-

mation).
Since cyclohexylalanine of MitP could bind b-CD by host–
guest interaction, in which the cyclohexyl group and b-CD
have an association constant Ka of approximately 800, GONiCD
and HAMitP can form supramolecular assemblies by multiva-
lent binding.[13] To confirm the formation of this assembly, dy-
namic light scattering and zeta-potential analysis of both
GONiCD and GONiCD + HAMitP were performed. GONiCD had
two size distribution peaks at 200 and 1200 nm, indicating
some aggregation of GONiCD. In contrast, GONiCD + HAMitP
had only one size distribution peak at approximately 200 nm
(Figure 1 c). Consistently, whereas GONiCD slowly precipitated
from the solution to the bottom of the tubes, the solution of
GONiCD + HAMitP remained stable and had an obvious Tyndall
effect under irradiation with a visible-light laser (Figure 1 d).
Moreover, GONiCD + HAMitP had a more negative zeta poten-
tial than GONiCD (@70 versus @19 mV, Figure 1 e), which was Figure 2. Dox-loading and -release capacity of GONiCD and GONiCD + HA-
attributed to the binding of negatively charged HAMitP to MitP. a) Dox loading capacity. b) Heating-induced change of the FP of Dox-
loaded GONiCD and GONiCD + HAMitP. The Dox-loaded nanocomposites
GONiCD. These results confirmed that GONiCD and HAMitP
were treated by heating at 55 8C from @10 to 0 min, followed by slow cool-
could effectively interact with each other to form supramolec- ing to 15 8C at a rate of 2 8C min@1 (from 0 to 20 min). c) Release of Dox in-
ular assemblies, which increase the colloidal stability of the 2D duced by heating at 55 8C. d) Release of Dox induced by AMF (375 kHz,
nanosheets in aqueous solution. 5 kW).
Since GO can adsorb abundant chemotherapeutic drugs
(e.g., Dox, paclitaxel, camptothecin) owing to p–p stacking
and electrostatic attraction, the GO platform has a potential as tive molecule of cyclohexyl in MitP to b-CD for disruption of
a drug-delivery carrier of these drugs.[14] The drug loading ca- supramolecular assembly, severely decreases the Dox-loading
pacity of GONiCD and the GONiCD + HAMitP supramolecular capacity of the mixture of GONiCD + HAMitP (Figure S6 in the
assemblies was investigated with the model chemotherapeutic Supporting Information). These results suggest that the en-
drug Dox. After 24 h of incubation between GONiCD or hancement of Dox-loading capacity by supramolecular assem-
GONiCD + HAMitP and Dox, the nanocomposites were centri- bly can be attributed to increased interaction strength be-
fuged and the decreased concentrations of the supernatants tween GONiCD + HAMitP and the drug even at a high temper-
were measured as the loaded Dox contents. Whereas GONiCD ature.
only exhibited a loading capacity of approximately 18 wt %, Since the interaction strength between Dox and the assem-
GONiCD + HAMitP showed a loading capacity of > 36 wt % blies could be affected by heating, bulk heating, or magnetic
(Figure 2 a), which indicated that formation of the supramolec- heating by AMF, which in turn may trigger release of Dox, we
ular assemblies enhanced the Dox loading of the 2D nano- next attempted to take advantage of this to regulate the re-
sheets. The loading capacity of the assemblies is even higher lease of Dox. Under no stimulus of bulk heating or AMF, both
than those of the commonly used drug-delivery systems, for GONiCD and GONiCD + HAMitP only release quite low levels of
example, mesoporous silica nanoparticles with a loading ca- Dox (< 5 %) even after 60 min of incubation (Figure S7 in the
pacity of < 25 %.[15] Supporting Information). Remarkably, heating by a metal bath
To investigate the mechanism by which the supramolecular triggered rapidly release of Dox from both GONiCD and
assembly enhanced drug-loading capacity, fluorescence polari- GONiCD + HAMitP. This direct heating triggered more Dox re-
zation (FP) assays were performed to indicate the interaction lease from the GONiCD + HAMitP than from GONiCD ( & 80 %
strength between Dox and the nanocomposites, in which high versus & 60 %) after 30 min (Figure 2 c). Interestingly, GONiCD +
FP values indicate strong interaction. Dox-loaded GONiCD or HAMitP reached its stable degree of Dox release after 30 min,
GONiCD + HAMitP was treated by heating at 55 8C for 10 min, whereas GONiCD reached it in only 5 min (Figure 2 c), that is,
followed by slow cooling to 15 8C over 20 min, and the FP the interaction between the drug and the assemblies is stron-
values of the samples were measured in real time. The FP ger than that between the drug and GONiCD. Similar results
values of Dox-loaded GONiCD + Dox suddenly decreased to were observed when the drug-loaded nanocomposites were
approximately 20 during the heating period, and then gradual- treated with an AMF. Under AMF treatment, GONiCD + HAMitP
ly increased to > 60 (Figure 2 b), that is, the interaction be- exhibited higher Dox-release capacity than GONiCD (46 %
tween GONiCD and Dox was severely impaired by heating and versus 35 %, Figure 2 d). Together, these results revealed that
recovered by low temperature (15 8C). In contrast, the FP value the GONiCD + HAMitP assemblies had higher Dox-loading and
of GONiCD + HAMitP + Dox was reduced to 42 by heating, and Dox-releasing capacity than GONiCD.
then increased to approximately 60 during cooling (Figure 2 b). To evaluate the drug-release and nucleus-damage ability of
Moreover, the addition of l-cyclohexyl alanine (CA), a competi- the GONiCD + HAMitP + Dox nanocarrier in tumor cells, we in-
Full Paper
cubated the drug-loaded nanocarriers with PANC-1 tumor cells between HAMitP and Dox and thus facilitating Dox release
and monitored the fluorescence distribution of Dox by confo- from the assemblies. Moreover, the PCC between Dox and
cal microscopy. Fluorescence quantification of intracellular Dox Hoechst 33342 clearly increased from @0.08 to 0.5 (Figure 3 d).
revealed that the cells incubated with GONiCD + HAMitP + Dox The preferential distribution of Dox in the nuclei might be at-
had a slight higher Dox uptake than with GONiCD + Dox or tributed to AMF-triggered Dox release from the assemblies
Dox alone (1.3-fold vs. GONiCD + Dox and 1.6-fold vs. Dox; Fig- and further Dox targeting to the nuclei. Remarkably, GONiCD +
ure S8 in the Supporting Information), indicating that HAMitP HAMitP + Dox caused severe nucleus fragmentation (indicated
in combination with GONiCD facilitated uptake of Dox by the by yellow arrows in Figure 3 c) under AMF treatment, whereas
tumor cells. We also added fluorescein isothiocyanate-tagged GONiCD alone did not cause this fragmentation (Figure 3 a). To-
1-adamantanemethylamine (FITC-Ada) to indicate distribution gether, these results indicated that AMF treatment distinctly
of GONiCD owing to the strong supramolecular interaction be- promoted Dox release from the assemblies, enhanced nucleus
tween Ada and b-CD. After 12 h of co-incubation, both Dox- entry of Dox, and consequently induced severe nucleus
loaded GONiCD and GONiCD + HAMitP exhibited intracellular damage.
distribution, as indicated by the green fluorescence of FITC- Since MitP is designed as a typical targeting molecule for mi-
Ada (Figure 3 a and c). For GONiCD, Dox was mainly co-local- tochondria binding, we speculated that the presence of
ized with FITC-Ada, that is, Dox remained in the nanosheets. HAMitP on the host might lead to targeting of the assemblies
Moreover, AMF treatment caused a slight decrease of the Pear- to mitochondria and impair the function of this organelle
son’s correlation coefficient (PCC) from 0.94 to 0.75, suggesting owing to the drug-loaded 2D nanocarriers. Confocal microsco-
some release of Dox from GONiCD (Figure 3 b). Co-localization py indicated that FITC-labeled GONiCD + HAMitP was localized
of Dox and the nucleus dye Hoechst 33342 further revealed an mainly at the mitochondria in PANC-1 tumor cells, whereas
obvious increase in PCC between them on AMF treatment (Fig- GONiCD alone scarcely co-localized with the mitochondria (Fig-
ure 3 b). Therefore, AMF led to Dox release from GONiCD to ure 4 a). Consistently, the PCC value between FITC-Ada and Mi-
the cytoplasm and to the nucleus to some extent. totracker Red for the GONiCD + HAMitP assemblies was much
Notably, for the GONiCD + HAMitP + Dox group, as opposed higher than for GONiCD alone (0.63 versus 0.18, Figure 4 b),
to the GONiCD + Dox group (Figure 3 a, bottom), AMF treat- and this confirms the high mitochondrion-targeting activity of
ment caused most of the Dox to not co-localize with FITC-Ada the assemblies.
and distribute throughout the cells (Figure 3 c, bottom), and We then investigated whether the drug-loaded assemblies
the PCC between Dox and FITC-Ada decreased from 0.82 to might disrupt the mitochondria of tumor cells. Western blot-
0.24 (Figure 3 d). These observations indicated that GONiCD + ting revealed that treatment with GONiCD + HAMitP + Dox as-
HAMitP had much higher Dox release efficiency than GONiCD semblies caused higher levels of cytochrome c release from
in the cells under AMF stimulus, although they had not so dis- the mitochondria to the cytoplasm than did treatment with
tinct release efficiency as compared with GONiCD under cell- other contrast materials or Dox alone (Figure 4 c), that is, both
free conditions (Figure 2 c and d). This could be explained by
the interaction between HAMitP and the intracellular organ-
elles (e.g., the mitochondria) reducing the interaction strength
Figure 4. Mitochondrion targeting and damage by the 2D supramolecular

Figure 3. Dox release and nucleus damage in PANC-1 tumor cells caused by nanocarriers in PANC-1 tumor cells. a) Confocal images of the tumor cells
the 2D supramolecular nanocarriers. a) Confocal images of the cells treated treated with GONiCD or GONiCD + HAMitP, followed by Mitotracker Red
with GONiCD + Dox. The white arrows indicate co-localization between FITC- (Mito Red) and Hoechst 33342 staining. The white arrows indicate co-locali-
tagged nanocarriers and Dox. b) PCC analysis of the confocal images in a). zation between the nanocarriers and mitochondria. b) PCC analysis of the
c) Confocal images of the cells treated with GONiCD + HAMitP + Dox. The confocal images in a). c) Ratio of cytosol cytochrome c (Cyt C(cyto)) to mito-
yellow arrows indicate fragmented nuclei. The purple arrows indicate co-lo- chondrial cytochrome C (Cyt C(mit)) in the tumor cells treated with the nano-
calization between Dox and nuclei. d) PCC analysis of the confocal images in composites or Dox alone. d) Intracellular ATP levels. Asterisks indicate signifi-
c). Asterisks indicate significant differences between the groups (P < 0.05). cant differences between the groups (P < 0.05).
Full Paper
Dox and the assemblies contributed to severe mitochondrial could effectively carry the anticancer drug Dox into the cells,
damage. More importantly, AMF aggravated mitochondrial release the drug with the aid of AMF, and consequently induce
damage of the tumor cells treated with GONiCD + HAMitP + nucleus damage and kill most of the tumor cells, while the tox-
Dox assemblies, with the ratio of cytochrome c in the cyto- icity of the anticancer drug to normal cells is diminished.
plasm to that in the mitochondria increasing from 0.59 to 0.88
(Figure 4 c). Consistent with this, ATP assay further revealed
that intracellular ATP levels were decreased by the assemblies, Conclusion
and this decrease was deteriorated by AMF treatment (Fig- This study developed a new approach for construction of mul-
ure 4 d). Therefore, the drug-loaded assemblies had the stron- ticomponent nanosupramolecular assemblies with AMF-stimu-
gest activity in damaging the mitochondria and impairing lus responsivity for high-efficiency carrying of antitumor drugs.
energy production in the tumor cells. The 2D nanocarriers are composed of b-CD/NiNP-decorated
The antitumor effect of the 2D supramolecular nanocarriers GOs (GONiCD) and MitP-modified HA (HAMitP). Owing to the
on PANC-1 tumor cells on exposure to AMF was evaluated by capping function of the MitP peptide, the GONiCD + HAMitP
an Annexin V/PI staining experiment. Confocal microscopy in- assemblies not only exhibit the drug-loading capacity of the
dicated that GONiCD + Dox, GONiCD + HAMitP, Dox, and 2D nanosheets, but also efficiently release Dox under exposure
GONiCD + HAMitP + Dox can induce tumor cell apoptosis and to AMF. After co-incubation of the drug-loading assemblies
necrosis with the aid of AFM (Figure 5 a). Among these four with tumor cells, the assemblies could target the mitochondria,
treatments, GONiCD + HAMitP + Dox induced the highest de- efficiently release Dox to both the mitochondria and nuclei,
grees of apoptosis (78.3 %) and necrosis (18.2 %), as shown in and finally cause cell death. This study sheds light on the de-
Figure 5 b and c, respectively. The highest antitumor activity of velopment of promising AMF-regulated peptide caps for two-
GONiCD + HAMitP + Dox was confirmed by CCK-8 assays, dimensional nanocarriers, and encourages us to design feasible
which showed that cell viability decreased to 18 % with the aid and convenient polymer-based supramolecular assemblies for
of AMF (Figure S9 in the Supporting Information). However, for efficient anticancer therapy. Further investigations will focus on
the normal 293T cells, while Dox alone at a concentration com- exploring the application of the nanoplatforms to co-deliver
parable to that in the assemblies exhibited obvious toxicity, anticancer drugs and other auxiliary agents (e.g., RNA, immune
GONiCD + HAMitP + Dox had no obvious impact on cell viabili- agonists) for in vivo applications.
ty (Figure S10 in the Supporting Information), which may be
attributed to poor targeting capacity of the assemblies to
normal cells. In addition, even with the same contents of Acknowledgements
loaded Dox (18.1 %), the GONiCD + HAMitP assemblies exhibit-
ed higher release capacity and higher impact on tumor cell vi- We thank for the financial supporting of National Natural Sci-
ability (Figure S11 in the Supporting Information), and this indi- ence Foundation of China (nos. 21772099, 31870139,
cates that the higher release capacity of the GONiCD + HAMitP 21861132001) and China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (no.
assemblies is involved in their higher anticancer ability. These 2018M641632).
results suggested that the 2D supramolecular nanocarriers
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Keywords: drug delivery · graphene · magnetic properties ·

nanostructures · supramolecular chemistry
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& Drug Delivery

Alternating Magnetic Field Controlled Targeted Drug Delivery

Introduction of large surface area, good biocompatibility, and high feasibili-

Scheme 1. Illustration of construction of the AMF-driven supramolecular

MitP onto the HA polymer (Figure S5 in the Supporting Infor-

Figure 4. Mitochondrion targeting and damage by the 2D supramolecular

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Keywords: drug delivery · graphene · magnetic properties ·

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