foods

Review
Apricot Kernel: Bioactivity, Characterization, Applications, and
Health Attributes
Mansoor Ali Akhone 1 , Aarti Bains 2 , Mansuri M. Tosif 1 , Prince Chawla 1, * , Melinda Fogarasi 3, *
and Szabolcs Fogarasi 4,5

1 Department of Food Technology and Nutrition, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara 144411, Punjab,
India; [email protected] (M.A.A.); [email protected] (M.M.T.)
2 Department of Microbiology, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara 144411, Punjab, India;
[email protected]
3 Department of Food Engineering, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of
Cluj-Napoca, Calea Mănăstur 3–5, 400372 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
4 Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Babeş-Bolyai
University, 11 Arany Janos Street, 400028 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; [email protected]
5 Interdisciplinary Research Institute on Bio-Nano-Sciences, Babeş-Bolyai University, 42 Treboniu Laurian
Street, 400271 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
* Correspondence: [email protected] (P.C.); [email protected] (M.F.)

Abstract: Apricot kernel, a by-product of apricot fruit, is a rich source of proteins, vitamins, and
carbohydrates. Moreover, it can be used for medicinal purposes and the formation of food ingredients.
Several techniques have been adopted for the extraction of bioactive compounds from the apricot
kernel such as solvent extraction, ultra-sonication, enzyme-assisted, microwave-assisted, and aqueous
extraction. Apricot kernels may help to fight against various diseases such as cancer and cancer
immunotherapy, as well as reduce blood pressure. Additionally, the kernel is famous due to its
diverse industrial applications in various industries and fields of research such as thermal energy
storage, the cosmetic industry, the pharmaceutical industry, and the food industry. Especially in the
Citation: Akhone, M.A.; Bains, A.; food industry, the apricot kernel can be used in the preparation of low-fat biscuits, cookies, cakes,
Tosif, M.M.; Chawla, P.; Fogarasi, M.; and the fabrication of antimicrobial films. Therefore, in this review article, the bioactivity of the
Fogarasi, S. Apricot Kernel: Bioactivity, apricot kernel is discussed along with its chemical or nutritional composition, characterizations,
Characterization, Applications, and and applications.
Health Attributes. Foods 2022, 11, 2184.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ Keywords: apricot; apricot kernel; food application; pharmaceutical applications
foods11152184

Academic Editor: Irina Ioannou

Received: 28 June 2022

1. Introduction
Accepted: 19 July 2022
Published: 22 July 2022
Over the past years, the Rosaceae family has attained high demand in several indus-
tries due to its potential therapeutic properties and industrial applications [1]. The apricot
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
tree has a height of around 8–12 m and bears yellowish small-sized fruit. The apricot tree
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
contains five petals of white flowers with leaves of oval shape. The kernel is an organic
published maps and institutional affil-
product that positively impacts human health and is often considered an unwanted part
iations.
of the fruit [2]. Apricots possess sweet edible kernels. However, a few varieties are bitter
and “inedible”. According to the reports on the protection of plant varieties and farmer’s
welfare, the Government of India, there are different varieties of apricots with sweet edible
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
kernels such as Hangole, Sirkhant, Gylchima, Chharb, Ston chulli, Pangpong, Zanchuli,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Razacho, Mumuri, Yakchey Karpo, Channya Narmo, Khabulo, Marpo chulli, and Sting-
This article is an open access article sos.Some bitter apricot kernel varieties are also found, i.e., Khantey chuli, Khantey Halman,
distributed under the terms and Nimra, Scho, Stingchos, Khantey Phatting, Khusta, Khanchuli, Thopchi, and Stangyachuli.
conditions of the Creative Commons Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.) originated in China, and later it was introduced to various
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// parts of Central Asia [3]. Globally, annual fresh apricot production was 4,260,466 tonnes,
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ whereas the production of dried apricot was 162,635 tonnes in 2018 and 2019 as per the
4.0/). reports of FAO 2019. Turkey is the world’s leading producer of apricots (127,328 tons)

Foods 2022, 11, 2184. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11152184 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/foods

Foods 2022, 11, 2184 2 of 15

and produces approximately 22.9% of the world’s fresh apricots and nearly 68% of the
world’s dried apricots [4]. According to available literature, it has been concluded that
apricot kernels can also be utilized for thermal energy storage [5], traditional medicine [6],
production or maintaining the quality of oils [7], cosmetic products [8,9], food products [10],
and fabrication of antimicrobial film [11]. Especially in the food industry, apricot kernels
along with skins are used in the formulation of bakery and confectionery products [12].
Depending upon the different varieties, apricot seeds contain cyanogenic glycoside amyg-
dalin. It is commonly found in the bitter apricot kernel, cherry, apple seed, and almond.
Several reports revealed that apricot kernel has been used for treating hypertension, chronic
inflammation, cancer, and other reaction diseases and for the treatment of migraine. In
addition, amygdalin also improves cerebral function [13]. Amygdalin (present in the skin
of the kernel) plays an imperative role against cancer [14]. According to a systematic review,
the amygdalin compound presented pharmacological activities of anti-tumor, anti-fibrotic,
anti-inflammatory, analgesic, immunomodulatory, and anti-atherosclerosis, ameliorating
the digestive system and reproductive system, improving neurodegeneration and myocar-
dial hypertrophy, as well as reducing blood glucose. In addition, studies revealed that
amygdalin’s toxicity was caused by its poisonous decomposite product of benzaldehyde
and hydrogen cyanide after oral ingestion; the toxicity of the intravenous administration
route was far less than the oral route, and it can be avoidable with an oral dose ranging
from 0.6 to 1 g per day [15]. Moreover, Alajil et al. [16] reported that the maximum tolerance
of amygdalin by human intravenous injection is approximately 0.07 g/kg, and interest-
ingly, numerous studies revealed that bitterness is one of the major causes that restrict
the industrial application and nutritional value of wild apricot kernels [5]. Despite the
several benefits of the fruit, the apricot kernel comprises potential bioactive components
and nutrients including carotenoids, carbohydrates, vitamins, phenols, terpenoids, esters,
and volatile compounds [7]. The apricot kernel is also considered a promising ingredient in
the health sector as it has anti-cancer, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiasthma, inflammatory,
atherosclerotic, anti-analgesic, and anti-hyperlipidemia properties [7]. They hold enormous
properties in several industries inducing cosmetic [17], pharmaceutical [7], and food in-
dustries [18] due to their low cost and eco-friendly nature. However, several techniques
have been adopted for the extraction of bioactive compounds from the apricot kernel such
as solvent extraction, ultrasonication, enzyme-assisted, microwave-assisted, and aqueous
extraction [19]. Furthermore, the waste valorization of kernels from apricot has achieved
greater economic benefits and reduced waste disposal problems as it can be converted
into value-added products [20]. The composition of apricot oil and nutrients are highly
dependent upon the fruit variety, origin, maturity stage, and climatic conditions [21]. The
extraction of bioactive compounds from the wild apricot kernel is a major challenge for
research [22]. Therefore, this review article emphasizes the bioactivity, characterization,
and various applications of the apricot kernel. Additionally, the therapeutical properties of
the apricot kernel have been discussed with schematic diagrams and mechanisms.

2. Nutritional and Chemical Composition of Apricot Kernel

Apricot is considered a delicious fruit and can be grown in various parts of the world;
it is also famous due to its potential nutritional and chemical composition. Identification
features of apricot seed and fruit are represented in Figure 1. The kernel contains the toxic
phenylalanine-derived cyanogenic glycoside amygdalin, accompanied by minor amounts
of prunasin, which is a precursor of the diglucoside amygdalin, a β-D-monoglucoside of R-
mandelonitrile. Upon tissue disruption, amygdalin and its precursor prunasin are degraded
by specific β-glucosidases, resulting in the release of toxic hydrogen cyanide, which serves
as a defense mechanism against generalist herbivores [5]. According to the literature, the
apricot kernel comprises various polyphenolic compounds such as anthocyanin, phenolics,
flavonoids, carotenoids [20–25], Vitamin E [26], and quality proteins (Table 1) [23].
Nutrients 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 17

Foods 2022, 11, 2184 3 of 15

Figure 1. Apricot kernel seed and fruit identification.

Figure 1. Apricot kernel seed and fruit identification.

Several studies have been conducted to determine the chemical and nutritional prop-
Table 1. Different chemical and nutritional components present in the apricot kernel.
erties of the apricot kernel and its health attributes. It has been also stated that the kernel
Composition is a promising ingredient for the Amount/100 formulationg of nutraceutical, pharmaceutical, Reference and food
products due to its distinctive properties [36]. For example, the antioxidant potential of
Protein content 14.6–27.1 [23,24]
Carbohydrate the apricot kernel can help against various 17.5–35.6chronic diseases such as cancer stroke, diabe-
[18,25]
Vitamin E tes, etc. Apart from this, it can act as0.003–0.040
a dietary fiber and has a high number of[26] polyphenolic
Vitamin B17 extracts. The high amount of dietary fiber has shown to have a great impact
0.003–0.0058 [27] on human
Mineral (Ca, Fe, P, Na, Mg, health
Cu, & Mn)
as it can be0.0076, 0.0042,for
beneficial 0.0028, 0.0011,and
gut health 0.003, 0.007, and absorption
cholesterol 0.001 [7,28]
and has anti-obesity
Crude fiber and anti-diabetic properties. In this11.85–13.6context, few studies have revealed that[24,29] phenolic com-
Crude fat 2.1–3 [20,30,31]
pounds such as caffeic acid, gallic acid, epicatechin, rutin, and chlorogenic acid exist in
Oleic acid 54.1–61.91 [16]
Linolieic acid the apricot kernel [39]. The presence of flavonoid
25.13–35.81 compounds such as quercetin,
[16] catechins,
Palmatic acid and chlorogenic acid exists in the apricot
1.58–2.27seed, which results in lower oxidative
[16] stress. It
Ash content also consists of anthocyanins, which1.3–2.23 protect the skin by lowering the risk[30,32,33]
of sunburn and
Moisture contentwrinkles. Furthermore, the protein 27.4–38.8 substance present in the apricot kernel [34,35]
increases the
Hydro cyanide antioxidant activity, which is required 0.009–0.012 [36,37]
in food. Several studies have revealed that the apri-
Anthocyanin 0.005–0.002 [20,38]
cot kernel consists of various types of antioxidants such as lutein, beta carotene, and ze-
Total phenol content 0.036–0.072 [39,40]
Gallic acid axanthin, which also help in fighting2.1–4.1 against free radicals [21]. The chemical[41] structures of
Flavonoid content various polyphenolic compounds and their
0.012–0.034 classifications are shown in Figure
[40,42]2.
Carotenoid content 0.005–0.012 [40]
Ascorbic acid 0.010–0.022 [39]
Caffiec acid 1.01–2.5 [41]

Protein extract of apricot kernels can be used for the preparation of transglutaminase-
induced gel, which can also be used for the delivery of sensitive compounds into functional
foods, dietary supplements, and pharmaceutical products [43,44]. It may help to cure
several diseases by reducing blood pressure along with treating cancer, and cancer im-
munotherapy [45]. In this regard, Chaouali et al. [45] described the hydrocyanide (HCN)
content in the apricot kernel as ranging from 9.18–12.53 mg. Anthocyanin from different
varieties of apricot seed kernel was extracted by Al Juhaimi et al. [20]. They revealed that
anthocyanin content was significantly increased (0.38–0.84 mg) with increasing microwave
power (720 W). Flavonoids are widely used as anti-cancer, neuroprotective, anti-tumor,
anti-proliferative agents, and anti-angiogenic antimalarial agents. They can be classified
based on their oxidation of carbon rings, degree of unsaturation, and chemical structure,
whereas flavonoids are divided into different subgroups including flavanones, flavans,
anthocyanin, and isoflavonoids. It helps in preventing cardio-metabolic disorders and
many other diseases such as cognitive performance of aging, colorectal cancer, promoting
cardiac wellness, supporting weight loss, and preventing diabetes. Phenol compounds
were extracted by roasting the apricot kernels in the microwave. The average total phenol
Foods 2022, 11, 2184 4 of 15

content in the apricot kernel was ranging from 36–72 mg [39]. Furthermore, the antioxidant
activity in the apricot kernel after roasting at 360 and 540 W increased rapidly according to
the studies performed by Al Juhaimi et al. [20]. It has been believed that polyphenols pro-
vide various health benefits with the help of different mechanisms such as the elimination
of free radicals, the protection and regeneration of other dietary antioxidants and vitamins,
and the chelation of pro-oxidant metals [46]. Apricot kernels are a nutritionally remarkable
source of proteins, which are the second richest component of their weight. Protein content
in the apricot kernel range from 14.6 to 27.1%. [42].
Several studies have been conducted to determine the chemical and nutritional prop-
erties of the apricot kernel and its health attributes. It has been also stated that the kernel
is a promising ingredient for the formulation of nutraceutical, pharmaceutical, and food
products due to its distinctive properties [36]. For example, the antioxidant potential of
the apricot kernel can help against various chronic diseases such as cancer stroke, diabetes,
etc. Apart from this, it can act as a dietary fiber and has a high number of polyphenolic
extracts. The high amount of dietary fiber has shown to have a great impact on human
health as it can be beneficial for gut health and cholesterol absorption and has anti-obesity
and anti-diabetic properties. In this context, few studies have revealed that phenolic com-
pounds such as caffeic acid, gallic acid, epicatechin, rutin, and chlorogenic acid exist in
the apricot kernel [39]. The presence of flavonoid compounds such as quercetin, catechins,
and chlorogenic acid exists in the apricot seed, which results in lower oxidative stress.
It also consists of anthocyanins, which protect the skin by lowering the risk of sunburn
and wrinkles. Furthermore, the protein substance present in the apricot kernel increases
the antioxidant activity, which is required in food. Several studies have revealed that the
apricot kernel consists of various types of antioxidants such as lutein, beta carotene,
Nutrients 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
and
5 of 17
zeaxanthin, which also help in fighting against free radicals [21]. The chemical structures
of various polyphenolic compounds and their classifications are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Cont.
Foods 2022, 11, 2184 5 of 15

Figure 2. Chemical structures of different bioactive compounds present in the apricot kernel and
their
Figureclassification.
2. Chemical structures of different bioactive compounds present in the apricot kernel and
their classification
3. Extraction of Bioactive Compounds from Apricot Kernel
Apricot kernel
3. Extraction has been
of Bioactive known to from
Compounds possess a wide
Apricot variety of biologically active com-
Kernel
ponents. Generally, microwave extraction, supercritical pressurized liquid extraction,
Apricot kernel has been known to possess a wide variety of biologically active com-
ultrasound-assisted extraction, and microwave solvent extraction methods have been
ponents. Generally, microwave extraction, supercritical pressurized liquid extraction, ul-
employed for the extraction of the different classes of bioactive compounds [47–55]. Dif-
trasound-assisted extraction, and microwave solvent extraction methods have been em-
ferent techniques adapted to extract the bioactive compounds from the apricot kernel are
ployed for the extraction of the different classes of bioactive compounds [47–55]. Different
represented in Table 2.
techniques adapted to extract the bioactive compounds from the apricot kernel are repre-
sented
Table 2. in Table 2.& Application of Bioactive Compound of Apricot Kernel.
Extraction

Extraction Method Bioactive Compound Yield g/100 g Applications References

Two-phase Application on recycling
Amygdalin 90.37 [55]
Cold pressing (at 40–120 ◦ C) of amygdalin
Hot water treatment Application in Prevention of
Amygdalin 0.129 [51]
(at 160 ◦ C) keratoconjunctivitis sicca diseases
Solvent extraction
Acetone, acetyl chloroform, Tocopherols 73.4–94.4 - [52]
and ethanol.
Cold pressing and SC-CO2 Amygdalin and Tocopherols 5.84–62.73 Production of oils [55]
Helps in enhancing the yield and
Ultrasonic extraction Phenolic compounds 40.86–46.01 [52]
maintaining the quality of the oils.
Freeze drying TPC and TFC 6–9 - [41]

3.1. Two-Phase Extraction Method

The two-phase extraction system is collected form of two different immiscible sub-
stances such as polymer or mixing polymers with salt; they are water-soluble in a certain
concentration. It has been well known as a useful technique for the separation and purifi-
cation of biomolecules, such as proteins and antibodies [49]. A selective exchange taking
place between the definite ligands in one of the polymeric phases of the system and the
barrier of the desired protein, such as a biomolecule or cellular fragment, towards the mod-
ified polymer-rich phase can be achieved [50]. The system is a liquid-liquid fractionation
technique that has gained interest because of its great potential for the separation, extrac-
tion, and enrichment of proteins, purification membranes, enzymes, nucleic acids, viruses,
and other biomolecules and industrial applications [51]. In this context, Zhang et al. [14]
Foods 2022, 11, 2184 6 of 15

used a two-phase method for the extraction process in which the bioactive compound
was amygdalin. The main purpose of this method was to recycle the amygdalin (90.37%)
as shown in Figure 3. This method is considered a better extraction technique than the
Nutrients 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 17
conventional extraction technique because it is low-cost, environment-friendly, and capable
of continuous operation for various kinds of experiments such as the concentration and
purification of biomolecules [51].

Figure 3. A two-phase extraction method for extraction of amygdalin.

Figure 3. A two-phase extraction method for extraction of amygdalin.
3.2. Solvent Extraction Method
It is one
3.2. Solvent of the most
Extraction used methods, also known as the liquid–liquid extraction method
Method
usedItto separate the compounds
is one of the most used methods, based onknown
also their relative solubilities.extraction
as the liquid–liquid According to the
method
literature, apricot kernel oil can be extracted by different extraction techniques
used to separate the compounds based on their relative solubilities. According to the lit- such as
supercritical fluid extraction, cold pressing, enzyme-assisted extraction, solvent
erature, apricot kernel oil can be extracted by different extraction techniques such as su- (n-hexane)
extraction,fluid
percritical or a extraction,
combination of these
cold methods.
pressing, On a commercial
enzyme-assisted scale,solvent
extraction, vegetable oils are
(n-hexane)
usually produced by organic solvent extraction as this process recovers high yields [52].
extraction, or a combination of these methods. On a commercial scale, vegetable oils are
Consequently, extraction of bioactive compounds by freeze-drying techniques has attained
usually produced by organic solvent extraction as this process recovers high yields [52].
high demand in industries due to its low cost of maintenance. A bioactive compound
Consequently, extraction of bioactive compounds by freeze-drying techniques has at-
(phenolic compound) was extracted by freeze-drying and a 6–9% yield was obtained by
tained high demand in industries due to its low cost of maintenance. A bioactive com-
Gaya et al. [52]. In this study, initially, acetone, acetyl chloroform, and ethanol solvents
pound (phenolic compound) was extracted by freeze-drying and a 6–9% yield was ob-
were used to extract the phenolic and flavonoid compounds. After, the extraction sample
tained by Gaya et al. [52]. In this study, initially, acetone, acetyl chloroform, and ethanol
was freeze-dried for further applications. Solvent extraction is considered an injurious
solvents were used to extract the phenolic and flavonoid compounds. After, the extraction
method due to the utilization of chemicals; due to this reason, solvent extraction is high.
sample was freeze-dried for further applications. Solvent extraction is considered an inju-
rious method
3.3. Cold Pressdue to the utilization
Extraction Method of chemicals; due to this reason, solvent extraction is
high.
Cold pressing is a mechanical extraction technique also known as mechanical sep-
aration used to extract bioactive compounds. Cold pressing is now becoming a more
3.3. Cold Press Extraction Method
in-demand method as this process does not need any organic solvents or heat and it enables
Cold pressing
the retention is a mechanical
of appreciable contentsextraction
of minortechnique also known as
bioactive components suchmechanical sepa-
as phytosterols,
ration used to extract bioactive compounds. Cold pressing is now becoming
and free radical scavengers, phenols, and in the recovered oils [53]. On other hand, this a more in-
demand method as this process does not need any organic solvents or
technique has some limitations due to its high cost and maintenance. Bioactive compoundsheat and it enables
the retention of
(Amygdalin andappreciable
Tocopherols) contents
wereof minor bioactive
extracted components
by cold press suchtechnique,
extraction as phytosterols,
which
and
gavefree radical
a yield scavengers, phenols,
of (5.84–62.73%) and in kernel
[54,55]. Apricot the recovered oilssome
constitutes [53]. effective
On otherpolyphenols
hand, this
technique
such as 3-has andsome limitations
5-feruloyl quinicdue
acid,to3its high cost andquercetin-3-xyloside,
caffeoylquinic, maintenance. Bioactive com-
quercetin-
pounds (Amygdalin
3-rhamnoside, and Tocopherols)
and catechin as confirmedwerebyextracted by cold press
high-performance extraction
liquid technique,
chromatography
which gave a yield of (5.84–62.73%) [54,55]. Apricot kernel constitutes some effective pol-
yphenols such as 3- and 5-feruloyl quinic acid, 3 caffeoylquinic, quercetin-3-xyloside,
quercetin-3-rhamnoside, and catechin as confirmed by high-performance liquid chroma-
tography (HPLC) [53]. For instance, the oil of apricot kernels was extracted by the ultra-
Foods 2022, 11, 2184 7 of 15

(HPLC) [53]. For instance, the oil of apricot kernels was extracted by the ultrasound ex-
traction method. As compared to the other conventional extraction techniques such as
cold press, freeze-drying, two-phase, and steam distillation, this process can complete the
extraction process within a few minutes with reduced consumption of solvents and water,
high reproducibility, greater purity of the end products, and consuming only a portion
of the energy, which is necessary for the process [54]. This method has the advantage
that it is not restricted by the moisture content of the products, or by the type of solvent
used. It is well known that mass transfer methods are enhanced by exposure to ultrasound
power [56]. The apricot kernels were ground into powder, and extraction was carried out
in an ultrasonic bath with a frequency of 40 kHz. Gas chromatography-mass spectrome-
try (GCMS) is an advanced analytical technique effectively used for the characterization
of extracted bioactive compounds or oils from various food products. For example, the
composition of fatty acid in the apricot kernel was estimated using the GCMS, and the
gastroprotective properties were also studied [12]. Herein, results of GCMS showed that
apricot kernel oil is rich in several fatty acids including palmitic acids (3.11%), stearic
acid (8.38%), eicosadienoic acid (15.45%), linoleic acid (16.58%), and oleic acid (56.48%) [57].

4. Measured Characteristics of Apricot Kernel Using Different Techniques

4.1. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) is an analytical technique used to
assess the chemical bonds or functional groups present in an apricot kernel or any other com-
ponent by generating an infrared absorption spectrum [58]. FT-IR spectroscopy has been
utilized to test the structural dynamics, structural composition, conformational changes
(effect of temperature, binding, and pH), structural stability, and aggregation of proteins.
Similarly, Alatabe et al. [59] utilized this method for testing the structural composition,
structural stability, structural dynamics, conformational changes, and aggregation of pro-
teins. Different studies revealed that the apricot kernel is constituted by C=O, CH3, OH,
C-O, CH, and C-O-H groups. Likewise, OH- stretching (water), Aliphatic isonitrile –N=C
stretching, C= C stretch or C=O stretch, Combination N-H stretching, Combination O-H
stretching, Methylene scissor, Secondary amide N-H bonding, P-Cl stretching, C-C stretch
of starch, and P-S stretching were attributed at 3751.67, 2156.49, 1651.12, 2011.82, 2011.82,
1456.30, 1541.18, 522.73, 1047.38, and 441.71 cm−1 , respectively [60]. Janković et al. [24]
characterized apricot kernel shells by FTIR. In their study, they stated that a wavelength
range between 1800–800 cm−1 is considered a fingerprinting area, whereas -CH and -OH
stretching vibrations were confirmed in the first region (4000–2300 cm−1 ). Wavelengths
2925, 2950, and 3010 were assigned to –CH3, CH2, –CH, and –OH stretching vibration,
respectively. In another study, a wavelength of 1743.71 cm−1 was attributed to aldehyde
and ketone and C=O stretching, followed by O-H stretching confirmed at high intense
peaks of 2922.25 cm−1 and 2852.81 cm−1 , and C-H stretching vibrations were observed
due to (RCOOH) group [61]. Furthermore, Fungjay et al. [60] used FTIR to study the
functional group of the apricot green shell where the sample was treated with 15% H3 PO4 ,
and 15% H3 PO4 showed a narrow peak at 1037 cm−1 , which represented C-OH vibration.
In addition to this, OH and C-H bonds were observed at a peak of 2897 and 3321 cm−1 .
The peaks between 1300–2000 cm−1 were lost after the treatment with H3 PO4.

4.2. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

A Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that scans
surfaces of microorganisms using a beam of electrons moving at low energy to focus and
scan specimens [61]. The development of electron microscopes was due to the inefficiency
of the wavelength of light microscopes. Electron microscopes have very short wavelengths
in comparison to the light microscope, which enables better resolution power [11]. It uses
a focused beam of high-energy electrons to generate a change of signals at the surface of
solid specimens and is considered one of the most versatile methods used to study surface
morphology, microstructure, and physical (size and shape) properties of components [61].
Foods 2022, 11, 2184 8 of 15

Apart from this, the presence of protein is shown by the formation of small cracks on the
surface, whereas the irregular and polygonal shows the presence of starch molecules in
the sample and also demonstrates the planning of starch granules and protein networks in
the matrix. SEM was conducted at a magnification of 1000x and 1200x [60]. After using a
scanning electron microscope, the apricot pomace cell was dislocated with a small presence
of the intact cell. From this perspective, Ali et al. [62] studied the characterization of starch-
based composite films of the apricot kernel where the results showed confirmation of the
homogeneous dispersion of the shell particle can be found in both normal and polarized
images and the smooth surface of the starch-based film while the shell particles can be
spotted in both normal and polarized images.

4.3. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)

The constituent of polyphenol in apricot pomace was extracted by using different
methods. Rutin, catechin, and epicatechin are considered major extracts that exist in apricot
pomace [61]. However, epicatechin was only detected in infrared extract (4 µg/g DM)
whereas rutin was present in all the experimented extracts, and catechin was noticed
during the extraction process using microwave-assisted (2.1 µg/g DM), Ultrasonication
(1.5 µg/g DM), and Infra-radiation (3.1 µg/g DM) [63]. Similarly, catechin and epicatechin
gave higher yield infrared techniques as compared to ultrasound and microwave tech-
niques. Rutin, Catechin, and Epicatechin were proven to be strong antioxidant molecules
and have a synergistic effect, which contributes to high biological activities [41]. Based
on this technique, the amygdalin in apricot kernel content was measured, which was
129.34 ± 0.99 mg/g [63]. Moreover, the HPLC method was also used to analyze the amyg-
dalin content in debittered water when the apricot kernels were taken out from the water
for tasting and one typical chromatogram. The results showed that the chromatogram
has an excellent resolution of amygdalin in the debittered water; the result of amygdalin
content was calculated according to the curve standard. Amygdalin content in debittered
water increased with the addition of debittering water at a temperature of 50 to 70 ◦ C at
a given temperature. On the other hand, it decreased with the increase when the time
and temperature of debittering water were fixed [64]. Therefore, the time to obtain the
apricot kernels without bitterness was 8, 5, and 6 h. for the temperature of 50, 60, and 70 ◦ C,
respectively. It also shows that time and temperature have an important role to play in deb-
ittering the apricot kernel [61]. Results revealed that the content of the most predominant
compound (protocatechuic aldehyde) is 1.24 mg/g (wet base) and 2.69 mg/g (dry base),
respectively [65].

4.4. X-ray Diffraction (XRD)

X-ray diffraction (XRD) is an influential nondestructive technique for characterizing
crystalline materials. This method provides information on phases, preferred crystal
orientations (texture), structures, and other structural parameters, such as size, strain,
average grain, crystal defects, and crystallinity. X-ray diffraction peaks are formed by
constructive interference of a monochromatic beam of X-rays scattered at exact angles from
each set of lattice planes in a sample. The peak strengths are determined by the supply of
atoms within the lattice [66]. XRD was used to analyze the apricot kernel shell. According
to various literature, the peak was observed around 20 to 22 ◦ C, the main evidence of which
was the cellulose as a component of the apricot kernel shell [67–69]. Moreover, Ali et al. [62]
observed the crystallization behavior of the apricot kernel and nut where the normal peaks
were observed at 2θ = 14.76 and 24.35 ◦ C, whereas the diffraction peaks were identified
at 2θ = 17.65 and 20.40◦ . With the incorporation of both the shell and kernel, the intensity
and characteristic diffraction peak of starch increased slightly to 2θ = 17.65 ◦ C, which also
specifies that the crystalline structure of starch is not only conserved but also showed the
interaction of filler with the matrix. Furthermore, the optical microscopic images also verify
the crystalline structure and great depression of shell particles in the starch matrix.
Foods 2022, 11, 2184 9 of 15

5. Application of Apricot Kernel

5.1. Application of Apricot Kernel Flour in the Food Industry
Apricot kernel flour has been reported to be a good source of minerals, protein,
bioactive compounds, and fiber, and it has been mainly used in the bakery industry for the
protection of products. On the other hand, there is an increasing demand of consumers
for foods that do not fulfill the basic need of nutrition but helps in preventing various
disease and other curing roles [43]. Apricot kernels are mainly used in the production
of oils and benzaldehyde; the kernels are also added to bakery products either whole or
grounded and also consumed as an appetizer [32]. According to, Kopčeková et al. [67]
apricot kernel flour can be used in the preparation of biscuits, cookies, cakes, etc. Kernels
showed a positive impact on yogurt to improve sensory properties [44]. The apricot kernel
alleviates the risk of free radicals, which cause oxidative damage to the living cells and
result in common degenerative disorders such as cardiovascular diseases and cancer [7].
The kernel powder was defatted and used as a source of protein in yogurt and ice cream in
the ratio of 10–40% and 10–50%, respectively [63]. Moreover, the stability of protein was
higher in apricot kernel products. From this result, they came to know that apricot kernel
powders up to 30% can be substituted with ice cream [40]. Similarly, in the case of yogurt,
the addition of apricot kernel powder led to a decrease in the lactic acid bacteria count, pH,
and acetaldehyde value [18]. It was concluded that skim milk could be substituted up to a
level of 20% in the yogurt [70]. In a study, the quality of stirred yogurt was improved by
adding apricot kernel powder. Cow milk was substituted with 1% of apricot kernel powder.
It was noticed that with the addition of apricot kernel powder the titratable acidity, ash
content, and total solids and protein content increased [44]. However apricot kernel cake
has been utilized as a good source of protein in animal fodder [5].

5.2. Application of Apricot Kernel in Pharmaceuticals:

Apricot kernels are being used as a medicine in pharmaceutical industries as they con-
sist of Amygdalin, which has been used to prevent diseases such as migraine, constipation,
asthma, and hypertension. They have also been used to treat coughs and improve cerebral
functions [69]. A disease-preventing black plum apricot kernel is used for suppressing
asthma, cough, thrombosis, and relaxing cough. The kernel seed is also used for the
preparation of Chinese Guangmo moon cakes, which are used for the treatment of diseases
such as chronic bronchitis, pulmonary tuberculosis, etc. [69]. Over the past few years, the
market value of apricot kernel in pharmaceutical industries has increased rapidly in various
developed and developing countries as the kernel is used in the preparation of various
medicines, which are used for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases, antimutagenic, anti-
tussive, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, cancer, etc. [71]. Extract of the apricot kernel can
be effectively used as an antifungal ingredient for the prevention of skin and health issues.
Apricot oil can promote blood circulation and release pain and inflammation. Additionally,
several commercial products are already available in the market [72]. Moreover, apricot
kernel flour has been used for the preparation of herbal tea for patients suffering from
diseases such as dry mouth, disturbed sleep, anorexia, etc. [73]. Apart from this, the apricot
kernel has also been used for the treatment of skin diseases such as acne vulgaris, dandruff,
and furuncle due to its antioxidant, antimicrobial, antimicrobial anti-inflammatory, and
wound-healing properties. It has also been used to fight free radicals and promotes skin
barrier homeostasis [73].

6. Therapeutical Properties of Apricot Kernel

There is great demand for food that meets the basic nutritional needs of the con-
sumers and has a preventive, therapeutic, and gastroprotective role in disease curing [74].
According to Karatas et al. [74], apricot mostly contains phytochemicals, which play an
important role in the human body. Similarly, these compounds reduce the risk of free
radicals that cause oxidative damage in living cells and common degenerative disorders
such as cancer and cardiovascular diseases [75]. Apricot kernel is an excellent vehicle
Foods 2022, 11, 2184 10 of 15

in the field of medicine as it has broad-spectrum applications (anti-cancer, skin diseases,

cardiovascular diseases, hemostasis, the release of pain and inflammation, etc.), and the
major anti-inflammatory compounds are Acetylcholinesterase, Human 15 Lipoxygenase,
Cycloxygenase, Interleukin 6, Prostaglandin, Toll-like receptors, and Tumor necrosis factor
alpha [76].

6.1. Antioxidant Capacity of the Apricot Kernel

The antioxidant potential of apricot has been repeatedly investigated through different
in vitro systems by measuring its ability to reduce free radicals and comparing it with
standard reference compounds [77]. Apricot kernel contains caffeic acid (2.5 µg/g) and
gallic acid (4.1 µg/g), which are used in the preparation of various medicines and treatment
of various diseases such as cardiovascular disease, breast cancer, anti-asthmatic, antiseptic,
sedative, emetic, laxative, etc. [78]. According to Zhang et al. [65], there are different
maturity stages and genotypes; the geographic region is presently based on the variety of
apricots. Apricot kernel has been used for centuries as a popular home remedy in China
and among the mountain dwellers of the Himalayas. The major antioxidant components
present in the bitter apricot kernel are 2,2-azino-bis (3-ethlybenzothaizoline-6-sulfonic acid,
2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, ferric reducing antioxidant power assay, oxygen radical ab-
sorbance capacity assay, and Trolox equivalent. The rich nutritional composition of apricot
and apricot kernel, which contain phytonutrients, saccharides, organic acids, minerals, and
vitamins, is the main fact for using this fruit in folk medicine [79].

6.2. Anti-Cancer
Cancer is one of the most common degenerative diseases in day-to-day life and it
is the second cause of death after cardiovascular diseases [80]. In the human body, the
immune system plays a significant role in cancer incidence and inflammation [81]. In the
present lifestyle, humans need to take high content of fruits and vegetables in their diet,
which has been consistently associated with reducing the risk of several types of cancers up
to 30 to 40%, which include lung, breast, prostate, and colon cancers [14]. Apricot contains
anti-carcinogenic potential compounds, which helps in curing numerous diseases, and
intake of apricots and their kernel during the day can reduce gastric mucosal inflammation
and helicobacter pylori infection [7].

6.3. Cardiovascular Diseases

Apricot provides a significant amount of soluble fiber and insoluble fiber. These dietary
fibers are effective in lowering LDL cholesterol [82]. Similarly, in vivo studies in animals
showed a major effect of apricot feeding found to be reduced by up to 10–20% disease
compared to the control group [79]. Furthermore, after supplementation of apricot to rats,
the level of antioxidant capacities such as iron reducing power as total phenolic content,
DPPH radical scavenging capacities have increased. Consumption of apricot kernel also
improves the proper functioning of platelets in the human body [83].

6.4. Hemostasis
Several epidemiological studies have found a negative relationship between dietary
flavonoids and flavones and the risk of cardiovascular disease [84]. According to various
studies, dietary intake of flavonoids and flavones, which are present in the apricot kernel,
reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease [85]. This is due to the effect of these compounds
on hemostasis, as flavonoids have been reported to inhibit platelet aggregation in vitro.
Similarly raw apricot contains 4.79 mg/100 g flavon-3-ol (+), epicatechin 2.08 mg/100 g,
and catechin 5.47 mg/100 g flavon-3- ol (-) epicatechin 2.08 mg/100 g edible flavonol
fraction (USDA, 2007), and studies revealed that 2500 µM/L flavonol quercetin and the
flavone apigenin significantly inhibited collagen-induced and ADP-induced aggregation
in platelet-rich plasma and inhibited platelets by almost 80–97% [86]. On the other hand,
Foods 2022, 11, 2184 11 of 15

flavonoids help red blood cells fight stress caused by oxidation and help protect red blood
cells against reactive oxygen species [87].

6.5. Contraindication
Intake of apricot kernels in high amounts is not recommended for pregnant or breast-
feeding women due to the potential risk of birth effects [68]. The consumption of apricot
kernels by pregnant women leads to thyroid disease during the carrying of babies, and
they are exposed to cyanide and thiocyanate during pregnancy. Furthermore, the apricot
kernel also helps in lowering blood pressure and making supplements [7].

6.6. Hepatic Steatosis and Kernel as Folk Medicines

Hepatic steatosis mainly leads to the formation of intra-cytoplasmic accumulation
of neutral fats in liver tissues and is called fatty liver disease (FLD). Apricot has been
effective in curing hepatic steatosis in animal models. The occurrence of this disease in the
general population may further lead to steatohepatitis, advanced fibrosis, and cirrhosis [43].
Among them, phenolic compounds show antioxidant properties such as anticarcinogenic,
antiplatelet, anti-microbial, anti-ischemic, anti-tumor, anti-allergic, anti-mutagenic, and
anti-inflammatory, as well as being effective in alleviating cardiovascular disease [7]. The
Apricot kernel is folk medicine that is mainly used by the Chinese in regenerating body
fluid, quenching thirst, and detoxifying, whereas the apricot kernel is used for making
syrups which help in alleviating cough and other respiratory problems [82,85]. The folk
relates apricot as an antipyretic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiasthmatic, analgesic, laxative,
demulcent, emetic, expectorant, ophthalmic, sedative, vulnerary, tonic, etc. [86].

7. Market Value of Apricot Kernel

The apricot kernel is the internal part of the apricot fruit. The color of the kernel
is white when it is fresh but it turns into color once the kernel is dried properly [75].
It constitutes a food amount of protein, vitamins, essential minerals, fiber, antioxidants,
protein, etc. [65]. Due to increasing awareness of people toward natural ingredients, apricots
and their by-products are attractive to various industries and fields of research. As a result,
the apricot kernel helps in boosting skin health, improving metabolism, enhancing vision,
reducing the risk of diabetes, and maintaining digestive functioning [88]. Therefore, it is
well known across the globe to produce various cosmetics (face masks, scrubs, creams,
lotions) and food (snacks, oatmeal, muffins, scones, salads, vegan, and animal cruelty-free
personal grooming items). Apart from this the utilization of apricot kernels in the health sector,
they are also in high demand for Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease, diabetes, obesity, etc. [85].

8. Future Research Prospectives and Conclusions

The apricot kernel is the seed found inside the apricot pits. Amygdalin present in
apricot is a chemical component that helps in fighting against diseases such as cancer
and cardiovascular disease. Since amygdalin is reported to be available in rear plant
and animal products, it can be the cheapest source of this important component in food
industries. The applications of the apricot kernel in various industries such as food,
cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, etc. are immense as it is used in making skin and hair products
in cosmetic industries. In the food industry, it is used for making cookies, biscuits, and many
other products, whereas in the pharmaceutical industry it is used for making medicines.
However, sweet apricots are having greater demand than bitter ones because the compound
(Amygladin) present in bitter apricot restricts their applications, especially in the food
industry. However, different extraction methods have shown excellent efficiency to remove
or reduce the bitterness of apricot kernel. Therefore, still, apricot kernel is a great source of
research as it has excellent techno-functional and therapeutical properties, especially in the
food and pharma industries. The apricot kernel can be considered a potential ingredient in
industries due to its cost-effective and eco-friendly nature.
Foods 2022, 11, 2184 12 of 15

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.A.A., P.C. and M.M.T.; Resources, A.B., P.C. and M.A.A.;
Writing—Original draft preparation, M.M.T., A.B. and P.C.; Writing—Review and editing, A.B., M.F.
and P.C.; Visualization, A.B., S.F. and P.C.; Supervision, P.C. and M.A.A. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data sharing is not applicable to this article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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