Alkali metals (Group 1A)

Common properties ● They have one valence electron that is easily removed,
hence will increase in atomic size; ionization is easy.
● Most reactive of all metals
● cations are stable chemically and the free elements are
not found in nature –found in combination with other
metals; only occur as compounds

Chemical properties ● Form white solid hydrides (compounds where hydrogen is

present) readily when heated with oxygen gas.
● Only lithium reacts readily with nitrogen, even at RT to
form a nitride.
● high affinity for oxygen to readily form oxides
● react vigorously with water to form hydrogen gas and a
metallic hydroxide –for this reason, the metals are stored
under kerosene and coated with paraffin or other
protective procedures.

Physical properties ● They are soft and can be cut by a knife. They are silvery
and very shiny when clean.

Compound ● React with water to form compounds called hydroxides

and react easily with halogens to form salts.

Atomic properties ● Biggest of all atoms.

Li- red, Na-yellow, K-violet, Rb-red, Cs-blue

Hydrogen: It is the lightest element and usually combines with other elements. It is
transparent gas. Most common element.

Lithium (“Earth, stone”): Red flame in color. Used as depressant and diuretic properties. It
is the lightest of all elements and can easily float in water. It Exists in nature only in minerals.

Sodium (Natrium): Yellow flame in color. most abundant in this group. Used as fluid
retention, osmotic effect; thus it is used in the treatment of cardiac and renal conditions in
which edema is the problem.

Potassium: Violet flame in color. Used as muscle contraction. Deficiency: hypokalemia leads
to weakness. Found in plant ash which is why it is called “kalium” which means ash.

Cesium: Blue flame in color. catalyst in the polymerization of resin-forming materials.

Rubidium: Latin word: Rubidius meaning “deepest red”.

Francium: Rarest natural element on earth. Extracted from radioactive ores such as thorite
and uraninite.
Alkali earth metals (Group 2A)

Chemical properties These metals are similar to the alkali metals, but not as reactive.
Except for beryllium (Be), all alkaline earth metals react with hot
water or steam.

Physical properties All members of this group are soft and shiny when pure. They are
solid at room temperature.

Compound These elements form compounds with non-metals by losing their

outermost electrons. Several compounds are found in teeth and
bones.

Atomic properties The alkaline earth metals have two electrons in their outermost
electron shell. Radium (Ra) is the most radioactive member.

Module base They are bivalent cations. They form ionic salts and oxides.
Except Be and Mg, reduce water releasing hydrogen and an
alkaline solution. Except Be, is attacked by oxygen to form oxides
and metals. Salts formed are generally insoluble except for
hydroxides. Generally, salts are hydrates.

Flame color: Ca –brick red, Sr –crimson red, Ba –yellow green, Ra –carmine red

Beryllium: most toxic metal; used in the fluorescent lighting industry; beryllos

Magnesium: lightest of all structurally important metals; used in the manufacture of flares
–natural source: silicates in the form of talc; carbonates in magnesite and dolomite (CaCo3 +
MgCo3); sulfates as kieserites (magnesium sulphate mineral)
–2nd most abundant IC cation; metal present in chloropohyll; component of Grignard reagent
–laxative and depressant property; also a natural calcium channel blocker; magnesia

Calcium: –2nd most abundant EC cation; cation of hydroxyapatite; antacid. Natural sources:
dolomite, fluorite, gypsum (selenite or CaSo4), PO4 rock [Ca3(PO4)2]
–Pcol properties: blood coagulation factor, muscle contraction, release of NT (Ach, E, NE..),
structural functions. Vitamin D –necessary for the maximum absorption of calcium
Deficiency of Vit D: osteomalacia in adults, rickets in children; most abundant element in the
human body.

Strontium: used in red pyrotechnique; Crimson red in color.

Barium: Yellow-green in flame color.. Chemically, most active in this group; for sparks

Radium: Carmine red in color. Radioactive element discovered by Marie Curie: Used in
cancer chemotherapy and for diagnostic purposes.
Transition metals

This is the largest set of elements in the periodic table. This block of metals contains useful
elements, such as gold (Au), iron (Fe), and copper (Cu). Many of these metals are easy to
shape. The fourth period of the block – from rutherfordium (Rf) to copernicium (Cn) – are
artificial and do not occur in nature. They were created by scientists in laboratories.

Most transition metals have two outer electrons, but a few such as copper (Cu) have only one.
These elements are generally hard and dense metals. Mercury (Hg), the only element that is
liquid at room temperature, also belongs to this group.Transition metals are not as reactive as
alkali and alkaline earth metals. However, they form many varied and colourful compounds.

Many compounds of transition metals are brightly coloured. These metals are often used in
alloys, such as brass and steel.

Coinage metals (Group 1B)

Module base ● They contain one electron in the valence shell followed by
18 electrons in the next shell.
● Exist in polyvalent state (especially Cu and Ag)
● They form covalent bond especially with halides
● Occur in the free metallic state, thus are relatively easy to
recover from their ores and are very malleable.
● they are relatively hard, melt at high temperature, much
less reactive chemically and are
● relatively stable on exposure to air under ordinary
conditions. They exhibit variable balance, form complex
compounds and their cations are reducible to the metallic
state.

Copper: The only reddish-colored metal, 3rd most malleable and 3rd best conductor of
electricity; the only metal used in water purification
–Alloys: bronze (tin and copper) and brass (copper and zinc?)
–Salts generally blue in color; occurs in the respiratory pigment hemocyanin and cytochrome
oxidase (involved in biotransformation of drugs); protein precipitant (astringent effect);
enhances physiologic utilization of Fe
(toxicity: Wilson’s disease –usually from contaminated water; DOC: Penicillamine)
Wilson’s disease –increased Cu level in the brain, liver, kidneys and cornea
s/s: hepatic serosis, jaundice, bloating, brain damage, demyelination and kidney defects

Silver (Argentum=shining bright)

–Salts are highly ionized and slightly ionized or insoluble; oligodynamic action (can inhibit
growth of microorganisms at a small concentration)
(toxicity: Argyria; antidote: NSS, sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O2 -3)
, K ferricyanide) K3[Fe(CN)6
Gold (Aurum –Shining dawn)
–King of All Metals; most malleable, most ductile, best conductor of electricity; soluble only in
aqua regia (3HCL + 1HNO3)

Third Transition metals (2B)

Module base Divalent (Two valence electrons), although Hg is mono and

divalent. Forms ionic and covalent bonds. Oxides are stable
–decreasing as atomic number increases. Halides are generally
soluble, especially ZnCl2 (Zinc Chloride, CdSO4 (Cadmium
Sulfate), Hg(NO3) Mercury (II) Nitrite. Form complex ions.

Zinc:
–Cadmia; metal present in insulin; container for dry cells
–Pcol: Astringent, antiseptic, antiperspirant, protectant
–deficiency: Parakeratosis
–mild antiseptic, astringent, topical protective (Desitin for diaper rash)
Cadmium:
–Wood’s metal; Rose’s metal
–Pcol: soluble salts are astringents
*Toxicity: Itai-itai; Antidote: BAL
Mercury:
–A true metal
–“Hydrargyrum, Quicksilver, Liquid silver”
–Natural source: Cinnabar (HgS)
–Mercury and its compounds are extremely toxic
–Pcol: previously as a cathartic and parasiticide, now used as a germicidal
*Poisoning: Minamata disease
Antidote: Sodium formaldehyde sulfoxylate, BAL (C3H8OS2), penicillamine (C5H11NO2S)

Group 3B

–Sc, Y, La, Ac and two large groups of elements: Rare Earth Metals/ Lanthanides and the
Actinides
–The Lanthanides and Actinides have no applications in Pharmacy
–Only Cerium of the Lanthanide series is used as an analytical reagent in pharmacy
–Hydroxides formed are very weak
–Trivalent but the Lanthanide series have +3 or +4 valence, Eg. Ce (Cerous, Ceric)

Titanium family (Group 4B)

Module base Their valence is +2, +3, +4. They are Tetravalent compounds; are
colorless, lower valances produce colored salts. Forms stable
complexes with halides. Occur in nature only in the combined
state.
Titanium –“Titan” –Son of the Earth
very powerful reducing agent

Titanium oxide –solar ray protective (used in sunblock and suntan lotions; because it has a
high refractive index, it
can reflect UV rays); opacifying agent in capsules; also used in contact lenses

Zirconium –deodorant and antiperspirant properties

Group VB (Vanadium, Niobium, Tantalum)

Module base Oxidation states +2 to +5

–they are unreactive or inert, hence used for corrosion-resistant
applications in medicine; eg. Screens, plates and
wires to be left in the body.

Tantalum –used in sheet form for surgical repair of bones; does not affect tissues

Group VIB

Module base React with oxygen to form oxides –have a tendency to unite with
oxygen and in such form replace the H of acids to form salts
ii- Low oxidation state oxides are very basic while the higher ones
are acidic (chromates, molybdates, tungstates)

Chromium: essential trace element; found in sugar and butter; deficiency-DM-like symptoms
(aka Glucose tolerance factor) –polydipsia, polyuria, polyphagia

Molybdenum: cofactor of enzymes associated with flavin-dependent enzymes (eg. flavonol;

cofactor in Vit B)

Uranium –radioactive element

Group VIIB

Module base The valence electron is 7

Manganese (most important) , Technetium (First element to be artificially prepared- product

of radioactive decay , Rhenium (rare) , Bohrium
Group VIIIB (Triads)

Module base ● Valence is 2,3,4,6.8

● Iron groups form simple cations while platinum groups
form complex cations.

Iron triad –Fe, Co, Ni (React with oxygen)

Light platinum metals –Ru, Rh, Pd
Heavy Platinum metals –Os, Ir, Pt

Iron groups form simple cations

platinum groups form complex cations; this group are also known as noble metals because
of their lack of reactivity, are inert hence they do not easily tarnish; are more expensive than
gold

Iron
–“Ferrum”; essential trace element found in Hgb; most important meta in the standpoint of
engineering; –are grayish-white metals,
–Forms: Hgb (RBC pigment); transferring (transport form of Fe); ferritin (storage form of Fe)
–Ferrous salts are green; ferric salts are yellow to brown
–Antidote: Deferoxamine
- hematinic

Nickel –“Old Nick’s Copper”; found in fossil fuel combustion

Cobalt –essential in the development of RBC and Hgb; metal in Vit B12; anhydrous salts are
blue while hydrated salts are pink; pinkish white; present in Vitamin B12

–Cobaltous chloride (CoCl2) –“Lover’s ink, Sympathetic ink”; indicator in silica gel beads

Osmium - heaviest known substance.

Platinum: silver colored

Group 3A (Boron Family)

Module base ● B and Al are pharmaceutically useful

● Tendency to form covalent bonds
● Readily oxidized when heated in air, although stable at
room temperature
● Oxides are readily reduced back to the free metal
● React readily with S and halogens and oxygen (form
sulfides, halides and oxides)
Al + S -------------> Al2S3
Al + Cl2-----------> AlCl3
Al + O2----------->Al2O3
 Hydroxides show amphoteric properties (except B and Tl)
*Amphoteric –act as both acid and base

Boron: –Appears only in the +3 oxidation state and is a non-metal very toxic
Aluminum: –Ladd’s paste; most abundant of all metals; 3rd most abundant element
–Generally a gastric antacid (not a systemic antacid because it is not absorbed),
antiperspirant/deodorant
–Source: cryolite (3NaF.AlF3)

Group IVA (Carbon family)

Module base ● Have a maximum valence of 4 but others have 2 or 2 and

4 (lower valence: -ous, higher: -ic;
● Reacts moderately with oxygen
● vi- Halides are volatile (PbCl2, SnCl2) except SnF4
● vii- Hydroxides are weak acids

Carbon
–Has 2 forms: crystalline and amorphous. present in all animal and plant tissues
Activated charcoal –component of the universal antidote (+MgO & tannic acid); used in the
treatment of diarrhea (adsorptive)

Silicon
–Second most abundant element on earth is found in the earth’s crust.
*Toxicity: Silicosis –lung condition resembling chronic TB; acquired after >7years Si
exposure; eg: Mining, gravel, sand industries
Antidote: Aluminum oxide dust (inhalation)

Tin: Used in manufacture of cans and utensils

Lead: Most metallic among the group; previously employed as astringent (Due to its toxicity,
is no longer used=canned foods, lead
pipes, paint, vehicle exhausts)
–Accumulates in the system=readily absorbed by the GIT and broken skin; deposited in
bones
*Toxicity: Plumbism
Antidote: EDTA, BAL

Group VA (Nitrogen family)

Module base ● 3, 5 valence

● Capable of forming both ionic and covalent bonds
● iii- Form hydrides with hydrogen
● Hydrides, except NH3, tend to be flammable and are
poisonous.
● iv- Readily react with oxygen to form oxides
● v- Readily form pentahalides
 ● vi- Readily form sulfides which are highly colored –used
as pigments/ dyes.

Nitrogen – “w/o life”, azote, mephitic air; colorless, tasteless, odorless, inert gas

Phosphorus –“light carrier”, “St. Elmo’s fire”

Arsenic –“Lewisite metal”; component of the first antisyphilitic drug SALVARSAN (aka Drug
606/ Arsphenamine)
–protoplasmic poison (poisonous to all tissues); antidote: freshly prepared mixture of Iron (III)
and Mg(OH)2 to be administered PO if still in GIT; Dimercaprol IM if already absorbed
–used in the preparation of Paris Green, Fowler’s solution, Donovan’s solution

Arsenic trioxide –component of the above solution, antileukemic agent

Antimony –toxic
Antimony Sodium Tartrate (Brown mixture)
–emetic, expectorant, treatment of schistosomial infections (parasitic)

Bismuth –“beautiful meadow”; used in silvering mirror

–Pcol: astringent, antiseptic, internal protective
–soluble salts are toxic, antidote: BAL

Group VIA (Oxygen group)

Module base ● Are among the most electronegative elements of the

periodic table
● ii- Elements are nonmetallic
● iii- Can form binary compounds with other members of the
family, eg. SO2, SeS
● iv- Form hydrides (RH2) eg. H2O, H2S that are highly
odoriferous and poisonous, except water
● v- With 6 valence electrons
● vi- Sulfides, selenides, tellurides of alkali and alkaline
earth metals are water soluble but the corresponding salts
of the
● other metals are highly water insoluble

Oxygen –“dephlogisticated air, empyreal air, most abundant and most essential element,
with 3 allotropes: nascent (O), Molecular (O2), Ozone (O3)
–required in conditions with hypoxia (anoxia, anemia, histotoxic conditions)
–Ozonized air –used in various disinfecting and bleaching operations; reacts with all
elements except Au, Ag and Cu

Sulfur
–“Brimstone, Shulbari” (“Enemy of copper”)
–2 forms: precipitated and sublimed form, the precipitated form has smaller particles being
more reactive tan the sublimed
form
–Uses: preparation of scabicidal and keratolytic ointments (found in Whitfield’s ointment
together with salicylic acid and
benzoic acid), saline cathartic, fumigant, depilatory, antisebborheic, antidote to cyanide
poisoning (sodium thiosulfate)

Selenium –“moon”; impt trace element; synergistic wit Vit E; major use: antioxidant

Group VIIA (Halogen Family)

Module base ● Most electronegative elements

● Reduce and promote oxidation of some other substances.
● Physical state changes as atomic number increases;

F –best oxidizing agent while

I is the most likely to be oxidized (reducing)
F, Cl –oxidizing agents
Br, I –reducing agents

F –pale yellow gas

Cl –greenish yellow gas
Br –reddish brown liquid
I –black solid/ violet gas

Fluorine
–Most electronegative element; strongest oa; attacks all metals except Au and Pt
Chlorine
–“Dephlogisticated muriatic air”
–primary EC anion
Bromine
–dark, reddish-brown fuming liquid with a suffocating odor; depressant and sedative
properties
*Toxicity: Brominism –s/s: skin eruptions, psychosis, weakness, HA
–antidote: NaCl or NH4Cl
Iodine
–Most metallic of the group except for Astatine; expectorant and microbial properties (eg.
Povidone iodine –iodine +polyvinyl
pyrrolydol)
–Present in thyroid gland (hormones)
–Strong Iodine Solution –treatment of hypothyroidism
–Iodine poisoning –treated with starch (because it forms a complex)

Group VIIIA (Inert gases)

Module base ● Except for He, all are filled with 8e- at the last orbital,
hence stable and inert
● ii- Unreactive

Helium–2nd lightest gas; used in balloons; Donald duck sound when swallowed
–Medical use: component of Artificial air (20% Oxygen and 80% Helium)
Neon –used in advertising (neon lights)
Argon –most abundant noble gas; used as a substitute for Nitrogen gas as an inert
atmosphere for pharmaceuticals
Krypton –least abundant noble gas
Radon –used in chemotherapy