Comparison of SChool Science Curricula of Indonesia, Vietnam and Thailand

Asia-Pacific Social Science Review | Vol. 22 No.
2 | June 2022
RESEARCH ARTICLE
A Comparison of School Science Curricula of

Indonesia, Vietnam, and Thailand
R. Ahmad Zaky El Islami,1,5* Song Xue,2 Indah Juwita Sari,3 Le Hai My Ngan,4
Vipavadee Khwaengmake,5 Samia Khan,6 Nguyen Van Bien,7 Chatree Faikhamta,5
Nguyen Thi To Khuyen,8 and Thauresean Prasoplarb5
1,3
Universitas Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa, Serang, Indonesia
2
University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
4
Ho Chi Minh City University of Education, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam
5
Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
6
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
7
Hanoi National University of Education, Hanoi, Vietnam
8
National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan
*[email protected]
Abstract: This study aimed to investigate the science curricula of Indonesia, Vietnam, and Thailand. This study was undertaken
to compare science curricula and determine which scientists’ current practices, such as hypothesizing, are represented in
science curricula. A cross-case analysis was carried out using the junior science curriculum (ages 12–14) of these countries.
The analysis revealed similarities in the science curriculum, including that the purpose of the science curriculum is to
develop scientific literacy. The junior secondary science curriculum content tends to consist of biology, physics, chemistry,
and earth and space sciences. Students are prescribed no more than 10 hours/week, and each science curriculum displays
processes commonly associated with scientific experimentation and, to a lesser degree, modeling. Student-centered learning
and inquiry are promoted as the main approaches in the science curriculum, and learning outcomes are assessed by teachers
using exam-based and non-exam methods both as a formative and summative assessment. The analysis uncovered key
differences. One example of key differences is the purposes of the science curriculum. Indonesia includes spiritual attitude
and making decisions in daily life. Vietnam includes awareness of natural science. Thailand includes nationalism, life skills,
and creativity. Integrated science is included only in Indonesia’s curriculum. It was found that Indonesian students have more
time to learn science than other countries, followed by Vietnamese and Thai students. Vietnam’s curriculum clearly includes
practices involving judgment about data, revision of ideas, and constructing explanations. Indonesia promotes a scientific
approach. Vietnam promotes the scientific method, whereas Thailand promotes the scientific method and scientific inquiry
as to their main pedagogical approaches. Finally, Indonesia and Thailand have large-scale assessments at the national level
for graduation requirements on science subjects. However, there is no apparent national science examination in Vietnam at
the junior level. These ostensible alignments suggest that science curriculum development is increasingly global and that
there is evidence of unified representations of practices associated with science. The study will be of significance to science
educators, government ministries, and international bodies of education who seek to develop science curricula.
Keywords: science curriculum, comparative research, practice, Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand
Copyright © 2022 by De La Salle University

64 Asia-Pacific Social Science Review | Vol. 22 No. 2 | June 2022
Recently, Indonesia, Vietnam, and Thailand have policies, fields of study, programs of study, courses of
renewed and refreshed their science curricula in an study, units of study, and lessons. Additionally, Chu
attempt to improve the quality of science education. (2012) adopted seven curricular emphases in science
Our research team investigated how this goal is realized from Roberts (1998) to include everyday applications;
by examining their stated intentions, alignment with structure of science; science, technology, and decisions
practice, and content coverage in science. All countries (STS; science, technology, and society); scientific skill
have implemented the latest versions of their new development; correct explanations; self as explainer
science curricula, and all countries have documented (personal explanation); and solid foundations. Based
challenges with regard to the design of the science on the previous frameworks of curriculum components,
curricula. curriculum emphases, and definition of curriculum,
the framework employed to address the research
question suggests agentive actors make meaning from
Curriculum Theory the curricula that is embedded with purposes, content,
learning activities, teaching strategies, and evaluations.
We chose in this study to examine the entire These five components can be used to make meaning
science curricula to offer a baseline during times of about the practices of scientists promoted in the science
renewal and influence by global policy organizations. curricula of Indonesia, Vietnam, and Thailand.
As mentioned, we also examined practices within the In terms of science curricula, according to Deng
science curriculum to assess how science is portrayed (2007), school subjects are different from, yet
in these curricula. Curriculum research is a complex dialectically related to, the academic disciplines such
field of study (Pugach et al., 2020). As such, definitions as the discipline of science. Allied with a discipline-
of curriculum vary within curriculum studies. For precedes-subject position is one that construes
example, Egan (1978) suggested that curriculum is the academic discipline and the school subject
the study of any and all educational phenomena. Pinar as fundamentally continuous. Whereas teachers
(2013) followed the Latin derivation of the word and admittedly deal with relatively simple facts, concepts,
explained that curriculum means a course to run or a and principles in classroom situations, they nonetheless
race course. He also focused on the runner or whoever teach the same domain-specific facts, concepts, and
comes into contact with the curriculum. Priestley principles held by the disciplinary expert. It could be
(2011) noted that the curriculum is more than just a argued that knowledge of disciplinary facts, concepts,
product. It is a process and includes questions about and principles (Young & Muller 2013) also pertains
what we do, how, and why. For this study, the notion to knowledge of powerful epistemic practices in
that curriculum suggests how and what is important to the sciences. These practices emanate from science
study and for whom and that a curriculum is remade disciplines (Eilks & Hofstein, 2017) and include, for
across multiple sites of activity was adopted. In example, the use of analogy and simulation. Thus,
processual terms, curricular development might further the notion of practice within the science curriculum
be construed as a relational process of meaning‐making invokes a dialectic among experts to promote a kind
experiences by agentive social actors in intersecting of literacy about practices in the sciences that can be
contexts (Priestley & Philippou, 2020). used to help solve problems (Dillon, 2009; Shen, 1975).
In terms of the meanings associated with a
curriculum, Taba (1962) stated that a curriculum usually Comparative Curriculum Research
contains a statement of aims and specific objectives, Although national curriculum documents are very
content, teaching priorities, and an outcome evaluation. much about the nation, Lingard (2021) contends
These components of the curriculum by Taba (1962), in that national curriculum-making is more or less
line with Sand et al. (1960), identified four curriculum an expression of and response to globalization.
components: (a) the objectives, (b) types and quality Comparative curriculum research becomes important
of learning opportunities, (c) organizing threads and in order to begin to locate and assert these global
patterns of organization, and (d) evaluation procedures. expressions. Comparative curriculum research is not
However, since this time, Glatthorn et al. (2005) new, but the suggestion that we make in this paper that
divided the curriculum components into curricular potential alignments portend a global narrative might
Asia-Pacific Social Science Review | Vol. 22 No. 2 | June 2022 65
be. For example, Vulliamy et al. (1997) studied teacher on course comprehension, but the Finnish curriculum
identity and curriculum change by using a comparative had a more comprehensive educational view because,
case-study analysis from small schools in England and they argued, the policies and approaches to teacher
Finland reported on the processes of curriculum change education were different. However, an exploration of
in primary schools. The authors reported that the current the school science curricula of Thailand and Finland
policies of the two countries are moving in opposite used in this previous study was not the main focus of
directions, with Finland dismantling its long-standing the study. Mnguni et al. (2020) compared Indonesian
subject-based national curriculum and encouraging science teachers’ and South African science teachers’
school-based curricula incorporating integrated topic curriculum ideologies. The results indicated that most
work (Vulliamy et al., 1997; Webb & Vulliamy,1999). teachers in both countries generally preferred what
A curricula comparison was conducted between was termed a student-centered curriculum ideology for
Vietnam and Australia by Phan et al. (2018). Phan et school science. This previous study found that there are
al. (2018) studied students’ experience of participating local context-specific factors that inform the preferred
in curriculum internationalization in Vietnam and ideologies of teachers. This previous study is important
Australia. In another comparative curriculum study, in the implementation and curriculum reforms as
Voogt and Roblin (2012) compared 21st-century Roehrig et al. (2007) stated that the implementation
competency frameworks among eight nations. They of the curriculum was strongly influenced by the
noted commonalities amongst the frameworks. teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning as well
However, they also raised that the connections between as the presence of a supportive network at their school
core subjects and 21st-century competencies should be site. A previous study on the school science curriculum
clearly identified. Based on the literature, noteworthy conducted by Michie (2017) compared the Indonesian
previous comparative studies have been conducted to and Australian curricula while focusing particularly
compare curricula (including in the area of science). on the science curriculum in junior high school. The
However, comparisons tend not to be focused on author found similarities in the citizenship aims,
the disciplines. We contend that studies comparing content, key ideas, skills, and assessment strategies of
renewed science curricula will be beneficial to assess both countries’ science curricula. The analysis noted
a new composite of practice in this subject area. the level of detail of both countries’ science curricula,
Previous comparative science education studies the use of competency frameworks in one curriculum
in ASEAN countries have been conducted, although and not the other, similar themes or big ideas, and
not entirely in the area of K-12 science education. varying topic emphases. Their country comparisons
For example, in Thailand, studies by Nuangchalerm also raised similar implementation issues to extend the
and El Islami (2018a, 2018b), El Islami et al. (2018), exploration of the science curriculum in other countries
and El Islami and Nuangchalerm (2020) compared would support dialogue about the substantive area, in
Indonesian and Thai pre-service science teachers on this case, promotion of practices.
scientific literacy and each domain of scientific literacy. It has been asserted that curricular renewal has
However, these previous studies only examined the the potential for influencing teachers’ teaching and
content of science, the science process, the context students’ learning in science (DeBoer, 2000; Powell
of science, and the scientific literacy of Indonesian & Anderson, 2002; Roehrig et al., 2007; Harty, 1993).
and Thai pre-service science teachers. A comparative Although, there is substantive comparative curricular
study on the curriculum of science education programs research that can offer positive pathways to impact
in the teacher education program has, however, been educational systems (Roblin et al., 2017). Given
conducted by Vibulphol et al. (2015). Vibulphol et this contention, future examinations of curricula
al. (2015) studied teacher education programs in two would benefit from a deeper examination of Eastern
universities in Finland and Thailand. They reported and Indigenous practices associated with science.
the characteristics of the elementary and secondary Comparative science curriculum research that aims
school teacher education programs in the selected with the context would be further beneficial. Finally,
universities and discussed the roles and significance there are almost no studies that offer a comparison
of 21st-century skills. Vibulphol et al. (2015) found of science education curricula in terms of practices.
that Thai science education programs focused more A study that included practices, even an initial one
such as this, would be beneficial in that it tends to in various teaching and teacher education contexts
avoid an over-emphasis on non-domain specific 21st- within their respective countries. A case study was
century skills or content areas of interest to dominant considered appropriate for the research. Case studies
international or national organizations. are a trans-paradigmatic and transdisciplinary heuristic
that involves the careful delineation of the phenomena
Purpose of the Present Study for which evidence is being collected (event, concept,
This study is timely as the research team sought program, process, etc.). Case studies enable researchers
to hone in on various elements of science curricula, to circumscribe the unit of analysis (i.e., the main entity
including the engagement in practices associated with for which data is being collected; VanWynsberghe &
scientific work. Practices are significant because they Khan, 2007) where the unit of analysis comes into
represent how scientists generate new knowledge and sharper focus as the research progresses. The unit
are embedded in all contemporary science curricula. of analysis at the outset of the present study was the
The research question guiding the study was how science curriculum. After the curricular analysis, this
curricula can be compared and how current practices of unit will come into a sharper focus.
scientists are represented in recently renewed science The use of comparative case studies allows the
curricula. research team to provide rich pictures of “instances
One of the focuses of this comparative case study in action.” This is important to the research because
is on “scientific practice.” Practices associated with it makes triangulation possible within and across
science are a component of science curricula that cases (Stake, 2006). Comparative case study research
arguably makes it unique from other subject areas and also can advance theory by identifying the “class” to
is one of the most challenging aspects of curriculum which an “instance” belongs (Guba & Lincoln, 1981),
development in science education. It is assumed generating new typologies (George & Bennett, 2005),
that a study including scientific practices will help and constructing working hypotheses (cf. Flyvbjerg,
illustrate differences among curricula more than if 2001; Kenny & Grotelueschen, 1984). In this study,
the comparison was confined to aims, content-based the authors undertook comparative case studies of
topics, or assessment alone. Practices in this study are the curriculum to generate working hypotheses and
considered to be an array of human activities (Cetina translatable concepts about the science curriculum
et al., 2005) that, in accounts of the sciences, reflect (Stake, 2006).
publicly known ways of generating knowledge about We performed a cross-case analysis comparative
science and solving problems. Such practices include, analysis with each country representing a case for
for example, reasoning about models, analyzing and comparison. A cross-case analysis was considered
interpreting visual data, engaging in argument from appropriate for the aims of the research in that: (a) there
evidence, and offering justiﬁcations. Practices have may be common curricular themes that are emphasized
played a central role in the reconceptualization of or underutilized across cases and may yield differential
recent science curricula (Duschl & Bismarck, 2016). outcomes and (b) an analysis of different curricula can
In addition, curriculum research on practices can be suggestive of hypotheses that point to underlying
play a further valuable role in assessing how science themes in terms of the main dimensions of a science
is portrayed, locating new lines of inquiry into how curriculum (Khan & Van Wynsberghe, 2008). We will
practices are to be taken up among practitioners and remain sensitive throughout the cross-case analysis to
relationships among practices, 21st-century skills, and methodological issues of comparing highly different
competency-based curricula. curricula and contexts and issues pertaining to the
comparison of curricula from the global south with
those from the north.
Method Although comparing multiple case studies holds
great potential to inform theory in the field of
This study follows an interpretive research systems thinking, Rueschemeyer (2003) cautioned
paradigm where meanings derived from the analysis that the researcher must “increase the number of
were negotiated and taken as shared among researchers cross-case comparisons without losing the advantage
who were engaged in making or enacting the curricula of close familiarity with the complexity of cases”
(p. 323). Our stance and the stance of others (Khan In terms of political systems, Thailand has a
& VanWynsberghe, 2008) is that it is possible to devolved political system that is a constitutional
learn from both the uniqueness and modality of a monarchy. Indonesia follows a democratic system
case. Wherever possible, all data will be converged and is a republic with the President as head of state.
to support conceptual connections among scientific Vietnam is a socialist republic. In terms of economic
practices, science curricula, national policies, and ranking, according to the International Monetary Fund
outcomes. (IMF), in 2019, the GDP per capita (PPP) in each
Diagrams of relationships will be developed as an country can be seen in Table 1. It shows the GDP of
early conjecture, and new information will be used to each country based on publicly available statistics
elaborate or remove aspects of the diagram. In this way, reports (International Monetary Fund, 2019). The
rival hypotheses were successively eliminated because human development report of each country is reported
of their lack of empirical consistency. Using the in Table 2 (United Nations Development Programme,
diagrams and associated anomalies will help criticize 2018). This human development report was published
and revise the initial hypotheses.. Comparative research by the United Nations Development Program in 2016
has the potential to produce translatable outcomes that and represented a global ranking.
can impact stakeholders in other countries. For this
reason, a cross-case analysis was further considered Table 1
appropriate as (a) there may be common responses to GDP Per Capita (PPP) Ranking of Indonesia, Vietnam,
a policy that are emphasized or under-utilized across and Thailand in 2019
cases and yield differential outcomes and (b) as part
of a field study, analyses of different curricula can Countries Rank
be highly suggestive of hypotheses that point to the Thailand 73
development of science education that is occurring in Indonesia 101
these countries. Vietnam 128
Context of Comparative Case Studies

For this comparative analysis, three countries have Table 2
been purposively and conveniently selected. All three Human Development Ranking of Indonesia, Vietnam, and
countries have recently renewed and refreshed their Thailand in 2016
science curricula. Indonesia has a revised curriculum
that has been implemented since 2013, with revisions Countries Rank
occurring as recently as 2017 (Indonesian Ministry of Thailand 83
Education and Culture, 2017). Vietnam published a Indonesia 116
new science curriculum in 2018 and officially launched Vietnam 116
it in 2020 (Vietnamese Ministerium of Education
and Training [MOET], 2018). Thailand also renewed In terms of government responsibilities for
its science curriculum in 2017 (Thai Ministry of curriculum development, Indonesia has a Ministry
Education, 2017). The global south countries have of Education and Culture (https://kemdikbud.go.id).
unique school science curricula emerging from social, Vietnam has a centralized Ministry of Education
economic, and political factors within each country. known as the Vietnamese Ministerium of Education
However, Indonesia, Vietnam, and Thailand are all and Training (MOET; http://moet.gov.vn/). Thailand
members of an economic block belonging to the has a ministry of education known as the Ministry of
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Education (MOE; http://en.moe.go.th/enMoe2017/).
which has a formal website at https://asean.org/ In Indonesia, science is taught as a subject
asean/asean-member-states/. ASEAN countries have beginning in 4th grade, whereas science concepts are
committed to involving “STEM Education” in their integrated into other subjects in Grades 1-3 (Indonesian
national curriculum. Although, Indonesia has not Ministry of Education and Culture, 2017). In contrast,
yet announced it explicitly in its national curriculum in Thailand and Vietnam, science is taught in the first
(Hasani et al., 2021). grade at elementary school as a separate science subject
(Institute for Promotion of Teaching Science and PISA aims to examine scientific practices in their
Technology [IPST], 2008; Thai Ministry of Education, assessment of scientific literacy. They have been
2017; Vietnamese MOET, 2018). By junior high examining results since 2000 (OECD, 2001). The
school or ages 12–14 years, all countries in this study newest PISA scientific literacy scores in 2015 of
teach science as a separate subject. Thus, we begin to Indonesian and Thai students have been below the
investigate the similarity and differences in curricula OECD average, whereas Vietnamese students have
among these three science curricula at this level. In tended to be amongst the top nations in the OECD
senior secondary school, students are taught Chemistry, (2018). For PISA 2018, Vietnamese students did
Biology, and Physics subjects at the approximate ages not participate in the scientific literacy PISA survey
of 15–18 years. (OECD, 2019a). ASEAN science curricula aim to
Even though all countries have different local promote 21st-century practices. This analysis could
policies and mandates, they participate in international help examine the global policy drivers that are part of
bodies that support education (e.g., Organisation for the environment for change in science and how these
Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD]) three participating countries in PISA have emerged to
and may be influenced by potential policy drivers such frame their curricula in their latest renewals (Opertti
as Programme for International Student Assessment et al., 2018).
(PISA) from these organizations (OECD, 2018). This
influence permits an investigation of similarities in Comparison Indicators
curricula that arise from increasingly global systems The present study investigates the similarities
of education in science. For example, the PISA results and differences between Indonesia, Vietnam, and
regarding 15 years old’s science literacy are different Thailand’s science curricula for Grades 7–9 or the
among these three countries (OECD, 2001; OECD, approximate ages of 12–14. The aspects of the
2004; OECD, 2007; OECD, 2010; OECD, 2014; curriculum being investigated are based on the authors’
OECD, 2018). This is shown in the 2015 results in framework, including:
Figure 1, where science was the primary area being 1. The purpose of science subjects in junior high
assessed (OECD, 2018). school consists of aims, goals, and objectives.
70
62
60
55
50
40
30
20
10 8
0
Vietnam Thailand Indonesia
Figure 1. PISA 2015 Ranking on Students’ Scientific Literacy of Indonesia, Vietnam, and Thailand
2. Science curriculum content in junior high of Education for the seventh until ninth grades or
school. approximately 12–14 years of age: “Training skills to
3. Learning experiences consist of time for detect and solve problems in practice using a variety
science subjects to implement the school of methods such as practical teaching, problem-based
science curriculum and significant scientific teaching, project-based teaching, experiential teaching,
practices in the curriculum. discovery, and differentiation” (Vietnamese Moet,
4. Teaching strategies, which consist of the main 2018, p. 87. According to our codes, the first sentence,
approaches to teaching, are promoted in the “Training skills …… and differentiation” was coded
science curriculum. as the main approaches to teaching promoted in the
5. The evaluation consists of a content assessment Science curriculum.
and type of assessment.
Thailand
An instrument was developed to compare the In reference to the coding Table 3, the following
components of each countries’ science curriculum and statements were coded from the Thailand Ministry of
included categories (purpose of the science curriculum Education for the seventh until ninth fourth grades
in junior high school, science curriculum content in or approximately 12–14 years of age: “Educational
junior high school, learning experiences, teaching outcomes are assessed by qualitative and quantitative
strategy, and evaluation). To develop the instrument, forms through formative assessment, educational
initially, all authors from each country were asked summative assessments at the institution, and large-
to present their country profile of science education scale assessments at the national and local levels
in June 2019. They then conducted online meetings and international assessment” (Thai Ministry of
every two weeks to discuss emerging differences and Education, 2017, p. 7). According to this curriculum
similarities in the science curricula comparison for document, the first sentence, “Educational outcome….
the three countries. During the online meetings, all and international assessment,” was coded as a type of
authors were asked to fill out the instrument with the assessment.
initial categories above and discuss the findings. They
noted similarities and differences until a consensus Data Analysis
was reached on both the categories and the codes. The Document analysis was undertaken to examine
instrument and the codes that were developed can be each curricular document. This was followed by a
seen in Table 3. cross-case analysis to compare the science curricula.
There are several examples of document analysis
Indonesia occurring among individual and multiple case studies.
In reference to the coding in Table 3, the following For example, Bertram (2019) conducted a content
statements were coded from the Indonesian Ministry of analysis of the history curricula of Rwanda and South
Education and Culture for the seventh until ninth grades Africa. Bertram (2019) employed three criteria for
or approximately 12–14 years of age: “A science subject what constitutes “powerful knowledge” and examined
at junior high school level applies integrated science each curriculum for the presence of these criteria.
learning activities on scientific practices including Curricular topics were compared in a table. The table
observing, asking, experimenting, associating, and was drawn upon to extrapolate and infer instances
communicating” (Indonesian Ministry of Education of powerful knowledge. In a second example, Day
and Culture, 2017, pp. 5–6). According to our codes and Billmayer (2018) performed a textually oriented
document, the first sentence, “observing, asking, discourse analysis of the Scottish and Swedish Science
experimenting, associating, and communicating,” curricula. First, the relevant science curriculum
would be coded as the main approaches to teaching documents relating to the Scottish Broad General
promoted in the Science curriculum. Education phase and the Swedish Compulsory phase
of the science curriculum were identified and shared.
Vietnam All documents were read and analyzed in English,
In reference to the coding Table 3, the following with the Swedish curricular documents having been
statements were coded from the Vietnam Ministry published in English and cross-checked with the
Table 3
The Instrument Categories and Codes to Compare the Curricula
Categories Code Words Researcher Coding Questions

Purpose of the science Aims, goals, and objectives What are the aims, goals, and objectives of the
curriculum in junior high science curriculum at the junior high school?
school What are the science concepts in the 7th grade?
What are the science concepts in the 8th grade?
Content of science School science curriculum content What are the science concepts in the 9th grade?
curriculum in junior How many pages are in the school science
high school curriculum document?
How many basic competencies/indicators are in
the 7th grade?
the 8th grade?
the 9th grade?
Practices Scientific practices in the What are the scientific practices in the
curriculum curriculum?
Learning experiences Time of science subject for How many hours of science are taught per week?
implementing the school science How many hours of science are taught per year?
curriculum
Teaching strategies Main approaches to teaching What is the main approach to teaching promoted
promoted in the Science curriculum in the Science curriculum?
Evaluation Content assessment What is assessed in the science learning?
Type of assessment How to assess the students’ achievement in
science learning?
Swedish version for translational issues. Second, the learning areas somewhat synonymous with traditional
authors read, identified, and analyzed the science subjects were mapped onto the Netherlands’ curricula
documents to assess how these documents orient the by experts from the Netherlands and the OECD. The
science curricula. Third, the authors identified the expert group generated “heat maps” for each of the
common and contrasting features of each countries’ learning areas to show the content mapping. Each
science curriculum to establish the extent to which heat map also contained 28 competencies from the
each curriculum attended to the orienting vision for the OECD. Heat map levels were ascertained and consisted
curriculum. Fourth, the texts were analyzed to establish of determining the extent to which competency was
the dominant voice projected by each curriculum embedded within the learning area. In their analysis, all
document (i.e., that of the policymaker, the teacher, 28 of the OECD’s CCM competencies were identified
the student). to varying degrees in and across the proposed learning
The OECD performed an analysis of the Netherlands’ areas for the Netherlands curriculum. Bar charts and
curricular renewal efforts using a first of its kind tables were produced, including comparative analyses
curriculum content mapping (CCM) set of analytic tools of major themes from the OECD, the Netherlands
to allow countries to compare and contrast curricular curriculum, and the curriculum of other participating
competencies with others for peer learning as well as to countries (Voogt & Robblin, 2012).
do a reality check on how much their policy intentions In terms of the present study, we collected data
are articulated explicitly (OECD, n.d.). In this analysis, from national curricular documents and used Table 3
as an analytic instrument with five key components of countries, we first investigated the aims, goals, and
the science curriculum framework. The data analysis objectives of each country’s curriculum. The cross-case
consisted of reviewing the documents and cross- analysis is shown in Table 4. The aims in this study
checking with the instrument. Each country performed are defined as general purposes at the highest level, the
its own analyses, and the research teams engaged in a goals in this study are defined as purposes at the grade
dialogue to debrief and arrive at a consensus on their level, and the objectives in this study are defined as
coding according to this instrument. The lead author statements that refer to measurable student outcomes
of this paper then conducted a cross-case analysis by (Noddings, 2007).
building a larger comparative table. The lead author
asked questions and explored emerging findings with The Science Curriculum Content
each country leads. To build trustworthiness, these To further investigate the similarities and differences
findings were iteratively presented at global research of the science curricula, we divided science into four
meetings online, and the information was cross- common fields: biology, physics, chemistry, and earth
checked again for reliability by each member state in and space sciences (OECD, 2019b). These common
the analysis. In terms of coding, the lead author of the areas were compared in terms of content offerings.
study invited each country to code its own curriculum The science curriculum content in seventh grade
among the categories that were set out. Each country in Indonesia is divided into five fields of science:
was also invited to verify the coding and the counts integrated science, biology, physics, chemistry, and
through regular presentations of the findings as they earth and space sciences. Integrated science means
emerged. Each country also member-checked the that the concept is an integrated manner of physics,
counts and codes prior to publication. The analysis of chemistry, and biology. However, the science
the three curricula was subsequently used to respond to curriculum content in eighth grade in Indonesia is
the research question, “How and to what extent are the divided into three fields of science: biology, chemistry,
current practices of scientists represented in the science and physics. Additionally, the science curriculum
curricula of Indonesia, Vietnam, and Thailand?” content in ninth grade in Indonesia is divided into five
fields of science: integrated science, biology, physics,
chemistry, and earth and space sciences. These fields
Results include content that is available in Table 5 (Indonesian
Ministry of Education and Culture, 2017, p. 11).
The overall goal of the research was to provide The science curriculum content in seventh grade
a marker for how science is portrayed in the science in Vietnam is divided into three fields of science:
curricula at this point in time. To accomplish this, biology, chemistry, and physics. However, the science
the aims, content, practices, teaching strategies, and curriculum content in eighth and ninth grades in
assessment of three science curricula were examined. Vietnam is divided into four areas of science: biology,
Each of these curricula has emerged in the context of chemistry, physics, and earth and space sciences.
global economic drivers. The drivers arguably include, These fields include content that is available in Table
to varying degrees, membership, participation in and 5 (Vietnamese MOET, 2018, pp. 8–22).
consultation by the OECD (c.f. PISA assessment), The science curriculum content in Grades 7–8 in
World Economic Forum, World Bank (c.f. 21st century Thailand is divided into four fields of science: biology,
skills; 4th Industrial Revolution ASEAN), and returns physics, chemistry, and earth and space sciences.
to competency-based education cited in many curricula However, the science curriculum content in ninth grade
(Khan & Krell, 2019). in Thailand is divided into three fields of science:
biology, physics, and earth and space sciences. These
Cross-Case Analysis of Science Curricula fields include content that is available in Table 8 (Thai
Ministry of Education, 2017). Table 5 compares the
The Purposes of Science Curricula content of the science curricula for each country.
To investigate the comparison of the purposes of
science curricula in junior high schools in these three
Table 4
Aims, Goals, and Objectives of the Science Curricula of Indonesia, Vietnam, and Thailand
Code Indonesia Vietnam Thailand

Aims The aims of the Indonesian The Vietnamese science The aims of Thailand’s science curriculum
science curriculum are to curriculum aims are to enhance are to promote the understanding of
promote science attitudes, an natural science awareness, scientific concepts in science (e.g.,
understanding of integrated understanding of science, and biological science, physical science, earth
science, application of natural scientific knowledge and skills and space sciences); the nature of science,
science concepts and ethics learned in daily life (Vietnamese such as the scope and limitations of
to daily life, problem-solving, MOET, 2018, p. 5) science; skills in researching and inventing
decision-making in life based science and technology; five important
on scientific and ethical skills (analytical thinking, creative
principles, human problem- thinking, critical thinking, collaborative
solving, and an understanding thinking, and problem-solving skills);
of the impact of technological awareness of the relationship between
developments on human science, technology, human beings,
life (Indonesian Ministry of and the environment; the application of
Education and Culture, 2017, scientific knowledge and understanding
p. 4) to society; and the science-minded person
with morality, ethics, and values in using
creative science and technology (Faikhamta
& Ladachart, 2016; Thai Ministry of
Education, 2017).
Goals Indonesia’s science The goals of Vietnam’s The goals of Thailand’s science curriculum
curriculum focuses on science curriculum focus on are to enrich communication ability,
building competencies, the development of a “natural thinking ability, problem-solving ability, the
including spiritual attitude scientific competence” with three ability to use life skills, and the ability to
competence, social attitude components: natural science use technology. Additionally, in Thailand,
competence, knowledge awareness, understanding of the curriculum focuses on developing
competence, and skills science, and application of learners with desirable characteristics to
competence (Indonesian scientific knowledge and skills be able to live happily with other people in
Ministry of Education and learned for daily life (Vietnamese society as a Thai citizen and world citizen,
Culture, 2017). MOET, 2018). as follows: the love of the King and the
nation, honesty, discipline, seek to learn
sufficient living, commitment to work, love
being Thai and have a public mind (Thai
Ministry of Education, 2017; Office of the
National Education Commission, 1999).
Objectives The objectives of Indonesia’s The objectives of Vietnam’s The objectives of Thailand’s science
science curriculum focus science curriculum focused on curriculum focus on the ability of
on cognitive, affective, students’ awareness and ability students to learn science which focuses
and psychomotor skills to study and apply the content on linking knowledge with processes,
(Indonesian Ministry of of natural science education, having important skills in researching
Education and Culture, 2017, which is based on a combination and creating knowledge using a process,
p. 7). of scientific topics, including suitable for class with biological sciences,
substance and transformation of physical science, Earth and Space science,
substances, living things, energy, technology design and technology, and
and transformation, Earth, and computational science (Thai Ministry of
sky. Topics are arranged mainly Education, 2017).
in a linear fashion, with a certain
degree of concentric structure and
a number of interdisciplinary and
integrated topics to form general
principles about the natural world
(Vietnamese MOET, 2018 p.8).
Table 5
Science Curriculum Content of Three Countries at Grades 7–9
Grade Science Fields Science Curriculum Content

Indonesia science curriculum in Integrated Science – Science object and observation
seventh grade Biology – Classification of organisms
– The system of organization in life
– Biological interactions
Physics – Energy
Chemistry – Elements, compounds, and mixtures
Earth and space sciences – The layers of the Earth and natural disasters
– The solar system
Indonesia science curriculum in Biology – Structure and function of plant tissues
eighth grade – Digestive systems
– Blood circulatory systems
– Respiratory systems
– Excretory systems
Physics – Motion and style
– Work and simple machines
– Frame and muscle
– The pressure of a substance
– Vibrations, waves, and sound
– Light
Chemistry – Additive and addictive substances
Indonesia science curriculum in Integrated Science – Technology and environmentally friendly
ninth grade Biology – Reproduction
– Plant and animal breeding
– Inheritance
– Biotechnology
Physics – Force
– Sound
– Light
– Magnet
Chemistry – Atom
– A chemical element
– Molecule
– Summary of the periodic table of chemical elements
– Diverse living world
Earth and space sciences – Soil
Vietnam science curriculum in Biology – Metabolism and energy metabolism in organisms
seventh grade – Induction in organisms
– Growth and development in organisms
– Reproduction in organisms
– The organism is a unified body
Physics – Force
– Sound
– Light
– Magnet
Chemistry – Atom
– A chemical element
– Molecule
– Summary of the periodic table of chemical elements
– Diverse living world
Table 5 continue....
Grade Science Fields Science Curriculum Content
Vietnam science curriculum in Biology – Human body biology organs
eighth grade – Organ system in the human body
Physics – Force
– Specific gravity and pressure
– Energy and life
Chemistry – Chemical reaction
– Reaction rate and catalyst
– Acid – Base – pH – Oxide – Salt
– Chemical fertilizers
Earth and space sciences – Biosphere and biome on Earth
Vietnam science curriculum in Biology – Genetic phenomenon
ninth grade – Evolution
Physics – Light
– Electricity
– Magnet
Chemistry – Properties of materials
– Electricity
– Magnetism
Earth and space sciences – Exploiting resources from the Earth’s crust
– Summary of “Chemistry of Earth’s crust”
Thailand science curriculum in Biology – The unit of life and plant life
seventh grade – The system of organization in life
– Bio interactions
Physics – Force and movement
– Work and energy
– Substances in daily life
Chemistry – Solution
Earth and space sciences – Atmosphere
Thailand science curriculum in Biology – Animal life
eighth grade – The human body
Physics – Substances and changes
– Light
Chemistry – Elements and compounds
Earth and space sciences – World and change
Thailand science curriculum in Biology – Life and environment
ninth grade – Ecology
– Genetics
Physics – Diversity of life
– Properties of electricity
– Basic electronics
Earth and space sciences – The Universe
The Schooling Experience and Scientific Practices a plan to explore, implementing the plan, collecting
Required and storing data from the results of the review,
In Indonesia, students learn science for about 200 experimenting and investigating, evaluating results
hours/year, divided into 5 hours/week (Indonesian based on analysis, processing data by simple statistical
Ministry of Education and Culture, 2017, pp.11–31). parameters, comparing results with hypotheses,
Students must learn science for about 140 hours/year constructing explanations, and drawing conclusions
in Vietnam, divided into 4 hours/week (Vietnamese and adjusting when necessary (Vietnamese MOET,
Moet, 2018). In Thailand, students must learn science 2018). Vietnam encourages inquiry learning to reflect
for about 120-140 hours/year, divided into 3–5 hours scientific practice (Thao-Do & Yuenyong, 2017).
for fundamental sciences and 3–5 hours additionally The scientific practices reported in the Thai
for an advanced science program (Thai Ministry of school science curriculum include the development
Education, 2017). It appears that among the three of scientific methods: questioning, hypothesizing,
countries, science subjects are learned by students no experimenting, collecting data, measuring and
more than 10 hours per week and no more than 200 analyzing data, and drawing conclusions and reporting
hours per year. We can extrapolate this time to the on them. Integrated into this curriculum are learning
Grades 7–9 science curricula. The difference, however, mathematical models, mentioned in the vocabulary
appears to be that Indonesian students in Grades 7–9 portion of the curriculum but not in any indicators (Thai
have more time to learn science than in other countries, Ministry of Education, 2017). Thailand’s curriculum
followed closely by Vietnamese and Thai students of aims to be relevant to students’ real-life experiences.
the same grade cohort. Science process skills have been highly emphasized,
Scientific practices are learned during science particularly in structured inquiry, whereby students
education (Berland et al., 2016). Numerous studies are trained to do science projects using laboratory
indicate that engagement in scientific practices can experiments. They learn the process and steps of doing
not only promote students’ understanding of scientific science with a common intention that they practice
knowledge and scientific processes (e.g., Chen & their science process skills while conducting their
Klahr, 1999; Ford & Forman, 2006; Kuhn et al., experiments (Tornee et al., 2017).
2008) but also contribute to improved literacy and
ability in science (Erduran et al., 2004; McNeill et The Main Approaches to Teaching Promoted in the
al., 2006; Sampson et al., 2011; Songer & Gotwals, Grades 7-9 Science Curriculum
2012). The practices associated with science, as stated In Indonesia, a scientific approach is taught as
in the Indonesian school science curriculum, include the main approach to teaching that is promoted in
making observations, asking questions, experimenting the science curriculum. Their scientific approach
or investigating using controlled variables, using ICT, consists of five main activities; observing, asking,
and communicating (Indonesian Ministry of Education experimenting, associating, and communicating. These
and Culture, 2017, p.5). The scientific approach is five activities can be arranged for any instructions
considered to be an approach that promotes these and can be used by teachers based on needs in the
practices in no particular order (Ibrohim et al., 2019). learning process (Indonesian Ministry of Education and
The Indonesian science curriculum for Grades 7–9 also Culture, 2017, pp. 5–6). This approach can be included
discusses modeling. in a discovery learning context (In’am & Hajar,
The stated practices in the Vietnamese science 2017).
curriculum include suggesting issues, asking questions In Vietnam, the main approaches to teaching
for problems, and analyzing the context to propose promoted in the science curriculum appear to be
problems. The practices mentioned in this curriculum training skills to detect and solve problems in practice
also include making judgments and building using a variety of methods such as practical teaching,
hypotheses, analyzing problems to make judgments, problem-based teaching, project-based teaching,
developing and stating hypotheses, developing a experiential teaching, discovery, and differentiation or
logical framework of steps to find out, selecting the those methods can be stated as the scientific method
appropriate method (observation, experimentation, (Vietnamese MOET, 2018). Local scientific learning
investigation, interview, retrospective data), preparing material (including natural phenomena related to the
material, reviews, sample questions and answers, and products in the learning process of students.
exercises, and evaluation questions) have contributed Educational outcomes are assessed in qualitative and
to positive outcomes for students (Priyanto et al., quantitative forms through formative assessment,
2017). educational summative assessments at the institution,
In Thailand, the main approaches to teaching stated and large-scale assessments at the national, local
in the science curriculum are scientific methods and levels, and international assessments (Thai Ministry
scientific inquiry (Thai Ministry of Education, 2017). of Education, 2017)). Tablet-based assessment is
Thailand has also adopted socio-scientific issues- one of the applications for primary school levels
based instruction as a pedagogical approach in their in Thailand as an evaluation method. Tablet-based
elementary through high school science curricula to assessments were successfully evaluated and used at
support the growth of research (Office of the National primary schools in Thailand and gave an improvement
Education Commission , 2003). in students’ learning skills and behavioral outcomes
(Nang & Harfield, 2018).
The Evaluation Mechanisms
In Indonesia, three components are assessed by
teachers: knowledge, skills, and attitudes (Indonesian Discussion
Ministry of Education and Culture, 2017, pp. 4–5).
Knowledge is a cognitive ability that contains Based on Table 4, in comparing the aims, all
verbal knowledge, knowledge organization, and countries aim to develop knowledge, skills, attitudes,
metacognitive strategies (Tabun et al., 2019; Kraiger and science literacy for use in their daily lives. All
et al., 1993). Skill refers to a psychomotor ability, countries have aims related to scientific literacy. It
such as the ability to perform a task without conscious appears that these three countries describe scientific
monitoring and with other tasks (Tabun et al., 2019; literacy in the aims without mentioning the term of
Kraiger et al., 1993). Attitude involves affect, self- scientific literacy explicitly. For example, there are
efficacy, and perception about the ability to perform, references to daily life and society in all countries.
goal setting, and motivation (Tabun et al., 2019; Thailand’s aims also include creativity. For example,
Kraiger et al., 1993). Thailand’s science curriculum promotes using
In Vietnam, students are assessed by teachers in creativity to innovate in science and technology
various forms, such as participation observation by the (Thai Ministry of Education, 2017). In contrast to
teacher, assigned tasks and homework (short study), Vietnam and Thailand, Indonesia aims to understand
sub-unit tests, and summative assessments of each unit science in an integrated manner (as integrated science)
(Vietnamese MOET, 2018). Based on Young Lives (Indonesian Ministry of Education and Culture, 2017,
primary and secondary school surveys in 2011–2013 p. 5). Integrated science is a science learning approach
in Vietnam, cognitive tests such as Maths and reading that connects fields of science and their knowledge
comprehension at the primary level were administered and application in their daily lives into a single unit
to students at the beginning and the end of the school of discussion. Integrated science aims to increase
year. Additionally, psychosocial measures for students the efficiency and effectiveness of learning, increase
and teachers relating to academic self-concept and interest and motivation, and some basic competencies
motivation, for example, were included at the end of can be achieved at once (Indonesian Department of
the year (Iyer & Moore, 2017). Education, 2006).
In Thailand, the objective of evaluating educational Based on Table 4, in comparison, all countries
outcomes is to provide accurate, timely, and valuable have goals to develop knowledge, skills, and attitudes
information about the level of eligibility (requirements associated with science. Unlike other countries,
required) of the program and to gauge student however, the attitudinal goals of Indonesia’s science
progress to guide learning activities, adjust teaching, curriculum are to build a spiritual attitude competence
management, and program development activities. and a social attitude competence (Indonesian Ministry
The scope of the assessment is the entire content and of Education and Culture, 2017, p. 4). Finally, and
requirements of the science curriculum. Assessment is in contrast to the other curricula, Thailand very
based on evidence of the process of training, learning, clearly positions its science curriculum as one that
helps to develop life skills, advance technology, and across the three countries are that the curricula consist
nationalism (Thai Ministry of Education, 2017). of several main fields of science: biology, physics,
Based on Table 4, all countries have objectives to chemistry, and earth and space sciences. The difference
develop knowledge, skills, and attitudes in science. is that Indonesia has integrated science (Indonesian
In contrast to Indonesia and Vietnam, Thailand’s Ministry of Education and Culture, 2017, p. 5). Wei
objectives include a mandate to develop computational (2009) stated that the international tendency towards
science within science education. an integrated science curriculum is recognized as
Based on the description of aims, goals, and integrating four traditional subjects (biology, chemistry,
objectives, we conclude that the purpose of the science geography, and physics) into a new course in junior
curriculum of Indonesia, Vietnam, and Thailand high school with the purpose of solving the long-term
bears some similarities and notable differences. The problem of students’ overburdening schoolwork and
similarities between the three countries are in the encouraging student initiative.
purposes of the science curriculum to develop scientific The similarities between the three countries
literacy. The differences between the three countries regarding students’ learning experiences are that
can be shown that, in Indonesia, addressing the spiritual science is no more than 10 hours per week and no
attitude is one purpose of the science curriculum more than 200 hours per year and that there are
(Indonesian Ministry of Education and Culture, 2017, common scientific practices in all science curricula
pp. 4–5). It means that, by learning science, students investigated. Our analysis suggests that the common
should improve their faith in God (Indonesian Ministry practices are weighted towards the planning and
of Education and Culture, 2017). Another purpose is to carrying out of experiments. These practices include
address the understanding of science in an integrated “experimenting,” collecting data, analyzing data, and
manner (Indonesian Ministry of Education and reporting on this data using representations. Although
Culture, 2017, pp. 4–5). It means that students should there is some evidence of modeling, it is not prevalent.
understand science as integrated science through Less common are creating investigations or suggesting
physics, chemistry, and biology (Indonesian Ministry issues (Vietnam), asking for explanations (Vietnam),
of Education and Culture, 2017, p.6). making judgments (Vietnam), data storage (Vietnam),
In Vietnam, the new science curriculum focuses working with ICT (Indonesia), using statistics
primarily on competency, in which students must have (Vietnam), adjusting conclusions (Vietnam), and using
a transfer from the awareness of natural science to the mathematical models (Thailand). Although Indonesian
application of science to daily problems. The ability students appear to have more time to learn science
to transfer this knowledge is indicative of an acquired than other countries, other countries have additional
competency and an important purpose of the science practices associated with science.
curriculum (Vietnamese MOET, 2018). In Thailand, All three countries appear to promote acting like
the science curriculum addresses nationalism and life scientists to learn science. The differences in the three
skills (Thai Ministry of Education, 2017). It means countries’ curricula appear to be that Indonesia uses a
that Thai students should improve their nationalism “scientific approach,” Vietnam uses practical teaching,
in the Kingdom of Thailand and have good life skills problem-based teaching, project-based teaching, and
after learning science. Another notable difference experiential teaching, whereas Thailand uses the
is that, for the Thailand curriculum, the text is very scientific method and scientific inquiry.
clear about developing computer science knowledge In comparison in terms of assessment, the similarities
and skills in a science subject and includes creativity among the three countries are the evaluation of the
in their purpose. Indonesia includes making decisions same types of learning outcomes such as knowledge,
in daily life using science as well. Computer science attitude, and skills. Indonesia and Thailand have
for junior high school students focuses on developing large-scale assessments for science at the national
computational thinking as skills and knowledge needed level. However, there is no national examination
to become successful young generation students in in Vietnam. In Indonesia, as of 2021, the national
sciences and engineering (Bargury, 2012). science examination as a requirement to graduate will
Based on the description of the science curriculum be removed. In Indonesia, students are assessed using
content in Table 5, we can conclude that the similarities an attitude observation sheet and supported by self-
assessment and peer-assessment. To assess students’ no more than 10 hours per week and no more than
knowledge in Indonesia, written and verbal tests and 200 hours per year. Indonesian students have more
assignments are predominantly used. To assess the time to learn science than other countries, followed
students’ skills, performance tests, product, project, by Vietnamese students and Thai students. During this
and portfolio methods are used (Indonesian Ministry of time, not only is content taught, but scientific practices
Education and Culture, 2017, pp. 13–14). In Vietnam, are key in every science curriculum. Additionally, the
the form of assessments consists of homework Thai science curriculum integrates scientific practice
questions, objective tests, essays, reports, verbal Q & with mathematical modelings such as equations or
A such as interviews, and observations such as visual formulas.
observations of experiments, discussion groups, field Next Generation Science Standards (2013)
studies, and projects to apply knowledge into practice released eight practices of science that are essential
(Vietnamese MOET, 2018). In Thailand, evaluation for all students to learn and describe, including asking
forms, observation forms, paper tests, and online tests questions, developing and using models, planning and
are used. Some programs practice and assess their carrying out investigations, analyzing and interpreting
students by using existing standardized tests or aptitude data, using mathematics and computational thinking,
tests, for example, PISA, TIMSS, O-NET, or higher- constructing explanations, engaging in argument from
level tests (Thai Ministry of Education, 2017). All three evidence, and obtaining, evaluating and communicating
countries showed evidence in their science curricula of information. All curricula employ student-centered
a broad range of assessments, including objective tests learning and inquiry as a central approach to
and additional measures such as observation sheets and teaching science. Indonesia uses what they term as a
interview guidelines. scientific approach. Vietnam uses practical teaching,
problem-based teaching, project-based teaching, and
experiential teaching (this can also be stated as the
Conclusion scientific method). Thailand uses what they refer to as
Predominantly, the purpose of science education the scientific method and scientific inquiry. Assessment
in all three countries is to develop scientific literacy. of science occurs in all three curricula using test and
The differences in terms of the aims of the science non-test measures of assessment such as interview
curricula are notable. In Indonesia, the curriculum also guidelines and observation sheets. The differences
promotes a spiritual attitude among students and the between the three countries are that Indonesia and
understanding of science in an integrated manner. In Thailand have large-scale assessments at the national
Vietnam, a key difference in their science curriculum level to assess science subjects as a requirement for
includes promoting awareness of integrated natural graduation. However, the national examination in
science as one of the important purposes of the science Indonesia will cease in 2021.
curriculum. The uniqueness of Thailand’s science This cross-case analysis provides several broad but
curriculum is that the purpose of science education significant comparisons of renewed science curricula
is to address nationalism and foster “life skills” such at this critical time when countries are implementing
as problem-solving and critical thinking. Moreover, plans to promote STEM and participating in global
Thailand is very clear in developing knowledge and organizations. Each country has renewed its curricula
skills pertaining to computer science with the subject of in the context of global policy drivers that promote
science. Thailand’s curriculum also includes creativity practices associated with the doing of science and
in science. Additionally, In Indonesia’s curriculum, applications of science in assessment situations.
science education also supports making decisions in Although each country has notable differences, overall,
daily life. there appears to be a greater commonality in the areas
The similarity between the three countries regarding of the purposes and aims of science education, the
science curriculum content includes biology, physics, learning and assessment experiences promoted, and the
chemistry, and earth and space sciences. The similarities practices considered as representative of the scientific
between the three countries regarding students’ endeavor.
learning experiences are that students learn science
Acknowlegment relationship to science education reform. Journal of

Research in Science Teaching, 37(6), 582–601. https://
The authors thank the Global Challenges Research doi.org/10.1002/1098-2736(200008)37:6<582::AID-
Fund (GCRF), University of Dundee, UK for their TEA5>3.0.CO;2-L
Deng, Z. (2007). Knowing the subject matter of a
funding support of this research.
secondary‐school science subject. Journal of
Curriculum Studies, 39(5), 503-535. http://dx.doi.
Declaration of Ownership org/10.1080/00220270701305362
Duschl, R. A., & Bismarck, A. S. (Eds.). (2016).
This report is our original work. Reconceptualizing STEM education: The central role
of practices. Routledge.
Conflict of Interest Dillon, J. (2009). On scientific literacy and curriculum
reform. International Journal of Environmental and
Science Education, 4(3), 201–213.
None.
Egan, K. (1978). What is curriculum? Curriculum Inquiry,
8(1), 65–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/03626784.1978.1
Ethical Clearance 1075558
Eilks, I., & Hofstein, A. (2017). Curriculum development in
This study was approved by our institution. science education. In Science Education (pp. 167-181).
Brill Sense.
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Asia-Pacific Social Science Review | Vol. 22 No.

A Comparison of School Science Curricula of

Keywords: science curriculum, comparative research, practice, Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand

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Context of Comparative Case Studies

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Code Indonesia Vietnam Thailand

Grade Science Fields Science Curriculum Content

Acknowlegment relationship to science education reform. Journal of

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