Mathematics Science and Technology

Lesson 2: Biological Science

The Principles and Concepts of Life Science

Life is God’s most precious, complex and marvelous creation and gift. God created man unto His
image and likeness to have dominion over all His creation. God endowed man with the gift of
knowledge, that is science. As an organized process of asking questions and providing answers to such
questions, it evolved to be the best way to study the universe. Thus, science encompasses a great deal
about life and nature. One such very important division of science is biology. Life science deals with a
systematic study of the living creatures of God. Biology opens new doors to the multifaceted study of the
science of the great diversity but unity of life. Certain gifted persons called life scientists or biologists
probe deeply into the quest to discover certain basic truths about the whys and how’s of life. This is just
to let mankind know that there is only one source of all this knowledge that we have gained. There is a
Creator, from whom everything emanates. Actually, life scientists utilize the scientific method to
investigate and uncover facts.

The word science is a noun derived from a Latin term (scientia) meaning knowledge or knowing.
Humans have accumulated a vast amount of knowledge using a variety of methods, some by scientific
methods and some by other methods. Science is really distinguished by how knowledge is acquired,
rather than by the act of accumulating facts. Science is actually a process or way of arriving at a solution
to a problem or understanding an event in nature that involves testing possible solutions.

Scientists are in the business of distinguishing between situations that are merely correlated
(happen at the same time) and those that are correlated and show cause-and- effect relationship. When
an event occurs as the result of a known reason, a cause-and effect relationship exists. Many events are
correlated, but not all correlations show a cause-and-effect relationship. Knowing that a cause-and-effect
relationship exists enables us to make predictions about what will happen should that same set of
circumstances occur in the future. This process has been so successful that others have adopted the
method to help them answer questions and make predictions in their field of interests.

From Atoms to Organisms

The human body exhibits many levels of structural complexity. The simplest level of the
structural ladder is the chemical level. At this level, atom, tiny building blocks of matter, combine to form
molecules such as water, sugar, and proteins. Molecules in turn, associate in specific ways to form
microscopic cells, the smallest units of all living things. Individual cells vary widely in size and shape,
reflecting their particular functions in the body.

The simplest living creatures are composed of single cells, but in complex organisms like human
beings, the structural ladder continues on to the tissue level.

Tissues consist of groups of similar cells that have a common function and the four basic tissue
types plays a definite but different role in the body.

An organ is a structure, composed of two or more tissue types, that performs a specific function
for the body. At the organ level of organization, extremely complex functions become possible. For
example, the small intestine, which digests and absorbs food, is composed of all four tissue types. All the
body’s organs are grouped so that a number of organ systems are formed. An organ system is a group of
organs that cooperate to accomplish a common purpose. For example, the digestive system includes the
esophagus, the stomach, and the small and large intestines (to name a few of its organs). Each organ has
its own job to do, and working together, they keep food moving through the digestive system so that it is
properly broken down and absorbed into the blood, providing fuel for all the body’s cells. In all, 11 organ
systems make up the living body, or the organism which represents the highest level of structural
organization, the organismal level. The major organs of each of the systems are shown in the figure as
you read through the following descriptions of the organ systems.

Living Things versus Non-Living Things

Most living things can be distinguished readily from non-living by the following characteristics:

1. Form and size. Living things have characteristic form and size within certain limits most of them
are also arranged as definite individuals. While in non- living things, materials vary widely.

2. Organization. Living things are made up of cells which are assembled into interrelated system for
performing the life processes. They rearrange and combine the chemical elements for their need. Non-
living things on the other hand cannot recombine materials and their structure depends on chemicals
present and mode of formation.

3. Movement. Living things can move by themselves while non-living things can move with the help
of an external force.

4. Growth and life cycle. Living things exhibit internal growth or intussusception while non-living
things exhibit external growth or accretion.

Living things grow by the development of new parts between or within older ones and may replace parts
during life. Each individual has a definite life cycle-birth, growth, maturity, life span and death. If non-
living things grow, they do that by external addition and there is no orderly cycle of change. Example, the
salt in the container and the ice in the freezer increase in size because only of the addition of new
materials on their surface.

5. Metabolism. The word metabolism is defined as various vital life processes which includes all the
changes that the materials taken as food undergoes. There are two phases of metabolism namely:
anabolism and catabolism. Anabolism is called as the constructive or building up phase. This includes
assimilation or building up of protoplasm from simple compounds and elements which are end-products
of digestion. Photosynthesis in plants is an example of anabolism. Catabolism is the destructive or
breaking down phase. This involves the release of energy by breaking food substances through
respiration.

6. Irritability. Living things react to changes in the environment. These act as stimuli that induce
responses by the organism. The degree of response is often disproportionate to that of the stimulus and
the organism is not permanently altered by the stimulus.

In non-living things, there is a definite quantitative relationship between the intensity of the
environmental change and the reaction produced as in the expansion of a metal by heat.

7.Reproduction. This is defined as the ability of the organism to create another one of the same kinds.
Living things reproduce by using the materials within their bodies, a characteristic which non-living
things do not have.

Plants Versus Animals

Although plants and animals are both living things, they differ from one another in some ways. The
principal differences between animals and plants are:

1. Form and structure. The body form of animal is rather constant. Their organs are mostly internal.
The cells are within delicate membranes and the tissues are both in solution containing sodium,
potassium and chlorine. Their growth is usually differential, producing changes in proportion of body
parts with age. While in plants, body is often variable. Their organs are added externally. The cells are
within thick rigid walls of cellulose and sodium chloride is toxic. Growth is usually terminal and often
continues through life.

2. Metabolism. Animals depend on plants and other animals for their food. Food is digested and
rearranged chemically within the body. Oxygen is needed for respiration. The end products of
metabolism are carbon dioxide, water and urea. While plants can manufacture their own food. By
photosynthesis-CO2 from the air together with H20 and inorganic matter from the soil, with the help of
chlorophyll, these

materials are formed into various organic compounds and O2 is released as a by-product.

3. Irritability. Most animals have, nervous system and they can respond faster to stimuli. Plants
have no nervous system and they respond slower to stimuli.

4. Adaptation. Refers to modifications that promote the likelihood of survival. Living things not
suited to a new condition either move to a better environment or change (evolution).

5. Organization. There are levels of biological organizations, biochemical, structural, physiological

and ecological organization: atoms – molecules – cells – tissues– organs – organ system – organisms –
populations – communities – ecosystems – biosphere.

6. Assimilation. Process of converting non-living inorganic and organic molecules into living cell that
can be done inside a living cell.

7. Definite chemical composition. All organisms are basically made up of similar inorganic (water,
salts, minerals, gases) and organic molecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids).

History of Biology

The history of biology can be summarized in our four stages namely, Primitive period, Classical
period, Renaissance and Modern era. The primitive period is characterized by uncritical accumulation of
information, mainly derived from the practical necessities of obtaining food, materials for clothing and
shelter, substances to cure ailments, and necessary information about the human body. During this
period, the accumulation of knowledge was not recorded, nor were the scientific method and its
associated intellectual activities a part of the procedure in learning about life. The classical period began
with the Greeks and continued with the Romans. This was marked by great curiosity about natural
phenomena and an ability to organize biological knowledge and record it. This began with the
contribution of Hippocrates who is called the “Father of Medicine”. He stated that diseases have natural
causes and the body has the power to repair itself. The most significant biological contributions were
made by Aristotle who is called as the ‘Great Ancient Scientist’ who excelled in making observations. He
studied almost all the areas in science. His pupil Theophrastus carried on pioneer studies on the nature
of plants; his works are the most complete biological treatises to reach us from the classical period. After
the lapse of several centuries, the Greek physician Galen who practiced medicine in Rome, began to
study human anatomy and carried out the first physiological experiment in animals. He was called as the
last great biologist of antiquity. After Galen, a biological darkness enveloped all Europe. There is a
downward trend in scientific inquiry and no biologist made critical observations. The renaissance took
place during the 14th to 16th centuries. Curiosity about the structure of living things was rekindled by
artists such as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, who made accurate studies in plants, animals and
human anatomy. Andreas Vesalius published his book “The Structure of the Human Body”. William
Harvey described the blood circulation in man which contributed to physiology. By the middle of
renaissance, anatomy, physiology, botany and zoology were established.

The introduction of microscope at the beginning of the 17th century marked the start of modern
biology. The first microscope was devised by Jansen (1690) in Germany. It worked on the principle that
two lenses are needed to magnify an object. Galileo Galilei accidentally magnified the tiny compound
eyes of an insect while playing with the lenses. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek became the first man to see a
microscopic organism- a bacterium, through a crude microscope that he had constructed. This was
followed by the establishment of the concept of the cell theory by Robert Hooke, botanist Matthias
Schleiden and zoologist Theodore Schwann. The spontaneous origin of life from nonliving matter was
experimentally disapproved by Francesco Redi and later experimented by Lazzaro Spallanzani. Carolus
Linnaeus ‘The Father of Taxonomy’ established the system of nomenclature in which all living things are
arranged by genera and species. In the early 19th century, Jean Baptiste Lamarck proposed the theory of
evolution. But the most outstanding contribution to evolution came from Charles Darwin who proposed
the natural selection as an explanation by which evolutionary changes take place. Louis Pasteur “The
Father of Modern Microbiology” laid the foundation of modern microbiology. Claude Bernard and
Johannes Muller established comparative physiology; Karl von Baer founded comparative embryology.
Gregor Mendel made studies on genetics and Hugo de Vries formulated the mutation theory.

During the 20th century, many of the ideas of the past centuries were consolidated and refined and new
concepts have been added. In endocrinology, our knowledge of hormones was increased by the work of
E.H. Starling. Ecology came into existence at the time of Ernst Haeckel who stated that an organism was
the product of the interaction of its environment with hereditary factors. Ecology was put on a modern
basis by the American Botanists H.E. Cowla and F.E. Clements and zoologist V.E. Shelford. Today, the
generalization that all organisms living in a given area are closely interdependent with each other and
with the environment is a unifying biological concept as that of evolution.

What is Life?

Life is generally defined as the sum of a specific set of processes and structures that result from
organization of matter. Some theories on the origin of life are:

1. Divine Creation Theory, which proposes that life comes from a supernatural form called God.

2. Marine Theory, which believes that life originates from the sea.
3. Cosmozoic or Interplanetary Theory, which states that life comes from outer planets as spores
and are germinated on earth.

4. Abiogenesis or Spontaneous Generation Theory, which believes that life arises spontaneously
from non-living things.

5. Evolutionary Theory, which concludes that life is a result of chain of chemical reactions giving
arise to a mass of living protoplasm which then or gradually modify to their present forms of life.

6. Big Bang Theory, also called physic-chemical or cosmological theory and most scientific accepted
theory. Heavenly bodies, including the earth, originated from the explosion of a hot rotating ball of gas
and eventually life was formed from the chemical evolution of different compounds present in the
primitive earth.

Natural science can be classified into biological and physical sciences. Biological science deals with the
study of living things while physical science deals with the study of non-living things such as chemistry,
physics, astronomy, geology, meteorology, etc. Biology has two main divisions according to method of
study such as botany, the study of plants and zoology, the study of animals.

Branches of Biology According to the Nature of Study

Anatomy is the study of internal structures of living things.

Bacteriology is the study of bacteria.

Biochemistry is the use of chemistry in the study of living things.

Biological Earth Science is the use of the earth science, such as geography in the study of living things.

Biological Psychology is the use of biology in psychological studies.

Biophysics is the use of physics in the study of living things.

Conchology is the study of shells

Cytology is the study of cells.

Ecology is the study of the relationships of living things to each other and to their environment. Anatomy
is the is the study of internal structures of living things.

Embryology is the study of the formation and development of living things from fertilization to birth as
independent organisms.

Endocrinology is the study of hormones and their actions.

Entomology is the study of insects.

Ethology is the study of animal behavior.

Genetics is the science of heredity and the lifelong development of living things.

Helminthology is the study of worms.

Herpetology is the study of reptiles and amphibians.

Histology is the study of tissues. Ichthyology is the study of fishes. Mammalogy is the study of mammals.
Malacology is the study of mollusks. Microbiology is the study of microorganisms.

Morphology is the study of structures as to form and shape viewed as a whole.

Nutrition is the study of the use and conversion of food substances.

Ontogeny is the study of the development of the individual.

Ornithology is the study of birds.

Paleontology is the study of fossils.

Parasitology is the study of animals that live and subsist on or in other animals.

Pathology is the study of diseases, generally in animals.

Pharmacology is the study of the actions of chemicals on and in living things.

Phylogeny is the study of the development of a group or race.

Physiology is the study of normal functions of living things.

Protozoology is the study of one celled organism.

Virology is the study of the study viruses.

Zoogeography is of the land and its animals.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

What is the scientific method?

Scientists rely primarily on the scientific method to investigate facts about the material universe and to
discover laws or theories that may govern this universe. The scientific method is an organized and logical
sequence of thought processes and activities designed to gather information and test ideas.

Observation of a Phenomenon

A scientist using the scientific method begins with observation, which is an examination of unexplained
events or natural phenomena. The five senses (sight, smell, taste, hearing and touch) are utilized to
observe these. To aid the scientists, certain instruments are used to observe a phenomenon.

Definition of a Problem

As a scientist continuously uncovers more empirical evidence about an event, he begins to formulate
questions about the event. He defines the problem to be studied. A problem to be thoroughly studied
should be limited in scope to make it manageable. A problem should be properly defined, lest the
researchers answer an unrelated problem instead.

Formulation of the Hypothesis

A scientist does not stop at defining a problem. A scientist proposes a tentative answer to the problem.
This is the hypothesis. A hypothesis must account for all observed facts, aside from being testable.

The Experiment

An experiment is a recreation of a phenomenon or event done by a scientist in order to produce valid

and reliable evidence. Experimentation involves precise collection of data and their organization in a
manner that is systematically related to the hypothesis.

Drawing of Conclusion

After experimentation, a scientist draws a conclusion from an array of data and explanations based on
such experiment. A conclusion is a statement of whether or not the results of an experiment support the
hypothesis.

Hypothesis, Theory, Laws

We have defined the hypothesis to be the tentative answer or solution to a problem. The hypothesis is
based on the data used in an experiment. If the hypothesis proves true in other subsequent but similar
experiments, then a theory is now formed. Thus, a theory is a general statement, a plausible,
scientifically accepted generalization based on a number of tested hypotheses designed to explain a
range of observations. A new theory will be subjected to continuous experimentation. If the theory
survives, it becomes a valid scientific law.

Limitations of the scientific method

1. Existence of God

2. Beauty appreciations

3. Moral issues

4. Value judgment

The Study of Biology

The requirements for a successful study of biology are few:

(1) ability to observe carefully and to report accurately that which is seen;

(2) absolute honesty in all work – a prime requirement in all branches of science;

(3) clear thinking to arrive at dependable deductions or inferences from observations; and

(4) a judicial attitude to appraise the relative values of conflicting evidence and to arrive at
appropriate conclusions in the presence of evidence pointing in another direction. skill in
attaining all these requirements may be gained even in elementary course.