Matrices

Prepared by: NRSulima

Contents:

1. Definition and its characteristics

2. Classification of Matrices
3. Algebraic Operations
4. Special Matrices
5. Other Operations on Matrices
Matrix

A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers or functions enclosed

in a set of brackets.
Ex.
 a11 a12 a1n 
 
 a21 a22 a2n 
A  ajk  
 
 
am1 am2 am3 amn 

Note: All matrices are written in boldface, A, B, … etc.

Matrix

The term “matrix” was introduced by the English mathematician

James Joseph Sylvester (1814 – 1897) in 1850.

 a11 a12 a1n 

 
 a21 a22 a2n 
A  ajk  
 
 
am1 am2 am3 amn 
Characteristics of a Matrix

1. Size of a Matrix
2. Entry of a Matrix
3. Principal Diagonal (Main Diagonal)
4. Leading Entry
Size of a matrix

A size of a matrix is denoted as m x n matrix.

m = number of rows
n = number of columns

  a11 a12 a1n 

 
  a21 a22 a2n 
m  rows 
 
 
 a am2 am3 amn 
  m1
n  columns
Size of a matrix   a11

 a
a12
a22
a1n 
a2n 

m  rows   21
 
 
 a am2 am3 amn 
  m1
n  columns

A size of a matrix is denoted as m x n matrix.

Ex.
 π 0 e 
q r   x 
A   2 x2 B  3 j e  3 x3
s t  m n
ln 2 3  j4 x2  y2 
m n

1
0 1 2  
C  2 x3 D  2   3 x 1
3 4 5 m n
3
m n
Entry of a matrix

The numbers or functions are called entries or elements.

 a11  π 0 e 
 x
B  3 j a23  e 
a31  ln 2 3  j4 x2  y2 
Principal Diagonal (Main Diagonal)

The diagonal from the upper left to the lower right is called the
principal diagonal or main diagonal.

 π 0 e
All entries in the said diagonal  x
 3  j e 
are called diagonal entries.
ln 2 j4 x2 
Leading Entry

The first entry that is located at the first row, first column is
called the leading entry.

 π 0 e
 x
 3  j e 
ln 2 j4 x2 
Classification of Matrices

1. Square Matrix
2. Diagonal Matrix
3. Identity Matrix
4. Scalar Matrix
5. Zero Matrix
6. Vector
Classification of Matrices

1. Square Matrix
A matrix whose number of rows m is equal to the
number of columns n.

1 0 2
 
 9 3 6   3
m
x3
n
 7 5 4
Classification of Matrices

2. Diagonal Matrix
A diagonal matrix is a square matrix with all zero
values except for the aij value for all i = j.

2 0 0
 
0 3 0
0 0 1 
Classification of Matrices

3. Identity Matrix
An identity matrix is a diagonal matrix with all non-
zero entries equal to 1.

1 0 0
 
0 1 0
0 0 1 
Classification of Matrices

4. Scalar Matrix
A scalar matrix is a diagonal matrix with all non-zero
entries equal to some other constant.

8 0 0
 
0 8 0
0 0 8
Classification of Matrices

5. Zero Matrix
A zero matrix is a square matrix whose entries are all
equal to zero.

0 0 0
 
0 0 0
0 0 0
Classification of Matrices

6. Vector
A vector is a matrix with only one column or one row.
Its entries are called the components of the vector.

2 
 
5 
3 2 1 4

Row Vector Column Vector

Algebraic Operations of Matrices

1. Equality of Matrices
2. Addition and Subtraction of Matrices
3. Multiplication of Matrices
Algebraic Operations of Matrices

1. Equality of Matrices
Two matrices are equal iff they have same number of rows
and columns and their corresponding entries are equal.

2 1 3  2 1 3 
   
A  5 3 4 B = 5 3 4 
7 6 1  7 6 1 
Algebraic Operations of Matrices

2. Addition and Subtraction of Matrices

Addition (or subtraction) of two matrices is accomplished by
adding (or subtracting) the corresponding entries of two matrices
which have the same size.

2 1 3  8 2 3
   
A  5 3 4 B = 6 3 1 
7 6 1  4 7 5 
Algebraic Operations of Matrices

2. Addition and Subtraction of Matrices

Laws for Matrix Addition (or Subtraction):

A+B=B+A  Commutative
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)  Associative
A+0=A
A + (-A) = 0
Algebraic Operations of Matrices

Ex. Evaluate: A + B

2 1 3  8 2 3
   
A  5 3 4 B = 6 3 1 
7 6 1  4 7 5 
Algebraic Operations of Matrices
Solution:
2 1 3  8 2 3
   
A  5 3 4 B = 6 3 1 
7 6 1  4 7 5 

2 1 3  8 2 3 2  8 1  2 3  (3)
     
A  B  5 3 4  6 3 1   5  6 3  3 4 1 
7 6 1  4 7 5  7  4 6  7 1  5 

10 1 0 
 
A  B  11 6 5 
11 13 6 
Algebraic Operations of Matrices

3. Multiplication of Matrices
3.1 Scalar Product

3.2 Vector Product

Algebraic Operations of Matrices

3. Multiplication of Matrices
3.1 Scalar Product
Multiply the scalar to each element of the matrix.

Example:
2 4 1
r 3 A   
3 1 2
Algebraic Operations of Matrices

Ex. Evaluate rA (scalar product).

2 4 1
r 3 A  
3 1 2
Algebraic Operations of Matrices

Solution:

2 4 1
r 3 A   
3 1 2

2 4 1 3(2) 3(4) 3(1)  6 12 3 

rA  3      
3 1 2 3(3) 3(1) 3(2) 9 3 6 
Algebraic Operations of Matrices

3. Multiplication of Matrices
3.2 Vector Product
It is only possible if the number of columns “n” of the
left-hand matrix is equal to the number of rows “m” of the right-
hand matrix.
Algebraic Operations of Matrices

3. Multiplication of Matrices
Laws for Matrix Multiplication (Scalar):

c(A + B) = cA + cB
(c + k)A = cA + kA
c(kA) = (ck)A
1A = 0
where: c, k = scalar
Algebraic Operations of Matrices

3.2 Vector Product:

It is only possible if the number of columns “n” of the left-
hand matrix is equal to the number of rows “m” of the right-hand
matrix.
 
   
A  mx n  B = m x n 
   

For example, if A x B, then “nA” must be equal to “mB”.

The resulting matrix will be: [ mA x nb ]

Algebraic Operations of Matrices

3.2 Vector Product:

Thus, generally

A x BBx A

Not Commutative!
Algebraic Operations of Matrices

3.2 Vector Product: (Possibility)

1 2   4 3
A    B=  
3 4 1 2 
2x2 2x2

Possible!
Resulting matrix: 2 x 2
Algebraic Operations of Matrices

3.2 Vector Product: (Possibility)

3 1 
2 4 1  
C  D = 2 4 
3 1 2 1 2
2x3
 
3x2

Possible!
Resulting matrix: 2 x 2
Algebraic Operations of Matrices

3.2 Vector Product: (Possibility)

1
 
E  2 F = 5 2 7 
1 1x3

3x1

Possible!
Resulting matrix: 3 x 3
Algebraic Operations of Matrices

3.2 Vector Product: (Possibility)

“Multiply the row of the left-hand matrix to the column of

the right-hand matrix”
Algebraic Operations of Matrices

Ex. Evaluate A x B (vector product).

3 1 
2 4 1  
A    B = 2 4 
3 1 2 1 2
2x3
3x2
Algebraic Operations of Matrices
Solution:
3 1 
2 4 1  
A    B = 2 4 
3 1 2 1 2
2x3
 
3x2

A: n = 3, B: m = 3,  nA  mB

The resulting matrix is: 2x2.

Algebraic Operations of Matrices
Solution:
3 1 
2 4 1  
A    B = 2 4 
3 1 2 1 2
2x3
3x2

A: n = 3, B: m = 3,  nA  mB

 

A x B   m  2
 

n2
Algebraic Operations of Matrices
Ex. Evaluate A x B (vector product).
3 1  Note: The resulting product is
2 4 1   the “m” of the left-hand matrix
A    B = 2 4 
3 1 2 1 2
by the “n” of the right-hand

2x3
matrix.
3x2

A: n = 3, B: m = 3,  nA  mB

2(3)  4(2)  1(1) 2(1)  4(4)  1(2) 15 16 

A x B     
3(3)  1(2)  2(1) 3(1)  1(4)  2(2) 13 3 
Algebraic Operations of Matrices

Ex. Evaluate BxA (vector product).

3 1 
  2 4 1
B = 2 4  A   
1 2 3 1 2
2x3
3x2
Algebraic Operations of Matrices
Solution:

3 1 
  2 4 1
B = 2 4  A   
1 2 3 1 2
2x3
3x2

B: n = 2, A: m = 2,  nB  mA

B x A  3 x 3 matrix 
Other Operations on Matrices

1. Transpose of a Matrix (T)

2. Determinant of a Matrix
3. Minor of an entry
4. Cofactor of an entry (or of a matrix)
5. Adjoint of a Matrix
6. Inverse of a Matrix
Other Operations on Matrices

1. Transpose of a Matrix (T)

The transpose of a matrix is an equivalent “n x m” matrix of
the original “m x n” matrix.

Notation: Given matrix A,

Its transpose is denoted as AT

Other Operations on Matrices

Ex. Given matrix A, determine AT.

2 1 3 
 
A  5 3 4
7 6 1 
Other Operations on Matrices

Solution:

2 1 3   2 5 7
  T  
A  5 3 4  A   1 3 6 
7 6 1   3 4 1 
ANSWER !
Other Operations on Matrices

1. Transpose of a Matrix (T)

Laws of Transposition:
(AT)T = A
(A + B)T = AT + BT
(cA)T = cAT
(AB)T = BTAT
Special Matrices

1. Symmetric Matrices

2. Skew-symmetric Matrices

3. Triangular Matrices
3.1 Upper Triangular
3.2 Lower Triangular
Special Matrices

1. Symmetric Matrices
- square matrices whose transpose equal the matrix
itself.

2 5 7 
 
A  5 3 6 
7 6 1 
Special Matrices

2. Skew-symmetric Matrices
- square matrices whose transpose equals the negative
of the matrix.

 0 1 3
 
B   1 0 2
 3 2 0 
Special Matrices

3. Triangular Matrix
A triangular matrix has zeros in all positions above or
below the diagonal.

2 0 0
 
0 3 0
0 0 1 
Special Matrices

3.1 Upper Triangular Matrix

An upper triangular matrix has zero entries below the
main diagonal.

2 5 7 
 
0 3 6 
0 0 1 
Special Matrices

3.2 Lower Triangular Matrix

A lower triangular matrix has zero entries above the
main diagonal.

2 0 0
 
5 3 0
7 6 1 
Other Operations on Matrices

2. Determinant of a Matrix
The determinant of a matrix is a scalar calculated from a
square matrix. The determinant is indicated by enclosing the
matrix by vertical lines.
Properties of Determinant

A. If a matrix has a row or column of zeros, the determinant is

zero.

0 0 0 6 0 5
2 4 1 0 2 0 1 0
9 7 3 9 0 3
Properties of Determinant

B. If a matrix has two identical rows or columns, the determinant

is zero.

1 3 4 2 2 5
2 4 1 0 2 2 1 0
1 3 4 9 9 3
Properties of Determinant

C. If a matrix is triangular, the determinant is equal to the

product of the diagonal entries.

2 0 0
0 3 0  2  3  4   24
0 0 4
Properties of Determinant

D. The value of the determinant is not changed even if the

corresponding rows and columns are interchanged.

2 5 7 2 1 8
1 3 5  5 3 6
8 6 4 7 5 4
Properties of Determinant

E. If each of a column or row of a determinant is multiplied by a

scalar “r”, the value of the determinant is multiplied by “r”.

2 5 7 2 5x2 7 2 5 7
1 3 5  1 3x2 5  2  1 3 5
8 6 4 8 6x2 4 8 6 4
Properties of Determinant

By properties defined in B & E, the following can be applied:

1 5 2
4 3 8 0
3 6 6

(since the elements of columns 1 and 3 are exact multiples!)

Properties of Determinant

F. If two columns or rows of a determinant are interchanged, the

sign is changed.

1 4 2 1 2 4
5 7 10   5 10 7
3 8 6 3 6 8
Properties of Determinant

G. The value of a determinant is not changed if each element of

a column (or row) is multiplied by a number k and added (or
subtracted) to the corresponding elements of a column (or row).

1 4 2 1 4 2  1(3) 1 4 5
5 7 8  5 7 8  5(3)  5 7 23
3 8 6 3 8 6  3(3) 3 8 15
Determinant

Example:
Solve for x: (2nd order)

3 1
x  3  4   2  1  10
2 4
Determinant

Example:
Solve for x: (3rd order)

1 3 2
x  2 1 4
3 2 1
Determinant

Solution:

1 3 2 1 3
x  2 1 4 2 1
3 2 1 3 2
x  1 1 1   3  4  3  2  2   2  
 3 1 2   2   4  1  1 2   3    21
Determinant

2.1 Minor of an entry, M:

The minor of an entry is a matrix obtained by deleting the
row and column in which the entry appears.

Ex. Given matrix A, find the minor „M‟ of a22.

2 1 3
  2 3
A  5 3 4  Ma22  
7 6 1  7 1
Determinant

2.2 Cofactor of an entry, K:

The cofactor of an entry in the row “i” and column “j” is
defined as:

Multiply the minor of the entry

Kij   1
i j
Mij by negative 1 raised to the
power of the sum of its location.
Determinant

2.2 Cofactor of an entry, K:

The cofactor of an entry in the row “i” and column “j” is
defined as:
Alternative Approach:
Sign Convention:

Kij   1
i j   
Mij   
  
Determinant

Ex. Given matrix A, find the cofactor „K‟ of a22.

2 1 3 
 
A  5 3 4
7 6 1 
Determinant

Solution: Determine the minor „M‟ of a22.

2 1 3 
  2 3
A  5 3 4  Ma22   
7 6 1  7 1
Determinant

Solution: Determine the cofactor „K‟ of a22.

2 1 3 
  2 3
A  5 3 4  Ma22   
7 6 1  7 1

2 3
K   1 Ma22   1   2 1  7 3    19
i j 2 2

7 1
Determinant Sign Convention:
  
  
Solution: Determine the cofactor „K‟ of a22.   

2 1 3 
  Note: The entry itself is not
A  5 3 4
7 6 1  included in the solution.

2 3
K   1 Ma22   1   2 1  7 3    19
i j 2 2

7 1
Determinant

The minor & cofactor operations may be used to evaluate

the determinant of any square matrix. The process is called
minor-cofactor method and is defined as:
Determinant

The minor & cofactor operations may be used to evaluate

the determinant of any square matrix. The process is called
minor-cofactor method and is defined as:

n i j
 j  1, or n
  1
2,
D aijMij
i 1
Note: i = row, j = column
Determinant

The minor & cofactor operations may be used to evaluate

the determinant of any square matrix. The process is called
minor-cofactor method and is defined as:

n i j
i  1, or n
  1
2,
D aijMij
j 1
Note: i = row, j = column
Determinant

In other words, the determinant is defined as:

the summation of the product of an entry “aij” and its

corresponding cofactor starting from the first element down to
the last element of a chosen row (or column).

n i j

D   1
i or j 1
aijMij
Determinant

Example*:
Solve for x using the minor-cofactor method: (3rd order)

1 3 2
x  2 1 4
3 2 1

*This example only serves as a proof of concept.

Solution: Minor-cofactor method:

Step 1: Choose a row or a column.

1 3 2
x 2 1 4
3 2 1
Solution: Minor-cofactor method:

Step 1: Choose a row or a column.

1 3 2   
x 2 1 4 Sign Convention:   
3 2 1   
Solution: Minor-cofactor method:

Step 2: Determine the cofactor of each highlighted entry.

Multiply each result by its own entry.

1 3 2   
x 2 1 4 Sign Convention:   
3 2 1   
Solution:
1 3 2   
x 2 1 4 Sign Convention:   
3 2 1   

1 4 3 2 3 2
x   1  2   3 
2 1 2 1 1 4

x   1 1  8   2   3  4   3  12  2 

x  21
Determinant

The minor & cofactor operations may be used to evaluate

the determinant of any square matrix.
Determinant

Example:
Solve for x: (4th order)

2 0 1 1
1 2 2 3
x
3 2 3 2
4 4 2 3
Solution:

Choose a row or a column.

2 0 1 1
1 2 2 3
x
3 2 3 2
4 4 2 3
Solution: Sign Convention:
   
2 0 1 1    
x
1 2 2 3    
x
3 2 3 2    
4 4 2 3

2 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 2
x   2  2 3 2  0  3 3 2  1 3 2 2   1 3 2 3
4 2 3 4 2 3 4 4 3 4 4 2

x  84
Other Operations on Matrices

3. Adjoint of a Matrix (Classical Adjoint)

The adjoint of a matrix is defined as the transpose matrix of
the cofactor of all entries of the given matrix.

Given: Matrix A,

adjo int of A=  cofactor of A 

T
Other Operations on Matrices

4.Inverse of a Matrix
The inverse of a matrix is defined as the ratio between the
adjoint and the determinant of the given matrix

Given: Matrix A,

adjo int of A  cofactor of A 

T
1
A  
det of A det of A
Inverse of a Matrix

Given matrix A, determine A-1.

1 3 2
A  2 1 4
3 2 1